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NEW
AMEKICAN CYCLOPAEDIA.
VOL XIII.
PARR-RED WITZ.
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THE NEW
AMERICAS CYCLOPEDIA:
A
fjpttlar firttonarg
OP
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE.
EDITED BT
GEORGE RIPLEY iiii> CHARLES A. DANA.
VOMMEXm.
PARR-BED WITZ.
NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
Ui k as BROADWAT.
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN
11.DCC0.I.XJ.
DiaiiizodBjGoogle
Entbbq), according to Act of Congress, in ttc yaai I8G1, bj
D. APPLETON & COMPANY,
In Ibe Clerk'* Office of tl
>y Google
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f^OfU!' l;:'l
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■I ■]>■'■-' <)1458o
I 5 MAY 3 1 1955
THE
NEW AMERICAN CTCLOPJIDIA.
FABR
PA£R, Samdh, LLD., an Enf^ish scholar, era all his oontamporariea ezo^ Dr. JtdiiiMB.
dagjnun, and author, bcnn at Harrow-on-the- In 1787 hepahliBhed an oditioa ot SiCttndaMt
HiO, Jan. IS, 1747, df«d Uaroh^, 1685. He dt Statu, with a f refiww in whidi ho «aIogli«d
wu tb« ton of a anrgeon and apotheoar?. He Bnrke, Fox, and Lord North, bat attamd
e«riy manifested a taste for learning, and when, other contemporarj statesmen with great vim-
at the age of 1&, he was removed from school lenoe. It ia esteemed one of the most sucoew-
and placed at his father's bosiness, he devoted fol modem imitations of Ciceronian Latin. His
his leisiu« time to the stndf of Greek and Lat^ prefnoe to an edition of " Tracts hj Warborton
in with each Msidnitjr that in 1T66 bia father and a Warbnrtonian, not admitted into the
relnotantlr consented to bia entering the nni- Colleotioa of their respective Works" (1789)
verrt^ of Oambridge. The death of nis parent is remarkable for its polished st^le; bat the
obliged him to aocept in 1767 the flirt assistant work was undertaken in order to annoy Bishop
raaBtorship of Harrow sdiool, where he re- Hard, the editor of Warburton. Hia other
mgiiwil s years. Having been rqected by the writings comprise a controversy with Dr.
govemon as a oandidate for the vacant bead White, whom ne accused of plagiarism in his
maatership in 1771, be tanght a school on bis " Bamnton Lectnrea" (1790), papers connected
own aoconnt at Btanmore, and in 1777 became with tne Birminriiam riots of 1791, a oontro-
master of the school at Coloheeter, where he versy with Dr. Charles Oombe in 1795, and
was orduned priest, recdvin^r the onraoiee of one with Godwin and others occasioned by
Hrtbe sod Trinity charoh. In the following Parr's Bpital sermon in 1800, and "Oharao-
jcar be was appointed master of Norwich tersof the lateObarles James Foi"(1809),ooa-
MhooL Two sermons " On the Tmth and Use' sisting partly of original and partly of sdeoted
ftalnesB of Ohristianity" and " On the Edacation matter. He left a connderahle number of liia-
<rf the Poor" (1780) appeared daring his red- torioal, oritlca], and metaphyaioal papers in
dence here, and the latter served to preptae tbe mannscript. AJi edition of his works, witb a
way for his macb admired " Discoarse on £da- memoir of bis life and writings and selectiona
eaOon, and on the Plana panned in Charity from hia oorreviondenoe, was pnblisbed by John
Schools" (1786). In the mean time the nni- Johnstone, D.D. (8 vols., London, 18S8).
Tcraity of Cambridge bad granted bim the de- PABEC, Thouas, commonly known aa Old
grea of LL.D. (1781), and Bishop Lowtb bad Parr, an Englishman celebrated on aoconnt of
lOTKdnted him a prebendary of St. Paul's. In bia great age, bom in Winnington, Shropabiie,
irea he temored to Hattos in Warwlokxhire, in 14SB, died in London, Nov. 15, lOW. Ha
wbere be held a perpetnal cnraoj, and here he was tbe son of poor parents, and after Us fa-
pused die renuiodw of his life, mgaged in lit- ther's deoesse oontinned his occupation of hus-
erar7 Dnrmiits, the care of Ilia puii^ md the in- bandry. He was first married at the age of
■traotum of children. His personal nnpopnlar- 80, and begot two children ; and after the
ity witb the memben of his own profendon and death of his wife, be married again when about
th« dispeiisers of government pateonage pre- 120 years old. According to a oarreut stoij,
vented his riung to those dignitice in the ohuTtJi be was engaj^ in a love IntriRne when about
to which his learning entitled bim. He was lOS years old, and was compelled to do peo-
vdn, arrogant, and quarrelsome, a violent whig anoe for the crime bv stanmn^ in a sheet in
partwan, and both unjust and iocoDsistent in Alderbury churob. when a httle over ISS
manj of bis political opinions. He advocated years old, he was taken to London by Thomaii
tkerepeal of measures against the Soman Oath- earl of .^imdel ; but dying soon after, he waa
oBca and Unitarians, but could not tolerate buried in Westminster abbey. Almost all
Uetbodtsta: In bis controversial writings he that is anthentically known in regard to him
wu fiwuently nn&ir and nntrnthfol, but be la oontidned in a pamphlet pnbll^ed in 1089
poaaened great natnrd benevolence, and is by John Taylor, under the title of "The Olde,
Hid t« bare sorpaased in oonveraational pow- Olde, Very Olde Uan; or, the Age and Ltmg
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
2 PARBHAfllTO PABKOT
lafe of Thomat Parr, the Sonne <rf John Parr, PABKOT, the general name of ittt piittaci-
of Winnington, In the Pariah of Aldwhoiy, in dio, a tamilj of acansorial Urda, rema^able for
the Oonnt; of Salopp, who waa bom in the the elegance of their form, the biWiani^ of
reiga of £ing Edward the IVtli, and is now their plnmage, and their docility and power of
UTing In the Strand, being aged 16S yeara and imitsung the human voioe. They hare a Ui^
odd monthea. His manner of Ufb aM oonver- strong bill, much arched, with acnte tip, and
aation in so long a pilgrimage ; Mb marriage^ the lower mandible notched at the end; the
and his bringing up to London aboot the end npper mandible b movablj articnlated to the
of September las^ 16K6." frontal bones, eoabling them to aaiie larger
PABRHA8IUS, a Greek painter, bom in objeew than other birds of tieir size; the
Ephesoa, flourished about 400 B. 0. He was tongna is thiok and fleah?, tbe wings and t^
the son and pnpU of Svenor, and, altbongh be- generally long, tarsi short and robust, and tiie
long^ to the Ionian school of art passed tbe strong toes directed 3 before and S behind, the
greater part of his lifeinAtheos, of which <nty former united at the base bra narrow mem-
he waa made a dtizen, Qointilian oaUs him brane. These are the typical climbers, bnt are
llie legislator of his art, from die fact that he slow and generally awkward on the ground ;
c^blished oertdn canons of proportioB for the they nse both bill and claws in climbbig, and
human figure which were adopted by snooeed- wbOe feeding nse one foot to hold their food ;
ing artists; and Pliny says: " He first gave to though rat^r sedentary, most of them are
punting true proportion, the minnte details of good fliers ; the neck is ^ort, and has omally
the oonntenanoe, tbe elegance of tbe hair, the 13 Tertebrte ; the stemnm b long and narrow,
beauty of the &ce, and by the confeenon ot the with generaDy an oval ^rtnre on its inferior
artists themselveB obtained tbe palm in hia mai^ on eaoh side ; the sfmctnre of the
drawingof the extremities." Eewasarro^nt tongne and the complicated lower larynx m-
and insolent in manner, and in epigrams In- able them to articulate with great distmotness.
scribed on hb own prodnctJons oalled himself They are confined to the warm parte of Ameri-
'A/SjioSuurac, the cleeant, claiming a dirfaie de- ca, Asia, AMoa, and Anstralia, and generally
scent, and annonncing that in Us works the to the sonthera hemiapbere; their food oon-
art of painting had reached ita highest excel- aists of soit pnlpy frnita, eapedaUy meb aa have
lenoe. His most celebrated work, aooordlog to bard kernels or seeds ; they are nsnally aeen in
Pliny, was an allegorical representation of the lai^ flocks, active in the momtng and evening,
Athenian people, in which every qaality, good noisy and qaarrelsome, destmctive to vegeta-
or bad, ascribed to the Athenians, fonnd its tton in their wild state, and very misohlevoas
expression. Among otiier famone works by in captivity ; they are monogaroons, and build
him were a Tbeseos, of which Enphranor re- tbeir nests generally in hollow trees. This ia
marked that it had fed upon roses, and his own a very extensive family, numbering about 800
Theseus npon beef; " TJlysses feigning Insan- apedes. and divided by Oray into tiie sob-fiDn-
ity;" aUeleager, Bercnlea, &c. He also punt- iUas ot pttoporina, araitia, Icritta, eaeatvina^
ed pictures of a gross and lioentions oharao- and ^Uadna; tbe first 4 are described re-
ter, two of which, the " Arohigallns" and t^a speobvely under the titles Pasoqitbt, Macaw,
"Meleager and Atalanta," were so highly Lori, and Gookatoo, leaving for this article
prized by the emperor Tiberias that ha caused only the ptittaema, and the genus eMturu* of
them to be bung in his own chamber. Two the macaws. Boias of the parrots present rap-
well known contests in which he engaged with torial characters in the form of the bill, and
eontemporsry painters are recorded. In the especially in its soft skin or cere. Bonaparte
first, when oonqnered by Timantbes, the snb- makes of them a distinct order, placing them
ject being tbe combat of Ulyssea and Ajax for at the head of his system, separated from the
die armsof Achilles, be observedtbathe cared typical Kantorei by tbe rapacious birds; for
little for bis own defeat, bnt felt pity for Ajax the connecting links between tbe ftoilias sea
in being a second time overcome by an un- Owl, and Owl Pabbot. — The only well asoer-
worthy rival. In the second contest, which tained species within tbe United States is the
was with the painter Zeoxis, the latter execnt- Carolina parrot Uomitvi Oarolinmtit, Kabl) ;
ed a bimob of grapes so natnrallytbat tbe birds in this the lengtJi is about 14 inchee, and the
came and racked at the fruit. He thereupon alar extent 22 ; the bill is abort, bulging, and
requested Farrhssius to draw adde a curtain very strong; the h^ is large, the neck robuat,
which apparently ooncoaied bis own piotnre; and the body and tail elongated, the latter
bnt aa me onrtaln proved to be the picture wedge-shaped ; the bill is white and tbe iria
iteelf, tbe victory was conceded by Zeuib to hazel; general color green with bluish refieo-
his rival, who bv deceiving men had gone fir- tions, lightest balow ; fore part of head and
tber than himself in tbe art of imitation. Tbe cheeks bright red, extending over and behind
story told by Seneca, that Partha^us, when the eye, the rest of the head and nook gambooe
painting a "Promeuiena Chained," put an yellow; edge of wing yellow tinged with red ;
Olyntbian captive to the torture, in order to wings and their coverts varied with bluish
obtain traia him tbe proper eipreeaion of green, greenish yellow, and brownish red; S
bodily suffering, has been proved to be utterly middle tail feathers deep green, the others with
TOfbanded. tiie inner webs brownish red ; tliighB yellow.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PARBOT 8
Tbls Bpeciea h« been seen sa far north asLake ftirttmate repetition of prerionslj Mqnlred sen-
OnUfio, though now it ia ehieflj confined to tenoea, and are not nev words dictated by in-
the sontbem and Bonth-weetem statee, and aa telligence or any consoionenees of their appli-
&T as the SGssoari to the west They are very oabiQty. Large bqidb have been paid for well
fond of the aeeda of the cockle bnr, and e^ taught Bpecimens, and a cardinal la said to have
ijiuost any kind of fimit and gr^ from their g^vea 100 golden crowns for one which could
immense fiooks oonunitting great havoo in the repest tiie Apoatlea' Qreed ; another is aaid to
garden, field, and orchard, deatroying in search have served acceptably as chaplain of a vessel,
of seeds far more than they consume ; they are redting the prayers to the sdlora In the ge-
killed in large nnmbers by the enraged farmers, nns eiryioti* (Swuns.), of tropical Sonth Amer-
who consider their flesh a delicacy. The flight ioa, the bQl is smaller bnt strongly deatated;
is rwid and direct, with ^eat inclinations of thewingareaohtothemiddle of thetail, whloh
the body and incessant noisy cries; they gen- is broad and ronnded. The green parrot (O.
erally alight cloeetogetber on the trees bearing Amtmoniau, Qmel.) is very often taken to the
tbede^edfi-nit; theyareaavagewhenwonnd- United States and Europe mi aooonnt of its
ed, bnt are eadly tamed by inimerriim in water; mat colloquial powers; it is IB inches long,
they are dMtmotive in owtivity, and incapable Sie bill orange yellow, as well as the ohe^
of articulating words, lliey are fbnd of sand and chin; the general color la shit^g neen,
and BaUne earths. Many females deposit their with a bluish pnrale band over the fortuiead,
«g(p in the same hollow of a tree, each one and the feathers of the hind neck edged wtth
laying 3 or 8. Several other parrots are found black ; it inhabits the ooonlry watered by the
in Meiioo aiid Central America. — To the sab- river Amazon, where it oiten doee great mla-
fiunily of ptittaeina belong the parrots best chief tothe plantations, Thefeedve pirrM(Cl
known in the domeetioated condition, espedally fitttmis, Linn.), a native of the aame forest^ ia
the any and green parrots so common aa pets; IS or 16 inches long, of a general green oolor,
in this groap the head is wiQiout crest, the with a narrow red frontal band and eye streak,
margins of the bill are dentated or festooned, blue above and behind the eyw, lower back
the wings pointed, and the tail short and square, and rmup vermilion, and the gnater qnilla with
In the old genos ptittaetit (Xdon.) the bill la blue onter webs and the inner greenish black;
large, rather compressed, with biangnlar cnl- It ia docile, easily tamed, a&d learns rsadily to
men mnoh avched to the tip, near which the pronounce words and senteneee. The last two
lateral margjn Is deeply notched, the under roedee are Uiosemottoommonly brought flwn
muidlble nraoh mnnated and the anterior edge Sonth Ameriqa; fliere are several ouers de-
aharp ; winn generally reaching to the end oif Boribed. In Ute genns ptittaeuJa (Briaa.) the
the t^ with Sd and 8d quills equal and lon|^ rase is generally small ; tbe Mil is rather large
est There are more than 40 Hiecies found ui with the lateral margins fostooned; the planted
the humid forests of Afiica and Booth America; wingaeztendtotheendofthet^,whidiiaahort
eoUeotingatnigbt in immense flocks, theyleave and even; there are about 80 spedesdesoiibed,
their roosting places early in search of food, in South America, AMoa, ana Asia and its ar-
which consists chiefly of pnlpy fmits and seeds, chipelsgo ; they are r^id fllersand expert climb-
after which they bathe and retire to thick- ere, often hanpng head downward in thur
leaved trees daring the heat of the day, going search for &uits ; while feeding they ntter a
in search of food ag^ at D%ht ; they migrate shrill chirp, like that of a large grasshopper ;
in large flooks to warmer redone on the ap- when sleeping they eenerallv suspend them-
proabh of the rainy season, rising to a grrat selves by one or both feet head downward,
height and uttering themost discordant screams; Here belong the beantifiil little "love birds,"
the young are fed with the disgorged half mas- the genus agapomit of Selby. Swindem's
ticated food of the parents. The gray parrot love bird (P. »iiindaren.iana, Euhl) is a native
(P. trythaaiu, linn.) Is the most remarkable of S. Africa; it is about 6 inches long, with a
foritadooOity and power of articulating words, black strong bill whose upper msndtble is
snd is the (ma about wldch so many wonderm notched ; the bead and nape are bright green,
tales are eitaut; it is about 12 inches long, of boonded bv a black nuchal collar; neck and
an ash-gray color, with a bri^t scarlet tall, breast yellowish green, mantle and wings
yeUowiah white Iridea, and grayish fbet and toes, green, lower back and npper tail coverts aeure
It ia a nativd of W, Africa, whence it has been blae ; tbe abort and nearly even tail has a me-
imported from a very early period ; its habits dian bar of vermilion edged with black and the
are not very well known in the wild state, but tip green. These parrota are remarkable for
in c^>tivity it foods on bread and milk, nnts, their attachment to each other. Other genera
and even meat, holding its food with one fbot, are tanymaOwt fWagl.), of the Holnooas and
and redndog it to smi^ pieces by the bill and New Gtunea, having a very large and swollen
cnttera on the palate ; it may reach the' age of bill without dentations, a very lon^ broad, snd
70 and even i>0 years. They breed readfly hi wedge-shaped tall, short tarri, and long den-
captivity. Anecdotes of these parrota might der toes; and naritMtM (Wagl.), vhi»i is a
fill a large volume ; It wIH be sufficient to very emidl Kew Qninea genus, having a short
say here that many of the recorded apposite elevated bill, and the apex of each feather of
speeches made by them are the resnlt of the the short rounded toil jrolonged into an acuta
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
point; the I^.pj/^maa (WagL) is the stnalleet oe the firet of fishee, and large snms wen m-
of the ptuTot &mil7. pended to stock the Itali&n waters with it ttom
PABROT, Johauk Jakob Fsudbioe Wil- the sea between Orete and Asia Minor. B7
Bxui, a Oennan natnTal philosopher, bom in the ancients it was believed to have a voice, to
OarlBrahe, Oct. 14, 1799, died Jan. 15, 1841. sleep at night (alone of fishes), to be yerj m-
In 1811 and 1812 he travelled in company with dent in the porstiit of the female, to release its
Engelhardt over southern Russia ana the Can- oompaniona and other fishea from neta, and to
oasDB, and on his return pnblisbed an account have the power of ruminating ; the last belief
of his travels nnder the title of " Travels in the natnraJly arose from the backward and forward
Crimea and Oancaans" (2 vols., Berlin, 1615- movements of the jaws rendered possible bj the
'18). In 1631 he was appointed professor of mode of articnlation, and neceBsary for Uie
physiologj, pathology, and eemeiology in the complete mastication of the sea weeds npon
university of Dorpat, travelled in 1^4 in the whioh it prinoipall; feeds. Its flesh is tenaer,
Pjria^, and in 182B was the first to make a sweet, and easy of digestion, and the inteetiDes
aaoceesful ascent of Uonnt Ararat He wrote and thdr contents were highlv relished ; the
" Jonme; to Ararat " (2 vols., Berlin, 1834: modem Greeks call it tearo, and consider it a
English translation hj Oooley, London and fish of exquisite flavor, eating it with a sanoe
New York, 1846) ; a treatise on " Gasometry " made of its liver and intestines, as the modems
(Porpat, 1814); and " Views in regard to Uhi- eat plover and woodcock; its liverentered into
venu Pathology" (Riga, 1821). the composition of the famons dish called " the
PARROT FISH, the common name of the shield of Minerva," with the brains of the pe«-
muneroQs cyclolahrold fishes of the genus cock and pheasant, flamingoes' tongues, and
tearvM (Forsk.) ; the name is derived from the the nult of the murssna eel. The red parrot
beak'Iike form of their Jaws; they also present fifh of the West Indies (S. Abilg<ntrdii,vaL),
the same brilliancy and variety of colors as do about 16 inahca long, is a handsome nieciei.
tiie parrots among birds. The form b oblong The great parrot fish (S. guiuamaiit, Val.), from
and stout, with the lateral line branching and the same locality, attains a length of 2) or 8
intem^ted under the end of the dors^ fin. feet, and a weight of 80 lbs, ; the colors ar«
The jaws are prominent, convex, each divided red, bine, and green. Many other beautiftd spo-
into oalvea by a median suture ; the teeth are oiee ore described from North America in Dr.
inooiporated with the bone, arranged in an Storer's "8ynop8is," and the whole genus fa
imbricated manner in crowded qninonnxee, the treated at length in vol. ztv. ofibbSUtoiretia-
ddest forming the cutting border, andsncceed- tvr«If«(!MjiiTUMm«byOnTler and Valenciennes,
ed by the lower ranks as the former are worn PARRY, 8ik Wtlluu Edwabd, an English
away; their surface is generally smooth and navigator, bom in Bath, Dec. 10, 1790, died at
polished ; the pharyngeal teeth oomdet of treu- Ems, Germany, July 8, 185C. He was the son
chant transverse v^tical plates, two at>ove and of a physician, and was intended for his father's
one below, presenting when worn narrow el- profession ; but after he had received a good
lipsBs of dentine snrronnded by enamel; the education at the grammar school of his native
lips are umple and fleshy, in some ^>e<^ place, aretativeindat^ him toenter thenavy.
leaving the teeth exposed. The body is cov- In June, 1603, he was wpolnted a first cla^
ered witli large scales, as f^ as the gUl covers volunteer on board the Ville de Paris, 110, the
and cheeks. Cbere being from 21 to 3S in a flag ship of Admiral Oomwollis, and remuned
longitudinal line and 8 in a vertical one at the in this vessel nntil 1806, when he was rated as
re^on of the pectorals ; those at the base of midshipman on the Tnbnne frigate. Having
the caudal fin are large and embrace a consid- been transferred to the Yanguud, 74, of the
erable portion of its rays; there is a single Baltic fleet, he wss several times in action with
conical dorsal, with 9 spiny and ID articulated the Danes, and in one engagement was intrusted
Ttye ; the anal has 2 spiny and 8 articulated with the command of one of bis ship's boats,
rays. The muzzle is obtose, and the profile In 1810 he obtained hie commiasion as lieuten-
sometimes rather high ; there are no stomach- ant, and sailed in the Alexandria fHgate to the
al nor paaoreatio offica. There are abont 100 polar seas about the North cape, where he cor-
species doscribedMiving principijly on the reeled the admiralty charts of those waters,
ooral ree& of the west and East Lidian orcM- After the outbreak of war between Great Brifr.
pelagoB, about one quarter dwelling oronud ain and the United Btates, he was sent to Hal-
the Molucca and Sunda islands. The liest iiax (1818) to join the La Hogue, 74, with
known is the parrot flah of the Mediterranean, whoae boats in the spring of 1814 he ascended
(8. CVet^niii, RondOj of a red or blue color ac- the Oonnecticut river about 20 m., and de-
cording to season, h^^Iy esteemed by the an- stroyed 37 privateers and other vessels with
dents ; it is about 16 in^es long, of a general the loss of only 2 men. He remained on the
pnrplishcolor, roseons below, Bod violet brown North Ainwican atc^on until 1817, when,
on the back; the pectorals orange, ventrala hearing that two expeditions, the one under
with transverse lines of violet, and dorsal violet Bnchan aodFronklinand theotherunderCapt.
gray with golden spots and bands. There is Ross, were about to be sent out to the north
more smd of this fish in the ondeut writers polar regions, he solicited employment, and
than of any other ; inFIiny'stlmeitwasraiiked was plamd in command of the Alexander under
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PABBT 6
Om oidara of Sobs In the Isabella. They left Regent Met. On Aag. 28 ^ej vere asain
England in April, 1818, and proceeded toLan- imprisoned bjtlie ioe,but Uie7'p«rfbrmed dor-
eaater soimd, which the^ naviKsted for about ing the winter aererta laud Joiinie?^, saffldent
00 m., when Bosa, imagining Uiat he saw the to oonTince them that aoy attempt to reach
WI.7 doMd before them hy a range of moon- the polar sea through Hndaon's strait was
taina, gave orders to retnm. Panj freely ez- hopeless. The appearance of scnrrj among
pt— cl his eonviotion that the range of moim- his men induced him in the spring to retom
taiua waa an optical illnson ; and as the pub- home, and on Oct ID, 18S3, he arrived at Braa-
Uo ga>erall7 ooinddad in this opinion, it was sa sound, Shetland. During his absence he
deb«rmined in the roring of 1819 to equip a bad been promoted to the rank of post-captain
freeh eraeiMtion under hia command. With (Nov. 8, 1831) ; and in Deo. 18B8, he vaa ap-
th» Hecu, 876 tons, and the Griper gun brig, pointed acting hjdrographer to the admiral^.
IBO tons, Ijeut Uddon, he reached Lanottater Hia " Jonmol of a Second Voyage for the Du-
soond July SO, and sdled throngh it He ez- oove^ of a North-West Faaaage" was pub-
plored and named Barrow struts, Prince Re- liahed by the admiralty in 1^S4. The resolta
gent inlet, and Wellington dionnel, and, en- of these Toyages, however imperfect, were euf-
tering the water which has since been called fieient to enconrage fiirther search, and the
Pan7 sound, reached on Sept 4 long. 110° W., Heela uid Fury were consequently refitted as
thereby earning a reward of £S,D0O offered by speedily as pcmble. In Hay, 1624 Oapt
parliamuit to the first ship's company which Parry sailed again in the Heola, with OwL
shontd att^ that meridian. He wintered at Hoppner in the Fury under his orders. Hia
UdnUe island, and hia ezpedients to preserve pltm was to pasa through Prince Regent In-
tbe health and spirits of his crews during the let, but winter overtook him ahnost at the
long orcCio night were scarcely lesa deserving entrance of that ohannol ; and Boon after the
of mention thm his aohievementa as a disoov- ice broke up, July 20, 1825, his vessels were
erer. Exerdse was rigorouBly enforced, all caught in the drift and carried down the inlet,
possible preoantions were taken agunat scurry, On Aug. 91 the Fury was driven ashore, and
and a newspaper and theatre were provided aa so badly damaged that she had to be abandoned.
amnwuteDta. On Aug. 3, 1820, after being Her crow and stores were transferred to the
froEeninforlOmonths,theshipswerereleased; Hecla, and, deeming it impossible to continue
bat the state of the ice was ench as to preclnde the voyage under snch circumstances, Oapt
thft bope of ftirther pn^ress westward, and Par- Parry returned to ^England, having aocom'^m-
ry oocordin^y returned to England, where he ed little or notliing. His " Jonrnal of a Third
wtiH welcomed with the utmost enthnsiaam. Toyoge for the Discovery of a North- West
He was promoted to the rank of commander. Passage" appeared in 1636. He now turned
prBBented with the freedom of Bath and Nor- his attention to a plan oripnaily proposed hj
wieh, and elected a member of the royal Bode- Scoresby for reachmg the pole in boats whlim
ty, and the narrative of hisadventures was pub- could be fitted to sledges and floated or dragged
luhed bj order of the admiralty. The results as occauon might offer; and having improved
of hia voyage, beatde the estahliahment of the somewhat upon the ori^nal dedgn and obtmn-
navigabiH^ of lAncaster sound and the ezist- ed the sanction of the admiralty, he set sail in
Miee of a polar aea to the north of America, the Heda, March 27, 1827, for Spitzbergen.
were eztremely important to the science of Here the vessel waa left in harbor with apart
magnetism, no observations having ever before of the crew, while the remdnder, led by Cfapt
been made so near the magnetic pole. The Parry and Lieut. Jomea 0. Ross, set out for
greet problem however of the north-west pas- the pole In two boats, June 23. These boats
sage was still nnaolved, and in May, 1631, Far- were framed of ash anJd hickory, covered with
ly i^ed ag^ with the Fmy, accompanied by water-proof canvas, over which were anccesdve
Copt. Lyon in the Heclo. He passea through planks of fir and oak, with a sheet of stont felt
Endaon s strait and Fez's channel, disoovered interposed. They were flat-bottomed inside,
aod named the Dake of York's bay on the N. and had mnnerB bo that they could be used oa
diore of Southampton island, and passing sledges. The adventurers sailed throngh an
throng Froten strut reached Repulse bay. open sea for about 60 m., and then found, not
After ft aeason of fruitleaa exploration along aa they had expected a solid plain of ioe, but a
these waters lying Immediatdy N. of Hudson's snr&ca half covered with water, on which
bay, hia ships were frozen in at Winter island, wdking and sdling were almost equally diffl-
OeL 8, And were not rdeaaad aguu until July cult They entered this ice June 24, and after
S. HenowsailednpFozchanndto themontli C nights of labonouB travelling (for tbey trav-
oftbeatraitseparaluig Melville peninsula from elled only by night to avoid snow blindness)
OfxMnn island, and named it Fury and Hecla had advanced only 10 mUes. After reaching
BtrwL Aa it was ftoxen across, ha made a harder ice their progress became more rapid,
Jonmey on foot to the narrowest part of the bnt on July 19 a north wind eprang up wmob
atr^t, whence be oonld see in the W. on open proved a more formidable obstacle than any
expanse of water which he thonght was the they had yet experienced. It waa found th^
polar aeo, but whioh is now known aa the the ice moved southwardwhiletheyweretrav-
golf of Boothia, at the S. extremity of Prinoe elling toward the north, and on the S4th th^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FABBT PABSNIF
•wvn 4 m. S. of the podtion oo<ni|^ed on the FABBT BGUKD. Bee Hblthxb 6oun>.
sad. It was eyidentlf impoeatble to proceed FABSEE8. See Gdbbiob.
ftirther, and they began to retrace their stepa, FABSLEY U>ftn>»eiinwinatimm, Hofitaian),
haviog reached as &r K u laL 82° 46', ue an exogenoiia hardr biennial plant of the nat-
nearert pmnt to the pole that had heea reach- nral order ofiaeea. This order ia oorapoaed <j*
ed by any ezpedMon, and trftTelled in a direct herbs vith stems either aoUd or flatnlona and
line 172 m. from the ahip, to oocompligh which ftirrowed, leaTea nsoeily divided and sheathing
distanoa they had been obliged to Msa over at baee, and Dnmeroos oaeU flowers bwne in
666 m, ot soT&oe. They reached the Heola af- mnbels and snrronnded by an invohiore ; in
t«r an abeeooe of 61 dare, and at the end of color either white, pink, yellow, or bine \ the
September arrived in England, where Oapt. fruit (commonly considered as the seed) con-
Parry published his " NarratiTe of an Attempt nating of 2 oarpels separable from a common
to reach the North Pole in Boats fitted for the axis to which the;r adhere by tiieir face (com-
Ptirpoee"(1837), and resomed his duties ashy- missvre), each carpel traveraed by ejevatod
drographer to the admiralty. On April 29, ridges, dT which S are primary, and 4 altemat-
1829, he was knighted by George lY., Sir John ing wiUi them are secondary ; belween theae
!EVai^diu reoeivluig the same honor at tbe same ridges are sometimes lodged receptacles of oilj
time. Both these disttognished navigators also matter called titUt. The plants of this order
reo^red frtnn the murersity of Oxford the are extremely rare in the hotter regions of the
degree of D.OX. Pan^ now received the globe. — ^The common parsley Is a native of
anointment of oommissoner of the Anstralisn Sardinia, and has been cnllivated in gardens
agricnltnral company, the mismanagement and for S or more oentories. Its stem is sngnlar,
ne^ot of whose agents bad redoced tiieir set- its leaves sbining and tripinnate, the leafleta
tlaments to the condition of " a moral wilder- toothed ; its flowers are Dorne in compomtd
neaa." He took ship Jnly SO, 1829, and passed mnbels famished with general and partial in-
6 years at Fort Stephens, abont 90 m. from vobcres ; the sepals ab«ri;ive, the p<^als 6 and
Sydney. Betnming to England in 183G, he equal; the fmit ovate, umtracted at the ride^
reedved from the company a servioe of plate famished with S nairow, equal ridges, tlie lat-
"in testimony of the high sense entertained oral ridge on the edge end each furrowed ridge
of t^e beneflts conferred by him on the colony with one vitts ; the albnmen plano-convex,
dnringhia residence there;" was^tpointed aa- The most nsual form seen in gardens is what is
sistant commisdoner of poor law fi» the connty called the double-leaved or curled-leaved, hav-
of Norfolk, as office which he waa obliged to ing a beautiful thick-leaved, onrled, and cri^
redgnim aoconnt of his heshh at the end of folia^ highly ornamental aa welles of saperior
18 months ; was employed by tlie admiralty in quality ; t£ia however is only a mere permanent
1887 to wganiie the packet service between variety of the plain-leaved or common form,
livM^ol, Holyhead, and Dublin ; and in April which used to be solely raised for its leaves, and
fit the some year received the newly crested which is still cultivated. Another la known
office of comptroller of steam machmery for as the Hamburg, raised for the roots alone,
the Toysl navy. Dnring his term of office the which are out up and employed in seasoning
nse of steuu In the navy, which had already sonps and stews, their superior size rendering
been tried to a considerable extent, became them better than the roots of the other varieties,
almost aniversal, and the introdaction of the The leaves, as is wdl known, are the parte
•crew propeller waa in great measure owing to naually employed for the table, both for im-
his persevering advocacy. In 1641, at the re- muting flavor and as a garnish to meats,
qnest of Sir Bobert Fed, he drew up a report Parsley is sometimes sown snwmg pastnra
OB the state of the Caledonian canal, in which grasses, to counteract by its presence Ine ten-
he recommended its adaptation for vessels of dency to tiver rot in sheep. In gardens it
lante dranght, a measure which was accord- should be sown as early as pos^ble in tlie
fn^ adopted. He retired from active service spring, and a slight covering in winter is found
In Dec. 1846, with the appointment of captain- advantageous to the young plants. The Uam-
■nperintendent <^ tiie royal Clarence yara and bnrg should be thinned out frequently so that
of the naval hospital at Haslsr near Port»- the plants may be allowed as much as 10 or 12
month, retaining this position until ISG3, when square inches of surface. In medicinsl auali^
he was compelled to vacate it on attaining the parsley is considered pleasant, stimulating,
rank of rear admiral of the white. In the fol- aromatic, and diuretic
lowing year he waa made lieutensnt-govemor PABSKIF(pa«finiHvisoftva,Linn.),Bbiennial,
of Greenwich hospital. In the summer of 18G4 nmbeiliferousplant, growing wild in the chalky
he waa attacked by cholera, which entirely districts of England near the sea coast, and
undermined his constitution, and induced bim cultivated for the sakcof its root, which has a
to go to Germany, where he died. Beside the sweet taste and nutritious qualities, aiid is osed
nairatives of his 4 voyages, he wrote a treatise both aa a table dish and for cattie. The com-
on "Nautical Astronomy by Night;" "The man parsnip bat an sngnlar^ farrowed st^n,
Farental character of God; and a "Lecture pinnated, smooth leaves, liairy benesth, the
to Seamen." His life has been written by his leafleta oblong, blunt, crciiatc-se irate, the ter-
waa, the Bev. £. Farry (jAtaAo'a, 1807). minal tme S-iobed ; the Sowers are yellow and
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
boms in a oompoDnd mnbel, osoaU^ witiioat an appropriated <BometimH called impn^-
inTohicres ; the calyx obsolete ; the petals K, stod) to uie lord of the manor or other pa-
loooMdate, inrolnte, onLfonn, entire ; the eta- tarn of the living. The word parson has lost
mena 6^ pistib 8 ; fruit &m, satroonded by a aomewhat of the importanoe attached to Uia
broad boider, with oil reoe[rtadee (ntfa), one name; and 100 yean ago Blookatone Bpoke
in each farrow. The paraoip when growing of it as "depreciated by ^miliar, elowniah,
wild by straying hom Kardens la materially and indlacrltmnate use," bat as still "the moat
aflbeted in ite nature and habits, and its root legal, moat beneficial, and most honorable title
beewnea small, strong, acrid, and virose ; hot that a parish priest can e^Joy." In the United
mider coltiT&taon in a suitable soil, the root States the word is not nndenitood as havlDg
grows to a larm siie and penetratea the gronnd any legal or official meaning, bnt is oommonly
to a great depth. The soil it prefras is oaed as designating a minister of the gospel ;
meDow, deep, and rich, and not apt to dry. bnt it is not often applied to a priest of the
The beat floored roots areprodnced Inasoil RofnsnCatholicorof the£pisoopaldinrcb,and
inelinlnc to sand rather than to loam. The it has lost so mnoh of its ori^ial solemn and
gronnd in the sarden should be spaded deep, official meaning, that it la oommonly need In a
as the qnalitiy of the crop depends mnoh np<m famiKar rather than a rererential or even ra-
the lengdi c^ the roots, l^e nsnal mode of speotfol sense.
coltivaUon is to sow them in drills and thin PABBONS, Thbopeili^ an Amerioan Jmist,
ont as needed ; they shonld be at least 6 inchee born in Byfleld, Essex oo., Mass., Feb. 24, ITCO,
apart if large roots are required, and sowed as died in Boston, Oct. 80, IS18. He wss grad-
early as possible in the spring L!<>ine prefer cated at Harvard college in 1769, and in the
sowing in the previoas antninn. When mannre enooee^ng year commenced the study of the
is used, it sboold be rotten and free from lumps law in F^nontb, now Portland, Ue., where he
and straw, and no great amount is needed, as waa admitted to the bar In Jnly, 1774. Dnr-
tbe crop is not exasasttve. The early frosts ing this interral he oontrihnted to his support
of aatnmn do not affect the tops and roots, hut by teaohing a sohooL He commenced praoldoe
there is no advantage in wintering Ihem in the with unusually brilliant prospects ; but the al-
groand as soma do, and the first renewal of most total destruction of Falmonth by a British
growth in the spring caoaea them to become fleet, in Oct, I776,havinginterruptedhisoareer
tough and have a bitter flavor. The best treat- in that place, he retomed to BySeld, and for
ment is to dig Uiem up in the antmnn, toUng several years received the instruotion and as-
oare not to out the roots, and not to trim oS the sistance of Judge Trowbridge, called by Ohan-
tops too olosely. A cool and dry ceUar is bet- eellor Kent " the oracle of Uie common law in
ter than one in which if stored they might Hew England." In the librarr of this Jnrist,
sprout and grow. — Some agricoltnral writers one of the beat in Amerioa, he laid the founds-
have reoommended tite parsnip as an excelknt tion of a vast acoumnlstttHi of legal lesroing;
fi>od for swintL and as nsefiit for feeding and and the maaneoript briefs on questions inoiden-
fattening all kinds of cattle. A variety called tally ocoorring to him, which he there pre-
Qm esoHMM, the roots of which smnetimea pared, were frequeutly employed by him with
ran 4 feet deep, Is raised in Jersey and Quern- advantage during his subsequent career at the
sey chiefly for feeding miloh oows. According bar and on the bench. Estabhshing himself
to Sir Humphry Davy (" Agricultural Ohemls- in Vewbnryport, he entered upon a lucrative
try")t ^ 1,000 parts tliere are SO saccharine practice, which gradoally embraced all the
utd B mueilaginoiia. In Scotland the roots New England states. At the same time he
are lai^y nsed for food by the peasantry ; took a conddersble interest in the politics of
and when they are ra^ed raw and mixed with the day, his opinions being of that couaervatlve
Sour good bread is maae of them. In Ireland a stAmp which subseqnently characterized the
sort of beer is brewed from the roots; and wine federal party. In 1TT8 he formed one of the
b nude in Enidond by boiling ther -'•'-- ■• " " -' ■ '■ ' '-•-.- .
little angar to the expressed juiM, a) ...
ing by yeast, dlstillatloa affording a apirituona state ccmstitution reoeutiy framed by the Uaa-
Hmor. The best foreign varieties of the par- ssohnsetta legislature; and a pamphlet, famil-
sntp are the GnerDsey, ht^ow-crowoed, and iai^ know aa "The Essex Resnlt," stating the
nnmd or tnrtiip-rooted ; and in the eastern principal objections to the proposed oonstlta-
New fiigland states, the cnp parsnip Is decid- tion and approved and adopted by the "Jonto,"
edly preferred. The wild psranlp of Amerioan was probu^ly wholly prepared by him. It was
fields is a Enropean exotic, and is regarded as a widely circulated thronghont the state, and
noxious weed. had an important influence in caumng the re-
PABSOH (Lot MTSona teeUtta), in English Jectlon of the constitution. In 1779 he was a
law, one hnvmg fbll posnnesion of sll the rights delegate to the convention which frmned the
<tf n parodiial church. (Bee Pabibh.) He Is state oonatitotion Anally adopted. As a mem-
a sole corpontion, and possesses the righto her of the convention which assembled in
of the dinrch by perpetual snoceeaiotu Dur- Boston In Jan. 1786, to ratify the federal con-
ing his lifb he has a freehold estate in the stitution, he took an active and Influential pari
glebe, and in tha tithes, nnless where they In &ror of that Instrument and was the anthor
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
of tJie " PiwoBmon," ofibred by John Han- insnranoe, and the law and practice of sdmi-
oock and snEiseqaeiitlf adopted, ratifying the raltf (2 vols., 18C9).
oonstitation and recommendliig cartain amend- PABSONS, Taoius Woxuh, an Amerioan
menta, known in the histories of the times poet, bom in Boston, Ang. 18, 181B. He was
M the " ooncOiatorf reBolntiouB." He occa- educated in the Latin school of Boston, and
sionally served in the legislatore after this, in lS80-'7 visited Italr, where he Imbibed
bnt took no prominent part in pnblio a^urs, a fondness for Italian literature, one of the
alQjongh to the dose of his life he remained a earliest frnits of which was a translation of
consistent federalist. In IBOO he removed to thefirstIO oantosofthe/f^eT^io of Dante, pnb-
Boeton; and npon the retirement of Ohief Jos- liahedin Boston in 1618. In the interval be
Ijoe Dana in 1B06, he was appointed to sneoeed adopted the profeemon of a dentist, which he
him upon the bench of the sopreme judicial has tdnoe practised, although devoting his lei-
ooort, whioh position he held at the time of sure to literary avocations. In 1854 appeared
his death. As a lawyer and as a Judge he was a volome of poems from him, containing
greatly respected. In the former capacity Jns- "Ohatto di Roma" and other pictures of life
tieo Story declared that he " had no equal," in Italy, which he revisited in 1847, and also
and was " a head and shoulders tsller than any many pieces suggested by American subjects,
otiier man in the whole state ;" and Ms judi- He has completed his translation of tho /n>
dal ophuons were so highly esteemed that a /emo, but it nas notyet been pahlished.
collection of them was published in New York PAKTHENOGENESIS (Gr. vapStm, vir-
nnder the tjtle of " Oommentaries on the Ijtw gin, and ytrtrrK, birth), a name given to the
of the United States, by TheophUns Parsons, phenomenon in the organic world, believed by
late Chief Justice of MasaaohuBetta," His de- many to occur, though still questioned by
ciaions threw much light upon the laws of others, of a production of successive genera-
pleading, marine insoroiice, and real property, tions of prooreatuig individuals, ori^nalmg
and he rendered a substantial service to the from a dngle fertilized ovum, but without anj
community by discountenancing delays and renewal, through such series, of fertilixation.
expediting the trial of causes. Apart from his Ordinarily careful observations seem, at first,
professional duties, he was distinguished as a to re»ilt in the rule that, certainly in the ani-
clasaioal scholar, and as a mathematician of mal realm, and probably in the vegetable, off-
conmderable ability ; and in private life ho was spring can only arise by means of a union of
esteemed for many amiable qualities. Anelab- sexual elements, though this union may be
orate memoir of him has been published by either obviona or concealed. Tet there were
his son, Theophilus Parsons (12mo., Boston, those among the earlier writers who held to be
ISfiQ). — Tbzofeilcs, an American author and poerible what they called a lueina tine toneu-
jurist, son oS the preceding, bom in Boston, bitv,. H. Bonnet, about the middle of the IStfa
Ifass., Ifay 17, 1797. He was graduated at century, first gave a scientifio standing to thia
Harvard college in 1816, studied law with opinion, by discovering that the ^^** (plant
Judge William Fresoott, and after a brief visit louse) may produce a nomerona otimiring, and
to Enrope entered upon the pracUce of his these be followed by several generations, with-
C'ession, first in Taunton, and afterward in out the intervention in any Imown or conceiv-
ton. For several years after his admission able way of the mascnline fertiliring prindple.
to the bar he was a constant contributor to U. de Quatrebges proposed to name this re-
the "North American Review," and wrote oc- suit n^onw^ment, or production without union,
easionally for Ur. Walsh's " American Review" The name at the bead of ^is artiele was vp-
in Philadelphia. He was also for some time plied to certun oases of this kind by Professor
connected with the " Free Press" and "New Owen. Of Siebold's work on this subject a
England Galaxy" newspapers, and founded and translslion ^)peared in London in 1867. Strict-
edited the "United States Literary Gazette." ly, the name parthenogenesis is hardly appro-
Be was an early convert to the doctrines of priate, since either the producers in these eases
the New Jemsuem church, and has written are not perfect ordinary females, or the prodne-
much in eiporiticn and defence of them in tion is not Uiat of perfect ordinary ofibprin^j
its periodical publications. Two volumes of or both these drcnmstances'may be true. Bie-
" Essays" have appeared from hifl pen, and bold investigated this uni-sexual, or at least
other smaller works, written for the aame ob- unusual generation, in certain sao-bearing Itpi-
jects. Id I847hewas appointedDaneprofessor ii^tera, in the ulkworm moth, and & the
oflawin theHarvardlawBohool, andlisssince honeybee. In the first, fbmales only result;
resided at Cambridge, in the dischai^ ti the in tiie second, both sexes. Alone wiUi Dzier~
dnties of his professorship, occupying his leisure zon, he obtained in relation to Uie honeybee
in the preparation of legal treatises. He has the most complete set of observations. The
published the " Law of Oontracta" (2 vols., queen bee, impregnated once for all for her 6
18C8) ; " EIemen,t9 of Mercantile Law" (18B8) ; or 6 years of life, deposits thereafter, at proper
an elementary work called "Laws of Business periods, the germs of succesmve swarms or
for Business Uen" (1867); and an elaborate colonies; and the microscope reveals the fact
and comprehensive treatise on maritime law, that the eggs destined to become workers fun-
induing the law of shipping, the law of marine peirfoot f^udea) and queens (perfect fbmuea)
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PARTHEKOGSNSSIS FABTHIA 9
■r« fnrtifised, u onliiurilj, bv contact or pen- is id>lillst«; jet in its new localitj it haa Bow-
etrmtioD of spermatozoida, while those to be- ered and borne fruit regularly ; and though it la
otnne drones (malea) nndergo no snoh infln- olaimed that, with perbapH a single ezoeption,
•dm; ao that the prodnctioQ of these last la no polleQ haa been foimd in or upon an; of ita
■gomogenelio. In fiirther proof, if the qneen flowers, jet the seed aeema to be perfected, &nd
hkn her wings crippled from the first so that the nnmeroas plants alread;' obtained from it
■ha takes no flight, she prodnces tmij males, do not appear to be hjbrid. Brann foacd in
tlttu mining the hire; and a like resnlt maj one instance a pollen grain and tabe on the
fitllow the pinching or freezing of one aide of BtAgroA o! tiie aalebegyne ; ani he considers the
hK bodj, and alao, becanse the spermatozoidn aeed of the plant perfect, while ElotzEch flnda
hare become eihaosted, in her old a^e. Bo, in it no embrjo, bat oiflj a bnd. It is doubt-
rarelj, the workers may without fertilization fld whether any of &« yonng plants of thia
prodaoe eggi, bnt thoee of males only. Bnt species have as yet mstared seed which conld
any of Qieee males, though all directly agamio be agun tested; and poseibly the qnestion of
or Catherless, can become efBcient in a return agamic prodnction in plants muat still be re-
to the ordinary or bi-seiual mode of reprodnc- garded as open. Regel foond that after strongly
tion. — Bonnet's experiments with the aphis cntting-in female plants of (^ntuTia and ntereu-
jiald, as irttimated above, more dtriovs resolts. rialit, male flowers were constantly developed,
Be carefiil^ isolated a newly hatched aphis bnt which, withont great care, would have
by conveying it npon a twig beneath a glass been unnoticed ; and reviewing theae and other
shade dipping into water. Of fonracore oS- snpposed cases, he concludes that "partheno-
qiring prodneed alive by this insect, one was genesis certainly does not occnr in plants with
iaolstoa in like manner, and with nmilar re- evident sexual oraans." But Prc^. Asa Qray,
salt; and thia was repe^«d as long as the ob- in apparent oonahrtency with all the known
serrstions continued, or for 9 suocessive broods, facts, mfere that parthenogenesis does occnr in
As Uie yonng aphides are ready for propagation plants, and therefore probably not in 2 or S
in ftbont 8 weeks, it follows that in the course special oases nor in diceciona plants only ; and
of a summer a single parent may have a pro- tnat " sexual feonndation may t>e strictly neces-
geny of millioos, and all without renewed in- saryto the perpetuation of the species, withont
tervention of the mole element. Eyher fbnnd being strictly mdispensable for every genera-
tbat when warmth and food were abundantly UonJ' ("American Journal of Science and
Bopplied, this sgamio production would go on Arts," Sd series, vol. xvii. p. 440.)
for a or » years; but these broods, winged or PARTHENON. See Athxns, vol ii. p. 291.
wingless, consist almost wholly of imperfect PABTHIA, in ancient geography, a district
females, seldom sny males. The true females, of western Asia, the boundaries of which v&-
slwaya wingless, prodnce only after sexual ried at diflerent times. Originally it was a
anion, and then eggs, not living ofiapring. small and mountainona oonntt? S. E. of the
And ordinarily, as tbe oold of antumn inoreases Caspian sea, and bounded by Per^ Snuana,
and the aapply of food f^la, the agamic yonng Hjrconia, Aria, Carmania, and Uedia, and
give place to true moles and females; the latter thereibre including nearly all of the modem
laying eggs which, the next spring, hatch out Eohistan, the northern portion of Khoraasan,
iguD viviparous or imperfect females. Thus and a pert of the Great Salt desert It was
theroisaoycleof changes; a large but varying dividedT into the distriots of Oamisene, Par-
nnmber of links of non-paternoL, being inter- thyene, Choarene, Apavarctene, and Tabiene^
poeed between any two of paternal generatii
The imperfect females have, in place of ov
ries, certain tabular organs, the germa lying
whli^ develop into living insects. Thus the during the reign of the Arsaoidse was the resi-
is only apparently, not really, anomalous
of which the two last were in the southern
part. There were no cities of great impor-
tance. The largest was Hecatompolis, which
dence of the royal family. The chief moun-
the real indivuinal of the aphides is the perfect tains were the Labns or Labutaa, probably part
"-'" "r female only, and union of these must of the range now called the Elbooriir — '
the Parachoathras, now called Elwend ; and
,.,------ the Ifasdoranns. The rivers were few in nnm-
of vital activity, an intercurrent produc- her, and scarcely more than monntain streams,
tioa by germination or bndding sets in, termi- almost dry during the hot eeaaon, bnt violent
Qsthig finally in a return to the normal individ- floods when the snow melted.— The Parthians,
uaL Aocording to this view, the drone bees according to tbetr own tradition, were of Bcy-
are another ioatanoe of prodn<^on by budding; thian descent, their name sicrnif^g in that lan-
and stiU others are said to be fonnd in the guage "banished" or "ezues." This was the
<IapAiiii0 (water fleas), and in some species of opinioaof the anc1ents,althongh manymodern
batterfly. — Among examples believed to be writers suppose they were directly connected
foond in the vegetable world, the most marked with the Iranian tribes. In their treatment of
iathatoftheoM&oiwn«i2tci/b{ia (literally, "hoi- their princes and nobles they carried the usual
ly-leaved spinster"), sent from Moreton Bay, obsequiousness of the oriental forma to excess.
Australia, to the royal gardens at Eew. This They were under the government of a doable
tne is ditmuoos, and the single ^>eoimen fonnd council, made np of the "Ur^iai* and the nobles
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
._ h0 Unff. Tix war Omj fomiiA oondition <tf ttie kfiudom, Artazenea^ rmcie-
OD horaebaok, the pmcqiat we^Mm h^tg Beating bimBelf u Eelonf^ng to th« aiuneiit
the bow ; sod the peonlkr raatmer in whioE dynastr of the Feraana, induced that people
ther fon^t, dlwduu^ing th^ arrows while to throw off the joke. AilabanDSIV.,tiie last
.1 poets. Pt^gamr was verj common. — alam in A. D. S2S, and the new Pe .,
lie Farthians early became anlqect to the nnderthenileof the^naatjof the Sasauudn,
Peruana. In the diTiMon of the empire bj took theploce of the Farthian.
Darioa fiyitaspia into 20 aatrapiea, ther, along FABTIGIPU: (I^ participivm, a partak-
with the Chorssmians, Sogdiana, and Arians. ing), a part of speech which part&kea of the
formed the 16th. Thej constitoted a part of propertieB of both an adjective and a verb, and
the annj of Xerxes in the expedition agunat maj be oonddered as an a^jectiTQ witli the
Greeoe, and aerred under the last Darius, idea of time added or as a verb without the
Parthia and HTreania formed under Alexander idea of afilrmaldon. In English there are two
one eatrwr i and after the death of that con- partjdples, the present and the past. The for-
qneror, the inhabitanta of the former oomitry mer ends in inf, bat originally in atid, which
Joined the cause of Enmenes. Afterward the; termination is seen In the ptutioiples of the
were gOTemed auooecnTelf hj Antigonos and cognate langnages, as onf in Sanscrit, ortt in
the Selencidn nntil S50 B. 0., when onder tba Greek (se in the genitive jSovXtv-oi^or), ani and
leaderabip of Araaoca they became independ- mt In Latin (aa in am-aat-u and r»g-ent-id}, and
ent. The new kingdom oonstantlj grew in end in German. The past participle is formed
power, gradnaU; enorottobing on the Bac- osoall? bj adding enoiedoidto the root of
trian possesaionB on the east, and on thoae of the verb ; bnt the final d in some cases becomes
the SelencidB on the west, until the Parthian t. In the power aod espresaivenese gtuned bj
empire extended from the Euphrates to the the obo of the partidples, the modem langoagee
Indus, and fhnn the Osns to the Persian gulf, are inferior to the andent.
The oonqaeste of the Komoos in Aeia finally, PABTITION, in law, the severance of coin-
about SO B. 0., broDght that military nation mon or undivided interests. It Is particularlj
in oonfliot with the Farthians. In S3 Orauos i^iplied to interests in realty. At common
invaded their territory during the reign of law landa held bj two or more persons were
Orodes, bnt was oompletely defeated, he him- held by diem either in Joint tenancy, In com-
aelf being elain and his army out to pieces, mon, or in coparcenery- The first two of these
Mated by their victory, the next year they in- estates were created by the act of the parties.
vaded Syria, but were driven back by CaseiDs, The last was created by operation of the law,
the prooonanl of the province. Siding with when in caating a descent it devolved a single
Pompey in the civil war, md Bubaeqnent^ with estate npon two or more heire ; as, for exam-
Brotiia and Oasuas, they were defeMed by Ten- pie, when an estate in fee of one who left no
tidius, the lientenent ctf Antony, in 89, and by male anccesdon passed to bis daughters or
the same general again in 88, on the anniversary other female representslivea. These persoDs
of the day of the defeat of Grassos. Pacoros, were called coparceners. Theirs was the only
the son of Orodes, being slain in tne battle, joint estate of which the common law wonld
The nor was continued after Phraatea IT. as- compel a diasolutJon at the requeiit of a dngle
cended the throne, Antony marching into Me- party. Joint teoants and tenants in common
dia in 86, but being forced to depart alter enf- becme so, said the law, by their own mutual
faring severe loss. A treaty was made between agreement and act, and the tenancy could be
the reiening monarch and Augostus, the former Jostly severed only by their mutual consent,
being threatened at the same time by the Bo- But coparcenere are rendered bo by operation
mans sod the disaffection of a large number of law, and lest any one of them be prejodiced
of liis own anlaeetB. In this treaty Phraates by the perverseness of his fellows, the law will
restored to Bome the standards which had lend ita aid, if he ask it, and help him, by par-
been taken on the defeat of Orassos. After titioD, to the enjoyment of his separate interest.
the death of this monarch, Parthia became for In the reigns of Henry VIU. and of William
many years the scene of civil wars between IV. special statates extended this common law
various pretenders to the throne. There were benefit, which hitherto ooparoenera alone had
frequent confiiots with the Komans, eqiecially enjoyed, to joint tenants and tenanta in com-
in regard to the Idngdom of Armenia, and dor- mon; so that partition then became incident
ing the reign of Trajan that emperor marched to all estates held in common. — In the ITiuted
into Aua, and made Armenia and Hesopota- States the technical Joint tenancy is quite abol-
mia Bonian provinces. This territory was re- ished ; Joint ownerGhips being, if not under ex-
■tored by his eucceeeor, but war agun broke press statutes, yet in effect, only tenancies in
outdnring the reign of Uarcns Anrelins and common. Bo ^so the technical dlstinctionabe-
AnreliusYeruB;andlheoonqneetsniadebyOe»- tween estates in common and in coparcenery
una, the general of the latter, which were oon- have lost nearly all their force. Mnch there-
tinued by Septimius Severus and OaracaQa, fore of "the cunning learning of partition," as
effectually weakened the strength of the Par- it exists in the English law, is inapplicable here,
thian empire. At length, seeing the prostrated Tet as among us real property generally passes,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
n
on ft»<8«th tf in anoMo^to more panotu arotton of tarinawAr'tlMtroiannoiipniSt. It
than one, paititaon >tUI rMrau an Importanoo m^ bo oonfiaed to a roodflo purpose, or &
in remeot to the tmundee in mhuoiod of heirs single ta«naHtion; but vhen not so limited^
and devisees. In some parts of the eooutrr, the words of the partners, or b^ acta whiijt
tbe ofteration of ttata remedy is extended b^ imply limitation, it is general. All persons
■tatntea beTOod the limits ued tor it by the oompetcmt to do bnaineee on their own aooonnt
oouBnon law or tite atatntea of Henry ViU. — mayenterlntopartnerahip. Generally, the part-
PartitioB, in England, waa made eitber by mo- nera own the properl? and the pndta jointly ;
tnal cxmaentornponoompoUon. In thelatter but one or more at them may own ex<dn-
case, tbe relief waa sonf^t cither by a writ of mrely the pft^ierty or oairital, tearing only the
partition, aoed ont by one par^, at oonmiim proflti to be owsed Jointly. So aU kinds of
law,orbyluBpetitfaintotheooi]rtof chaDoery. proper^may beownedby apartner^ip. Bat
If tfae ooartealawererbadezoladTaJariBdlo- ' when i«al eatate ia owned, the law of reoord
tioa of partition, as It la sometimes assoted, it titlcL of transftr by deed, of inheritance, and
moat IiaTe been at a verrremote period. For, of dower, has stiU an important operation.
aa Muiy aa tiie reign of Elizabeth, it is oertain Gaierslly the role is this: real estate is part-
that ohanoery took Dtwmzanoe of the matter, nerah^ proper^ when it is bought with parU
and lately It has enjoyed almost NnlosivejQriS' nerahtp nnds, for partDerahip purpoaea, and
diction oTor it; for the oonrts of law are rarely is used for tlieae purposes. Then it will be
invoked to make partition, thongli th«dr jmla- treated as part of the (»qdtal of the firm, and
dietion is omwnrrent whb that of dtaiMetj. Jnst as petaonal pnqterty ia treated, so far aa
Iliere is good reaaon^ boweverjfor the mf- BabtUtr for tiie psrtnersh^ debts Is concerned,
er«iiceoftte<&anoeryoonrta. Thepntoeffiire and n^ the romaining faalanoe ia asoertaine4
at law ia a ttnae of pBrStion Is for leas eflSto- ' and dtrided among the partners; bat then its
tive t&aa titat in eqni^. Tbe courts of law ohnaoter as real estate is restored with all the
are limited to a mere aDobuent aooording to inoidenta of dower end the Hke. The legal
the proportioaial shares of the parties In inter- title most always be traced tbrongb the reo-
eat; and this often oaasea a pnrriymeohanieal, ords. Bat if the property he, for example, in
and so pregD^dsl, diririon <rf an estate. Bnt thenamectfonepartner,hewillberegardedas
chaseery, not leetrioted to tiie exact balan*^ holding it in trost tiirthepartiienliip; and if h*
of eqtdvalent shares, bat eapable of all eqoita. die, hla heir will be held as tnistee, and only
ble a4i™tm<aitB <rf the matter, may distnbnte so much as ia not wanted to pay the debts of
among the dUmanta the separate, tiioogh nn- the Ann, or satisfy the diums of the other part-
equal, patoels of tiie estate, nrtfiignlne to the nera, will be permitted to remain in hla hands,
several partieetheportions which will best suit as his own and free from the obligations of the
their remeetire oondition, eqaaHtiag anoh a tmat. Bo, the widow baa her dower in tJ»
partition by deoeeing peooularr eompensation red estate after debts and cUma are aatiafled,
to be made, or in other oaaea orderfaig eqnitaUe and not before.— The good will of a partner-
payments by some for improremente made in ship ia, fbr many pnrpoeea, a part of Its prop-
tiio COTomon property by others. This jnris- erty, and may be transferred by sale or as-
diotioa ia exerdaed with peonliaT fltnoas m all signed fbr the benefit of creditws ; and it
oaaea wltere pnrdy eqoitattle ri^^ts, conflicting wonld nndonbtedly pass to the assignees
clsinH of partie^or modes ot u^oyment are mider insolvency, by operation of law. — No
to be a^nsted. Oonrts of eqoity wiu Interpose partner, and no i^ority, can Introdnce a new
oalj when the title of th^ petitioner ia elesr, partiier without the consent of tiie othus. A
If it be contested, he mnst try it at law, partner may aell out all his interest in a part-
Wbererer, is onr atates, distinct eqni^ coorts nership, or may asdgu it as seomi^ for a debt ;
exist, ttiey probiiAj have ecmoarrent jnrisdio- bnt the purchaser or aaaignee only aoi^nlrea a
tion with ooarlsof law in respect to putilltHis, right to have the balance doe paid to hun, and
and, in general, snob a jarisdiotton as hni Jost oannot aoqnire merely bj the transfer a right
bem deeerfbed. Bat tn dmoet aSl the atatea to become a partner.— A partnership may be
the eoffmitaioo of partitions is r^nlated by formed by an instnunent nnder seal, which ia
rwy mrnnte statute provirionB, and to these in perhi^ the meet common, or by a written in-
each state relterwioe mnst be made for tiie par- stmment without seal, or by oral agreement,
tioolsr methods of prooedare, and the powers without any writing. In general, a partner-
oftheoonrts. Li BoiDe etatea tiie eqnity pro- ship is formed by an agreement that the partiea
eesaisteft andlstm-bed. In some thewiltof shall entw ttwetfaer into a oertdnbusinecH, and
partitioB, with oertdn modiflcations, still r»- share the profits and losses. In the absence of
mains. Gonerafly, howerer, the mode of ob- spe^ slapnlattois, the partnera share aqnally,
taining partition is by petition to the higher bat may stipolate abont this as they will. Bo
eonrta of law. The eonrls of probate, too, are tbe agreement may proTide for its dnrstion, bat
nsnally tUTeisted with the power to diTide ee- if the period appouted for its termination oi
tates among hrirs and devisees. rives, and it contimiBa in foot, and withoot a
PABTNERSHIP, in law, eiists whan two new bargain, it will be held to oontinne npon
or more persons combine their propeKy, labor, the former terms. — Fetvona may be partnera
or akiD. or one or more <^ these, for the trana- as to third persons who deal with the &na.
U,9,-„zOQby(jOO^le
while th^ are not partners as between them- by them u partnera, In which caae Hie partner-
ulves. Thng, A may agree with B and 0 ship creditors have au oxdnsive right to the
that A shall render certiun SMistanoe to the partnership effaota. Thns, Aand Bown ashfp,
firm of B and 0, either of capital, credit, or each having half; they agree to buy a cargo b
iMU, and not be held ont as a partner, nor the same proportions, and to ship it for sale,
be a parbier, and own a certain proportion the retnmB to be divided eqnally. They M.
of the profits, and not be liable for any share If they are partnerB in the cargo, those whom
of the losses. Then, if the firm be not insol- they jointly owe for it have an exolndve daim
vent, A m^ claim of B and 0 hia share of the on the returns from it If they own it only at
profits, and, if obliged to pay any debt or loss tenants in common, each one's halfgoes with the
of the firm, may claim compenaation from B rest of his property to be divided among all hia
andO. But nevertheless, he will be Jnst aa creditors. In snch a case it was held that they
liable to the creditors of the firm as B or 0 ; were only tenants in common ; and the general
and all his property will be as liable as their mle is, that to constitute a partnership there
property. There have been many cases tnm- most be a Joint parohase, from a Joint nmd or
mg on this point, bat the principle of law is on a Joint credit, of effects to be need in btui-
dear and certain, however ilifflenlt it may some- ness, the account and profits to be kept separate
times be to ^plyit. This principle is, thst from that of other property of the same par-
whether a person is a partner in the firm in ties, and the profits to be owned jointly. — It is
regard to the rights and obligations among- the a general mie, both in England and in the
partners, depends npon the agreements they ITnited States, that no partner can sne another
have made ; but, wnatever these agreements at taw on any matter grovring out of and con-
are, he is a partner as to third persons, that is, nected with uie transactions of the partnership
he mcnrs as to them all the responsibilities of a business, and dependent for its determination
partner, in two ways, and on two gronnds, npon the partaiershipacconnts. Onereasonfrar
One is, that he was, by his own consent, or by this andent and well established, mle may be^
his own fhult, held out to the world as a part- that no individual partner has any aepvata
ner, so as to justify the creditors of the firm in right or interest in any of the goods or accounts
dealing with it as if he were a partner; and of the firm, because ail are owned by all the
the second is, that, without being so knovm or partners jointly. But the principal reason is,
held out, he participates in fact in the profits that any one snch question involves others
of the concern. For it is a nearly universal which a court of law has no adequate means
rule, that one who participates in the profits, for investigating. For if a partner recovered
as such, is liable for the losses. The principal on this clslm against a partner, there are mol-
and most difficult question which has arisen on titudes of other daims or accounts, on each of
this snUect, relates to clerks or salesmen who which another question may be raised ; and
are paid by a share in the profits. Formerly it whether, on the whole, one partner owed an-
was held, that if such a person was paid, for other or had a daim against bim, must depend
example, "one twentieth part of the profits," upon asettlement of ollthe busiaess andanad-
thia made him a partner, and liable as such ; Justment of all tbe accounts. This & conrt of
but if ho was paid "a sum equal to one twen- equity can direct and anpervise by its machinery
tietb part of the profits," this was only a pay- of masters, receivers, and &b like, althon^ a
ment of wages, which was indeed measured oonrt of law cannot- and therefore it ia now
by the profits, but did not make him a part- settled, as a general rule, that questions be-
ner. But this technical and irrational distinc- tween partners about partnership affairs must
Hon has passed away; and now the <juestion in go before a court of equity and not a court of
every such case would be : Does his bargain law. But a partner may sue a partner at law
with the partners merely provide that his com- in any matter not involving the partnership
pensDtion shall be measured by the profits! for accounts; and so if a distinct part thereof issev-
then ho is only a person employed by the firm ered from the rest, and especially if a separate
and not a partner ; or does U)e bargain nve promise is made about this, a common action
him ajiroperty in the capital orin ttie profits? at law is maintainable for the balance. I( as
fbr this wonld make him liable as a partner, is not unfreqnently the case, a man is a mem-
In other words, if the alleged partner has a ber of two firms, one of those firms cannot aoe
Sht and property in one twentieth (or any the other at law, because the same person eas-
ier proportion) of the profits, while tiiey re- notbe plaintiff and defendant. Bntff oneof the
main nnmvided, he is a partner and liable aa firmsbolds the negotiable paper of the other, it
snch ; bnt if he have no such right or proper- may indorse it to a third person, who may sue
ty, but only a daim against ma firm for so tbe other firm. — Partners are of various nnds.
mnch money aa, upon a settlement of the firm's They may be open or secret, active or dormant,
Erofits, one twentieth of them shall amoont to, retiring or new-coming. A secret partner is just
e bnot a partner, and has none of the liabili- as liable for thedebts of the firm, wbenbeisdis-
ties of that relation. — It is sometimes important covered, as an open and declared partner ; so a
to detemdne whether property is held by per- dormant partner who only lends his capital or
sons as tenants in common. In which case it his name, and tokea his profits, is just as liable
goes to all their creditors, or whether it is held as an active partner ; for the one role, vUob
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
PARTKEBSHIF 18
Hm at Uia foundation of tbe whole l&w of part- and all th« partnon in r^ftrdtottuit pemoi,
nenhip, is, that eocli partner, and tho whole however fr&ndnlent the tranaaotion may he in
of bis property, ia liable for the whole of the refbrenoe to the other partnerg. Bnt if a part-
partaerahip debta. This role waa nntil recent* ner, who has borrowed mone; in bis own
l^a nniTersal one, and would be bo now bat name, brings that money into the partnership,
for the special partnership reoendr introdnced the partners ore not thereby made liable for
into ttsisooontryflnm Enrope. (See Pabtdkb- the debt; the firm owes the borrowing part-
cmp, laxCTD.) A retiring partner who oon- ner, aai he alone owes the lender ; and one
tinneB to recwve a share of the profits contdnnea who lends money to a partner, for the yerj
to be liable for the debta of the firm, bat is porpose of enabling him to contribnte the same
not made liable by raoeiying a certain definite to their capital, cannot hold the other partner*
mn, Mnnnally or otherwise, independently of without their assent. — Some partnerships are
the profits. He shonld ^to nodoe of his re- carried on in the name of an indiTidosl, who
tiremont ; for those who deal with the firm in may also nae bis own name in his own business,
ignorajioe of hia retirement, withont their fault. In that case, paper bearing hia name will be
may deal with it on his credit, and are author- supposed to relate to his private and individnal
iied to hold him responsible. Bnt if the retir- bnamesa, unless direct evidence or circnm-
ing partner gives snoh general notice in the stanoes show it to have been on the firm's ao-
DStuu way, he is not liable to a customer who oonnt. But if a partner is a trustee for any
happened not to know of his retirement ; and body, and applies the tmat money in his haa&
a new cnatomer, who had no dealings with the to me partnership acoonnt, the partners are
firm before the retirement of this partner, can- certainly liable if they knew of this application
not bold the partner after retirement withont of the trust money and did not prevent it, and,
notioe, unless tt can be shown that be came to according to some authorities, even if they had
the Smi on the credit of this partner, and that no knowledge of it. A release by one partner,
ba waa Jastified in trusting to this credit. So or to one partner, is a release by or to tiie firm,
if a creditor of a firm, knowing of such retire- if there t>e no fraud; so a notice by or to one
ment, reoeivee for his debt the negotiable paper ia notice by or to alL — The question sometimes
of thefinn,thepresamptioi)of lawisthatnein- arises^ how for a new-coming member is re-
tl intention to the contrary, out his adoption of the debt ; but this adoption
A Doodnal partner, who Iwkde his name to a may be shown by his express agreement, either
firm without any interest whatever, is, in gen- with the firm or with the creditor, or it may
era], jott as Hable as if he were actoally inter- be inferred from circnmetanoM which distinctly
ested. If one purchase goods separately, and indicate it ; and it has been held that a pay-
owe for them, tliose who become subseqnenUy meat by the firm, after he enters it, of the in-
interested in the goods Jointiy with the first terest on an old debt with his knowledge and
pnrohaser are not thereby made liable for the without Direction by him, implies his adoption
debt, mdem the purchase waa made originally of the debt aa due from bis firm. Bat the lia-
by their joint authority, and for the purpose bility of a new-coming partner for the ezist-
of bringing it into the partnerehip ; for tbeu the Ing debts of the firm oannot be prestuned from
partnerahipexistedatuiebeginning. — Throngh- the mere fact of his enteringinto the firm, —
out the oMnmeroial world, itisaoniversal rale. Whether a majority of the partners can bind a
that each partner has fbll power and authority minority, and conduct the bnriness of the firm
to act toe the others and represent the whole at their pleasure, may not be quite settled ; but
firm in all matters appertaioing to the partner- the later antboritdes seem to confine this power
(hip. There is perhaps no exception or limits- of a mi^rity to what may be called the do-
tion to Uua role, oilier than l^ the principle mesdo affairs of the firm, as the hiring a room
that dther partner's powers may be restridned or store, keeping clerks or books, and the like.
by agreement, and all persons to whom this At the same time it seems to be now well es-
mt is commnnicated are bound by it. tablished that a partner who dissents from an
, OD the continent of Europe, it is very inchoate and inoomplete transaction, and dis-
eonmon for the oiroulars or cards announcing tinctly expresses his dissent to the outside pat^
a film to ftatB specially which of the members ties concerned in the transaction, giving them
is nithoiized to make purchases in one place notice that he shall not he bonnd by the action
or in another, or to di«w or accept bills, and of the firm, may in this way protect himself
the like. Where there is not this agreed and from liability. It should be added, however,
dedared limitation, each partner may make that the recosant partner, after such denial and
pordiasea, sales, loans, assigmnentA, pledgee, notice, may wiuve it, and will be considered as
or mortgagee of the partnership propmty, and doing so if he permits the proceeds or avails
ire or recwve notea or bills or money there- of the transaction to be brought into the com-
■r; and any suiji transaction, done In n&r- mon account and the common fond for the
enoe to and wtthin the soope of the partnership common benefit. — The dissolution of a partner-
bwineae, and with honest intent on the part of ship, however caused, has no effect upon its
the pecaon dealing with the firm, binds the firm existing debts, or upon the UsbiUty of the part-
t,
D,oi.zoob,GOOglc
i
U PATmrmamp
SAnforthem; ImtitentbelypreweatstheetHi- Thole pn^OTty » ._ .
trmoting of anj new debt hj uie firm, b«aWM vor or Barriron, bat only for die pnroose of
that has ceased to exist. Hence the former Mttliog up the boeineas and dosing the oon-
partnen can in no war bind b^ any new oon- oema of the partserriiip a« soon as Qus can be
troeta, Thoa, no partner eas indorse a note done in * proper waj. The sturiring partners
of the finn, either with the firm's name or bis and the repreBentAtirea of the deoe«Md may
own, even if it be to par a debt of the firm; come to somo agreement about this, or the ar-
and even aothoiity given b; the Ann to one tiolee maj pronae for anch an event. Bat in
psrbier to settle the affikirs of the firm would the absence of any sach agreement or prori-
Dot genendly, carry with itthe power to nuke mwi, Qie BnmTors take every thing, with the
nioh indorsement. Diawdnldon may take place powers ueaeesary for the speedieet and beet
in many ways. 1. By the expiration en the setQcment, and no more; nor oan they, even
thn^ when it is to terminate by the artieles; for the pnrpose of settlement, make new con-
bat if it goes on as befbre, althoagh notliing tracts bindmg the estate or rwreeentativee of
be said, the law will presome an agreement to the deceased. When the settMmeut is finally
partner, if there be no limited tenn in the dne to the estate; bat tmtil then the n , .
articles ; and if there be, and even if there tatiTee cannot interfere with the managemoit
be a mntnal covenant not to dissolve, we of the proper^, althoa^ a court of equity will
shonld say that either partner might dissolve interfere, on Oieir pewioii:, to prevent waste,
the ooparinership at his pleasure, alvrays being delay, or oUier iignrigns oondaot by the nrvi-
liable to respond in damages for any i^Jniy he vorsu — ^The mlea of law in t«gard to the rights
may inflict by bis breach of contract &it a of creditors over the fluids of the partnei^t^
oonrt of equity would probably interfere to and the property of the partners, are very im-
prevent a oanselesa or ftnadalent dissolation, portant, but in some partjcnlara tbey are not
espedally if it were obviona that iqjnry wonld qmto settled. It ia oert^ that the jwnt fimds
be done which conld not be adequately oon- of the partsiersbip are, In the first place, to be
pensBted by damages. So a coort of eqnlty implied aod api»«priatsd to pay the jtunt
wonld always decree a dissolntdon at the prayer debts, that is, to pay the partnership areditwa ;
of any partner, if he conld show good cause, and the private oreditorB of the individual part-
of snfflcieDt magnitude; and in any soch ease nera cannot toutdi the partoerahip ftmds In any
the court would appoint a receiver il that were way nntil these have ptiA in foU all the part-
neoeasary, and do or order all other things nership debts. It ia suo certain that the [ni-
which the Interests and equities of the paiiieB vate creditors of an individual partner m^
required.* 8. An assignment by a partner of his reach by any proper prooess of law the private
whole share and intorast in the copartoership and separate property of the partner who is
property and' business wonld of itsd^ as we their debtor. So, too, it ia certain that the
think, work a dissolation ; and it would he so creditors of the firm may, at some time, resort
even if one partner assigned his whole share to the wlvato property of the partners. The
to another partoer, becanee this wonld be tmcertamty is involved in this qnestion : While
equivalent to this psrtner's going out of the the creditors of the firm have an exclusive
firm. 4. Any departure from a fiim or copart- right to the pnmerty of the finn, have the pii-
nership by any partner dissolves that firm, vato creditors of the partnera an eoaslly exda-
however it be oansad. The firm may go on as aiveright to the privato property of the indebt-
before, taking in or not new partners, bnt it is ed partnerst Formerly it was not so ; and
in law a new firm, for the simple reason that a while a creditor of A, rf the insolvent Ann of
partnership is in no sense or measure a corpo- A and B, conld not touch the Amda of the firm
ration. Hence, the death of any member of until the debts of the firm were pdd and a
a firm dissolves that firm. Even if the articles balance found due to A, which balance his
provide for that casualty, and it ia agreed that creditor might reach, it was at the ssme time
the firm shall go on with onohanged name, and held that a creditor of the firm could resort to
that no account ahall be taken, bnt the share of the private property of A or B as freely as to
the deceased be p^d to his representatives by the Joint funds of A and B. The obvious in-
eaah or notes to a certain amotmt, still in law equality of this rule has caused some of our
the old firm cwised when the partner died, and conrt»— as in New York, Fannsylvania, and
a new one began. 6. Bankruptcy of the firm. Mew Hampshire — to ^ve to the private credit-
or pethaps of any partner, dissolves the firm at ore the same' prior nght to the private prop-
once. Whether the insanity ot a partner has erty, that the joint creditors have to the joint
that efibet may not be certain, hut we should property; and the same rule is &vored in £ng-
say that insant^ which wonld probably be per- land. But in mokt of the states, as fiv as wa
manent wonld onqaesdonably be agood ground can jodge from existing decidona, the old nils
fbr dissolution bv the oonrt or by the parlies, still oonthinea. — ^What ri^ a creditor xi ft
hat that It would not of iteel£ and by Its own partner in a solvent finn has, and how ha m^
force, eflbot a diseolntion,— If a psftnership ^betoato his right, is a matter of mnehniwer-
fs dissolved by the deaft of a psrUier, the tunty. The prevailing ^oindple may however
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PABTNE^mP (LnoTHD) FUSION 16
be stated In tUs jnj. The orefitor can take pftpen; 4, this adnrtiMmoiit, or psbUoallcm,
ooIt irhst hi8 debtor has. This is not a bbt- most state aeonratc^ tli« luunes aiM reddeaoe
era! and disUniA ri^t to w property in any of the Reoeral partnws, the namea sad raol-
puifrffhepartnenupfaiidB; for it i» (wlf an denoe of the ^>eoial parbiwa, the naiM <tf the
ownership of Hie whcOe in oommon with the firm, the mm which each apeoial partner ocoi-
otlwT partners, and tiiaioe a right to have the tribntes, the bosineBs to be tnuiMoted, uid the
aeoonnta settled, and the debts of the firm paid, period for which the partnarahqt is made or
and then his share of the balanoe set (A or paid the time when it will terminate; and dnring
to him in several^. This right or interest his ttiat time the special partner eannot withdnaw
creditor maj aoqtdre \>j attaohment or lev7 ; his oapitsL Lt some of the states there are
and if it be done bj attadunent, a frequent, providoni limiting q>ecdal partnenhipa to mer-
and generally peaking the better way, is to oantileba^ece, and ezolntUnglnanranee, bank-
sttmmon all the partners as t^nstees or gar- ing, Ac, If any of the reqairementsof law are
nishees onder the process of foreign attachmenL disregarded, the roedal partner becomes a gen-
PABTNEBSHIP, LnoTiD (or, as it is some* eral partner, and is liable in soZtili). Theoonrta
3mes called, special partnership), a partao^liip xpplj these mles with much sersrity. Thns,
whweof oneormoreof tlieniembersoontrllnite a special partner has been held liable ^ stftid^
a (iertain amoont to the capital, which may be beoonae, by anerrwof one<rftbenewspi9eis,
lost by its being demanded for paymffit of the the Bum he contributed was stated erroneons-
debts of the fim, bnt beyond which they have ly; and in another case, beeaun he sold oat
no farther liability. This is ntt«r1y unknown bis interest to a general partner for more than
to the oommon law, or to the law merchant as he pnt in, this being considered as a with-
enstiag in En^snd and in Uie United States, drawal of his oapftaL
It has nowerer been common on the oontinent PABTON, Jauss, an American aothor, bom
of Europe for a long time. Beoently it has in Osnterbnry, England, Feb. 0, 1892. At 5
been adopted in this country, and is now com- years of sge he was bronght to New York,
mon. The foUowii^; states have statntes an- whwe tiic test of his childhood was paaaed ;
thoriziDg limited partnerabip, and there may andat 19 hebeoameateacherinanaoaaemvat
be others: YermonL Uassachnsetts, Bbode White Plains, Westchester oo.,atwhichhehad
Idaod, Oonnectlont, New York, New Jersey, received hia edncation. Bnbseqaently he was
Pennqrlvsnia, Uaryland, Yirj^nla, Bontb Oaio- ooonpied fbr several years in the same eapadtr
lina, Georgia, Plorida, Alabama, Misassiwi, at Pniladelphla and New York. His first lit-
Kentnc^, Ifibbigan, Indians, Dlinois. After erary employment was on the staff of the
mnoh opposition, it has to some extent beoome " Home Jonmfd " of New York, with which he
established in England. It has made a part- was connected abont 8 years.. In 1865 ap-
nership partially resemble a oorporstion. A peared his " Life of Horace GreeleV," of which
stockholder in a eorporation may lose hia over 80,000 oopies have been solo, and which
stock, bat not be made liable any ftirther, nn- wss followed In 1667 by his " Ltfe of Aaron
lees by special statatory provision; whereas Bnir." Ofthiawork,themostelaborstebiogra-
every partner is liable in tolido for all Uie phy of Bnrr yetpQb1iahed,near^20,O0Ofl(^e8
partnership debts. From this liability capital- wei>e sold daring a period of great etomnen^
tste were nnwiUiog to place any part of their diatresa, fflslwtpnUication, "lifisof Andnw
cwital in a trading company, beoanse their Jackson" (8 vols. Sto., 1669-'60), in the pep-
whole fortune wonla he at risk. It was thought araUoo of which, as In that of thelifbof Bnrr,
that it wonld be better for the commerce of he had access to a mass of original dooom<ats,
the country, that yonng merchanta and odiers has proved equally snocesafbl in a peonnlary
with akin and enterprise but not capital shonld point of view. In 18S8 llr. Parton pnbliahea
be able to indoce those who had available ibnds a collection of " Hnmorons Poetry or the Eng-
~ ■ " " He la
o place them in the bamness ; for then it rest- lish Laognage, from Chancer to raze." He
d on a real cqiital and not on mere credit or now (1891) engaged upon a biogra^y of Be
poeaible profit; and the capitalist, who wonld jamin Franklin.— ^ara. Patsom Wnxn, wife
be entitled only to a certain portion of the prof- of the preceding, better known b^ her nM» da
its, wonld be exposed only to a proportionate plvma of "Fanny Fern," bom m Portland,
UabiBty. The system is believed to bave been Me., Jnly 7, 1811. Her father, Nathanid Wil-
fonnd to work well in practice, wherever it haa lis, for many yesrs editor of the " Boston Re-
been introdnced. The statates of no two states, corder," removed to Boston with his fiunlly
peifaapa, are precisely the same ; bnt they agree when his danghter wss 6 weeks old, and to
sHhstsnttaTly in the following provisions: 1, that city she passed her early years. Her
there must be one or more general partners, edncation was received at the school of Hiss
aE of whom are liable in lolido; S, there may Catharine E. Beeoher at Hartford, where lbs.
be one or more special partners, and the ape- Httfriet Beecher Stowe wss then a jnnior
cific sum oontribnted by each special partner teacher. She wss married to Oharlsa El-
mnat be actoally paid in; 8, the arrangement or dredge, caE^ier of t^ merchanta' bank, Boston,
articles of partnership mast be in writinf , mnst with whom she lived for a nnmber of years in
generally be acknowtedsed before a magbtrate, ^nenoe and happiness ; bnt upon the death
and most be pabliihed Jn one or more news- of her husband she was snddody thrown iqmi
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
16 FABTBIDGE
her own resdureea to proride a m(dnt«nuice parte of the old TOtld, some ooiwtaat n
Ibr herself and two cliildren. After ttnmcceas- and others mlgrstoir, some freqnmtang onKi-
(bl attempts to proonre emploTment as a teach' vated lands and others forests ; thon^ oooa-
er and in other Tocationa, she turned her at- eionallj' perching on trees, ther are generally
tention in ISSl to literatore, and prepared a seen on the ground, searching for grdii, seeds,
short ess^ for publication, which was rqected bnlbons roots, and infioots ; toe nest is a slight
bj the enters of seTeml Boston jonmala to hollow on the groimd, beneath eome bush, and
whom it was offered. One of them at length the eggs are from 13 to 20 in unmber. The
ventured to partdiase it for half a dollar; it oonunon or gray partridge (i*. einerea, I^ath.)
proved saccesefol, and was followed bja nnm- is about 13 inches long, with an alar extent of
her of others, which were widely copied by 20; the body is ronnd end stont, the head
Uie public jonmals, nntil her pseadonTine of small, and the legs and tail short. Thoogh the
"Fanny Pent" was fitmilii^r in all parts of the pinmage has no brilliant colors, it is very neat.
United States. A collection of these sketches and its intricate npper markings of ash-gray,
jras published in 1868 under the title of " Fern yellowish brown, brownish hl&ck, and brown-
Leaves," of which 70,000 copies were sold in ish red are pleasing to the eye ; the scapnlan
a short time. This was followed by " Little and wing ooverts are darker, with wnitish
Ferns" (16SS), "Fern Leaves, Becond Series" streaks; the forehead, cheeks, and throat light
(1664), "Bnth Hall," "Rose Clark," "Fresh red; neck ash-gray, with minute blacknndn-
Lesvea" (1867J, and "The Play Day Book" V>tions; sides with broad bands of brownish
(I66T), all of which have ei^oyed a consider- red, and a large patch of the same on the
able popnJarity. They have all been repablished breast. The f^iale is a HtOe Hmaller, with the
in England, and some of them have been trans- npper parts browner and the top of the head
lated into French and German. For the last streaked with yellowish ; both eeses present
faw years she has been chiefly employed in conriderable variations. It is spread abim-
writing for the " New York Ledger." Soon dantly over Enrope, and is sometimes foond in
after the commencement of her literary oareer N. A^ca, generally in the vicinity of grain
she removed to New York, where she has fields and very rarely in woods ; it nms with
since redded. She was married to Ur. Parton great speed, squatting close to the ground when
in Jan. 18C6. alarmed; the fli^t is rapid, direct, low, and
FABTRIDGE, the popnlarnameof thefam- accompanied with a whirring sound j it is
ily otperdicida, which includes also the quails, wary, and eadly frightened ; the affection for
Iney differ from the grouse in having the legs the yonng, or posts, is very remarkable, and
bare and the nostrils protected by a n^ed hard varions devices are used by the parents to dis-
scale ; thejr we also smaller in size and more tract attention from the brood. Dnring win-
nomerons in species ■ the head seldom has a ter they keep together in coveys, searching fw
naked space around the eyes, and the sides of food among the Htnbble ; they separate early
the toes are hardly pectinated; they are widely in spring, pairing in March, the eggs being
distributed over the globe, but the true par- laid in June; the males take no part in incub*-
tridges, oTptriiana, have no representative in tion, bnt watch the nest. The genus is mono-
America. Great confusion exists in the appli- gamons. This is one of the best game birda,
cation of the term partridge ; the spmca par- as its flesh Is tender and well Savored ; shooting
tridge is the Canada grouse [Utrao Canadmtu, it forms a favorite and exdting amusement, es-
T.inn J ; the partridge of New England is the pecialty in Great Britain ; the bird Is so prcJific
mifod gronse (loruua vmbelUu, Bt«ph.) ; the that, witii protection during the breeding aea-
partridge of the middle and southern states ia sou, their numbers do not materially diminish,
the qnul (orij/j) Virgimaniu, Bonsp.) ; several and the markets are so well supplied that the
other qnaUs are called partridges, as the plumed price brings them within the reach of the mid-
and Gambel's of California, me scaled or bine dUng daaaee. The partridge thrives well in
and the Kassena of the valley of the Bio captivity, and its inclination to the neighbor-
Qnmde in Texas ; on the other hand, the birds hood of man seems to indicate that with proper
called qnails in Enrope belong to the partridges treatment and food it might he added to the
and to the gfioaa eetumix (MOhr.) ; such of Uie list of domeaticated birds. It is not only the
so called partridges, therefore, as are not de- victim of man, but of caruivorons mamma] a
scribed here wiQ be fonnd under Gbotisb and and birds, to the last of which it is peculiarly
Quail, and the francolin partridges under Fbait- eipoaed on account of its terrestrial habits and
OOLDT. — The typical partridges belong to the short flight. The passenger partridge (P. i^am-
genus ptrdix (Brisa.) ; the bill is short, broad atema, Briss.^ is generally considered a varie^
at the case, with the apex curved and vaulted ; of the last ; it is smaller, much wilder, with
the wings moderate oiid rounded, with the 8d, greater powers of flight, and decidedly a mi-
4th, and 6th quills longest; tail short and gratory bird. — The Guernsey or red-legged
greatly concealed by the coverts; tarsi with- partridge belongs to the genus niwa^(Eaup);
ont spurs or tubercles; toes long, inner shorter m this tbe bill is more arched and the tarsi are
than onter, hind one short a^ slende^and armed with a blnnt tubercle. Tbia species {G.
olawB moderate and slightly curved. There r^fa, £aup} ia 14 inches long, with an alar ex-
■» about a dozen spewes in the temperate t^t fd 21 ; the bill and feet are bright rod ;
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FABTSmaX PABUTA 17
apMT parto reddiah brown tinged with gr^: time until 1818. He was professor of engineer-
a bloCE band from the bill to tha ejo, and ing from 1813 to 1S16, ana anpermteudent from
thenoe down the neck, heoorauig wider and Jan. 181S, to Hov. 1616, and from January to
meeting in front that of the opposite side: Jolj, ISlT. In ISlShe left the aemce, with
lower parts aah-graj and light red, and tho rank of captun. He was the principal of
sides banded with the same end black and the esploruLgsurver sent out in 1619 to deter-
white. It is oon£iied chiefly to the eonthera mine the N. W. bonnda^ of the United States,
oonntriesof Earope and to Asia and Africa; it He founded in 1820 at Norwich, Yt., a military
is fonnd also in the islands of Gnemsey and academy, which was afterward removed for a
Jersey; its flesh is highly esteemed, bat it time to ^ddletown. Coon., but restored to Nor-
affords less eport thaa the common spedea wich and incorporated as Norwich university,
from the separation of the flock when pnrsaed with CapL Porbidge as its president. He snb-
bj Aogfi ; it is also believed to drive off the segnently fonnded sinular institations in Penn-
grajpartridge. The Greek or rook partridge sylvania, Virginia, and MisaiBsippi, was chosen
(0. Graca, Brias.) is larger than the last, and sorveyor-general of his native state in 1882,
baa the plumage more ashy; it inhabits the and was G times a member of the Yermont
moontainooe refpons of Greece, Turkey, and le^slatore, from 1833 to 18E9.
A^ liDnoT, and is probably the species &Lladed PABrBlDGE BEBBY, a smooth and triul-
to in the Hebrew and other ancient writings ; ing small evergreen herb, of the natural order
the Seeh is white and much esteemed, thon^ ru^iaosa, the ^'2cA«2Iarepeni (Linn.), commem-
it is occasionally bitter. — The genus tthagimt orating the botanical acquirements of Dr. John
(Wagh) has a short stout bill, lengthened and MitoheU, an early correspondent of Linusns,
ronnded tail, long torsi armed with 2 or 8 who resided in Yirgioia. This exceedingly
blunt spurs, and the toes and daws long. Here pretty little creeping plant, very oommoa in
belongs the sanguine partridge (/. orventut, Ke w England, is found in shaded woods through-
Hardw.), from the mountninH of N. India ; it out North America, growing neai the foot of
is slate-colored above with yellow streaks, and pine and oedar trees especi^y ; its leaves are
greenish yellow below irregiUarly spotted with roundish and variegated with whitish lines upon
red ; edge of tul ooverts and vent red ; it is a dark green surface ; its short petioles have
nearly as large as a pheasant. The eenns minute stipules; its flowers are white and fra-
ptUmachm (Swuns.^, from W. AMoa, hsa a grant, aometdmes porplish tinted, and are borne
smau slender bill, long tail, and onspurred m twos, snooeeded by dry-pulped scarlet ber-
tar^. The geuos leraa (Hodgs.) has a short riee, which are slightly mnoil^inoas and quite
mid maoh curved hill, the sides of the upper tasteless, lasting throiuhout the entire wintw.
tnandibiemuch dilated and covering the lower, It isnot unusuu to find the berries of thepre-
win&a long, tail moderate, tarsi plained below ceding year accompanying the fresh flowers,
the knee and armed with a small spnr, the toes These bright^oolored berries are sometimes
long, and olawa robust. The type of this genus called two-eyes and cats'-eyes, from the oir-
{L, nioieoia, Hodgs.) is fonnd in flocks among cnmstance of the 2 calyces marking the 2 ova-
the rocks and brushwood near the snowy riea ^ipeariog on the same fruit, which is the
mountains of N. India; it feeds on bnds and joint produce of the 3 flowers. — The name par-
Isarea of aromatic plants and on insects, and is tridge berry is also freqnently applied to the
highly esteemed as a game bird. The genus 6buItA«HapTvaumieM (Kalm), more commonly
roUuuM (Bonn.) has a short strong bill, un- called winter^en. (See Wihtzbobkkii.)
armed tusi, and moderate toes, the hind one PABTBIDOE WOOD, a kind of wood prized
da*t!tal« of olaw. The species are found in in oabinet work on account of its shaded and
the Indian arohipelago, and the best known la beantifhl appearance. The tree whidi flirniaheB
the crowned partridge (R. rmdrovl, Scop.)i com- it is unknown in the latest hotsnical systems,
mou in Somatra and Borneo ; it is 10 inehes though called by Anblet ioooa protacfrm, who
long ; bill above black, beneaUi orange ; eyes ^vee an account of it in his Flanttt de la
sarroanded by a naked orange akin ; plumage OvioM fra/nfom (London and Paris, 175C).
bbickiah with violet and green reflections; head He remarks that it ia found in the woods of
and neok velvet blaok ; crown whitc^ behind it Oaux, and intimates that its heartwood misht
a san^dronlar crest of loose reddish brown be employed in nmiring blocks and poUeys, but
feathers, and in front of it several long bristles ; saya notmug of itfl being an article of export
the wings brownish black ; under parts bluish Guihonrt, author of a notice on the indigenous
black; abonlder&mmp, ai^ tail muddy greeo. and exotio trees and woods of Guadeloupe
The tanale is of a genwal deep green oolor, (Puia, 1884), mentions the same as hein^ a
with dna^ head and tawny brown wings, ao- tree growing in Cayenne to the height of 60
oordiagto Tjtiiam fytX, and called there hooo^ bat on wh^ author-
PAiSTSSDQiE, Aldbv, an American soldier, i^ he does not itate.
bom in Norwiidi, Yt.,abont 1786, died Jan. PABUTA, Paolo, an Italian anthor, bom in
16, 18H. He was graduated at the U. B. mill- Venioe in IMO, died there In 1598. He was
ta^ aoademy at 7eet Point in 1800, and acted educated at the univerdty of Padua, and after
as aatbtant professor and afterward professor filling several pnhlio offioea was chosen histori-
of "laflifmatiiy in that institution ffom that ogn^er of the republic The result of his
Toir. xm, — 2
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
18 PAS-DE-OALAIB FA80AL
labon, embntdnv Qie neriod Iwtween 1618 tmd for Its antiqnitif, and iru under the eflpedal
IDSl, u inolnded in the Eeiies called hU/riei protection at the ma^. It contained tlie mort
Vmeiiani. In 159S he was sent bb ambassa- ancient royal palace and tlie treasnre*. The
dor to Borne, and on hia Totnm to Yeoice was Persian kings were inannirated there. The
made a knight and jirocwatora of St. Mark, city was the stronghold of a tribe of the same
His prinoipal work is entitled DitMrti politiai name, the nob]e«t of the 8 principal tribes of
(Venice, 1696), a series of disqnisitdons on Ro- the ancient Persians. The Achsmeoidn, to
nun and modem history, distinguished by their whom Oyms, Dariaa, and other kings belonged
impaitiali^, sagacity, and independent train and who wereinfiaottheroyal f^uyofsnoient
of thought. He also pnbUahed a work Delia Persia, were a dan of the Pasargadee. Thejr
puifitieTte i»Ua vita poUtiea (1S^9), a history were apparently the direct descendants of the
of the Tnrko-Venetian war In the island of originsd Persian tribe which emigrated from
Ojrpms, andvalaable notes on Tadtns. ftuther east about 1600 B. C, and which as it
P AS-DE-OAIiAIS, a maritime department of rose to power imposed its name npon the peo-
norUiem France, formed prinoipaUy from the pie and the country.
old province of Artois, bounded N. by the etoait PASO AQOULA, a river of Uissisrippi, form-
of Dover (Tr. Pa» de Oatav),'E. ^ tho depart- ©d by the jnnction of the Leaf and Ohiok^i^.
ment of Nord, S. by Bomme, and W. by the Kng- It flows in a sontherly direction into MisriBsip^
ligh channel; area, 3,606 sq. m.; pop. in 1866, sonnd, throngh two separate months, its em>
713,846. It is intersected from B. E to N. W. bonchnre forming Pascw>nla bay. It is navi-
by a ohun of hills which give rise to several gable fo^ 100 m. or more by small vessels, which
rivers, Qia most important of which are the export timber, tarpentine, and other products
Boarpe and the I^ branches of tiie Scheldt, of the pine forests throngh which it flows. The
and die Aa and the Oandie, flowing respeotivelT name is derived from that of the Pasca-ogonlas
into theOermanooeanandthe English channel. ("Bread-eaters") or Fascagonlas, a tribe of In-
TheseriveTS are navigable and nnited by canals, dians formerly inhabiting the vicinity. On the
The northern railway and its branches cross £. month of the river is the village of Pasca-
the department. Coal is fonnd in small qnan- gonla,orEastPascagoiila,wbichcontainseeveraI
tltdes. The soil is marflhy in some districts, Enndred ichflbStants and a large hot«l, and is
bat is generally fertile. Mnch land is devoted much freqnented as a snmmer watering place,
to the growth of beets for the maanfactore of There are extensive saw mills ia the viomity. —
sugar, more b^g rused in this department The month of Pascagonla river is celebrated for
Uian any other except Nord. Themannfaotnre the " mysterions mosio" which may often be
of tolles is carried on at Boulogne and Oalais ; heard uiere on still smnmer evenings. The
while other towns are engaged in making cot- listener being on the beach, or, yet more favor-
ton and linen BtaSi and yants, spirits, leather, ably, in a boat floating upon the river, a low,
gunpowder, soap, glass, and earthenware. The plunlive sound is heard, rising and fblling like
chief town is Arras, formerly the capital of that of an JEolian harp, and seeming to issue
the provinee of Artois. from the water. The sounds, which are repre-
PASARGADA, or Pababoas^s, the capital aented as indescribably sweet and plaintive,
of tuudent Persia under Oyms and Oantbjses, cease ss soon as there is any noise or distarb-
and previous to the fonndation of Persepolis, ance of the water. The actual occurrence of
dtoated on the small river Oyrns (now £oor), this phenomenon, not only at the month of the
in a plun sorrormded npon all sides by moon- Pascagonla, bnt at other points on the same
tains, and aboat the centre of anciwit Pends coast, is fnlly attested by nnqnestionable evi-
praper. Its name is translated by Stephen of denoe. It is the subject of varions legends and
Byzanlinm, "the encampment of all uie Per- traditions, but the most plausible conjecture
sians." The modem Kui^nb occupies its rite, in explanation of its origin is that It la occa>
and the whole adjoining plain ia strewn with sioned by some ntecies of shell fiah or other
its relics. Among these is a tomb called by the marine animal. A somewhat simHarphenome-
natives the tomb of Solomon's mother, but non is mentioned by Sir Emerson l«mieDt as
which is supposed by Bawlinson and others to occurring in certain situations on the coast of
be that of (^TOB. On a square base, composed Oeylon.
of immense blooka <^ white marble, that nse in PASO AI^ Blaise, a French auUioiv mattie>
stepa, Btsuds a quadrangular house or diamber. matician, and philosopher, bom in (Vermont,
buut of blocks of m^la 6 f&et thick, shaped Auvergne, June 19, 1638, died in Paris, Aug.
at the bm into a sloping roof The chamW IS, ISSS. Bis father was president of the court
seemstonaveheldasarcophagus. Uponpinars of ^ds in his native city, and was a man of
near by repeatedly occurs uie inscription in oonsidenble learning. Being left a widower,
Persian and Median: "lamC^natheAohceme- he sold his office in 1681, and removed to Paris
nian." This is the exact deaeriptiim gtreu in with the intention of devoting himself to the
Arrian of the tomb that hdd the roiuiiis of edncsHon of his son and two daughters. He
OyruB in the time of Alexander, uid the exist- directed the studies of the son to laDgvagee and
enoe of which at this place was vonohedfrtr by generalliteTature,avoid!ngeverythii^oonnect-
Aristobnlus, otM at Alezasder'B compmions. ed with the exact sciences. This only sharpened
The ancient dty was esteemed by the people the desire of tiio boy, now 13 years of age, for
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PASOAL 10
Hm forbidden etodtes. 'Without aaaiBtaaoe, and worldly pleasnireB. Her entreaties would per-
ignorant even of the veiy mdimenta of loatlie- haipa have proved unav^ling, had it not been
matica, he eecretlf applied himself to drawing for an inddent which ooonrred in Oot 16£4.
Rnd reflecting npon Keometrtoal flgaree, until While drivins over the bridge across tlie
he bad gone through a eetiee of definitions, Beine at Netmlj', the two forward horses at-
siioms, and denionstr&tions that brought him toohed to his oarriage were precipitated into
as far aa the 82d proposition of Eaolid. His the rivar, and it was little less than a mirada
father, discovering him one day engaged in that the carriage did not follow them. The
these Btadiea, was aS^ted to teus^ imd, obej- shook he then esperienoed prodnoed an effect
iOK what he conridered a proTidentiat warning, npon bia nerrea and mind, from which he ap-
wHlingly gave him matbematioal instniction. pears to hare never entirel;f reoovered, and to
BUise matb wonder^ progress in this new ca- the end of bis life he was subject to ballaciaa-
reer ; he was sotm adniittea to the meetings of tions and visions. The immediate result of this
scientifio societies, where his att^ments and oooarrenoe was to-revive his religions impree-
genins aatoonded ue most learned ; and at the aioos ; he withdrew from eocietj, and entered
age of IS he oconposed a " Treatise on Oonio npon a oonrse of self-denial and ansteritj',
Sections," which Descartes, to whom it was wliioh characteiized the remaioiDg jears of his
anbmitted for examination, ooold not believe to lifo. Amid bis previons gajeties, however, he
have been written by a mere hay, Unfor- had written some of his philosophical work^
tonatel; the manoBoript has been lost. In 1089 snch as his treatises J}e lapetantew it la nuMM
Bluse aooompaoied his &ther to Bonen, where de Voir and Ds Vi^Uilyre det Uqvmn, whit^
the latter hod been appointed mperintendent were not pablished nntil the fear an«r his
of finance for the provinoe of Nonnandf; death. In 1664 he completed an "arithmetic^
and there he inventeil a oslcnlating machine^ triangle," by which he aimed at eipoondinA
whioh was snbseqnenlly improved oj L'£pine madienuiticallf certain laws connected wi^
and Boltisscndesn, hnt it nevec came mto bets and games of chance. It was in fact an
practioal use. He pnhlisbed an aeooont of approach toward the binomial theorem of New-
it in 1646 in pamphlet form, with a dedioation ton. After his death 8 treatises of his were
to Chancellor SSgiuer, and in 1B60 offered it pcblislied (1666) in which he had laid down
to Qneen OhriBtiiia of Sweden, in a letter the principles of the oalcolaa of probabiliUes. —
whidi has been fteqaently reprinted. It was For sevem years Pascal had been acquainted
also during Ids Bt^ in liouen that he invented with the Port Royalists, and bis new mode of
the vinaifretU (wheelbarrow chair), the A»- life brought him into closer intimacy with them.
q^ut (a kind of dray), and, according to some. They were now the upholders of the doctrines
the bydrauHc press. Hia health, which bod of Janseiiina, and though he never formally
never been strong, was seriously i; ■ ■ - .•■..-.■ . . , ., ...,.,.
hid labors, and his eabseqnent life w
sion of snfferinKS. From 164S to 164B he exe- quarrel with the Jesuits. Wheu, at the end of
ented aa the Pny-de-D6me, near Clermont, at 166&, Antoine Amauld was expelled from the
Ronen, and at the tower of St. Jacqnes-la-Bou- Sorbomie on aceoont of hie letter in defence of
oherie in Paris, a series of barometrical experi- Jansenisni, Pascal, impelled by motives of
ments^ which went fhr to confirm the discover- fiiendship, entered the lists and published the
ieaof Qalileo, Torrioelli, and Descartes respect- &rat ot Qiaeenea of LtttretdeLowadtMonUdU
ing the wewht and dasticity of air. Pascal d un provincial de ut anat et aiwt E&. FF. let
was led by tSeae experiments to nse the barom- Jituittt ntr la morale tt la poUtique dt oa
eter ss on imtrmnent for levelling, aai for pira, which afterward became so celebrated
ascertaining tba pressure of flnids upon the under the abbreviated title of " The Proviudal
rides of the vessels contslning them, and estab- Letters." The first of these letters, which ap-
lidiing the laws of th^ equilibrium. His Et- peored Jan. 28, 16Se, was eagerly read and ou^
ptrieneM iovthant U tide were published in culated even among those who hod until then
1647, and were assailed by Father ISoHl, a Jes- remuned nniuterested in the contesL It was
ait, who presented hin»elf as the obompion of followed at intervals by 17 others within a pe-
the old system, and whom Pascsl answered in riod of 14 months. The replies of the Jenuts,
two letters. About this period he Wl a stroke the condemnation of the letters by the holy see
of paralysis bywhi<di he for awhile lost the in 16^7, and thesentenoe of the council of state
usaofhislegs; at the same time be studied in- and the parliament of Aix that the^ should be
Mnady devotional works, and his mind became bnmed by the band of the exeoutioaer, could
deeply fmpreesed with religions convictions, not check tiieir popularity ; and 20 years later,
He was advised 1^ his physidans to seek for as spears from uiue. de S^vign^'s correepond-
dfverston in BOoi«ty, as the only means of al- mice, the PeUttt lettrts, as they were now
levlating his sn^ings. To this he reluctantly etyl^ had lost nothing of thdr ori^nal attrao-
consoited ; but he socn allowed himself to be tions. They m^ he said to have been the
carried too fu by his natoraUy ardent tempera- origin of that hostile feelina which, a century
menl^ and 1^ pious ^star Jaoqneline, who had lat^, brought about the expuLdon of the KX&btj
joined the o«nmnnity of Fort Koyal, several of Jesus from France. Their circulation in £n-
bmae tboiq^ it neoeaBarj to worn him agdnst rope was inoreased by tranalationB Into several
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
90 PASCAL PABHA
langnasee ; and one of tiie Port BoyBHsta, Ki- tiie PeiuSti (3 yoIb. 8to., 18SS). The life of
oole, who hsd been instramentBl in their com- Pascal hy luae. P6rier has been the foonda-
voaitioii, produced a Latio Terriott of them Tm- tlon of nnmerons enbBeqoent bic^raphiee. The
der the name of Wendrook. — In the midst of Peiukt and £«ttre» prmitteiaUgnavo been eev-
tbese l&bora Pascal's healUi had contdnned ful- erel times tranalated into Enoliah. — ^The yoimg-
ing, and his snfferii^ waroelr left him anr er sister of Pasoal above aUnded to, Jaoqux-
reepite ; he neven^^ss retarned to his wonted line, bom In 16S6, died in IftSl, left some mis-
pureuitB, and studied the properties of curves, oeDaneons works, letters, and versee, which
and espedallj those of the ojdoid or rouhtte, have been oi^ected b^ Prosper Fang^re (1 vol.,
which had alreadr arrested the attention of Paris, 1846), and by Oonsin in his biogn^y
Galileo, Torriodli,I>eeoartea, and Fermat. Fas- of Jacqueline Pascal (Paris, 184B).
csl oonqdeted their researches apon this par- FABOHAL II., j>opo (BASina of Blkda),
titndar point, and in 1669 pnblished the resiilU bom in Tuscan;, died in 1118. HevaaainoDk
of his inyeetigatiODS in his Traiti ghiiral d«la of the order of Olnn;, and having been sent to
TMletU, He bad also engaged in tJte compo- Borne on some affsire of his order was made
dtion of a new demonstration of Obristianity, cardinal b; Pope Gregoi7 Vll. He sncceeded
in which he was to enlist all the powers of ha- Urbsn 11. in 1099, and almost immediately af-
mon reason fa the service of tntth ; but the terword renewed the straggle with tiie Ger-
state of his health left bijo bnt brief periods for man emperor on the snl^eot of inveetitnree,
tliis project. He was able onl; to write ooca- which had eoKroesed so much of the pontjfi-
riondly detached thongbti, which were collect- cates of his predooesBors. He excommnnioatod
ed after his death, and published in 1670, under Henr; lY. in IIOS, whereupon that empeFor's
Hie title ^ Pmteit tur la religvni. Modem son revolted and caused bimBelf to be acixowl-
aritJ(s,eepedaIlj'Viotor OoQun and 8te. Beuve, edged as Henr^Y. ; but in the matter of in-
availing themselves of previonslj neglected vestitnree be proved as unjieldiiigBa his ftther.
sources of infomiation and original manuscripts Paschal pr<q)osed a compromise, offering to re-
too slightl; passed over bj former editors, store all tbe temporalitieB which the ohnrdi
have Bucoeeded in giving an outline of Pascal's had received A'om seonlar princes elocetlie time
derigu. The last i jeait of his life were an of Oonstanline, provided the emperor wonld
almost unbroken series of bodily snfFering and renounce the right of investitnre which vas
obaritable emplOTments: his alms absorbed fonnded upon these grants; but the bidiopa,es-
more than bis moome. His remains were bur- peoiall; those of Germany, who were poBsessed
ied in the church of 6t. £tienne da Mont, of large fiefs, would not consent to tJie meas-
wbere Ms tomb is still to be seen, — There are nre, and when Henry arrived at Borne to be
two editions of Pasoat's complete works, inclnd- crowned In 1110 the uegodatioa was broken
inghisscienti£ctreatises,namelv;ti)atofBosBnt off, and the pope reftised to perform the coro-
(S vols, 8vo., 17T9),andthatofLef%vTe(6vols. nation ceremony. The emperor thereupon
8vo., 1819). The Lettrei previneialei, collected s^zed the pontiffs person, treated him. with
fbr the first time in 16ET, were publisbed in great indignity, and after keeping him prisoner
1S84 at Oologne under the supervisioo of Ni- two months extorted from hrni a renunciation
cole, with Latin, Spanish, and Italian transla- of the disputed right, received the crown, imd
tiona. The Pmitiet. which have been of lat« went back to Germany. Paodial afterward
an especial object of leeearoh and stody, were smmnoned a council in the church of St. John
reprinted from the mi^nal edition of 1670, first Lateran, by which the investiture of chnroh-
lnie7S0)vol^l2mo.),&ndwitIialifeof Pasool men by lay hands was solemnly condemned,
by his sister, Ume-F^rier, hi 1684; by Deemo- The result was a rebellion of some of tlie
lets, with some additiiraia, in 1739; and b}[ Con- turbulent German borons, but Henry soon
dtnttet in 1770. These were the fonndation of subdued them, and nmrchii:^ upon Borne ccon-
erery subsequent edition, until 1843, when M. pelled the pope to flee to Benevento. After
Oousin, in a paper read before the French aoad- the emperor's return, Pasohal made vigorous
emy, pointed out the alterations and omissions preparations for war, but died before he oonld
in evei7 one of them, referring at tbe same time take the field. He hod also hecoi involved in a
to the autograph monnsoript which ie preserved dispute with Henry I. of Inland on the same
in the imperial library at Paris. In 1844 U. snt^eot, bnt a compromise was e&toted in 1108,
Gosper Fangire, following up Ooosin's snjses- whereby the king snrr^idered an unimportant
tjonik issued a man correct edition of thePsn- part of the ceremony of investiture (the colla-
itti,tettfea ttfinf/mmiitU BlamPa»edl^T(^ tion of the ring and crosier), and retained the
6va.). Tlila gave rise to a controversf reepeot- right of nominating bishops and abbcte and ex-
ing tihe v(»rk itaelf and what has }jvea a^led acting from them fealty and homage,
the aoeptioism of Pasoel, to which we are in- PABHA, a TnrUah governor of a provinoe,
debted for the f<^owlng woibe among others ; or military and naval commander of tu^ rank.
TictOT Oonrin'B Miite Ftucat (1849); Ste. The iVenchqwll tie word jXM&i, and formerly in
Benve'si^irt Soyal tmi Portraili l^trairM; SidiBhitwaBwniallywnttenbashaorbaahaw.
and theabbiFlottesandA. Yinet's^u^tur Fastias of tiie first raidE are called pashas of 8
Paieal (1846 and 1648). Tbe controversy has t^ that number of horse taila b«ng carried
lieat sntomed op by ^vet in a new edition of before tltem as a Btandvd when they i^pear in
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PASIFEAS FA8QUIEB 21
pnUie. Before dose of inftriormik two hons ur as ocanmander-hi-ohief of tlie anniea em-
tulfl ore borne. The title is probablji^Perdaii ployed in Poland. TteaevereBttheaamBtime
origin, and is Terr ancient, a BilDilar term, m&(i, abwigthened bo as to become ovenrLelming ;
being used in the Hebrew Boriptarea to oedg- and, still ddnded by the jmimima of Franoe,
nate the Ticeroys or governors of pronncea of the generals of the revolation alloved Paske-
the Asrrnan, Babylonian, and old Parian em- vitoh to cnws the Vistula, nndieoked, near tlie
prea. The office corresponds to that of tlie Pmssisn frontier, aod to adyanoe on the right
ancient Persian satraps. Until recently the banJc of that river toward Warsaw, wUoh
Tnrkiah paahss were entirely sbsolate in the after a desperate struggle finally capitulated
adminislration of their provinces, bntnnder the ^pt 8). The conqueror received as his re-
present reformed system the power of these ward the title ofprinoe of Warsaw, and was
officers is in some measnre checked by local mode governor (Rnss. and Pol. namitttniJ^
oomndls. The province governed by a pasha Uentenant or viceroy) of Poland, which was
is calledApubuio. now stripped of its oongtitntional semi-bde-
PA^PwAft. Bee Itmoe. pendence, and transfbrmed into a Bosaian prov-
PASKEVrrOH, IvAx f^KDOBOViTOH, prlnoe Inoe, though maintdning some instatations of a
of Warsaw, a Bnaslan field marshal, bwn in separate administration. The task of govem-
Poltowa, Hay 1ft, 1783, died in Waraaw, Feb. ing the nnhappy ooontry was one of the great-
1,1808. He was educated at 8t Peteraboiv, est respondbill^; bntPaskeTitchnotoovdls-
beoame a page of the emperor Panl, and m oharged his dn^ to the entire satisfitctJon of
1800 entued the army. He served with die- his master, but by his moderation also gained
of Alexander L,and in those Gt 1812-'ll eom- part at uie Polish people. Yarioos attempts
nuaded under Bagration, Ularodovitch, Ben- at a sew risiDg, amoDg others that of ItM,
ningsen, and R^^&ki, at Smolensk, Uoaoow, were speedily suppressed ; and the year 1848
Le$sia, and in France. Aiter U« retora to passed off without oonvnlsion, the attention of
Bnsda he aooompaiued the grand duke IGohael, the Poles being chiefly turned toward Hnn-
brother of the emperor, on a Journey through gary, whence the liberation of Poland was ex-
various provinces of the empire ; and in 1820, pec^. To avert the more and more threaten-
on the outbreak of the war against Persia, was Ing danger, Nicholas, having already sttenmted
^ipointed by Nicholas to oommand imder Yer- an Invasion of Hni^ary ftom the Bannbiaa
moloff. Having achieved condderable sue- prindpalities in the winter of 1849, in the en-
eeaaea ovw the Perdans mider Abbas IGrza, suing spring placed Paskevitoh at the head of
he in the following year snooeeded the less an anny of intervention of more itum 200,000
sneoessftil YermoloflT in the chief command ; men, which simnltaneoualy crossed the north-
and the taking c^ the fortified Armenian con- em, north-western, and sonth-eastem Oarpa-
rent of IMchmJedgln, of Kakhitohevan, and tiilans, acting in part independently, and in
other strong places, soon juved the way to part In ooqjunotion with the Austrians. Ko
the conqneet of Erivan, which ci^itnlatod in brilliant rictoi? was now achieved by Pask»-
Oet. 1SS7. For this achievement he was re- vitoh, his principal merit oonsisling in oanliouB-
warded by Nicholas with the title of Eri- Ir avoiding dangers, while tiie Hungarians,
vanskoi. Faakevitch now crossed the Aras. distracted by hostile populations and fbrtressse
and by a r^d advance entered the cl^<^ wtthin ^eir own territory, were dowly crushed
Tabriz, when a peace was ccoiclnded with the by the wright of oonver^ng masses. CMrgey'i
Persian oommandw, but it was not ratified sarrenderatYiUgos (Aug. ISIhavIng vlrtaally
nntil after fkirther operations In the begin- ended the stni^le, Pi&evuoh rrtnmed to
ning of 18S8. The peace of Turkmantimai, Warsaw, where he reodved new honors from
whMi added to Russia Persian Armenia, being Nicholas. A ^rsnd Jubilee soon after took
eooolnded Feb. 29, Faakevitoh found a new place in that oity on the 60th anniversary of
field of ndlitsiy aativity In the war against nia entrsnoe into the army. In April, 1864,
Turkey. He commanded in the East, while he once more took the command of the prin-
the prtndpfll Busnan army was ennged on the oipal Btuaian army in the war sgtdnst Turkey,
line of the lower Danube and the Balkan, after the first diswtrons osmpsipi on the Dan-
Anapa, Foti, Ears, and Akhaltrik were taken nbe, but soon resigned it, haviu been wound-
in the anmmer of tltat year; and advandng ed before Silistria (June 8), whi^ he Ailed to
through mountain passes in that of 1839, Paake- eonquw, and returned to Poland. ffisBnooe»-
viteh nrpised a large anny nnder the wras- sor in command. Prince Uohael Gortchakofll|
Uer. Assisted by the treachery of the Janixo- also soceeeded him as governor of that country,
rlea, he took Er^oom, July 8, and poshed for- FABQUIER, ^nmnn, a E>ench Jurist and
wtri toward TreUsond, in the vidnUy of author, bom in Paris in 1529, died Aug. 81,
whidi he recdved the news of the peace of 1916. He studied law under Oqjas at To^ouse
Adriam^de. Hade field Tni-atml and governor and Uarianns Socinos at Bologna, was admitted
of the province at Georgia, he ohe&ed the to the bar, and first appeued iu 1649 in the
rising ot ^e Lesghian mountaineers in 18B0, oapadty of attorney before the parliament of
sad in the foUovring year, on the death of Paris. He devoted much attention to Utera-
DisbitBob, was appointed (Jane 26} his sneoes- ture and history, and after puhUshlug the Jfo>
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
BS PASQUIEB FASQimr
ncfMU and Im eeOojua ^tunow, in prom, soA oaimot be rtyled tea aaihor, hflvliig pnbBabed
atiytnl nuBoeUAiiMiiB poems, he prodnc«d ia Dothing bat a vandeTUle and a collecdon of
ISmh^lgthookotMtSeehnvhadtlaFhmce, diBoonrseB delivered in hia oapftcit? of mimster
In 1S64 ti« -waaoommi tot the nniverraty in ita or peer from 1814 to 1636 (4 vols. 8to., 1S4&>,
Uwniitwith theeocie^of Jeenita. Bis pte&d- heiraainlB42 electedamemberof thelYencii
ings made him popular, and elienta looked to aoadenqr. It ia ^enerallr reported that he has
him. Hs wibiened the parliameiitar7 Beashxia written intereatuig Mintoiret which will be
known aa let ffranda jovn at Ptdtiers in 1676, pttbllBhsd after hia death. The revolution of
■nd at Troyea In 1588 ; was in 1S8S appoint- IMS terminated bis poUtioal career,
ed attomeT'-gaiieral to the ooort of aocoonts, PABQULCl, tiie name ^ven to a mntilated
and In 1B88 was elected a depaty to the statefr- statae in Bome, standing at the end of the Bras-
general at Bloia. A fidthftu adlterent of roy- ohi palace near the PiraaNavotia. Initaim-
altf, he aeoconpanied the rojalist members meuate neighborhood was aitiiated in the iat-
of the parliament who, under Henrj m., ter half of tke Iffth oentnrj the shop of a tailor
held their seenons at Tonn, and returned named Pasmiin, or Faaqnino, whieh was mnoh
to Paris with Heorr IT. He now fonnd frequented bj people of oonseqoence for the
himself inrolred in new qnsrrels with the pnipoee of hearmg the current gossip and scan-
Jesoits, who were expelled from Fronoa in oal of the town, and of amusing themselves
eonsetmence of the attempt of Jean Ohfitd with the iacedous stories uid Batirioal remarks
upon the life of the king. In IfllH he resigned of Paaquin and his workmen, to whom the ut-
hla office of attoraej-general to his eldest son, most licatse of speech seems to have been al-
and deroted his later jears to revising, oom- lowed. Bo rnsnj caoatio pereonatitiee emana-
pleting, and publishing his litersrr works, ted from tills place, that KradnaUT- everf bitter
Meat at these were collected and prmted in S saving was attributed to Fasqtdn or his diop —
TOls. foL (Amsterdam, 1TS8}. Beside hie in- a practice tlie more convenient, as etiquette for-
valnable Mtehtfehet d» la JywiM in B books, bade the euffisrer by such libels, or paaqninadee
whieh, notwithstondiDg eome errors, are justly as they were called, to exhibit anj* resentment,
regarded as a treasnrr of learning, they Include Alter Pasqnin's death the statue, wiiich hod
J)S books of bndllarletterB,aflbr^ng ample in- long l^n half imbedded In the ground, was
fiHinatlon upon the manners of the time. H. dng out and set up near his shop. The popa-
Lten Feng^e has edited his (Smm eAoitim lace, avaUing itself of this cireumBtance,declar-
(3 vok. lemo., Paris, 1646), with an excellent ed th^ Fssquln bod come to life egun. The
biogrt^^c^ and critical notice. Paaqnier's mutilated torso was called by the name of the
&me as a jnrist has been ftilly vindicated by deftmot t^or, and thenceforth the custom
the pnUioation of his Intmwitaiion de* Intti- arose of attaching to It bits of writing of a
UOei dt Jvttmim, edited by H. Charles Glrand satirical character, which frequently took the
(4to~ Paris, 184^. ahape of lampoons upon persons in hi^h station,
PASQUIEB, Enxim Dkhis, duke, a French the pope and oardinals being ftvorite ol^jeots
atafawnsn, of Uie same family with the weoed- of attack. "The fr«e speech," says a recent
ing, bom in Paris, April 3S, 1767. B^in he writer, " which was prohibited and dangerous
became of age he woa app<dnt«d connoilltv in to the living sntfjects of the temporal power
tiw parliament of Paris, His father woe be- of the popes, was a privilege which, in spite
headed during the French revelation, and he of prohibition, Posqnm insl^ied npon exerds-
hinuelf wss bicaroerated. Under the empire ing. Whatever precantions might l>e token,
he became sncoesnvely master of requests in whatever penalties imposed, meana were al-
the oonncil of state, councillor, procttrmir gini- ways fonnd, when occadon arose, to affix to
roldu •swtuefda Ittret, and prefect of police, the battered marble pliers bearing stinging
Oharged by Napoleon with neglect of dnty at epigrams or satirical verses, which, once read,
tiie time of the conspraoy of Ifalet in 181S, fastened themselves in the memc^, and roreod
he was acquitted on trial, and kept in office quickly by repetition. He could not be d-
nntil the first restoration, when Louis XVlli. Mnced. 'Great Bums,' said he one day, in on
appointed Mm director-general of roads snd epigram addressed to Paul HI., who was pope
bridges. He stood aloof during the Hnndred from 1684 to 1646, ' great sums were formerly
Days, and after the second restortiion was pv en to poets for singing : how much will yOD
keeper of the seals and temporarily minis- ^ve me, O Paul, to be silent ?' " The statue
ter of the faiterior in the cabhiet of Talleyrand of Marforio, sapposed to be that of a river god,
in IBIB, minister of Jnstioe In that of Bichelieu which aboot the close of the I6th tientory was
in 1617, and of fbreign a&irs in that of De- plsoed in the palaao di eontenaUm on the
ooEes in 1819. He adhered to the revolution Oapitol, woe made the vehicle fbr replying to
of July, 1880, and was treated with favor by the attacks of Fasquin; and other statues in
Louis Philippe, who made him president of the various parts of the city occasionally issued
chamber of peers, with the honorary titie of on epigram on public afi^rs. Patqnin, however,
chanoellor of France. He had been made a mtdntiUned his enpremaoy over all rivals, and
baron by Nqraleon, became a count nnder the so formidable did he become that Adrian YI.
restoration, and finally in 1844 reoeived the proposed to have him thrown into the Tiber,
tide of duke from LoDiB Philippe. Although Le but was dissuaded by his friend Lodovico Snee-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PABQUOTANE PASSENOMt PIGEON 28
nno, who doolarad Out the frogs of Hm tivar ehwter of imall Uete called Voit lalaada U»
TOoid tiieocwfiirtli orot^ paa^unadet. The within it. The haj >< well ahelteied and not
first true poAqniiuidM date frtMii ttie pontificate QabletobeobetmotUbrioe; andithasgood
of Leo JE., and after the Iwae of Si eentutiea harbon and a anffloient depth of water for die
th« atatae psmus his antoent avoeatiwi with latest Teasels. It aboonds with fiah^ tnoh as
nndhnlidahed yigor. SaUiieal epigrams how- mackerel, ood, and herring. The tide has as
ever wen snhlUied previons to Leo's aeoee- average rise of 2fi feet.
don, and tte fbUowing, directed against Alez> FASSAU (ano. Batata Oailra), a town of
ander TL ^toderio Bo^ia), is nnsarpaBeed in Bavaria, capital of the drde of Lower Bavaria,
aeveri^ hj say ntteranoe of Pasqain: eitDoted at the conflnence of the Ian and the
TndllAiBia>d«iteTM,iUn^ObrWDm; Daonbe, 09 m. K N. £. from Unnieh; pop.
SB*atiu*pii^TC>d*n]i»pot«L 11,000. It is divided bj (he ri«rfl hito « parte,
" aUt^^w mUs the kevB, the altars, Ohrist the oentral one bring the town printer, km the
He bou^ them first, and has a right to seU." ot^or^ Inn^sdt on the Inn, and Uttedt mi
PASQUOTA^ a N. E. co. of N. 0., boi- the Xknnbe, being suburbs. The Bs, a triba-
derhig on Vligfaua, and bounded N. E. b^ the tair of the Bsnnbe, flows between Ofltodt
FaniDotank river, siid fl. bj Albemarle sound ; and Anger. The town is strongly fortified by
area, abovtSOOeq. m.; pop. in 1860, 8,040, of two formidable oastlee and 8 smaller works of
whom a,08B were slaves. Its sor&oe is low defenoe, sad oonsttotee one ctf the most impw-
•ad level, Indading a portion of the I>ianial tsnts&ragholds onihe Dvinbe. Ithasaoathe-
■wamp, and in some plaoes fertile. The pro- dndwith eome interertinKmonamenta, a pnblic
dnedons in 18S0 were 9»i,BW bushels of In- library, a theatre, an old abbey, a bran» statue
dian com, 10,4Sft of wheat, and SS,i)4S <tf oats, of King Maximilian Joseph, several aehools and
There wwe 8 ship yards, i newspaper offices, ho^dtds, a Innatio asyuim, roannCsetnw at
14 ohnrcheiL and 640 pn^ attotmig pablio porosUn, leather, tobaooo, beer, paper, iron,
sehoob. The PaaqnotsiuC river is navigable and ecpper, and an active trade on tht Danabe.
fbr smaQ vessela to the owitaL £lisabeth Uity, Its bishops were fwmerly independmt prinoas,
and a branch ot the Inamal Swaiop oanal but!twasseoalaiisedinl808,andinooiporated
cmMsea the eonntT. with Bavaria In 1805. In 16fi2 a trea^ gnai^
FASSAIO.a S. oo. of N. J., bordering on anteai^relipona freedom to the QermanProt-
N. Y., boDnded S. W. by the Peqaannook, and estants was ocmdnded here between tti* em-
intersected by the Itingwood, Bainq>o, and Pas- peror Oharles T. and Uanrioe (tf Saxony,
euo rivers; area, abont 930 eq. m.; pop. ui PAfi8£H0£B PIGEON, or Wild Pioxox
18S0, a»,D91. Its snrfiMM is diversifled and the (tetopiiUt niffratcfria, Swains.), a well knows
soil generally fertile. The prodnctions in 1650 oolnmbine qiedee peoi^ar to North Amerieai
were 140,211 bnabela of ^dian com, 41,600 where It exists in IniTr"^"" namlwrs. The
of rye, 70,1SS of potatoes, 41,440of oata, 11,< family oharaoters an given nuder FisKov ; the
020 tons of h^y, C,3S0 lbs. of wool, and aSB,- senerio charaoters are.a very small head, short
470 Iba. of bolter. There were in the latter year bill, kng winga, the first primary tbe longea^
1< grist and 91 saw mills, 1 card, 1 carpst 4 tarsi voy short, and tail very long and wedgfr
woolkn, and 10 ootton betmdee, 4 papw mlll^ shaped. The male passenger pigeon is about
1 rolling mill, 1 fb^ea, 2 foonderiea, 1 Aimao& Ifti Ini^es Imw^ with an eiax extent of 05 ; the
9 looomot^ manoftotortos, i1 ehm«hea, and general color umve Is gr^iah bine, some ta the
1,16? pwpils attending public schools. The wing coverts feting marked with black spots;
Honis oualand New iwk and Eiie railroad IhnMt, f<«e neck, breast, and udes light brown-
intersect the 8. £. eonter of the oonnty, the Ui red, and the rest of the under pwta white ;
latter ^Msing throi^ the capital, Paterson. lower hind neok with golden, green, and violet
PABBAIO,ariverofNewJerB^,wliiehrisea i«fieotic»is; qaiUa blackish, bordered with [Mde
iaMendbaro,H(griaoo.,flowaB.forafewmJies blnish, the uiger ooverts whitish at the tip;
and then £. between Somerset and Morris oos,, 9 middle tail feathers blso^ the others palo blue
tiien N. N. E. between the latter and Essex at the base, becoming white toward the end;
CO., crosses Pasaaio oo. in an easterly direction, the bill blai^ iris bri^t red, end feet carmine
ud tnming to the S. after a very devious purple. The female is smaller, sod of daller
eonrae of abont 90 m. entws Newark bt^. It colors. Their rqtid and long continaed flight
B navigable a short dlstanoe for aloope. At enables them to pasa over, and their keen
PatersonithaaabUof T9feet(or00fbetper- viaon to sorvey, a vnat extent of country,
pendionlarX affiwding immense wster power, when migrating at irr^^i^ periods in search
wUdi has been tnqnroved by dams and osnals. of the mast which constitutes their prioolpsl
It ia nmeh vUted hj tom^sts. fbod ; the flight is high or low according to
PA68AHAQUODD7BAY, abodyofwater the nn&v<va£le or pnxniaing nstnre of the
between the S. E. extremity of Maine and the region ; th^ present a very beantifnl appew-
S. W. comer of New Bnmswick, bring abont anoe as they perform tbrir aerial evoli^oua
19 m. long and 0 m. wide at the entrance. It preparat(»y to alighting, now displaying a bril-
rsoeivM the waters of the St. Oroix and Didge- Uant abeet of asnre which anddeidy ohuiges
gnaah rivers, OampobeUo island lies serosa tiie into rich deep pniple ; for an aceonnt of ue
•utrsnee of the bVt »>^ I>eer island and a r^i^ty of thebr flight, see Oasbibs Piokob,
24 TJiSSiOS FUDWEB
After ftedlng thej settle nn the trees to rest, MTeral rovi of filamentom procesMe, resnded
and toward etmaet depart for their roosting bj some as abortlTe stamens and bj others as
places, often hondreds of inilaB distant; they the tnie corolla, but probablj an intennediate
boildin foreate where the treesare high, withoat condition of both; the true stamens S, mons-
mnoh reference to season, and in places where delphons, raretj indefinite, sarroanding Che
food is abondant and water not far off; the stalk of the ovaiy; anthers liaear, S-oelled,
habits of conrtshlp, Incnbation, and feeding of bniatiiig longltndinHllr ; orarj npon a long
the yonng squabs, are tlie same as in other stalk, snperior, l-celled ; st7le8 8, arising from
pigeons ; the flesh is dark-colored, and hishly the same poin^ clavato ; stigmas dilated ; seeds
esteemed as food ; aooording to Wilson uiot attached in sereral rows to the placenta, with
lay only one e^, bat Andnbtw bbjb two. This a brittJe sonlptnred testasDironnaedbjapnlpj
bird is fonnd thronghont temperate North &ril ; cotyledons flat, lesfj. The common pas-
America to the high central plBins. Their rion flower (pattifiora earrvlea, Linn.) is a
numbers sro absolntelj oonntless both in the climbing greenhonse plant from Brazil and
roosting and breeding places; in tbe former Fern, and baa been known in cultivation since
theyspreadoTerthcasandBof acres in the West, 1699. Its stem is of a somewhat woody textnre,
breakmg down the limbs of trees with their and attains to considerable sice ; its brttnobes
weight, and destroying the grasa and nnder- areabnndant,long,fleiible,andofr^idgrowtb,
wood ; in theee places they are killed by myr- reaching 16 or 20 feet in a dngle seasiHi. Its
iads, and by every conceivable kind of weaiMm leaves are palmate, 6-parted, and entire, the
and device, from dabs to flrearms and snlpiinr ft)otstalks glandnlar ; tbe involnore is S-leaved,
pot& The breeding places are still more ez- the blossoms of a beantiM bine color withont
tensive ; Wilson describee one in Kentucky as and purplish and white within ; the filamentoos
extending 40 miles through tbe woods and sev' processes of the same color and shorter than
end miles wide, every tree bearing nesta wher- the petals ; they possess a feint smell, and last
ever they could be placed ; they appeared abont for a single d^ only ; the fruit is egg^ehsped,
April 10 and left with their young befbre May of the size of a large plmn, yellowish wlies
3S ; when the young were nearly ftill-grown, ripe, and filled with a sweetish unpleasant pulp
tbe people came, with their families, from all and black seeds. The racemose passion flower
the neighboring country, formed enosmpmenta, (P. roMmoM, Bims) is a native of Brazil, hav-
and commenced the business of collecting the ing 8-!obcd leaves, with 4 glands upon the
birds ; he describee the scene aa very exdting- petiole, eiA twin pedicels Arming terminal
thongh disgusting, the ground being strewed racemes in consequence of the upper leaves
with felled trees and broken branches, the being abortive ; its flowers are of a de^ red
young Urds devoored by hogs below and by or seariet color. Between these two speotee a
hawks and vultures in the air, and the old showy hybrid has been raised, known as P.
birds crowding and flnttering with a deafening earvieoraetrnMa ot Babine, and described and
noise. Notwittistandiug the immense deatruo- flgnred in the "Transactions of the London
tion, snoh Is their fecundity from the nomer- Horticultural Society," vol. iv., in a highly in-
ona broods in a season, that the numbers do tereati^ and sdentiflc papra". The Orenadilla
not seem to diminish. Wilson calculates the vine (P. ^vadrangulart*, wmA.), a native of
length of a column of these birds which passed the West Indies, has a square ligneons stem ;
over him at S40 miles, and estimates the nmn- oblong-ovate, snboordate, entire, veiny learee
ber of pigeons in it at more than 3,000,000,000; 8 to 6 inches long, petioles with 6 glands,
allowing i pint of food for each bird, snoh a stipules roundish ovate. Involucre 8-leaved ;
legion would consume daily about 17,500,000 the Sowers are large, showy, red within, white
bushels. Nothing comparable to sncb flights, withont, and odomeroos ; the fruit leige, ob-
which actually obscnre the sun at noonday, long, about 15 inches in circumference, of a
can be seen except in the myriads of locusts in greenish yellow color when ripe, soft and
the East. Audubon estimates the nmnbera at leathery to tbe tonoh, and quite mnooth, with
a less amount than Wilson. Thongh not found a very thick skin enclosing a sucoolent, purple
in such multitudes in the New England and pulp, of a sweet taste, but slightly acid, and in
middle stotoe, great numbers are caught in a hot chmate oooling and agreeable ; the seeds
spring nets in the autumn, keeping the market lie In a sort of sao which easily separates f^om
well supplied, and at a moderate price when the pulp. In the stove or hothouse this
the consumer is brought into immediate rela- specdes grows admirably when tr^ed nnder
tion to the cq>tor. the rafters of tbe house, the shoots being
FAB8ION FLOWER, a showy plant, the pnmed back to witUn fi or 8 eyes of the old
type of the natural order jxHrt/fimnws. These wood, and abnndance of water given in the
are herbs or shrabs, usually oHmbing, seldom growing season. It has been suocessfolly oul-
ereot, with alternate leaves fiimiahed with leafy tivated in Europe for the sake of its f mlt. The
stipules, and the petides often glindulsr; ax- winged-stem passion fiower (P. alata. Willd.X
iUary or terminal flowers, often acoom|>anied has a 4-aDgIea stem ; undivided, cordate, very
by a 8-leaved involncre ; the sepals 6, at a entire leaves, petioles with 4 glands ; flowers
men color ; the petals fi, arising from the large, of a rich crimson ; the ffliunenlons pro-
ttiroat of the calyx, and oolored ; witliin theee, oeesee variegated with blue and pnrple ; Um-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PA88IOK FLOWER PA680TER 25
Boms sripeib, and with a pleasant aoeot. It patals none, prooeaaes purple at base, fhiit pot-
snoceeda adniirablj' when trained ia an °P'%'it pl^ S '' oeonrs in Flonda. The narrow-leiived
maimer at tiie back of the greentaonae. "Iba (P. anffutt^folia, Swartz) has leaves either ea-
■errate-leaTed pamkin flower (P. Mrrat^foNa, tire or 8-lobed, the upper ones dmple, laaoeo-
Bot. Hag.) is a spedas requiring the heat of late, and oocte ; the flowers are amall, solitair
the atore^ a native of Snrinain, with undivided or bj pairs, yellowiah, processes in 3 rows;
ovate-serrate leaves, ehowf flowers of a por- Cmit pnrple and of the rixe of a pea. Another
pliah color, the processes spotted with pnrple species, tne P. Warti of Nnttall, nas very email
and bine. The edible pasMoo flower (P. edvlU, flowers with a ver?' few processes ; it oocnrs in
Unn.) has smooth, 8-lobed, serrated leaves, B. Florida, and may bo a variety of P. pallida
the petiole with 2 glands near the apex, the of the Weet Indies. (Oh^man, in " Flora of
involnore glandolarlv serrated, the processes the Boothem United States," New York, 1860.)
equal in Iwgth to the oalyx ; the petals whit- — ^The pamjlora are American species ezdn-
isB tii^ad with pnrple. It is a native of (dvely, generally oeonrring within or near the
Bradl, grows rqddly, and is easily raised in tropics. -Althongh, as 1^ been noticed, the
the oonaervattny l>y training its Icmg flexile frnlts of aome are edible, yet those of otbem
bruMihes to the rafters. The frnit haa a yel- are nozions and disagreeable. The prevuling
low pulp of a peonliar flavor, esteemed hy qnalit^ of Hm feaxa is norootjc. The root of
some. There are a few species which possess the Orenadilla is likewise an emetio, and &om
a cBsagreeable odor when the stems or gkaia the flowers ot the P. rvbra a tinctnre b pre-
ara bndsed, and which oonstitnte a section by pared as a snbatitnte for opium ; the flowers
themeelTes called dytotmia by Don. Of these of the P. faiida are pectoral and employed
m^y be mflntiwed the P. fxtida of Oavanilles, in hysteria, its leaves are emollient and oar-
hanoff hinid stems and petdolea ; leaves villoos cotic, and emm«oagogae qualities are ascribed
on bmi rfdea, 5-nerved, cordate at the base^ S- to the root of the pluit. The aril of the seeds
tobed, nearly entire, lateral tobee very short, the of some of the edible-frnited speoiea is in some
middle ones acominated ; flowers whitish with instanoes sweet, and In others acid and nsefol
variegated bine and pnrple processM. This for oompoonding a oooling drink in fevers and
species ooeors in the Oaribbeui islands and in in bilions disoraers. The flowers were snp-
Sovth America. A more remarkable one is posed to represent the snfferings or"pasracai"
the P. eiUata (AitoD), with a round smooth of the Beoeemer, and in them the Bpanish
stem, whkh climbs to a great height; dark monks sapposed they saw the flgnres of the
green, i^aaej, perfectly smooth, S-Iobed leaves, implements, woonds, and crown of thorns ;
beoetootba edges witb strong glaodnlar hairs; the trivial name thus early applied by them
the involute S-leaved and capillary, each di- has been retuned, affixed to a hloesom which
vision terminating in a visdd gtobnle, wfalob la teems rather to present in its evanescence and
fbtid whtai braised ; flowers BnalL whitiah, r^a ot ^ory the type of human life. — Of the
wHh bine filameotoos prooeaaes. From the tnio paMon flowers Don gives at least 1S6
tropical speoiee a good many very fine hybrids ^edes and varietlefl, beride mentioning many
have originated, of wUch may be mentioned ulied genera. The several kinds are easy en
P. Sitrmmna, Loudani, ilMeaunsana, Ac cnltirsaon from seeds, snokers, or cuttings;
The iaet named is a very recent sort, of the the last shonld be trom the extremities of the
style of the alata, with leaves 10 inches long, branches, and strook in a gentle heat. The
l^t brilliant green, and of a ooriaoeons tex- sdl they prefer is a light rich mould,
tore ; laige flowers of a rioh crimson, with PASSIOlir WFES:, in the ohnrch of Eng-
pnrple and bine prooeesea. — Of the North land, the week bsfbre Easter, oorreaponding to
American epedes, the fleah-oolored (P. in- Holy tVeek In the Soman O^olio church. See
earnato, Unn.) is econmon in the soathran Holt Wknc.
states, blooming in Jnne and Jnlr. It has FASSOTEB (Heb. jwmA, frcsn patali, to
patanatdy 8-tobed, acute, serrate leaves, hi- le^ ov^ to pais by; Aram, patka; Sept.
^iHidalar petioles, 8-braoted pedondes, eqtals wurva: Vni. pattAat, a Hebrew festival, insti-
snd petals whitiah within, processes in 0 rows toted by Uoaes in commemoration of the Is-
of a pnrpUih pink color ; fruit yellowish. It is raelitea remaining Intact on the night of the
a perem^ herbaeeons ^edea, making strong deslarnotion of the first bom in Egypt, immedi-
dtoota in a idngle sommer, and well aduted atdy preceding the exodns from that coontry
to cover trdUseemsmaUgaKlenB. They^ow- (Ex.xiL). Originally it was observed by sac-
flowered (P. bttea, Unn.) has oordate leavea rifidng passover lambs toward the evening
broadly il-lobed at the summit with the IoIms of the 14th of the Ist Hebrew sprmg month
Jowish graon flowers, and oval pnrple fruit ; it night, as well as by exclnding all leaven from
oeeors in woodlands and thickets (Tom Ohio to the meals <tf that evening and the following T
Florida. The P. nierota (Linn.) has smooth di^ the first and last of which were observed
leaves, sligfatiy fringed on th«ma^tas,6-nerTed as holy, Sinoe the final destruotion of the
at base, divided above the middle Into 8 ovate, temple of Jemsalem, the passover has beeq
entire, acnte lobes, the middle la^^ ; petioles odebrsted by eating unleavened bread during
ibort, ^fiaadnlar ; flowera and sepals greenish, the 7 (ont of Palestme during 8) days, by absti-
as PAS80W FA8TA
nmee from labor on the fint and ]ast (oat of differ slmocrt indefliut«1;. In genenO, the
Palaetjne on the flret two and last two), and b; bearer ebonld take Mb passport to the uunister
the obeeirauoe on the firet eveniof; (oat cf or aathorized agent of the ooiuitr7 which he is
Palestioe on the first and second) of Tarioos aboat to vi^t, and have it signed bj him; and
domestio rites conunetnoratiTo of the deliver' on arriving at the ontpoete or frontier ports or
anoe from ^yptiau b(«dag«, indadio^ the re- cities of any foreign state on the contmeat of
oital of soriptnnd and legendary narratiTM and Earope, the passport moat be ezhibited, and
bmiliaroDnversation on tiiesune national event, so it mnst bo at any principal town in theinte-
and the nhanHng of pBalmB. lior in which it is intended to renuun for au^
PASSOW, FbjlBZ Loswia Kj-sl Fbixdsiob, a couNderahle period. In many of tho Ehiropean
German philolo^st^ bom in Lndwi^ast, Sept. states, a native oitizen or subject cannot travel
30, 1786, died in Breslao, Uarch 11, 1688. He many mfles in his own coontry without a pasa-
waa ednoated at the gymnasiam of Gotha and port. The whole system is productive of great
at the oniveruty of Leipsio, where he stndied annoyance and some expense to travellers. It
theology and philology. In 1807 he- became has been kept np to afford the anthoritiea
professor of the Greek language in the gymna- means of Barreillance over suspioioos charae-
sium atWdmar.and in 1810 director of the tors, and thereby to prevent oonspiraciea
institution styled the Oonradinura at Jankan against the goTeroment, or provide the means
near Dantzio. After the dissolution of this in- of deteotang them. The belief that pas^orta
stitntion in 1914 he was made professor of havo little effioaoy for this purpose has been
ancient iiterature in the university of Breelau confirmed by recent experience; andthagrow-
and directAF of the philolo^cal seminary. Of ing conviction that they are not so ns^ol as
his philological works, the most important is they are Inconvenient and opprea^ve, ma;
tJie Diotionac? of the Greek Language" (2 have been the inducement for a recent change
vola,, 4th ed., Leipsio, 1831), still one of the in the system in France, where it formerly
most usefiil of Greek dictiouaries. flourished in fall vigor, but where from the re-
FASSFORT, a document given by the an- cent declaration of the emperor (Jan. V, 1861)
thorized officer of a state, which permits a it is altoat to be relaxed iu favor of t'^gi'"*' via-
person or persons therein named to pass or itors to that country.
travel either generally, or through a country FABTA, Gidditta, an Italian singer of Jew-
named, or on certun routes, by luid or water, iah ori^n. bom at Saronno, near Milan, in 1798.
Passports most have been need by all civilized She received her first musical education from
governments to some extent and in some form ; Bartolommeo Leotti, chapelmaster in the cathe-
bat in England and in the United States they dral of Como. At the age of 15 ahe was ad-
have not been used within those countries, mitted to the musical cODservatoi7 of Uilan,
though their governments give them to those where she was by no means a distinguished
of their citizenB who purpose to travel abroad, scholar, and in 1816 began her pablio osreer at
Each of the United Btatea will give its passport the minor theatres in Leghorn, Parma, and
to any of its citizens, and so will the govem- Bresoia. The next year, appearing at the Ital-
ment of the United States. The U. S. secratary iena in Faris, she failed to attract notice ; abe
of state is charged with the duty of issuing waa equally unsuocesafol in London, and decided
paasporta, and authorizing and regulating thur npon returning to her native country to stody
issue bydiplomatio or consular agents. Any further her profesnon. Thisshedid inoamcBt;
one who iasnes a passport without authority, and when, m 1819 and 18S0, ehe app^ed in.
or who has authority and issues a passport to Venice and Uilan, she was greet«d with ap-
one not a oitizen, is liable to punishment by pl^sa. Ketuming to Paria in 16S1, and vising
fine and imprisonment. Passports are also Veiona during the session of the European
given by collectors of ports to all vess^ of the oongreaa in 1822, she was remarkably SQCoess-
United Statea, and if any snch vessel sails with- M. Her triumph in London was scarcely less
out a passport the master is liable to a fine of brilliant, and for several years she continued to
$200. One entitled to a passport may address sing alternately in Paria and London. In 1827,
a request to the office of tiie secretary of state, some busineasdiffioulty having occurred between
at Washingtou, and will be furnished with di- her and BossinL then director of the Italian
reotions how to transmit the necessary stat&- opera in Paris, she left France and accepted an
meats and evidence; or he may, generally, engv^ement at Niqtles, where Pacini composed
learn all that is necessary fr^m a collector of a for her his opera of Jfiobt. Her dramatic
port, or from a pnblio notary. Every passport powers however did not please the J^eapolitan^
states the name, age, residence, and occnpatdon though they were afterward fully utpreciated
of the holder, with a description of his person at Bologna, Uilan, Trieste, and v erons. It
and appearance, which is intended to afford was at Uilan that Bellini wrote for her Za mm-
Uie means of identi^ring him. It is supposed nambtUa and Ifovma. Pasta won her last tri-
to assure the holder of the snpport of his own umphs at Vienna in 1832. Her voice, which
government, and asks for him and entitles hii" bad always beenmoreremarkabtefor energetic
to the protection of all governments or natioua than melodious qualities, was now impaired;
St peace with his own. — The rules and usages, and her last engagement on the Italian stage in
iu Europe, in ret^iect to peraonal passports, Paris, in 1888 and 1884, was not on the whole
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PASTEL PATAGONU 2T
Buoaowftil, thoD^ flhe vaa mndh admii«d in called pampas, wMob rise in twrBoes from th«
BdHni's Jmm Sohivi, Bosdiii'a Otello, and Zin- ooean to the foot of the Andes, where the bat
gardlL's Soma) & CHiMOta. In 18S6 aha re* attaina a height of about 8,000 feet above tho
tiled to bar villa <m the banks of the lake of level of the sea. The chief rivers in this traot
Oomo, ooearionallj'pasmngBonietime at Oenoa have their aonroe in the Andoe, and generally
■ad IGlan, where ahe took pleasure in ioBtmot- ran in a B. S. direction to the Atlsntio. "
J pnpils, among whom vras Teresa Farodi. of them are deep and rapid, and have oonraea
iier last engagement, bj which she made $40,- of considerable length, bnt oolj' a few of the
000, waa mh the open In St. Peterabni^ in more northern have any effect in fertilimg the
■'®*^' .^ 1"^ "P**" ^^^ banks. The plains are droaiy
PASTEL (Lat. patUUiui), a colored crajon and aterile, and strewn with hii^ bowldera.
formed b7 the mlxtnrei^auor with a oblorless In the S.Uiereia agreat depo«t of tertiaij
base. It is reduced hj an apfdioatkai <^ gmn atrata, covered vrith a thick stratum of a white
water to the Mmrirftence of a paste (whence pmnaceons substance containing a tenth part
the name), whidi is cut into diort stioks, and of marine inAiaoria, which extends for several
wheo. dxj is reodf Ibr use. Pastel painting is hundred miles along the coast. This is oover-
exeoirted iq>on a paper maan&ctared for the ed witta a bed of Single 70O m. long, 900 m.
pnrpoae, Ute woolty sm^iae of which ansta in broad, ai^ 60 feet thick. !nie pebbles forming
blending and letaming the tints. Sometimes ttiis bed areohi<^ponih7r7,and have beocane
TeUnin with the snrftoe brooght to a aap bj detached from die rocks of the Andes and wa-
&i^ion is em|)lo7ed. The artist nsoaUj rabe ter-wom sinoe the depodtion of the tertiarj
In the tints wiUi his finger, althongb for the sbvta. Fresh water is ezoeedinglj' scarce, but
finer kinds of work he also uses the stump or there are nomeroua salt water ponda. To the
fba point of the crayon. The art originated Ea K. of lat, 46° S. the conntrj is not so oomplete-
GenDsnr, bat has been cultivated with most If bairen aa the 8. portion ; it becomes more
BDceeSB in France \>j Grenze, Nattier, Girodet, Tudolating, and here and there are found good
and others. . pastnres and some trees. The climate ie ex-
PASTILLE. See PKBrnu. ceedinglf cold in winter and hot In sanuQer,
PATAGONIA, an extensive r^lon <tf Bontb and is remarkable for its dryness, no rain foil-
America, oeoupying the 8. eztrunitj of the con- iaa for altoiit t of tbe rear. — W. Patagonia is
tinant, bonnded N. by the Aiveotine confodet^ i^oHymonnt^nons, and in everrresMot forma
ation, from which it is divided by the Bio a strong contrast to tbeK region. Themomi-
Negro, E. by the Atlantic ocean, S. by the tains are barren and ragged near tiie coast, but
abait of Magdian, which separates it from the E. sides are well wooded. Opposite the
Terra dd Fi^o, and W. by the Pacific as tax island of Ohiloe there are two active volcanow.
as lot 4S° &, and thence for about 100 m. by Heavyraina fill almost Incessantly, accompanied
Ohill, the <%lIiaQ Andee fortmng the boundary by storms of wind, and there is so much bad
line. It extends frtxn lat. S8° 80' to G8° B., and weather that this portion of the country is near-
from long. 63° 06' to 16° 40' W.; extreme ly uninhabitable. Tbeforestsof the W. contain
kmgtii 1,080 m., breadth 420 m. ; area, 810,000 several speciea of beech and large ferns ; and
. — ,_ eettanated at 130,000. llie conn- the vegetation of the N. part of £. Patagonia,
. bended vithin these limits la little near the Bio N^o, is the same as that of the
known, and at present of bat little importance. Argentine repubuo. Where there ie vegetation,
[. m.; pop.
y eomprelu
The whole of the coast has been examined by particnlarly in the N. and W., differeat kinds
di^rrat navigators. There are several bays of animals are found. I«rge herds of gaanaoos,
upon tiie Atlantic side, bnt they are not of wild cattie, the puma, the woU; the fox, the
mm^ nee to luve vanels. On the N. part of opoasum, the cavy, and the armadillo are nut
theooast the tides rise about SO Eeet, increasing with. Fish and sea animals are abundant os
to SO feet toward the 8. The Pacific coast u the coasts ; and sea fowl are exceedingly nn-
frmited by & idtain of large islands which ex- merona. The condor, hawk, a spedes of ibis,
tend from the W. extremity of ^e strut of and the Sooth American ostncb are the printd-
MMellan to laL 42° S. The chief of these Isl- pal land birds.— The Patagonians are a tall
anda are Ohiloe, Qie Obonoe archipelago, Wel< race, but by no means so laiva as they were
lii^^ton, Qoeen Adelaide's archipelago, and Dee- described by early travellers. Thur bodies are
oMioa iaJacd. They are all rooky and high, bulky, but their limbs are not large in propor-
lUag abruptiy from the ^orea. The coasts tion. Mr. Bourne, mate of an Amerioaa veaeel,
next the I^cdfic are bare, being subject to fre- who was in captivity among them in ie4B-'50,
quent storms j bat on the opposite Nde they describes them as about O^feet in height, while
are wooded, and in some places the timber is some few are still higher. Their shoulders are
oflargesiEe. Tbe senoral aspect (tf the Pscido broad, and their ohests well devdoped, their
coast is rugged ana mountainous, broken by heads and fbatores lam, bnt their hands and
inlets and Mys, and bordered by rooks and fbet oompar^vely sm^ lliey are natural^
Iveakera. — Patagonia comprises two re^ons indoleat, but when snfficieatiy aroused e^iMt
separated by the Andes, and entirely differeat great strength. Their color la a reddish brown,
both in climate and snrnoe. E.Fatagoida con- and their hair black, coarse, and lank. They
8istaofs8aooea)ionofahingly,horiaontal plains, have large months with thick lips, but good
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
38 PATAPSOO PATENTS
teeth. Th«7 color their fiioea and bodies widi onl right, bat oji\j upon the statate ot 17tt
wMte, blae, or red pdnt. The hidr, Hed above and those nrhldh have been made anbeeqnentl;^
their temples with a fillet of twisted sinews, is in amendment or alteration of that, the latest
the onlj oovering for the head; and they wear of which vaa approTedHarah2, 1861. Indeed,
a large mantle, made of Bkins sewed together, there seems to be now no recognition broonrta
hangmslooselyfrom their ahonlderstotlieir an- of any abstract right in an inventor to theez-
Uee, whioh adds greatly to tlieir apparently^- olnsire nse of his own invention. The theory
gantio rize. For their feetthey make boote out of tbe patent law is rather that of oontraot;
of the bUhb of horses' hind legs. The etatore, the inventor bargains with the public that he
dieiB, and sppearanoe of the women so maoh wilt tell them how to do some new woi^ or
ree^nble those of the men, that were it not far some old work in a new way, which shall b«
lliehair, which they plut in two tails, it wonld oseM to them; and they bsxgain with him
be difflmt ft^ a stranger to distdngniah them, that whoever makes use of it for a certain time
They are generally good-natnred, bnt when shall pay him therefor. The purpose of tbe
ezched are pasrionate and reckless. They ap- patent law is to encourage invention fbr the
pear to possess nothing like towns, and to lead pablio good, by the stimnlna of the large re-
a wandering and unsettled life. Their hnts are wards whioh a monopoly of any nsefbl instrti-
formed of a few stioka covered with the skins ment must yield. As ^ onr patent laws rest
of animals. Their arms consist of a long lance, upon ezpreas statate law, it might seem as if
a bow and arrows, a knife if it can be pro- no consideration of its theory, pnrpose, or foon-
onred, and balls made fast to the ends of a long datiou oonld affect the rights or obligations or
leather thong, which they throw with a rotary remedies of any persona. It may however be
motion and nse for entangling the legs of ani- very important aa hearing npon the qnestton
male. They are all expert horsemen. There of oonatmctlon. Patent cases abomid with
are several distinct nations In different parts qneetions, sometimes of very great importance,
of the oonntry, and those who inhabit the W. which maybededded dtherway inoonfomd^
ooBstareof mnch lower etatore than the others, with nnqneationable iirinclplea and argmnentB
Their chief BQbBist«nce consists of the flesh of of great weight ; ana those will seem to be
horses, gnaaaoos, and sooh other animalB as the better prmciples or the sb^ngerargnmeata
they can cwtore. They are filthy in their which ooncnr with the prasomption adopted,
habits, exceedingly vain, and great liars. — Mo- either that a patentee is a monopolist, who
Mlhaene is generally supposed to have been owes all his rights to eioeptiotial law, and
tiie orighiBl cusooverer of the 6. coast of Pata- mast be tealooaly watched, or as a public bene-
gonia. Othernavigators, whose namesdeeerve &ctor, who is to be kindly and tenderly treated,
to be mentioned ae connected with tbe dlscov- Formerly, in England, the first of these snppo-
eriea upon its coasts and in the seas ai^joining, dtioas seemed to be geuer^y made, and a
are Drake, Le Moire, Davies, Cavendish, Haw- patentee was treated with extreme severi^ ;
kins, Oook, Barmiento, Narboron^, Oordovo, now, he is there treated more Uberally- Inthe
Byron, Willis, Carteret, Bougainville, Wedddl, United States, abo, whatever may have be«i
!^ng, Stokes, and Fitcroy. Many attempta the language of the oonrte in some cases, a
have been mode to form aettlemente upon the patent was seldom pennitted to stand, if any
coasts and on the neighboring islands, but until mgenuity conld detect a flaw. Li conseqnenee
lately none of them met with any nicoeea. The of the severity of some of the rules of the
government of Chili claim the W. part of Pata- courts, various statatory provisions were made,
gonia, and the Ai^entine repnblio the £. fdde. as for disclaimer, surrender and renewal, pre-
The Chilenos have lately formed a few small vious nse, Aw., of all whioh we shall speak
eatabliahments, eztendiuK aa for aa the £. en* presently. Kow, however, we would observe,
tranceofthestndtaof Magellan, and are mak- that while the oonrts generally adopt a oonrae
iug efforts to explore the interior. far more tiivorable than formerly to the patea-
PATAFSOO, a river which rises in Oarroll tee, Oien scarcely seems as yet a uniTersid
00^ Md., flows southward and then sonth-east- recognition of what should undoubtedly be re-
erly between Baltimore and Anne Arnndel garded as the true principle, namely, that both
counties, aai passbg Baltimore opens into a parties should be treated rationally and justly
brood eetnary which enters Chesapeake bay 14 and impartially. — In no other country are In-
m. below the dty. Its total length is about 80 ventions and patents fbr inventions so nomer-
m,, and It aSbr^ valuable water power. It is ous aa In this; and our stotntee provide liber-
navigoble for la^^ vessels to Baltimore. ally and wisely fbr all those things which
PATENTS, LA.W of. Nothing like the law may tend to give euconraRement and aseiBt^
of patents was known to the ancients, or is anoe to nseM inventors. The patent office !s a
__ w known out of Europe and America. Even branch of the interior department; It haa a
there it is comparative^ reoent. In England commisaouer with a large st^ and three ex-
it is but little more than two centuries old. In aminers in chief, all w^ paid, among whom
Fruwe, the earliest law in favor of new inven- the duties of the office ore skUfUly divided,
tions was passed in 1T90 ; and in the United A library of such works of science or art
States the system of patent law rests, not on aa misht be useftil, is kept in the office ; and
common lav, or usage or any reference to n^ there li a ooreflil and well devised arnnge-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FATENTB SB
m«>t ot all the module gathered Bfaiee the de- adopt » nilewMdh is mrtainl^ reasonable, aoA
stmotaoiL of the former patent bnildins on applioable witfaoat much diffionltf , tie. : that
Deo. 16, 18S6. To Beonre the fanparta^^ m patent ahall not be defeated becaiiM the
of the penona employed in the office, they are thuig was prerlooslj invented, nnleaa the pre-
all pronibitBd from having or reoelTing 8117 in- TiooB inventor had done enongli to entitle him-
tareatinanj'pflteutvhateTer, other thaa what aelf to a patent; and this -would imply that he
raay some to utein by inheritance. L Who may had reduced the bveation bo distinctly into
hateUttan pataUt The statnte i^v : "Any form, that a mechanic of reasonable skill mi^t,
dtiieu or oibMns^alien or aliens having redded fhnn his description and without flirther inven-
one year in the united Statea, and taken the (ion, make the thing patented. Again, it is no
oath ofliiB or Uieir intention to become aintizen defeasance of a pat^t, that some one, claiming
or citizena." They mnst be the InvenCorB or to be a previoos inventor, had commniuoateS
diaeoTsran of the thing, and not merely intro- to the patentee BnggestionB or plans whicdi were
dnoera of it into this ooontry. If the applioant in fitot the essential features of the thing patent-
foT an American patent has already, as the in- ed, and abont whioh the rest had grown, pro-
ventor thereof a ^tent for the same thing in a vided the patentee invented and first ap^ed
foreign coualrj, lus patentwhrai taken oathere those needed aooessories and first oonstraDted
wille^tieasBoonasitwonldifthedateofthe tbe irhcde thing. It is of no consequence
Amariean patent were the same as that of the whettier the thing was disoovered by aoddent,
previons fbrtngn patrat ; in other words, it la and at once, or was the result of long, carefhl,
taken out for 11 years ftom the dat« of the fbr- and asaidnonB labor. Kor is it of moment
eign patonL Nor can a patent issue in this whether the patentee discovered the whole
oonnbyfbr an artiole patented abroad, if that thing and all its parte himself; for if some parte
article has been introduced into common and are old and well known, and others suggested
public use herepreviouB to the appliealdonforthe by different individuals, until perhaps there Is no
patent It may be remarked, that it is a very one element newly discovered, yet if the whole,
ocnmnon thins for an American inventor to take in its present form, oonstruotion, and action,
out a patent In foreign ooontries, particniariy is new, and is the invention of the patentee,
in England and France. If the inventor u that is quite snffldent. The patent would not
dead, the patent may isme to his legal repre- be given, or if given it would be void, if the
sentativee ; if he has assigned it, itmayissne to wiulcant, before his fq>plloation, has himself
his aarigneea ; bnt none are his aadfftoea but abandrated the thinA to the pubho, which will
they who reodvfl the whole of his interest. If bepreeomedif "it has beeoi, with his consent
he naavM any part it cannot be issnad Joinfly and allowance, more than two years in public
toMmandhisasdgnees; bnt if he has more than use or on sale." Bnt his own use of the thing
one a«lgnee,it may isene to all the assignees previously will not prevent him from hariag a
ii^tly. XL Wlutt may he the tiMaet i^patmtt valid pat^it. The statute says that Oie thing
D the language of the statate, '' any new and must not be preriond}^ "known or used by
naeAtl art, maohine, mano&cture, or oompon- others ;" but ft is held that this plnral word
tion of matter, or anv new and uaefiil improve- haa also a singular meaning, and if it was
mMitonanyart,madiine,mann&cture,orcom- known or used oy one other, the patent ia in-
position of matter." ThN« is scarcely a word valid. 9, In regard to the word "useful," it is
in this daseifotion that has not been oritidzed perhqw enong^ to say, that any degree <rf ntil-
and disoDssed ag^n and again. 1. It must be Ity is aoffldent to satisfy the etatnte; and we
oew. ^resomedlsHnotion qtpearstobemade soppoie that Tenr few patents are wilhhdd
m regard to a previous knowledge when the menly becansa <s the inntillly of the thing to
thing ia fordgn and when it is domeatJo. H be patented, If there be no other objeooon.
what Isdaimedas new was distjiuitly known S. It haa been questioned what the word "man'
to some person abroad, bnt was never patmited nfiuitore" covers. In England, what ia called
thMevitor po^Q>'i^»oi'^'B'^°o*'7^BBoribedin the statute of moniHKilies (21 James I, oh. 8),
tstj work, it is new oaoiwh to be patented which waa intmded and has operated to pre-
here; bntlfitwaa preriont^distinctly known vent the aneientoppreselTe monopolies, perioits
by any («e at hmne, it is not new in the sense letters pat«it (oikder which monopoUes had
of the patent law, althom^ he who knew It fbtmerly been granted) still to issne for the
m^ nerei have published it in any w^. It "workuWOrmakinRof any newmanuiaotures
mnstberameinbered,however,aaaveryinQ)or- witUn this realm." It is nnder this statnte
tant tide, that a mere previons coqjectoie, nip- that all letters patent are now issued in Eng-
posithn, or oonoqitkiniB not enough to prevent land; and to enable them to cover all gnitable
ordefoatapatent. It must have been deiSnitely oases, the wmd mann&otnree ia oonstrued to
known end reduoed to form, or dirtlnotlymBnt mean everything in themakinf or preparinc
fested in someway. Here thinking about It^ of whidimanmakeaany usaof nis hand,thtf
or talkiiv aboirt it, is not enough to prevent a is. of phydcal power, in any way whatever,
■nbeeqaent inventor fh>m getting ont a patent The meaning of the word by our adjudication
The qoestion is: Was it previonsly deacribed Isnot quite bo broad, because onr statnte con-
in wrWnir wHh drawings or models if they tains other words. There Is indeed scaroely
f niere u some disposilim to any tUng which man can do, or invent, which
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
will not ocnue Tinder ■ome of these v^nds; bnt lispe be oaOed imitatm bnt who tatttinlj
it IB eometimeB iKoeeeaij to determine to wMoIi would nevet hftve done what tber ^d,.luid not
olass Uie thing patented belongs. 4. A "ma- the tsj been op«ied &nd indicated b^ the ear-
ohine" mnrt not be a mere fimctdon, or effect lier discoTerr. The diffeienoe between the old
or operation, bnt it mnat tie a ftinotion clothed and the new ma^ to all appearanoe be \wy
and embodied in meohaniam intended for and slight, and Tet be of ereat nnportance. Thu
operative of a oerbdn effeot. If tblB effect is may be well illuBtratea hj the process of wa-
new, the medumiam which prodnoos it may be tor- proofing cloths, as it was called. Many
old or new. That is, the mTentor may have years ago some one found tliat cloths im-
a patent for new meohimism by which ho pro- meraed in a solution of bo^ and alnm were
daoes A new effect, or for mechanism no part made water-proof. Then a man took ont s
of which is new, if the whole machine, as he patent for inunersing cloths first in a solation
constmots it, prodnces an effect nnknown be- of alnm (with an ingredient or two added},
fore. It is to be rotnembered, however, that and afterward in a solntitni of soap; and this
the mere using of an old machine to do a thing patent was sustained, beoaase it wsa proved
which it had not been used for beibre, bat like that the immeraion into the separate solntaoziB
what it had been used for, ia not the proper ancoeesivelr made the cloth moch mora com-
sabject of a patent. Tfans, to use an illnstra- pletely and permanently water-prooC 9. An-
tlon of this role given in one case, a man may other role, of very frequent appEcation, is that
not obserre that a certain mUl grinds com and no toere prinoipla can be the snbjeot <^ a pst-
beans very well, and then take ont a patant for ent; nor can any mere effect; nor can any
it as a ooSbe mill beoanse he was the first that property of matter or mere quality or power
ever thought to put that mill to that nse. Bnt or aotivit; of nature. All this oonstitntee bat
he may have a patent for bis coffee mill, al- one rule; and this might perhaps be ezpressed
thongh every thing in it has been need before, by saying that noUiing In the abstraot can be
and uthongh something like it has been nsed the sulfject of a patent Any of these Ibinga,
for some grinding, if the same thing baa not however. In the concrete, can be patented ; by
been applied to do work of the same nature, this is meant any prindple or properlT whion
In statmg, and in endeavoring to iUuBtratesudi is fixed and embodied m certain met^hanlsm,
a rule as this, we are rendnded of a phrase which then, by means of this ^inei^ or
Judge StOTT need often to apply to the patent power, produces a certain e&ect. But Uien it
law. He called it " the metaphyBios of the is not so much the [oinupte or power in tbe
law." Many of its distinctions are slight and mechanism which is E«tented, bnt the whole
almost evanescent, and msny of its principles together; nor is the effect alone patented, but
scarcely capable of distinot definition ; and yet tbe effect when produced by these means In
these distinctions and princ^les are of very this way. The reasons of this rule are many,
great practical importance. 0. Thus, where One is the almost inevitable indistinetneas
the patent is not for any new maohuie, bnt which would attach to snch a patent. Another
for "an improvement" in an old machine, is, that were ihe mle otherwise, things might
which is a veryfreqnentsnbject of patents, the be appropriated and monopolised, which are !n
qnastitot, whether n ia a lawfid improvement themselves nniveraal and the common property
or a mere infiingementjis sometimes one of of all men. If a mere principle ia discovered,
the utmost diffionlty. We must content our- even if It be of the utmost importance, enob for
selves with saying, that if thla improvement example as the principle of gravitation, this
oondsts in producing an old effect in a new takes its plaoe at once in soienoe. The disoov-
way, the praotioal questions are : 1st. Is the erer cannot be repsid excepting by the homage
effect prodiioed in a way which Is actually and rendered to one who has uud all mankind nn-
■Qbatantially different from the old way t fbr der obligatdon, by givins to them new troth,
otherwise tt is a mere repetition, and may be But either he or any otiber man mxy at once
a mere devioe to avoid the old pat<ait. 2d. If devise and pnt in operation means by which
the same thing be dona in a new w^, ia it done a new soientiflc tmUi or a newly diaoovered
in a better way t ttecanse otherwise it is no im- principle is made to operate some practical
provement Here, as was said of the ntility benefit. Then, as has been s^d, the princijple
of an invention, the improvement need not be haa become a prooess. Then this principle with
very great; and in general, if the thing be this mechaniran as its ingtrmnent, and a eutoin
done really in a new way, a patent will nsoally result as its effect, form one Itdal entity, and
be granted and protected, imlesB it seem to be Oiat is the subject of a patent But this patent
a mere variation or change, of no valiie except- raves no exclusive right to use this print^e or
ing hecante it may invafidate a former patent Uiis property, or to produce this effect Ibere-
Tor scarcely any Uiing was ever Invented, or fore any one who finds out another usefol ap-
perhapfl ever wul be, that doea not susgest at plication of tbe prindple or property, or other
once a mnltitode of poeriUlities for doing the means by which it may produce this same
same kind of thing; and it la tberafbre very e^ot, is also an inventor or discoverer of a
rare for any new discovery of importance, new thing, for which he may have bis patcmt.
whether soientifio or praotiniL not to be fol- Hence srises what may be oonaidered as the
lowed np by a host of those who may sot per- third reason fbr the rnle above stated ; it ia.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PAIXHIB 82
thskbntArtt Hie extent of ajHttent ml^t be epeeliJ form reqnired, but it must state dSstinot-
ttummns and intolerable, "nie omier of ft If, although geaerallr, what he «onmders the
nd^ Hj: "The vhole of that prinoiple or inventioa or d)eoov«i7 for wbidi be aaks a
power ia mine, and tbat efibot la mine howerer patent ; bnt no mere mistake in the application
prodnoed." But as the laer itanda, tbe pria- viQ vitiate tbe patent. 67 a role of the patent
ctple or property ie his only so lar aa he baa office, no patent isanes for more than one m^-
n*t«ied it to hia own maohlner7; and the ohfne,althoaG;h two or more maj be nsed joint-
effect is bia only ao inr as he reaches it through I7; and in t£at case each maat be made the
iastnanentB of his own invention. No man ean aabjeot of a separate patent, although the peti-
motporo ezdndve propOTt? in the electric fluid, tioner may espreH his de^re for both in one
nor ean he in ai^ <me of its propertdes or pow- application ; bnt it wonld be better in all re-
en. Bo no man em become the owner of the speots to treat each machine, from tiie b^^-
nm's light, nor of that aetlnio power by which iiW, as a separate thing, if it be so in &ct.
^etatev are painted or impresBU. Bnthemay With the application he sends to the commis-
devise any way of woridng wifli electridty, doner a spesifioatioii of his clum. There must
and that tray auU be his; and so he may dis- be drawings attached and referred to if these
oovaraiqrin^cHrmakfaigirfotareeorrepreBeu- are necessary to understand the Bpecifioation,
tatioiisbyllght,aiidtiutways]soahBlI eelong and these shoidd be in dnplioate, that one oopy
to the inventor. And then uiy other person may be rettuned in the patent offloe. Also a
isatUbertrtodiBooTersomeotherwayCTaBlng model is required wherever that is the beat
wtherof uwae foroes or qualities of nature. wayofinMtratlngthespeoifioation,8ndawork-
Bnt me tiling ahraya remains ; and that is, ing model is preferable ; but no model shonld
the watohftilneae of Oie lawto ^ard an hcpneet be more than one foot in length or height, on-
pataitee from Invarion of his rights by a mere less by permission of the commissioner, which
eoknable |wetext of a variotioD in the method ia never given but for apeclal reasoua. By the
diaoovared by him of nnng a oertidn power in 11th section of the reoent statate, lettera patent
aoert^nvay for aoertainend. Nobettermle maybe obtained for any new and ori^al de-
eu be (ortai than that each patent holds all sl^ for a manafactore, or for a bust or baaa-
that bMonga to its sabstanoe ; and any thing relief^ or composition In alto or baseo-rilievo,
is an infringement whloh does not differ from or impreesioD or ornament to he placed on any
it material^ and anbitantially. 7. The last article of menn&ctnre, or any new and nscM
phrase naed in deaJgnating the niliject matters pattern or print or piotare to be fixed on any
of patent, ii ** oompositton of matter." This article of mimn&ctare, or any new and original
will leqmre taut little diaonssion. It is nsnally shape or oonflgoration of any article of mann-
^[^lied to medidnea, and less frequently to faotnre. Tbe exact force and meaning of these
oampodtioiis nsad in the arts, as for example phrases will not be known nntil they are de-
allays tor the bearings of axles. Here it Is termined by adjudication. It may be added,
obvions that the teat question must be, not that tbe same section provides that the patent
^tettier tbe materials are new, bnt whether may issue on any of these things for 8^ years,
tJiaemnbinaikmianew. Hence an ai^tHcant for 7years, or 11 years, as the applicant may
a patent fiv ft new oomposition of matter may choose; the fee in each case being respeo-
Qse varionaittgredienta, and declare that one aa lively flO, tl&i or $80, and to all foreigners
vdl as the omer will answer Us parpoee, pro- $800. Money should be deposited with some
Tided that the eomblnatioiL whatever be used, aaaistant treasurer, and his certificate taken
has in it the efement 4rf unity, ao for that It is in duplicate, one oopy to be sent on; or the
one in its pnnfoae and ita effeet. 8. By a more money may be sent through the mul. Theap-
reoBDt aet (ISti) another class of ol^eots may plications received are exambed in the order
be tlie sabjeot of a patent, viz. : destgns for m which they come, nnleaa some one is taken
mann&etorea of any kind. Some of these np ont of its turn for special reasons. If the
mi^t seem to be more properly within the oloim be allowed, a patent will issue and be
scope of the law of oopynght. Bnt for any sent acoordbg to the direction of the pat-
dodgn, or pattern, or drawing, or print, or entee. If it be r^ected, the daimaute will
ptetare, whfeh is intended not to have vahie always he fomiahed by tbe oommlasioner with
bf ttseJC bnt to he used in the mannfaotnre liie reasons for rejection, and with such refer-
(^aanuuingelae^or to be fiwtened in any way enoes to former patents, or other similar means
to mne orttele of mamiihctare, and be sold of information, as will enable the daimaut to
wtth it, 1i» hiventor may have letters patent, jndge of the sufficiency of the groands of re-
m. mts Ltttgn FMmt may 6a obtafMi. 1. jeotion and of the probability of a soooesafiil
The fint st^ is an Mtplloatlon. This most be appeal S. It sometimes happens that two or
in writing, addressed to the oommiBsioneT of more persons claim each to be the first invait>
patsQts, ioA a^ned by the orighial inventor, or of the same thing. Then tbe commisdoner
Xven if he baive assigned the invention, and declares a case of " iDterferenoe" to exist, and
the patod is to be nude out in the name of after due notice to the parties, they are heard
the assignee, the application must be signed by in support of their several claims. This may
the inrentor. If he be deed, it moat be signed huipen althongh one of the oltdmonta baa re-
bjr his exeontor or administrator. There is no oeived a patent at some Msaa before ; for tlie
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
82 FAraHTS
oommiaaioner, if he comes to the oonolnrfoa apeoifliMtioii, and needs time fivexperlBiaiding,
that the seoond claimant has a better right, or or otlkerpiirposeB. Henutrfileaoawa^wbioit
an equal ri^t, will give him also apftteut, and will be plac«d in the eeoretarohivee of uie pat-
leave the two to determine bf legal meas- ent ofBce; and if then be any ' q>plicaticai
Dies whioh is valid. 8. In all the qneetiona within a jear for any thing which appears to
which thaa come before the oommiaaioner, interfere with bis daim, be shall have notice
or the examinera, on tbe qnestion of grant- and may appear and prove prioritj ; and b j
ing a patent, or before an; comt anbseqnently pa}dng a eeoond caveat fee (f 20), he may re-
in a suit for in&ingement of tlie patent, the new it for another year, and soon enooeanvdy.
^eoification is of the ntmoet importance. It is to be notdoed, however, that a caveat oan-
Upon its clearness, its aocnracy, ite exactness not be filed hy an alien, anises he has redded
in defining its claim and in olMming what in the United States one year, and has made
ahonld be claimed and nothing more, a very oath of his intention to beo«Hne a citizen, acy
large proportion of the cases tried depend, cording to law. Even where caveats are not
'Hie pointa to be observed are those indicated taken oot, all pending applications are regard-
in the 6th seoUon of thestatnte of ISSQ. They ed as so for confldenual, that, nntil after a pot-
are in snbstance : 1st, that the description ent is issued, no information will be given to
shall be so foil, clear, and exact, vrithont any one bnt the claimant respecling the eziat-
prolizitf, as to enable any person skilled in the enco of any application, or any qnestions whidb
art or sdence to which the thing belongs or ma^ have arisen in rel^on to it 6. To guard
with wbidi it is connected, to make and use agEUnst deceptkin of the pnblio as to what ia-
the same ; 2d, that the principle shall be fully ventions are protected by potent, any person
eiploined, " and the sevU'Bl modes in whitik who shall, in any way whatever, pnt any word
he has contemplated the wplicatiou of that or remark upon a thing not patented wUeh
principle or character bj which it may be dia- shall indicate that it is the enbjeot of a pat-
tingnished firom other inventions;" and Sd, he ent, or put upon it the name of any patentee
most spociiy and point ont the ^arL the im- withont his consent, or, if it be ^wtented, fiiil
prorement, or the combination which he claims to etamp or engrave on the article the Caot
as his own. This last reqaireiiLeat is so im- and dat« of the patent, is liable to a heavypen-
portant, that it has given the name of " spetdfl- alty. 6. The terms of patents for dedgus m^
cation" to the whole description. All this may be extended for 7 years from ihear expiration.
seem, to those who liave not tried it, very Formerly the terms of all patents might be ez-
easT; bnt nothing is more difficult. Uistakee tended under certain reetaiotions, and thenja
of importance are not nnfreqnently made by and provimona on this snl^eot were minnte and
those who are trained to this work, and who complicated. It waa thonght, however, that
make it their special busineaa ; and it can very they did not snfElce to prevent mischief trota
seldom, if ever, be safe for any cUimant to improper extensions, or from favoritim or
draw his own specification, nnleaa he has large mist^e in discriminating between iqipUoanIs
experience in work of this kind. Mistakes are for ezt«nBion. and by the patent law of Uart^
not BO fatal now as they were formerly, be- 1861, the whole law of extension, with tJie
cause recent legislation has interposed, wisely above named exoeption, was abolished as to
as well as kindly, to assist the pstentee. If a patents thereafter granted; but the proviacma
patent b void by reason of a defective spe<Hfl- of the preceding law as to extension would
cation, or becanse the patentee claimed as his seem to remain in force as to all patenta pro-
own mventian more tnan he had a right to vionsly granted. IV. Sightt and £emedia ^
daim as new, be may surrender his patent to PatmUtt. So long as the patent remaiua in
the commisaioner, and file with liim a new and fbrce, it ^ves to the patentee an ^clndve ri^t
corrected Bpeoificotion, and the commismoner to "m^e, use, and sell" the thing patented,
may therenpon isane to him a new patent. Or, Whoever infringes on tliis right Is liable in
by a still later provision, the patentee may damagea, and the infringement m^ he stopped
make a disclumer in writuig of sach parts of by iqjnnction. "We will consider first wlutt
tbe thing patented as be sliall not wish to is an infringement of a patent, and then what
ol^m ; and this disclaimer, being dn^ received are the remedies £<x an mflingament. 1. "Om
and recorded, shall have the same effect as if it statute contains no deflnition; bnt It haa been
had been origmaUy a part of snch spocifica- well sud, that aa infringement exiata when
tion. Even without anoh surrender or dis- a copy is made igreeingirith the prindple and
daimer, a patent may still be sastained by the action laid down in the apedfioation. Infiinge-
conrt, &r any material and dJetingaishable ments therefore maj be of as many kinda as
part for whioh the daun was valid, althoogh patents are. Feriiqw it is impossible to give
there are other parta of the dum to which t£e rulea and deflnitiona which ehall meet all this
patentee is not entitled ; bnt he tun recover no variety of cases and be of mnoh nse in deter-
costa for the infringement of snch a patent mining the qneetioa of infringemanL It is
withont surrender or disclaimer. 4. There is certain, however, that a patentee is seldom
a very wise provision to meet the frequent case permitted to call that an mlringem«nt which
where an inventor wishes to secure nis right, imitates nothing that is direotly and explidtly
bnt is not ready to present a Ml and complete stated in the spedfioation. Forif thepatudee
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PATENTS 88
did Dot know this or h^n H in hia mind, ho local rif^ta nnder ft pat«nt. Thus, ft man bfts
oannot claim it as hIa; and if iie knew it and a ri^t for the ooontf of Hamilton to make
did not state it, whether through nef^igenc« or and sell oertain patent bedsteads; another man
design, ho has f^ed to laj the foundation of has a similaT right for the a^J^'^K county of
his oxeliifli*e right, becsose he has not placed on Dearborn. The first man soils a large quantit j
record a ftill, dear, and exptioit description to a pnrohaser, who ttiteB them into Deartwm
of hia invention. Perhaps the difdoalty at- and ondersells the person having the ri^t for
tandins this law of infringetnent, and the prin- that oonnt?. It seems now to be determined
dptaa inroked to dispose of it, ma^ be wiell that this is not,an infringement or nnlawAil in-
illnstrated b^referenoe to areoent English case terference ; and the supreme conrt of the United
which has gone through the oonrts there and States have gone even further than this, and
been the snbjeot of mnoh disonadon. One have decided that an/ one who has an ezcln-
Heath invented and patented au important im- eive ri^ht to a patented machine within a cer*
proveaieat tn making steel Thia inventioa t^ district, cannot use that machine ont of
ctHuiated in putting into a orndble with pieces Utat district, but that he ma; sell an jwhera
at iron oarhnret of manganese, and ezpodng the prodnctemade under the patent within that
the mistare to intense heat But carburet of distinct. 4. Interesting questions have arisen
minganeae is a verj expensive ohemioal prod- as to the right of rraair. If one biiTS a pat-
net; and one Unwin discovered that b; pnt- ented machme, and it wears ont, ha oannot
ting into the cmoible with the iron orida of make another under pret^ioe of repairing that
manganeae and coal tar, the intense heat to which he bought ; but he may prolong its ex*
wliioh tbej were ezpoaed mode a carburet of istence and ntifity by mere repair as long as he
manganeae in the cmoible, which then operated can. If he repurs this part to-day, and that
on ^e iron in the same wsj as if thu com- to-morrow, ana in ever; repair makes some
pound had been pnt there at the be^nning; and renewal, tmtdl at lost no part of the original
as oxide of manganese and coal tar are vwy machine is left, wa donbt whether the law
cheq>, Unwin's war was likely to supersede wotdd interfere, if each repair hod been made
Healli'a, who bronght an action for damagea. at the time in good fiuth, aa repair and not as
The ease waa tried befbre Mr. Justice Oress- renewal 6. It remains to treat only of the
well, who mled that there was no infringement remedy in case of infringement The statute
It waa than argued btfore 6 Jndges in the ei- ofI8&6providesthatdamuesmaybe recovered
chequer <ihamber,S of whom agreed with Orees- by "an action on the case;" which ri^ht would
weli, vid the other 4 hdd that there was an exist equally at common law. But this remedy
infiing«nent The case was then taken to the would often be wholly inadequate, were it not
house of lords, and the Jndgea of England were for the further and more effectual remedy pro-
roqnested to give their o[^on to the lords ; vided bv the principle of eqmtable Jurisprc-
and after org^nent, 7 judges gave their opinion deno^ that wherever a legal right eiiata, and
that there was on infringement, and 4 jndgea this right is invaded or violated, and Uie dam*
gave tiieirs that there was no infringement. At ages recoverable are an ins&fficient remedy,
Mogtii tlie qaeetion was finally deoidad by the conrta of equity will grant an injunction against
Iorais,tluiittherewasnoiiiJringement; thuBover- the offender and so prevent a repetition of the
rulmg the tn^ritiee of two asBemblagea of the ofitoioe. But this great remedy will not be
Jn^ea of En^and. The prindpal reason for granted nnless the court can see that it ia ne-
hol£iig that there was an infilngement was, ceesory to prevent farther violation of right
that the thing potttotedwaa improving steel by and vexations and inanffident litigation. And
mi^ng carbni^ of manganese in the cmoible if this injonotiou or prohibition agdnst a repe-
with U, and it was wholly immaterial whether tilioQ of the offence be diare^arded, the offender
thia oomponnd was made ont of or in the cm- will be punished by imprisonment, or such
cUtle ; while the prinoijttl reason for holding other p^al^ aa will, in the Judgment of the
that tiiere was no infhngement was, that the court, compel obedience. Generally, an is-
thing pat«ited wss the putting a certain com- Junction wul not be granted until the plaintiff's
pound into the cmdble with iron, and thereby rights and the defiuidant's wrong doing have
producing the effect, whereas Unw^n put been established in an action at law. But when
wbcdly ufibrent materials into the crucible, the infringement ie certain, a court of eqnity
ihd thui, by means of a double eleotrio affiu- will proceed at onoe ; and not unfrequently, on
itf and rhamif-al action, they produced their petition of the patentee, they direct a trial at
effect B. Aa to infringement by the sole of law, and order the defendant to keep on exact
the thing patented, it must be a sale of the account of all that he makes or sells in sup-
whole tUng, and not of the different parts or posed Inftingement of the patent to be ren-
msfawials out of which it may be made. Yet dered if the trial resolta in establishing the
no ensitm of a patent right would be permit- infringement — The commisamier of patents
ted, merely by selliug a part at one lime, and makes a yearly report to the secretary of die
to <Hi« person, uid other ports to others, with interior, which, with its accompanying doou-
Um intent that theyshoold be put tf^ther and ments, is published at government ezpenee;
ID make the whole machine. 8. A curious these oonstitate in some degree the records of
foestion hoe arisen as to tiie Interference of the office. The whole nomber of patents grant-
VOL. xni.-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
84 PATEBOtlLnS PATEB60N
«d by the T7. S. gonenuneiit up to Maroh 18, plored an average of 720 hands at an expenaa
I8dl, vas 81,670. In the jesra from 1840 to of $24,000 a month, and tamed out, bemde m
1B4B the average of applications for patenta large qiiantitr of cotton and other mschinerj,
wasl,000; the average of patents granted waa 60 looomotiTea ; total production, |76S,00O.
660. For the siicceedisg 7 years the average The estBhlishment of Danforth, Oooke, and co_
of E^phoations was 8,800, and the average of coital $800,000, employed 640 handa and pro-
patents granted was 1,760. In 1668 the nnmber dnced to the value of $688,000, inclnding 8S
of patents granted was 8,710 ; in 16S9, 4,888 ; locomotives. There are 7 other machine ^opa
and in 1860, 4,819. Daring B jears of its ad- of some extent, with an a^regate c^iul of
ministration the ^penditoree of the patent $190,000 and an annn&l prodnction of $344,-
ofBoe have been greater than the receipts; bnt 613, and a mannfaotory of stationary Bt«am
at all other times the receipts were consider- en^es, capital $40,000, producing $96,00a
ably in excess of eipenditnrea. There is now The paper mill of H. V. Butler and co. oocn-
(Maroh, 1861) in the treaanry of the patent pies a fine building, and, with a capital fd
office $89,000.— The conunissionerB of patents |SO0,000, mann&ctures to the value of $289,-
in Great Britain have printed in several hnn- 000. Among others are 4 silk mannfactories,
dred 4to. volumes (1868--'S) the specificatlona aggregate capital $168,000, prodacing $846,-
of all the pat«nt« granted in that country np 000 ; 1 Sax and hemp, capital $300,000, pro-
to 1862, amounting to about 18,000, withlitho- dnoing $140,000; a printjng, dyeing, and bleoch-
grwhed plates in separate folio volumes. ing ostabiishment, capital $200,000, producing
FATEBOULUS, Oi.irBYxu.KmB, a RoniaQ |180,000; and a wick and twine factory, coital
historian, bomaboutl9 B. 0. Hewasdescend- $40,000, producing $7G,600. Beeide the conn-
ed from on ancient Oantpanian family. Eisfa- if offices, there are an academy, a bank, S
ther was prefect of cavalry, ahd the son, early newspaper offices, a mechanics' and a pbiloeo-
entering military life, attended 0. Ctesor, the phicalHOtuety, and 16 churches, viz. : aButiBt,
grandson of Angnstna, in his eastern ezpedi- 1 colored Congregational, 1 Episcopal, 1 Inde-
tionin A. D. 2, and subsequently served under pendent, ^HeuiodiHt, 9Freshytetian,8ItefiHin-
Tiberius in Germany, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. ed I>utch, and 2 Roman Oauiolio. The town
Li 8 he became qunstor, had a share in the was founded in 1791 by a nann&otnring com-
triumphalprooeadonofthe emperor in 13, and pany with a capital of $1,000,000.
was elected prffitor in 14. He had early gained FATERSON, Willuv, founder of the bank
Uie good will of Tiberius, and of his &vorit« of England, and of the Scottiah colony of Da-
Sejanns, and it has been conjectured that he rien, bom according to tradition in Skifanyre,
vaa executed in 81 with the latter and his Tinwald parish, Bumfriesshire, in the spring of
friends, altboogh nothing certain is known of 1661!, died in Jan. 1719. He was originally
his death. His reputation rests upon his Ro- destined for the Presbyterian ministry, and U
man histo^, which appears to have been writ- said to have been among the Covenanters per-
ten in A. D. 80, and goes under the title of O. secnted by Charles IL To escape from these
Vdlaii Pat«reult HUtoria BomaaUB, ad M. persecudonshewent to London in the capacity
Fintoium Cot, Libri II. The manuscript was of a merchant, and also visited America, where
discovered in the monastery of Uurbach in Al- he acquired &om the buccaneers much infor-
aace by Beatus Rhenanua, who printed it at motion in regard to the Bpauish main, of wbidi
Basel hi 1620. he subsequently made great use in connectim
PATEBSON, the ci^ital of Passaic co., N. J., with the Itarien ei^etUtion. It is a question
on the Paasuc river, near the &lls, and on the whether he was crmiinally conoemea io the
Morris canal and Nev York and EMe railroad, vident courses of these marauders, bnt the
17 ra. N. v. from New York ; pop. in 1860, probabilities are that he was not. In 1692 he
19,618. It is a well bnilt city with paved was a merchant in London, as is evident from
streets, generally wide and straight and lighted a lease authorizing him and two others to con-
with gas, and contains a large number of hand- stractthe Hempstead waterworks. About this
some private residences. The falls supply time he made proposals in r^ard to foundins
power to many &ctories, several of which oo- a bank of England, and a tract entitled " A
onpy extensive stone buildings. There are 8 Brief Account of the intended Bank of Eng-
largecotton mills, having on aggregate capital land," isaupposed to have beenwrittenbyhim.
of $S96,000, and producing annniJly to the He was one of the first directors of the insti-
valne of $762,961, principally cotton yam. totion, but for some cause redgned. He hod
Of these, the Paterson mam^octnring com- long before conceived the project of founding
pany and the Fbcenix manufacturing company " a free commonwealth in DarieD," and after
make large quantitiee of cotton duck, the for- several unsuccessful efforts to have his scheme
mer to the annual value of $116,000. Fater- adopted by England and by other states, it waa
son is specially noted for its eitendve machine finally sanctioned by a Scottish act of par-
shops and steam-engine manufactories, and is liament in 169G conatitnting the Darien corn-
stated \a make at least half the locomotives pany. (See Dabiek, Oolosy of.) After the
constmcted in the United States. The Rogers niluro of the expedition, whioh would proba-
locomotive and machine works have a capital biy have been sucoessfol if his advice had been
of $800,000 ; dnrisg the year 1860 they em- followed, he retomed to En^and and devised
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PAT£UL PATHOS H
a new plan for the colony ; but the unexpected of rienmiing, the prindpal mhiuter of Aagiutaa
death of King William, over irhom he had II., and haTing moreover, during a missioii to
great influence, destroyed all possibility of re- Bnssia, won the favor of Fet«r the Great, he
riving the project. He was an able advocate accepted from the ozar the rank of general and
of the anion of England and Scotland, and the office of Bnsdan ambassador to Dresden,
when the treaty to tiat effect was passed, an This conduct roused the diapleasnre of Aogos-
iudemmty was lecommended to be given him tna IL, who, notwithstanding Patkol's offlotal
on account of the losses he had snfTered in the character and the risk of endangering his
Dorien expedition, and ofhis" carrying on other friendly intercourse with the cstr, cansed lum
matters of a pnblio nature, mnch to his conn- to be arTest«d in I'TOS. When afterward An-
try's service," Bnt it was not till the reign of gnatns, defeated by Ohorles XII., was obliged
George I., and after a long stra^le with the to abdicate his Polish throne, one of the con-
goremment for t^e settlement of his claims, ditions of peace imposed npon him was the
that it was paid. PatereonwaainlTOSamem- surrender of Patknl- Augustus gave secret
ber of parliament for Damfriesshire. The last orders that his prisoner should be Buffered to
years ofhis life were spent in Westminater. escape, but they were not obeyed. ByOharlee'B
He was an early and zealous advocate of the command, Patknl was taken to the convent of
principles of free trade, was a decided oppo- Karimierz and condemned to death by a court
nent of the schemes of John Law, and in all martiaL He was first broken on the wheel,
matters of trade and finance his ideas seem to and then, while still living, carried to the seaf-
have been far beyond the times in which he fold, where he was beheaded. His eorpse was
lived. (See Bannister's " William Paterson, then quartered and put on Mia wheel again.
the Sferchant Statesman, and Founder of the When Augustus II. was replaced on the throne
Bank rf England, his Life and Trials," Edin- of Poland, he cansed the remains of Patknl to
bni^, 1SS8.) Ss works, which are nnmerons. be collected and buried at Warsaw.
have been lately collected under the title of PATMOEE, Oovhttbi, an English poet,
" The Wridngs of William Paterson, with a Bio- bom !n Woodford, Essex, Jnly S8, 1838. He
graphical Introduction" (8 vols.Svo., 1868). is the son of P. Q, Patmore, a man of much
FATKUL, JoHAHy REraHOLD, alivonianno- literary industry in the early part of the 19A
bleman, bom in a prison at Stockholm abont oentuiy, and commenced his career by the
I660,eiecntedatKaz!mierz,nearPoBen,Oct, 10, publication of a volnme of poems which at-
1707. Livonia being then a province of Sweden, tracted little notice. It was snooeeded in 1808
hefirstservedasacaptainintheSvedishamiy. by "Tamerton Oburch Tower and other Po-
In 1689 he was one of a deputation of noble- ems," and in 18SS by his most popular poem,
men sent to Charles SI. to remonstrate against "The Angel In the House," In two parts, the
the encroachments of the royal officers npon first entitled "The Betrothal" and the second
the rights and privileges of Livonia; and al- "The Effpoosals." His last work, "Faithftil
though among the youngest, ho was chosen for Ever" (London, 1860), a sort of pre-Ra-
Epokeaman, and addressed the king with par- phaelite attempt to give a poetic interest to the
ticular energy. Three years later, iu the ca- commonplace incidents of life, has been ee-
padty of a deputy ftom his fellow nobles, he verely criticized by the leading literary period-
remonstrated strongly with the Swedish gov- icalsofQreat Britain, but has met with a warm
emor at Riga, and addressed an elognent letter eulogist in Ur. Rnakin. Ur. Patmore is also a
to the king. Having participated in other pa- contributor to the " Edinburgh Review." Since
triotic manifestations, Patknl, in connection 1843 he has been one of the assistant librarians
with the marshal and members of the Livouian of the British mnsenm.
diet, was summoned to Stockholm. Procuring PATMOS, or as it is now called Fatuo, an
a eafe-oondnct, he obeyed the smnmona, but island of the group called tlie Sporadea In the
soon Jndged it necessary to fiee to Oonrland ; Grecian archipelago, 20 m. S. <^ tne W. extrem-
and a few weeks after his escape he was con- ity of Samos, and abont tlie same distance W.
demaed to be beheaded as a rebel, his property of the coast of Aria Unor. It oonsista of an ir-
was confiscated, and his writings were bamed regular mass of barren rock 38 m. in oiroum-
by the executioner. Being no longer safe in ference, and in the time of the Roman emperors
Conrland, he retired to the canton of Vand, was used as a place of baoishjnent. It was to
Switzerland, where he engaged inscientifiopur- this Island that St. John the apostle was exiled
suits, and afterward visited France. In 1668, by the emperor Domitian, A. D. 95 ; and here,
after tbe accession of Oharles XIL, he sued according to tuuversal tradition, he wrote the
for pardon ; but his petition being r^ected, he Apocalypse, and perhaps his Qospel also. On
entered the service (n Qie elector Angnstus II. the side of ahiH acavem is pointed out bytiie
of Saiony, king of Poland, who appointed him Greek monks, who have a monastery in the vl-
one of his privy council. He participated ao- oinity,aB theexactspot wheretheevangelistre-
tively in the coalition between nis new master, ceived tbe revelation, and through sDmeflssurea
the king of Denmark, and the czar of Russia in the roof he ia said te have heard the " votoa
against Ohailee XH., and at different times en- from heaven like the sound of a trumpet." The
teavored to ronse Livonia against the Swedish monastery, built by Uie Byzantine emperors
rule. Disutiafiedwitii the overbearing manners in the IStn oentury, is under the patronage of
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
as PATKA PATEAS
**8t. ^ohn the DiTine," and inhabited hj aboot at SOO of flielr canatrjiaea wbo vera ennOj
60 monks, sabject to the patriarch of Con- murdered bj the nabob a few montba before
rt&ntinople. On the E. mde of the iBland there his defeat
b a small Tillage and a good porL The island FATOOK. or Fatuoa, a river of Hondnraa,
is Bol^ect to Uie Tnris, bat the inhobitantB, fiilHiig into tne b^ of Honduras, about 110 m.
4,000 in number, are all Greeks. They subast Kof the portof Tnudllo. It rises in the heart
cnieflj b; agricnltnral labor on the mainland of the department of Olanoho, in the vicinity
or the more fertile ialanda, migratiiig for llie of the cit; of Jutdcalpa, and is formed by the
pnrp<»e every Bommer. jnnotion of the rivers Jalan, Tinto, tinayape,
PATNA, a dlfltriot of British India, in the and Ouallambre, all celebrated for their gold
Uentenant-govwrnorshipof Bengal, boonded by TashingB. Through the ooast allDvions, for a
Qio distriots of Banm,Tirhoot, MoDKhyr, ShiT- distance of 60 m., it is a deep and navigable
hahad, and Bahar, extending from lat. 2S° 8' stream ; but above that point it is interrapted
to 25° S8' K*., and long. 64° 4£' to 8Q° 10' K ; by nonieroas ruids, and among them what is
area, 1,828 sq. m. ; pop. 1,200,000. Bedde the called the Portal del Inflemo, a deep and nar-
o^iital, of the same name, the chief towns are row chaam, through which the river rushes
Dmapore, a large military station, and Phatn- with irresistible force. The principal moutJi
ka. The Gauges flows along its N. frontier, of the Patook opens directly into the sea, and
and the river 8one forms the "W. and N. W. is obstructed by a bad and shifljng bar, with
boundary and b navigable for a considora- only from 8 to 10 feet of water. The second
ble distance. There are many smaller streams, mouth of the Patook opens into Bros or Brew-
aud during the rainy season uie provinee is in- er's lagoon, bnt will not admit vessels of mora
terseoted by water courses in every direction, than 6 feet draft. The total lensth of the
It is fertile and highly cultivated. The climate is riveris about IGO m., and it afforda the best
very hot in sonuner. The growth of the white means of communication with the large and
poppy, from which opium ia made, is a monop- rich department of Olanoho.
oly rented to the Patna opiom company by the PATRAS, Patbasso, or Bixubaxda (anc.
govemmeuL About 6,S00,000 lbs. of poppy Patr(g), a fortified seqiort town of Greece, in
Jnioe are annnally nwnnfactnred, yielding a the N. W, part of the Uorea, on the golf of
revenue of £8,G0O 000. The East India rail- the same name, capital of the prefecture of
way passes tbrougn the province. Patna was Achtua and Elis ; pop. abont 8,000. It is ritn-
indaded under the grant of Bengal, Bahar, and ated partly on aspurof Ht. Yoidhio, on which
Orissa, made by Shah Almn to the T^-ngliah in stood the ancient town, and prinoipally on the
1?66. It was the scene of some of the most level plain below it The streets are broad
memorable events in the great mutiny of 1867, and atraiffht, intersecting one another at right
every part of the district except the capital an^es; tne houses are mostly of one story,
havingbeenforalongtimein the hands of the bemg bnilt low as the best secnrity aaainst
iusi)rgeat& — Patna, the o^ital of the above de- earthquakes. The most important public bnild-
scribed district and of the province of Bahar, ing la the castle, which ia situated on the site
iasitnated on the right bank of the Ganges, 800 of the ancient acropolis. Patrasis the principal
m.N.W.&omOaloutta; pop.2B4,182. Theclty seat of theforeign tradeiu tbeM(n«a. Porthe
proper, or fort, is of rectangnlar form, but- protection of the harbor, which is unsafe and
rounded by a wall which extends about li m. exposed to heavy seas, a mole has been con-
along the bank of the river, and i m. inland, etmct^d. — ^The ancient city was founded by
The snbnrbe are very extensive, and stretch the loniana, from whom it was wrested by
about 7i m. along the Ganges. The principal Uie Achseana under Patreus ; from him the city
t^oronghfitre, parallel to the Hvor, is wide, received its name of Patre. During the Pelo-
though neither straight nor regular ; and Uie ponneaian war it alone of the Aohsan towns
other streets and lanes ara narrow and crook- embraced the side of the Athenians. In 410
ed. Borne of the houses are built of brick, B. 0. Aloibiades persuaded the inhabitants to
and have flat roo& and balconies ; but many join tho city and port by a long walL It was
of them ara made of mnd, and covered with a member of the Achnan lesgne, and during
tiles and thatch. Thera are several Uoham- ^e war between the Aohnana and Bomaus it
medan mosques, but they ara regarded with suffered extremely, and beoame an instgnifleant
little raverence, and most of them are now town. In tliat condition it remuned until the
Dsed as wnrebouses. There is a school where rdgn of Augustus, who selected it as one of
tbe 'RrigH't' language and literature, history, the two Koman colonies estabUshed tm the
and mathematics ore tanght The mannfac- W. ooast of Greece. It was destroyed by an
tores of Patna are not very important; and the earthquake in the 6th century; enbsequently
ohief trade is in opium, rioo, indigo, wheat, and it was a dnkedom of the Byzantine empire ;
Bt^ar. A great deal of traffic ia carried on was sold to the Venetians in 1408 ; was taken
npon Uie Ganges, and Patna is a station on the by the Turks In 1446, was after a vigorous de'
l!wt India ndlway. Patna was taken by the fenoe retaken by Andrea Doria in 168S, and
British in 1764, when they defeated the troops agtia recovered by the Turks, in whose hands
of the nabob of Bengal under its walls. A it rem^ed ontdl the Greek revolntion. It
monument is erected in the city to the memory was the first dty to raise the standard of re-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
. i garriBon, which oapitnlatod ii , . „ _, .
o a Trench force. — The galf of Patras liee b&- np its obligations and privilegefl ; and n
tweeD jBtoIia and the HT W. ooast of the Mo- ter how wealthy he was, a plebeian ooald not
r«a, and between the golf of I^anto on the K. become a patrician except m accordance wiUt
■ad the Ionian sea on the w. Ita greatest the let euriata, and thia was rarely tbe case,
lenfftb ii 80 m., ita greatest breadth 14 m. Iti At the end of the repabtio the number of Mk
uftrigadon ia difficolt, aod daring the whiter trician families had diminished to about DO,
montlis Bometimea dangeronB. and both Jnlina Ossar end Aogiurtas and tho
PATBIABCE (Qr. warpiapms, chief of a sncoeeding emperors found it neccsaarj to ruse
race), a title applied to tbe &Uien or heads of plebeians to tbe patrician rank. The long
geoenaiona mentioned br the sacred writers struggle in which the plebeians were engaged
from Adam to Jacob. After the destmctioa for the possession of their political rights ro-
of Jerusalem it waa the title of tbe chief rell- anlted in their complete victory, only a fnr
gioas mlers of the Jews in Ajia : and in early insignificant offices being retained by tJie pa>
Ohrifltian times it became the dedgnation of tricians. The formation of the new aristocracy,
certain Inahops who exercised siq>erior juris- founded npon wealth and upon the holding of
diction. Theae were the tiisbopa (MF tlie 5 chief the offices of consul, pretor, and onrole naile,
di<iceMB of Rome, Oonstantino^e, Alexandria, rendered the old patridan ftmiliea of still less
Antioob, and Jerusalem, Oertain other bishops aowtmt During tlie empire tiie Boman dtl-
were likewise termed patriarcha in course of zens were divided into the two classes of pofm-
time, eapedallr those of newly converted na- bit and patrieii. At the acoesnon of Oonstan-
tions. in modem times patriarchs have Jnria- line the patrician funilies had almost entirely
diction over aH the bishops and metropoutans died out, and that monarch made it a personal
or arohbiahops of their patriarohatea, but their title instead of a hereditary distinction. It
anthorityextendalittlebeyondtherightof con- was grantfid to all, without regard to birth,
vokingoonncala and exercising a general watch- who Itad made themselves eminent by their
tolnesa over the conduct of thdr subordinate servioee to the empire or tbe emperors. With
prelates. The patriarchs at preeent in com- the exception of the consuls, they oonstitnted
monion with the see of Rome are those of the highest rank in the state. Those members
Constantinople, Alexandria, Antiooh, Jerusa- of the patrician body who were in actual ser-
lem, the East Indies, Tenloe, and Lisbon, beside vice, as nsnally most of them were, went under
those of the Helchites, Jbronitea, and Syrians tbe name of patrieii praaentaUt; the others
at Antioch, Armenians in Oifitua, and Nestori* were called patrieii ccdicUlarei or ?Umorarii,
ana (Ohaldeons) nominally at Babylon. In the Thia distinctioa was conferred by most em-
orthodox Greek church the title of patriarch is perore with much caution^ but some granted it
attached to tbe se« of Oonstautinople, Alex- even to eunnohs. It was also conferred at times
andria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and various on foreign princes ; and the governor of Ba-
Ohristian sects of the East have patriarchs. venna, who exercised the power of a soprenie
PATRICIANS (Lat. palrieiiytrom pater, a ma^strato, was styled indifferently exarch or
father), the name given by the Romans to the patrician. After die loss of Italy, the Romans
members and descendants, by blood or adop- conferred this title on their rulers and proteot-
tion, of the ori^nal bouses of which the popw- ors, such as Oharles Uartel and hia desoend-
Ua Bomanat WM wholly composed unt^ the ants ; and in this capacity Henry IV. claimed
establishment of the plebeian order. They the right to depose Pope Gregory VII. Dur-
were at first divided into tbe tribes of Bamnen- ing the middle agea ftmiliea entiUed patridan
ses, ntienses, and Luoerenses, each tribe con- sprang np in many of the cities. In Venice
sisting of 10 carim, and each curia of 10 genUt, members of the great oonncU and their de-
' 1 regard to representation and war of 10 scendanta were called patricians. After 1297
ria. The gmt, all the members of which no person was created patrician, but all de-
bore the same gentile name, sent its leader to soendants of those who had belonged to that
the senate. Originally the two tribes of Ram- body became members by right at tbe age of
neusss and 'Hlienses mioj^ exolumve pt^tioal 9S. In Rome, Genoa, and other cities of Italy,
privileges, bnt die Etnucan tribe of Lncerenses the title of patridan- was and Is still used to
was admitted to the same rights by Taroninins denote a member of the nobility.
PriscuB, and the nmnber of senators, which be- PATRIOK, a B. co. of Va., bordering on K.
fore had been 200, was in consequence increas- 0., and drained by the Dan, Smith's, and NorHi
ed to SOO. To dtstiuguish tbe old senators and South Uayo rivers, all of which have their
from the new, the former were called patret sources in the Bine ridge, which forms its N.
mt^onm gentium, and the latt«r niitrei mino- W. boundary; area about EOO sq. m. ; pop. in
rumge^ium. AtthiBperiod,a]lthe population 1860, 9,869, of whom 3,070 were fJavea. It
who were not patricians were clients or slaves, has a mountainous surface, and b noted for its
After the formation of the plebeian ordcr^ the picturesque scenery; much of the soil is fertile^
patrician became a real aristocracy of birtl), and iron ore is abundant. The productions in
which held possession of all the civil and re- ISCO were 248,868 bushels of Indian corn, 90,-
li^na ofSces. No matter how poor he was, 441 of oats, 1B,7E5 of wheat, 4^9,699 lbs. of
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
86 FATBIOK FATBOH
tobfloeo, 8,SStS of wool, and 6S,9S7 of butter. He pnbUahed, beude a translation otQTotiiulk
There were 2 griat nulls, 8 taniieriw, 1 famaock VerttaU, a ItLrga nnmber of works, ohieflf de-
1 forge, 18 tobacco factories, 12 ohurches, and votional, the most important of which was his
826 papils attending pablio Bchools. Yalne of " Oommentarj and Par^ihrase on the Old Tee-
real estate in 1B6S, (1,321,719, showing an in- tamest" (14 vols. 4to., London, 16SG) ; it ex-
orease since 1660 of V6 per cent. Capital, Ta;- teade to Solomon's Song, and was oompleted by
lorsTille, Lowth and Whitby for the whole Bible. Dr.
PATBIOE (PATmomB), Baibt, the patron Fatriok's writings gave him oonaderable repn-
saint of Ireland, bom, according to most an- tation in his da;, and are still valned. He wa»
tborities, near the site of Eilpatriok, at the selected to revise the oollecte of the whole
month of the Clyde, in Scotland, in S72, died year after his appointment as one of the com-
at Down, Ulster, probably in 464. At the age misaioners for lie review of the liturgy, bnt the
of 16 he was carried captive to Ireland by a revision never came into nse. The first collect-
band of marauders, bat made his escape after ed edition of his works was printed by the Oz-
6 months and reached Bcofland. Carried off a ford press in 9 vols. 8vo. (IMfl)-
second tdme, and again escaping, he resolved to PATRIUONY OF ST. FETEIR, the name
become a missionary to the Iriab, was ord^ed formerly applied to a part of the F^ial St^tea,
in Scotland, and after a long preparation was conristing mainly of tne territory given to the
oonsecrated bishop. Having previonsly, ac- chorchby the countess Katilda in 1077. Itcor-
oording to some acconnta, visited Gaul and per- responds to the modem delegation of CXvits
hwH Italy, he paased over to his chosen neld Veechia, toother with the S. part of Viterbo^
of labor about 482, and preached the gospel and the S, W. part of the comarca di Roma,
with snoh extraordinary effect that, although FATBOCLUB, a Greek legendary hero, the
not absolately the first to introduce Christianity inseparable friend of Achilles, and sod of Ue-
Into that country, he has always received the ncetius of Opns. While a boy he accidentally
credit of its general conversion. Be baptised killed Clysonymus, and in oonseqnence was
the kings of Dnblin and Knnster, and the 7 sent to the conrt of his kinsman Pelena, and
sons t^Qie king of Connaught, with the greater brought up with Achilles, whom he aooom-
pari: of their sutgects, aud before his death hod panied in the expedition against Troy. He oo-
converted almost the whole island to the faith, cupied a prominent po^tJoQ in the si^e un^
St. Bernard testifies that he fixed his metropol- his friend absented himself from the conflict
itan see at Armagh, and it appears that he ap- by reason of his quarrel with AgameninoD,
pointed several other bishops, with whom he when Patroclns also withdrew ; but the oOain
held oonnt^s to settle the discipline of the of the Greeks becoming desperate, he obtained
ohnrch which he hod planted. In his old age from Achilles his armor and his troope, and with
be wrote his" Confession," the authenticity of their assistance drove back the Trojans and
which, however, ia doubted. It may be found saved the ships from bnming, Doring the con-
in Sir James Ware's edition of the works of flict he was sb'uck senseless by Apollo, and was
St Patrick (8vo., Loudon, 16B8). The Roman killed by Euphorbns and Hector, the latter tak-
Oathohc church keeps bis festival ou Uarch 17. ing poswasion of the armor. In the fight that
A popular legend ascril>es to him the banish- ensned for the dead body the Greeks were sno-
ment of all venomous creatures from the island cessful. His ashes were buried under a mound,
by means of hb crosier or staff, which Ralph whichnot long afterward was opened to rec^ve
Bjgden in hie " Polyohronicoa" mendons as the dead body of Achilles, who had revenged
being kept with great veneration at Dublin in his friend by the death of Hector.
i860. PATRON (Lat. patronvt, from pater, a
PATRICE, SuoN, an English prelate and father), an appellation given by the Rmnans
anthor, bom la Gaiusborongh, Linoolnshire, in to a patrician who bad plebeians, called cUents
1696, died May 81, 1707. He was the son of a (see Client), under his protection, or to a
mercer in his native town, and was educated master who had freed his slave. When a slave-
at Queen's coUege, Cambridge, where he re- was manumitted, he himself was called libertia
ceived a fellowship in 1648. in 16G8 he was or freedman, and his master pahvnvt, and be-
presented with the hving of Battersea, and tween them existed certMn duties and privi-
about this time published his " Meusa Mysdca, leges, which however seem to have been more
or a Discourse concerning the Sacrament of fixed by custom than by law. The patrtm took
the Lord's Supper; to which is added a Dis- the freedman under his protection, and the
course concemmjt Baptism." The following freedman owed to his former master respect
Siar he produced a treatise entitled "The and gratitude, and was boond to support both
eart's Ease, or a Remedy against all Tron- him and his children in cases of neceeaty. By
bles;" and in 1660 another nsder the title of a special agreement the liberttu after he waa
"Jewish Hypoertsy, a Caveat to the Present freed took an oath to make an offering to the
Generation." By the earl of Bedford he was patron of gifts and services, the latter being of
presented with the living of St. Paul's, Covent two kinds, services of respect and services of
Garden, where he remaned several years. In labor. The former ended with the death of
1679 he became dean of Peterboroa«i, in 1669 the patron, but the latter were due also to hia
biabtqi of Chichester, and in 1691 bishop of Ely. heirs. The p^ron was not entitled to any eer-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FATtSBBOS FAIT tS
vioN tiut vers eidier daog«n>tu or diigraoa- of rocki off TripoU in OtA. 1S08, and, ht&ag in
(bl ; and bj the lea JuUa et ^t^aia Po^paa s defenoelees ooadition, mirrenderad to a flotilla
fteadmeo, mtb a fev exoeptions, vere dl»- of Tripolitan gaa boaU. (Bee Baihbbidgii,
dumd from all nqoiiemeiits as to g^fts and Wiluuc.) He remdned (t prieoner in Triptdi
BV^ea, if the^ vere the parents of two 4^1- until peaoe was condnded with that regeiier
drai woo were in theb poaaesaioiL or were the in ISOo, In 1807 be was promoted to the rank
parents of cme child 6 years old. The mort of lieutenant, and in 181S to that of master
inwortant relation wrirting betwe«i the patron ocmmandant. In 1814 fae conunanded the
and freedmaa was the liffht of the fcmner in uaTal foroee <£ tbe United States at New Or-
ontwn oaaea to beotHoe tJie heir of the whole leans, and eo{>perated so ably with Gen. Jaok-
or a ptt^on of the proper^ of the latter. Br Boninthedemioe of thatcity thathe reoeired
tbe laws <tf the 13 tables^ if a freadman died the thanks of oongreas. He was promoted to
Intestate wilhont hein of tus own, the patron the rank of captun in Feb. 1816, aerred as
beoame hie hdr, as he was supposed to stand nary oommiadoner from 1888 to 1698, and in
in the rdati<Hi of an agnaVat. By the lea command of a sqeadron in tiie Kediterranan
i*(WJa. when a fi-eednun 1^ property valued from 1838 to 1680. He died while in com-
as Wffi aa 100,000 aeateroes, some of it went to mand of the nary yard at Waahington.
the pabtin whether a will bad been made or not FATTIBOlf, Bobebt Etxrrt, D.D., an
IftlMrewereSddldren,howeTer,Uiepatranhad American clergyman and teaoher, bom in Bon-
noahare. These righta of a patron extended to boo, Vt, Ang. 19, 1800. He was graduated at
hia dirert but never to his oollaUral hdr^ and Amherst college in 1826, was soon aft«r ap-
iha privilegea of the It&tfrti in regard to the pointed a tator ta Oolnmbian college, D. O.,
■OMeodoB of property extended only to thoao wssordsinedaaaBaptistminiBterin Sept. 1889,
who wwe Boman dtizeni sad not to the Latin at Salem, l£sss., and In Uaroh, 181)0, settled as
freedmen. The latter "lost their life and their pastor of tlie first Bt^itist ohnroh in Provl-
Uber^ at tike same time," and tiieir proper^ denee, R. L From this post he was colled ton
paved into the hands of llioee who had manit- pro&ssoiship in WsterviUe college. Me., and In
mitted tbem. In many other pointa the ano- 1S8S to the prendencyof that college, wMoh
oesBiHL to their property difEwod from tbe sno- he reRsned in 1840. He then returned to his
oeeston to that (A the Boman freedmen, and on pastoral charge at Frovidenoe. Inl848Iiewa8
this snl^eot lawa were passed during the reigna elected one <^ the oorrenHmdEng secretaries of
of dandios and Trqaa. These reflations the Baptbt board of foreign miaaionfl. In 1846
were radically changed nnder JostinTui, who the trdstees of the western Baptist theological
gave to the Latin fireedmen the same prifilegee institute, at Covington, Ky., elected him presi-
' as were possessed by the Romans. If a freed- dent and proieaeor of Christian theology. In
man was guilty oi ingratitode, his patron this poution he continued till 1848, when by
might punish him snmmuily, and in latw times an act of the Kentucky legislature, subsequent-
he cad tbe right to relegate him some distance lydetnded by the supreme oonrt of the state to
ftom Bome. In the time of Nero an efibrt to be nnconstitntional, the control of tbe seminary
pass a decree enabling a patron to reduce his was wrested flrom tbe trastees and placed In
freedmsn again to slavery foiled, hut afterward other hands, and the professors were dismissed,
it was BucoessfuL The patron lost his rights, Dr. Pattison was immediately q>potnted to a
however, if he neglected to ntpport his f^ed- umilar profeseorship in the Newton tfaeologtoal
man in a case of necessity. The libmrtm as- seminary, Uass., from which, after G years'
smned on his msDDiiiiauoa tbe gentile name of servioe, he was sgatn odled to tbe preridenoy
lua patron.— In the canon law, a patron is a (^ Watervilla c^ege in 18C&. After some
man who has the right of disposiog of a ben- years he rodgoed on account of his health, and
efioe, from the fact that it was founded or he is now at the head of the Oread female in-
endowed by him or by those to whose rights stitnte at Woroeeter, Uass. He received the
be has succeeded. This right is eiud by some degree of D.D. fh>m Brown university iu 1888.
to have sprung up about the close of the 4th Beude contributions to periodioals and one or
eentnry, and was probably intended to offer in- two addresses, he has written a " Oommeetory,
dncemeuts to the wealthy to found churches Explanatory, Doctrinal, and Practical, on the
with the privilege of naming the person who KpisUe to the Ephesians" (Boston, 186ff).
should officiate. In the Boman Catholic ohnroh, FATDXENT, ariver of Md., riang abont SO
a patrcm is a s^t under whose protection a m. from Frederic Oity, and after a 8. E. course
person places himself, often from Wiring the of about 40 m. and a nearly 8. course of 60 m.,
aame name, or who holds that relation to a disoha^ing itodf through an estuary 2 or 8 m.
communis ; or a saint to whom a particular wide into Ohes^MAke bay. It f^rms the divid-
ehnreh or order is dedicated. ing line between Uontgomery, IMnoe George,
PATTERSON, Dakui. T., an officer of the Charles, and 8t. Uary counties on the B. uid
IT. B, navy, bom in the state of New York, W., and Howard, Anne Amndel, and Calvert
died in WashingUm, Aug. 10, 1839. He en- counties on the N. and E. Small vessels can
tered the navy as a midshipman in 1800, and ascend it 60 m. to Nottingham,
was attached to the frigate Philadelphia, Capt, PAU, a town <J fYanoe, capital of the de-
William B^nbiidge, when she ran upon a reef pariment of Basses-Pyriutea, on the right bank
of the Qsre de Fan, 470 m. 8. by V. from (Dte, 166S}, and afterward against PhiUp It.,
Paris; pop. io 1868, 17,988. It b rwolarly in Mmseqnence of which hie dominions were
bud oot and well btdlt, luTiag a hroM midn invaded bj the duk« of Alva, and the Bpanish
street, uveral sqnarea, and fino public walb troops advanced almost to the gates of Bome.
on its ontskirts. Its sitaation on a piecipitjina A peaoa however was couohided in 1GS7. The
height is delightful; in the vicii^ are pio> eroperorFerdlnand I. havingaccqitedOie throne
toreeque vallefs, and on the B. the eye teets wiuiont eonsalting the holj see, the pope dis-
in the distance upon tiie snowy peaks of th« mined the imperial smbassador, and Ferdinand
PyF6n6es. The cfaana of the scenen- and the Moordingly did not eome to Kome to ho crown-
mild and bealthflil climate attract to Fan a con- ed, an omisrion which was imitated by all Uie
aderable nnmber of foreign viritors and per- nooeeding emperors. Panl lY. was a xealons
manant residents. linen cloths, renowned aa opponwt of the Froteatants, against whom he
toilet da £jam, and fine table dotha, tapestry Issned a boll in 1B69, and cooperated earnestly
carpets, and cntlery are mano&ctored. — Fan witit Qneen Mary in her attempts to rostore
was founded in the lOtb oattary ; a viscount Oatholicity in England. He introdnoed the
of B6am boitt a strong castle on the top of a inqiddtion into his states, labored asBidtiansly
hill, andhavingmarked the lindtaofthegronnd for the reformation of the clergy, and fbnnded
with stakes or patu, the town which formed the cnder of Theatines, who took their name
itself around retained the ^>peUation. In the from the srohbishoprio of Theate or Chleti,
I4tHh oentnry the castle was rebuilt by Qaaton which ha had held before he became pop&
Ffa^bos, connt of Fois, and the city became He raised his nephews to the highest honon
the chief town of B^ani. The oastle wsa en- In the state, and made one of them a cardinal,
larged and embellished dnring the ISthcentnrj. thonghhis past life had been that of a soldier
H^ry IV. was bom there ; and the room and a liberbne ; but hearing that they abnsed
where this event took place has still its ancient their power, he banished them from Bome in
portnuts and i^mituro, aa well as the tortoise 1669. He was hated by his Hnhjecte, who rose
shell that was used ae a cradle for the In&nt in tnmnlt on the news of his death, and threw
prince. The CBstle itself wss repaired and ren- down his statno, crying: "Death to the Ca-
ovated in the time of Lonis Philippe : it is one rafiVu." HI. Paot. V. (Oamillo Bobohxsx),
of the summer resorts of Napoleon III. and his bom in Bome in 1&69, died Jan. 16, 1621. He
oonrt. A marble statae of Henry IV. stands eacceeded Leo XI. in 1606, and soon after his
in the vestibnle of the oastle ; and two others, accession was involved in a dispute with the
one of white marble erected in 1848, and one r^nblia of Venice respecting the foundation
in bronie, adorn the principal sqnares. of reli^na houses, the alienation of charitable
PAUL, the name of several popes, of whom bequests, and the trial of ecclesiastics by lay
the most distingiushed are the following. I. tribnnsla. He eiconunnnicsted the doge and
Fatit. hi. (ALEsaun>BO Faknxbi), bom in the senate, and laid the republic under an in-
Bome in 1466, died in Nov. IMS. He sue- terdict which t^e senate forbade to be poblish-
oeeded Clement VH, in IBM, end gammoned ed, and whioh only the Jesuits, Theatines, and
a general oonncil t« meet at Hantus, bnt after- O^inchins observed. These three orders were
ward transfbired it to Trent, where the first oonseqnently banished. The pope on his fdde
session was held in Dec 1S46. He made an prepared to take up arrns; but fearing, from an
abortive league with the emperor and the re- Intercepted letter of Father Panl Barpi, that
public of Venice against the l^ks, and induced advantage would be taken of snch an event
Franins I. and Charles V. to oonclnde s tmce to introdnce Calvinism into Venice, he invited
for 10 years at Nice (1688), which was not the mediation of Henry IV. of France, and the
however observed. He eioommnnicated Hen- dilute was settled by a compromise in 1607.
ry VIH. of England, established the inqnintion The condemnation by the parltament of Paria
at Naples, approved the society of Jesus, sent of the D^auio Udei of Snares was the cause
a contingent of 12,000 footand l,000horseta of angryrelatlonswithFrancein 1614. InUie
Join the emperor's forces in Germany against mean time Paul had devoted himself with great
the Protestants, and opposed the reHgions pad- zeal to reforming the administration of his tem-
fieation colled the ititerim granted by Charles poral government, embellishing Rome, and re-
V. in 1G47. He exerted himself zealously to storing ancient monuments. He exerted himself
subdue the torbnlent feudatories of the Papal to send nusslonories to the East, and received
StataB, and expelled the powerful Oolonna embassies from Japan, from several princes of
family from Bome, Before becoming a priest Lidia, and from Congo.
hehadasonanddanghter, the former of whom PAUL, Fatheb. Bee Baspi, Piktbo.
was created dnke of Parma and Piacensta. U. PAUL I., Fktbqvitob, emperor of Rnsria,
Fadi. IV. (GiovAmn Pibtbo Oabatfa), ham in bom Oct. 12, 1764, assasrinated Harch S8, 1801.
1476, died Ang. 18, 1660. He succeeded Uar- A son of Peter HI. and Catharine IL, Paul in-
oellna II. in 1666, and displaved an enei^ in herited the weakness and pnsiilanimity of his
bit administration which baa not been expect- father, with few of the iDteilectnal qnslittes of
ed fh>m his advanced age and previona Btadions his mother. The hatred whioh his parents
habits. He oonolnded an alliance with Hemr bore to each other, and which resnltea in the
n. <^ France ag^uat tiie emperor Oharlea V. aasaasliution ot Peter at the instigation of hii
PAUL L (BuBu) PAITL (Saib 41
iri&, exerted a baneftal Influenoo upon the ear- orndtj vhoever did not aUofat from their oft^
Heit development of Paul'snundandchankcter. riages and prostrate UiemBeiree as he pawed.
His father hated hjm 08 the ofibprii^ of abated He dialiked round hats, and authorized aay
wife, and intended to didjiherit him. Oatha- one to tear them from the heads of thdr
rina, having aaaomed the reins of government irearere. He vonld allow no one to keep a
(176S), pretended to give him an ednoation dc^ near his reetdenoe. These and a thonauid
worthj of the heir of a great empire ; hot even other pettj oppresnona ezaaperated the peo-
before he grew np to manhood her dislike of pie even more than hia hatred of liberal i^aSi
him had become so violent that she compelled his decrees forbidding the importation of all
him to live at a distance from the capital, per* books or newspapers printed m Froich, and
aecoted him in eyerj conceivable manner, ear- similar meaenrea. His polkj in r^ard to the
rounded him with spies, left him in absolute great events in weatem Entvpe was as incon-
want of the necessaries of life, and took not sistent and oapriciona as his administration of
the slightest puns to conceal her contempt of the internal sffiiirs of his empin. At first he
him. Bnoh inflnences necesaaril; left their became a party to the coalition agunst revo-
mark npon his temper. He became morose, Intionary Fnaoe, and his army of over 100,000
rerangfiil, craven toward his mother, jet wil- men obtained same encoesMs in Italy, Switzer-
fhl and ^rannJoal toward inferiors, dead to land, and Holland ; but having afterward sof-
ambitian,aiid indifibrenttothereqniremenCsof fered severe reverses, Panl bwiame dls^sted
bia atalion. At the age of 10 he was married with his aUiea, expelled the French relogeeB
by Older of hia mother to a princess of Hesse- from Bossia, and endeavored to get np a ooali-
Dttnnatadt, and after her death in 1770 to s tdon ag^uat Great Britain. In tlusbe snoceed-
prinoesa of Wortemberg. Bia domestic felicity ed so far that Denmark, Sweden, and Praseia
recompensed hun in some degree for the con- Joined him in a treaty of armed nentrolity.
temptnons manner in which ne was excluded Bnt his hatred agunst Great Britain had be-
from all participation in government a&ira, oomesoviolentthathewss&rfromlMingaatia-
Eia aeoond wife bore him 4 sons (Alexander, fied with this snoceas. lltronghtheoolomnsffif
from all participation in government a&ira, oomesoviolentthathewss&rfromlMingai
Hia aeoond wife bore him 4 sons (Alexander, fied with this snoceas. lltronchtheoolonai
Ccmstantine, Nicholas, and UiohJaal) and B (he " ^ Petersburg Jonmal'* he diallenged to
dao^tteia. The fbrmer were t^en trom. their persona] combat w tiiose Unn who were nn-
parenta by order of Oatharine, and brought willing to take rides with Mm agmnst En^
up under her direction. In 1780 Paul travel- land. At last his capricloueness and despotism
led throngh Poland, Gtermony, Italy, Vniaoe, reached a pitch which verged on downri^it
and Holluid. Afterward he tixik part in the madness. A conspiracy was formed agwnit
WOT agwnst Sweden, but even then his mother hia lUb by a number of noblemen, among
pnipoMlydeprivedhimof everyopportunityof whom Oonnta Pahlen and Znbof^ Generola
bflooming flunilior with the dnties of bia poai- Benningsen and Uwarofi; and Lient OoL
tion. He bore this treatment in a dnll, patient Tatisheff were the moot oonsi^onons. To hia
manner, hoarding np revenge for a f^tnre day. son Alexander it wsa represented by than
At last his ddiverance oame. Oatharine died that they had no other ottjeot than to oom-
Kov. 17, 1796, and Fanl ascended the throne, pel the emperor to abdicate the throne. They
One of his first acts wae to cause funeral honors fbroed tiieir way into Psnl's chamber late st
Co be paid to his mnrdered &ther, and he or- night, and presented for bis signature a letter
dered the remains of hia mother's former fo- of abdication. He reftised to sign, whereupm
vorite, IMnce PotemUn, to be disinterred and Zuboff knocked him down and kneeled npon
thrown into a ditch on the wayside. To undo him, and, the other conspirators Joining in the
whatever OathsHne had done seemed to be deed, the emperor was murdered in the most
Us only guiding principle. He disbanded her horrible manner within hearing of his eldest
armies, declared peace with Perdo, disapproved son and snocessor, and it has even been said
of her p<^oy toward Fohwd, liberated Eosci- that his second son OonstantiDe actoolly assisted
'na^o and the other PoUsh prisoners, decreed in the butchery,
that the fbmale line should henceforth be et- PAUL, Rboitlab Olxszb or St. See Bab-
eloded from suooessicn, and invited his eldest kabrb.
aoa to an active participation in the adminis- PAUlv BAnrr, in sacred biography, the first
tiation of the country. Bnt the r^tcings of Ohristian missionarr who extended his labms
the people over these happy beginnings were b^ond the limits of the Jewish people, the first
prematnret The defeats of his edaosdon soon Christian tMoher who maintained the eqnahty
became apparent. His narrow-minded egotiam. «^ Jews and gentries nnder the new dispense-
fostered by the seolnsion of his youth, combined tion, and admitted the latter to the foil partid-
with his nervoDs and fltfnl temper to render patiou of Ohristian privileges withont the exao-
him an execrable tyrant. Hia most pnerile tion of the ceremonial law. Paul is ranked by
whims and otq>rioes were rused to the digidtr the Ohristian chnrtdt with the IS aposties, and
of laws, and a well organized aeoret police was olmms that rank for hhnself in his epistles. Onr
constantly active in discovering victims of his knowledge of his history is derived i^om the
wrath. He reqolred thoae who were admitted Acts of the AposUea and incidental notices in
lo his presence to kneel before him. When he his letters to the ohnrohee. Many attempts
drove ont, he would poniab with the utmost have been made to arrange theae materials la »
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
iTfltematic bi(wr^)hf, of whioh the most com- the partioipation of Paul's oompaniona in tbie
prehengiTa and populkr is the " Life and Epis- remarkable experience, bat all agree in tbdr
ties of St. Panl," bj Oonybeare and Howboh repreBentation of the impreBsioc made on-PaoI
' (Ixmdon, 1864). For the critical student tbe himwif of a voice addressing him in the n^ne
works of Wi^eler and Baor are tlie most im- of Christ and bidding him forbear the perae-
portant, Paul iras a Greotao or Hellenistio cation of his chnreh. Btrack with temporaiT'
Jew, b; birtb and conntrj' — that ia, a Jew blindness by this visioii, he was bron^t to Da-
Itoni withoat the limits of Palestine — but, antil masons, where, after 8 daja' sojonm, he recor-
bia oouTerrioii, a rigid Hebrew of the sect of ered his eight at the hands of a disciple named
the Pbariseea, bj' parentage and training aaweU Ananias and received Ohristian baptism. Tbt
aa h7 peraonal aonTiotioiL His original and next 8 years were spent in Arabia and Dnnas-
Jerish name Saul ^)peara to have been dropped cas, after which the apostle made a brief visit
and that <tf Panl adopted soon aiter bis aooeasion to Peter at Jenisateip, and then retmned to his
to die Ohristian nuuistry ; for what canseitis nativecity. UeanwhileauewcentreofObristlan
impoasibla to say, nor whether the name Panl inflaenco had established Itself at Antioch, the
bad ever been used ae one of his appellations coital of Syria, aod thither Paul now went at
before his oonversion. He was born in Tarsus, the solicitation of Barnabas one of the leaders
the metropolis of Oilicia. The precise date of of that moyement, who had come to Tatsos to
Us birUi is unknown, bat is proximately deter- secnre his cooperation. Here he remained for
mined by the oircomstanDe tbat Paid is spoken a year or more, engaged in expoondiaK and
of as a yonogman at the timeof the martyrdom propagating the new faith. A famme which vls-
of Stephen. The best cbronologers place that ited Jndajain the reignof theemperorOIandios
aveat as late at least as A. D. 88. Accordingly, (A. D. 4G), indnced the church at Antioch to
I^nl can hardly have beoi bom earlier than send pecuniary aid to the ChrialianB at Jemssr
A. B. 8, or later than 12. His family emoyed lem, and Paul and Barnabas were deputed to
the ri^t of Boman citizenship, either as liW- convey the money collected for that pnrpoae.
Uni (davea honoraUy manumitted), or in con- (Acts li. 29, 3D.)* Baving accomplisbed this
seqnaiee of important services rendered to the eleemosynair misaon, be returued to Antioch,
state. Thore is reason to beliere that the youth and made that city his head-quarters and Hie
of Panlpartookoftheliteraryadvantageswhich starting point of Uie missionary tonrs in Aria
distingaiahed his native city. The traces of Minor and Europe whioh he now undertook ia
philosophic thought whioh pervade his epistles, behalf of the faith. Three distinct Jonraeys
and his evident familiarity with the Greek from this point of departure are recorded. The
poets, discover a mind imbued with gentile as first, in which Paul was accompanied hf Bb>
well as with Jewish lore. According to rab- nabas, and for a portion of the wav by J<An
binical law and cnstom, which required every Hark, who left them on the coast of Asia Ui-
male Jew to be tanght some manual art, he nor, embraced tbe island of Oyprus from east
learned the trade of a tent maker, to theprac- to west and three of the southerly provinces of
ties of which hewasafterwardindebtedinMrt A^a Minor, viz., Famphylia, Pinaia, and Ly-
for his support. (Acta xyiii. 8, xx. 84 ; 1 Oor. caonia. In the principal cities of these oonn-
ir. la.) His knowledge of tbe law and tbe tries the missionaries established Ohristiau
prophets and other essentials of a Jewish edu- churches after tbe model of that at Jerusalem,
cation was obtained at Jerosalem nuder the Some time after his return to Antioch, where
tnllion of OamaUel, the moat learned rabbi of Panl now resnmcd his home miniatry, Qie at
his time. Paul's first appearance on the stage tempt was made by Jndming Obristnons sent
of history connects itself with the martyrdom from Jerosalem for that pntpose to impose the
of Stephen, to whioh he was a party, being at Mostuo ritual on the gentue converts. The
that time a stndent at Jerusalem, devoted to movement was strennonsly resisted by the lead-
the Pharis«c interest in that city, and probably ers of the AnUoch church, and Paul and Bar-
attached to the congregation of the " liber- nabas were sent to Jemsalem to debate and
tines." From this time forth he became a zeal- arrange this difGcnlty with the apostles and
ouB persecutor of the Christian church, volan- elders in that city. "Diis first Christian cooncil
teering his services to tbe sanhedrim for that is assigned by different authorities to dates
purpose, and holding a commission from that
" strange cities,' and bring to trial the confes- oh. xtUL, or neither ^ Ham, is idsoUcsl Kits iii« om n-
BOrs of the new fwth. It was in the discharge *™*,'°"'^!!J' '2J?^v!* iS^.T*?^ *'.'?^.J!°
Of tliia oommisaion, and while bonnd to Da- stUOt ta tbs OiUtUn aoDlUeCs with Uis snntlTa In th*
masons on one of these errands, that he eipe- AsIs, a» no erltlclim lui nt n«»ded to nooBoUlBg tb*
He»«d. mdam „d „™ulon. oon«r.ion^ 5lSlSiJ!W?SS,SSSZ,nS.'5T,!:
which changed the whole course of his Me, not ipaUiKoftha SntrML Bntwtoont r^«tlii|c tbe tcsO-
only arresting his work of persecution, but im- ?i™3[i*^ ' "" "'"" ' * ~*"-~' ■' ■""•
pelling him to become the indefatigable advo- n[^i'ru!toi7-we «nnot ^nantti« vteiVto Jsra^Mn
cato and apostle of the faith be had persecuted, mcntlonod in thit dgcntaen^ >od inextriiKMr Istomran
Th, U,™ »x».unt. of He m.tUr. in tl. Act. SJ£l."ia,'SSif&1aSSrftSSSy!
^x. 7, xxu. 9, and xzvi, 14) differ m regard to toflie fliiiUuu.
U,9,-„z..QL,yGOO^Ie
PAUL (Saiht) 46
nM^atg ftun tlie mir 47 to tha ;ear 55. We two of the ej^sllee in onr flofledloii an ad-
inahiM with Wiasder to place it at 60. The dressed, he retained to Antiooh, tonohing at
two detefptea, after a satJE&ctoiT a^Ji^Btment Epheena and vintiog Jerusalem bf the wa^.
of tbia qoeatioii, rebmed to Antiooh, uid vith Aiter an interral of rest at Antioeh, in the an-
th«n two fiiiiliMwi 1 1 III from Jerasalem. With tnrnn, it ii aappoaed, of the year 64, Patd ai-
on« of the Utter, Silvaniu or Bilae, Patd soon tered on the third and lait of his miasioiuvr]'
aA«randwtookhuaeoondmisaionBrjteiir,haT' Jonmeys. Faseing through vaiioiu proTinoei
log prerioodj separated fhon BamatMB in eon- of Ana Hinor, he arrived at Epheena, where the
■eqiietioe of a di^te which aroae between them groond had been prepared for him by Agpila
nutive to Joha Maxk, yrbtaa Banmbaa would and Priadlla, with ApoUoe tbeir eoiTert Here
have to go with them, bnt whom Pant rejected he reontined daring a period of 8 year^ laboring
on aooonnt of hia deeertion of them at Perga in with mailed aoooeai, induoiDg, among otlker
their Sitt ezpeditioo. The misdonariea Tinted firnits trf his ndnlatry, the goUa, or ma(^am
mida and the regions already trarersed by to abandon fbeit pcaotioe and to bom tbnr
Piul, and the ohorohas fbonded by him in amideto— apeoimiaryBaari&ceof60,OOOdraoh-
FkmplvUa and LyoaimiSL. At Lystra they niia, equivalent to (8,000 or $9,000. A hoatUe
were Joined at Paul's solidtadoa by Hmothy, enoonnter with the silveTsiiiitlis irf that eity,
a young <!hedc who had embraoed the Christian who traded in models of the temple (^ Diana,
&ith. Tb^ eztanded their travela throng and who oonodved th^ bosinen to be endan-
tiM eentral provinoes cf Asia Uinor, Phrygia gered by Panl'e preaching hastened hisdepart-
and Qalatia, tiien to Ij^raia, and so to the west- nre ttom X^eaoa. He proceeded to Maoedo-
«m eoart, where, at 'Aoaa, Panl reeolved, in nia, and thence to Greece ; then retwnina to
aonaeqnBDea of a di«am whioh he interpreted Iboedonia, he oroaaed over to Troas, and from
aa a eall tiata God, to oroaa over to Eorope^ theTe,bywaTofAsscaaod the islands of GUcs
Aooordin^theoompany.ttf whioh Luke, it is and Samoa, he went to Miletoa, aooompanied
smpoaed (frran the nse m tJie first person phi- by Tirootby, Lnke, and other disi^les. At
zai whieh oocms here for the first time in the Ifiletos 1m tarried long enon^ to recdve a
nanativo), was <aM, took ship at Troas, and depntationoftbeeldersof tbeebnrohatEphe-
aft^ ft short nm landed at Neapolis on the ao^ wliran he had inrited to meet him, and to
ifmaJnntM eoast. They th«ioe proceeded to whom he oommonioated hia parUng instmc-
PUlippi, whwe Qie Christians came Into ool- tions, bidding them a final and aSbotionate
liaioa with a mitila part; who trafficked in farewell He then embarked with his company
dlrmation, and who inflamed the minds of the fbr Rhodes and Tyre on his wty to Falestines
people a«nst Paul and Klaa, The apostle and whither he went, as ne says, " bormd in the
Us firiei^ were onbMy seonrged and thmst spirit;" his friwida in erety dty where be
into prison, bat nonorahly rdeased the next stopped on the ronto endesToring to dissuade
d«f,iriian the ga(der,wh(an Panl had baptised, hini,"the Holy Spirit," in every city, "wit-
rqvFesented to the mwistratee that they were neasing that bonds and afflietiona"awdted him;
Boman oitizena. la Thoasalonica, where they his own Inatinot in apite of prophecies and en-
made many converts amiHig the AJlenista, they treatiee urging him on. The party arrived at
" ... - .1 . . -.. , ' m at the feast of Penteooet in the year
met withaatrongoppodtiononthepartofthie Jei
strioter Jews, who lollowed them to Berea, 68:
Buwwi Mswa, iruu iviiuwou uiwu w uwdb, uoj th^ presented themsdves before James
where also anooeas had attended their eSinia. and the other elders of the ofanroh, and Paul
Hm " brethren," thinking that Patd's lifb waa reported the manr-rided saooess of a mission
andaogered, sent him nraj in the charge of embracing a otmuderable portion of the Roman
frfeada who bronght him to Athens. Here he emjnre in ita vride endeavor. The Ohriatian
held public dispntatens with philoeophera of partr at JemsalenL imder the inflnenoe of the
the laa^jog sobmJs, and at their invitaUon gave Jewish ospit^ and anxions to oonoiliate Uieir
a pnblio «xporitaon of his doctrine in the areo- oonntrymen, so far trom reuonneing the law of
pagna, pruwnndng on this oooasion the re- Ucaee^ woe especially sompolons in their oh-
marfcable qweoh on the nature of Deity— 4he servanoe of its rites and re^nirements. Aware
meat atariking snd important of all the speeches that Panl had rendered himself obnoxioaa to
recorded of him. From Athens he went to Jndaising Ohristians by his liberal views in re-
Oorlnth, then capital of the Roman province lation to tida matter, the elders perroaded him
of Acbaia, where he enjoyed the hoapitalitr of by an act of public confbrmi^ to hnmor ihdr
a Jewiah laiidly reoentfy banished firom Bcane pr^ndioea and disarm tbeir hostility. At their
vnder the edict of the emperor Olandins for- soggeetion he united with a party of foor wlio
Wdding the reaidenoe of Jews in that dty. He were then disohar^ng a lHazaiitio vow, and
practised here bis craft of tent maker, which was seen with them In the tem|de ftalfilling the
waa also that ot bis boat (Aqnila), and so re- ritoal purification prescribed or Levitioal law.
lieved bim of the burden of bis support. He Tbia ooncesrion was not attended with the ex-
was soon jcdned by ffilaa and Timothy, and pected resnlt. The meaenre which wss to have
with their assistance^ urged by a vision fore- aerared bim against the hostile seal of his op-
tdhng saooess, be minlrtered for a apaoe of ponenta <mly aerved to betray hbn into their
neariy two years to the people of Oorinth ; snd oands. Seen in the temple, he was seized on a
liavingeotaIilisliedapr<»niEingehnrcl),totrhioh charge of [dotting againet the Jllosaio rel^ira,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
44 PAUL (Bairt) PAUL
and aeeiued of brlDs^gentiks into tiie sacnd ninenen of the pastoral Kuadcs (the tvo to
courts. The Boman gaard raBoaed him from Timothv and the one to litoa). of GoloMiaw
the huids of the mob, and, on tiie dieooro? of and £i^edaDi),lia« also been oalled in qneetitoa;
a oonapiraoj against his life, disdosed bj a and Baor even donbta the aatfaorahip at I^ii-
nepbew of Fuil tiien red^g at Jenualem, be Kppiana, PhUemon, and the two TheaaaloDiaia^
LB sent to Otesarea to Felix, prooonsnl of the aUewing as indispi^hly genuine only G~''~*' —
province of JjiAat. FeKz, thongh aaemingly Btaoana, and the two OorintbianB. In this ez-
aa^ed of his iunooeooe, for the sake of oon- travagant jndgment fbv oritioB tHI
B iunooeooe, for the sake of oon- travagant jndgment fbv oritioB tHI agree wfOt
(dialing the Jews detuned him a prisoner at him. It is imposrihle to detemdne witli pre-
OeeBsrea. After the expiration of two jeors fUtkm tha ohrondogieal order of the epiatlee.
Felix was sncceeded by Festos, and Panl was The tiro to the llteasalonlans are plaoed first
then offered the c^portimity of a trial before bymost of the eritios who admit Qi«r gemdne-
the national connoil at Jerasalem, which he de- sees, and after A«m the i^iatle to the Q«la-
^dined, aware of the impossibililj of obtaining tiana. Then fbllow, In Wieseler'e arrangement
a fair hearing from that tribimu. Despairing 1 Hmothj, 1 Corinthians, Titas^S GorintMana,
of jnstice at the bands of bis conntrymen, be Bomans, Philemon, Oolossiaiis, £[dkesianB, Phi-
(npealed by right of bis Roman oitizensbip to UppianH, and S Timothy,
the goyemment at Borne, and to Bome accord' PAUL, Yisaxsr ns, a sdnt of the Boman
ingly he was sent. He reached that destination Catholic ofanrcb and founder of the oonnegation
in the spring of the year 61, after the long and of giatera of charity, bom at Pony, Gaaoiwy,
periloaa voyage and shipwreck described in the in 1676, died Bept 27, 1660. He was the 4th
Acts (xxvii.). While there he was permitted child of a pions peasant named Jean de Panl,
as a special favor to reside in a hirra lodging who, having detwmined to educate him tar the
instead of being tbrost into a dnngeon or ooD- ohnr^ibjirat nimwhea IS years old to loam LAtin
fined in the barraoka. Here be remained two at the iranoisoanfiiars at the neighboring town
year& and, thoogh nnder constant militoiy of Acqs (now Dax). He afterward became tntor
gnard, was allowed free intereonrse with his in the funily of a lawyer of the place, who sent
conntrymen and others who ohose to vi»t him. him in 1696 to tiie Tmiversity of Tonloose^
He was thna enabled to prosecute bis miasionarr where be passed 7 yea™, was ordwned priest
labors, which he ^ipears to have dona with in 1600, and received in 1604 the degree of
■oocess. Members of the imperial household baohelor of divinity. In 160S, while on a
were among bis converts, p*hilipp. iv. 23.) voyage from MarseUIes to Narbonne, he was
Here the history leaves him, and leaveB os to captured by Turkish pirates, carried priaoner
oonjeotnre bis sabseqnent fortmies. The sn^ to Tunis, and after being several times sold
position of Banr, Wieseler, and many others is became at last the slave of a renegade from
that be never recovered bis liberty, but re- Kice. Through the influence of one of his
muned priaoner at Borne mitil he perished at wives, who bad heard Vincent sinc^ng aa<»«d
the bands of the executioner, a martyr to his son^ at Us labor, this man reeolvea to retom
f^th 1 but there b a widely accepted tradition to Obristianity, and in Jn&e, 1607, fled from
that he wns tried and acquitted, that be left tbe conntiy wiUi his dave and reached France
Bome, made other missionary tours, was once In a little skiff. Vincent spent tbe next year
more arrested, again brought to Bome, tried, in Rome, where he secured tbe friendship of
condemned, and executed. It is even ssserted Cardinal d'Ossat, who sent him to Paris on a
that he passed two years in Spain, retoming to secret errand to King Henry lY. in 1609, and
Bome about 64, and suffering death by decani' afterward prooored bis nomination to the ^bey
tation in 66, or according to some authorities of St, Leonard de Ohanme in the dlooeae of Ro-
Feb. 22, 68. The attentive reader of the New ohelle. About the same time he was appointed
Testament will notice indications of tbe opposi- almoner to Qneen Margaret of Valois. Li
tion, jealousy, and even persecntion which Paul 1618 he entered tbe &mily of Emmanuel da
encountered at tbe bands of his fellow Obris- Oondi, count de Joigny, as tntor to bis 8 sons,
tians of tbe Jndajstio type. Other martyrs one of whom was afterward Cardinal de Bets,
iiave snffered from the enemies of their faith. To his dnties as preoepttMr be added the task
Panl suffered tar greater trials from its profee- of preaobing to Uie peaaantry of hie patron's
•ors ; and wben enamera^ng his hardships and estates, partionlarly npim tihe neoeeraty of oon-
his sorrows, he tops the climax with " perils by fearion ; and ao stmok was the oonatess vith
ttite brethren." (2 Cor. xi. S6.) This oircum- tlie extraordinary results of his labors that she
stance should be taken into the acooont in esti- ofibred 16,000 llvres to any religions commn-
mating the worth and force of a character nity which shoald undertake the same work
which in moral heroism baa no snperio^ among her tenantry every 6 years. Tbe offet
perhaps no eqoa], in tbe world's snnals. — Of however was not accepted, and it was reserved
tbe 31 epistles embrsced in the canon of the for Vincent himself to foand a few yeara later
Hew Testament, 14 are popnlarly ascribed to a new congregation for snch nussioiis. Hsv-
Paol and assigned to him in tbe current ver- ing obtained in 1623 tbe appointment of ahiq»-
rions. Of these, tbe Fpistle to tbe Hebrews is laSi to tbe galleys at Marseilles, he devoted
pnmoonoed by many critics at the present day himself to the welttoe of tbe wretched oonncts
to be the work of some otLer hand. Tbe gen- with the inteuseet ardor, and, after senribly
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
.. ^extend his nfonoB to tbapriB- viaitiDg the oonfraternitfee and In other labors
OM in which they vere wmflned irhile wuting for the poor. Sooh was the origin of the ria-
to ba iSBt to the H^korts. He fitted iq> a aep- ten of oharity. Their role was drawn up bj
ante bnlAiig for them, and when abs^it him- degrew in the ooorse of some reara, and Vln-
salf «anaad tnro pieMa who bad Joined In his oent lived to aee Se honseB of Qie order eatab-
dttrttaUe enfagpriw to Utb in the prison. He lished in Paris, beside otbera in Tarions parts
nazt^tpsars at lUeon, as the apoatle of the of Europe. The reformation of tiie ho^tala,
natmtdtittideeofthieTeaBnd1>e^^ffsforvhom the estaoliahment of an asjlnm forfcHumnga
that d^ was then notoriooa. bi 1623 he was (see FonimLiNe Hosprru.), the inatruclion of
^ipointed diraotor of the nmu of the order of idiots at Us priorj of SL Lazaras, uid oontin-
the Yiaitatkn in Paris, and this position Ite re- nal labors among the convicts, are &s next
tained nntil his death. In 1S94 the ooontesa erenta which we hare to record in his bistor;.
da Jaignr revived the mojeot of eataMiahing It ia related (tboni^ the stor? has been qnea-
-*-'-d inuaiims among the poor, and with the tioned) that he onceofibredbimselfin the place
patent in }Saf, 1SS7, at which time th^ had Haurtn, and his convent of St Lazaraa vaa
Enneaaed to 6, and were eractad into a otmgre- aooordinRlf sacked bj a mob. The last labora
atioB by P<^ UriHin VIIL in 1082. (See of hia lifo were the fonndation of an aarhim
ia proposed to Yinoent to undertake tha wcne the fett«Ts of a galley alave ?•._
eatoblidmieDt of a new order, which she prom- weeks befiH« he was reoo^uzed. Dmlng the
iaed to endow with 40,000 livres. Aooordin^f ikmlnc which dep<q>n]atod Lon^ne in ld§8-'&
in MSB Vincent, aocompanled by two other he colleoted and dittribnted upward of 2,000,000
priaata, took up bis retddenoe in tbc oollage of livree amtmg the md^nat. He attended Lcnda
tlie (mi* ti^anit, whidt had been siveD tm the XIIL in hia last illness, and waa qipoint«d by
pmpoae by the archbishi^ attd laid the found*- Anne of Anstria one of the 4 members of the
titm of the oongr««atioD cif prieats of the mis- " ooonoil of cDnsoieuoe" to whom was com-
rion. sometimes called LazatistB from the priory mitted the distribution of eooleaiastioal pre&r-
of St Laxams which they acqnired aoon after- ments. In the wars of the Fronde he incorred
wanL The asscdates received royal letters the groundless gnspidon of being a &vorer of
"" Haurtn, and his convent of St Lazaraa Tsa
aooordinply sacked by a mob. The last labora
_ ,_ _ of hie lifo were the fonndation of an asylum
I or TBK UissKHi,) Beside the primary for aged artisans of both sexes, and a hoqiitsl
Df misrimis omoiw the poaaantry, Yin- for all tJie poor of Puia, which waa opened in
iw devoted himsuf to t£e apiritnal im- 1667, a royal edict obli^ng every b^ar in the
proTOiMot of the clergy. He eetaUiahed rail- metropcdiB to dther enter this insbtotion or
gioon axerdsM for eaodidatas tOt orderly to work for his living; Between 4,000 and 6,000
whioh thaarohMahc^ of Paria afterward obliged ohoae the former alternative. Yhicent was
all his eedaaiaslioa to spply themselves for 10 beatified by Benedict XIU. in 1729, and canon-
days before Mdiuatim ; he threw open Ua ised tn^Glemeot XH. in 1787.
boose to all who wished to q)end a fow days in FAuL or SuioajiTA, a herealarch of the 8d
pn^w and meditatiMi; and every weak he held century. He became patriarch of Antlooh In
what he called aiuritoal oonforwioes, to which SSO, and by extortion and bribery acquired
the deigy resmted in great nnmbeis. With great wealth. He affboted extraordinary pomp,
the ssristanoe of Cardinal Bichellen, iriio ad- canaed the hymns of the church to be abollah-
mittod Inm to his eonfidoioe and used to con- ed and others anng in [a-aise of Idmsel^ and
suit him in making eooMastical ^poiotments, sorrounded himself with a number of young
lie opeoed in IMS an institution in which and beantifol wunoi who attended him where-
yonng priests or candidates for the priesthood everbewent &i defiance of the ecdeslastioal
mi^t St themaelvee for fbe labora of the min- canons he held the office of iIuMnartufa sort
istiy I7 3 or 8 yean spent in prsyer and plooa of proonratorship under the emperor. Hewaa
exaraiaee. The result ot these ^orta fbr the an eapeoial MaiS. of Zenol>ia, the queen of
purifieation ot die ohuroh aaawared his greats Palmyra, who called him to her oourt, admired
est eaoMOtadom. In the mean time he had not his eloqnenoe, and disputed with him on rell-
been Mle in providing for the auSMngs of the don. He tanght that there was only one
Door, WI>ai«ver he preached it had been his God, who is denominated the Father ; thst the
a establish "confratemitiea of charity," Word or Viedom of Ood was not a sttbatanoe
^ . ^ of wunen who to<A upon theoaaelTea or person, bnt was in the divine mind aa reason
to saarah oat and relieve the distressed, with- in men ; that Christ waa a mere man who ao-
ont howarer fbnning themaelvea Into a regular quired this Word or Wisdom of God, becoming
OTdar. In 16SS he determlMd to enlarge hia by it both God and the Son of Ood, though
plan by craatiiig a risterhood whidh shonla pu> both in an Improper sense, and gradually ac-
sue the same oUecta under a sufficiently con- ooiring his knowledge and virtnea; and that
vantnal ornoisaUon to Inaore the pennanenoe tiie divine Word withdrew from him when he
and most bSDeflclal vorkinfl of the enterprise ; snffered. His opinions were condemned in a
and aoeoidin^ he placed 4 ycvng women who oonndl held about 804, but be was allowed to
had Tidvnteered thor ssrvioee nnoer the charge retain his aee on pronuee of retracting them,
of Uma. Le One, a noble lady who had beoi Ffdfing "however to keep hia word, ne was
jy Google
M PAUL THE DEAOOH PAUU)ING
tg^ oondemned and dwoaed at tli« ooimcfl Mmof John Panlding, diriiiigiilih«d in Um nv-
^ Antiooh in 230. The fovor of Zenobis ena- olntiomur war as ono of the chptan of lUor
bled him to Mt this sentence at defiance tmtii Andr£. He entered the nxrj aa a midaldp-
S7S, whan Zenobis was oonqnered b; the em- man in 1811, and waa in Ihe aqtudron of Com.
peror Anrellan. He whole matter waa now UoDonongh in the battle of liake OhamplBiii,
refured to the aee of Rome, and Fanl, expelled for whioh seirioe he reodv»d a awoid fnan
trma hia ohnreh, paesed tlie leat of nia life in oongreaa. In 1844 he attuned the rank of cap-
obawui^. He haa a few followers, who ofdied tiln,aodinlBS7,wluleiDO(»timandoftbeh<me
themaelTea Panlianista. They dts^pear from aqnadron, broke up an tnniedition against Nio-
historrabotit the Sth ecntnry. ar^u headed by 0«i. wilUam Walker. Ilie
PAUL (FuKDmcH Fxm. Wilhxlh), duke of nuun body of thia expedition, eommanded by
'Wbrtembn^, a German traveller and natural- Walker in penon, landed in Pnnta Arenas in
iat, bom in Oarlsmhe, Jane 3fi, 1797, died at the harbor of Greytown, Nov. S6. Omnmodore
Uergentbeim, Nov. SS, 1860. He was edaoated Paulding arrived on Deo. 6 in Us flag ship the
at t£e oonrt of his nncla, King Frederic I, Wabash, and tai tiie 6th landed a strong foieo
and from love for natnral Boienoes and travel under the immediate command of 0«f>L &t^
in May, 1817, he left the army of WOrtem- of tiie Wabash, when Walker mrrandered with
berg to devote himself to his &Torite porsnits. his fidlowers, IBS in nomber, who were imne-
After having travelled exteodvely through diate^ disBrmed and sent to tlie United States.
Enrope, he crossed the ocean, and from 1B22 to Oommodore Paoldtaig acted on tUs oecanon
1884 Jonmeyed in North America, making rich without spedflo instrnetione, and his airest of
eoUections in natnral history, and eq>ecitd]y in Walker npon foreign aoU was not fiilly ^^tot-
H)ology,andsobseQiientlypnblishedaDBcooDnt ed by the exeoative. In Dec. 1860, Niearana
of hia expedition m a work entitled " I^rst presented him with a sword and also offered a
Journey to North America" (Stuttgart, IBSC). teaot of land (which l^ter, however, the U. S.
In a second jonmey to Ameriu, he paid special senate did not allow him to receive), in teeti-
attention to the remains of the old Azteo civi- mony of her sense of the hi|)ily important aer^
lintion. He snbseqiiently made aeveral Jour- vice which he had rendered the repnblio. Oom-
neya to Algraia, England, France^ and Austria, modore Fanldiog, while a lientenant, jtnblidied
and in the ^raog of 1849 he vinted America a volume entitled " Journal of a Oroise amnig
again, travelling over Texas, the entire west of the Islands of the Fadflo" (New Toik, 18S1).
tfie United States on both sides of the Rocky FADLDING, Juas Kaca, an Americw
moimtains, and Sonth America, and in 18GS author, bom in Pleasant Va]ley,I>ut«heaB oo.,
B^ed for Enrope. From his 4th voyage to the N. Y., Aug. 39, 1779, died in Hyde Park, in
United States, and thence to Australia, he re- the same county, April 6, 1860. His &ther, a
tuned home in 1869 by way of Oejlon, Egypt, deeoendant of a Dntch fiunUy originally eetab-
Trieeto, and Vienna. liahed in Ulster co., cultivated a Sum at the
PAUL VEBONESE. Bee Oaaliui. commencement of the revolntion en the oale-
PAULA, St. FSasoib of. See Fsakoibof brated "neutral gnnmd" of Wertcheeter co.
Pauiji. The depredations of tories and "cow boys"
PAULOON. See Oohbubtik FAnxKiir. having oompeUed him to remove his fomily to
PAULDING. L A H. W. 00. of Ga., drained a place of safety, he resided for several years
by branches of the Chattahoochee and Talla- in Pleasant Valley, but after the peace retum-
pooBS rivers ; area, about 400 sq. m. ; white pop. ed to WeetciieEt«r co., where young Panldintf
mlSGO, 6,667; slaveein 1600,478. Itssurfaee passed his youth. His edncation-was aoqaired
is nneven and traversed by derated ridges; the partlyat a neighboringvillsge school and partly
soil in the valleys is fertile. The piodnctions by a coarse of self-instraotion, and abont the
in 18G0, since which time its limits have been commencement of the IBth eentmy he removed
reduced by the formation of new oountiea, were to New York, where a great portion of hia sab-
306,019 bnshels of Indian com, &4,063 of oats, sequent life was psMed. Becoming intimate
44,878 of sweet potatoes, and 1,489 bales of with Washington Irving, whose elder brother,
cotton. There were 1& grist mills, 8 saw mills, William Irvina, had married Panlding's rister,
4 tanneries, 16 ohurchos, and 824 pupils attend- he published m connection with liim a series
ing pnblio sohools. Oapi(«l, Van Wert IL A of periodical essajs of a hnmorooa and satirical
N. w. CO. of Ohio, bordering on Indiana, drain- character, entitled " Salmagundi, or the Whim-
ed by tike Maamee and Anglaise rivers ; area, Whams and Opinions of Lancelot Langataff
483 sq. m. ; pop. In 1860, 4,946. Its surface is and oth««," with whioh the career of each
level, covered with forests, and the soil, a rich author commenced. This literary partnership
vegetable mould, is very fertile. The prodnc- tenniosted with the qtpearanoe of the SOth
dons in 1B60 were 41,690 bushels of Indian numbaron Jan. SS, 1608; bnt neither Panlding
oom, 10,704 of wheat, 4,609 of oats, and 4,214 nor Irvmg ever attempted to make a divition
of potatoes. It is intersected by the Wabash of thdr oontribntiona, and the whole is indnded
and Erie and the Uiami extension canals, in tho stereotype editions of the works of the
Oapit^Oharloe. former. TheBnecesa^"8aln)agnDdi" eneovr-
PAULDINQ^ BjBtJt, an Amerioan naval offi- aged Panlding to devote hfanself to litw^are,
cer, bom in Kew York abont 1800. He is a and abont the ctanmenoemeut of tiie war be-
Iveeti flw United States and Great Britaii: he tcKtk ite name from one Panl, the son of Galll-
paUiahed gweoewftiBy an allegorioa] satire en- nice, who with his brother John was its foand*
titled "Ilie IHrtnting History of John Bull er. Another tradition refers the name to Panl
■nd Brother Jonathan," In 181S appeared Ms the Armeiiian, a later teacher of the seat. The
"Lay of lie Soottiah Fiddle," a parody of most probable theory is that whioh derives
Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel," which was the name from the apostle Panl. The probable
reprint«d in London. It wee folloved by tlie fbunder of the sect was Oonstantine, a Haroion-
"United Btates and England" (1B14), a pam- ite preacher of Uauanalis, near Samosata on
phlet defending American institntioiis tnm the the Enphratee, who took the name of BTlvaniuk
attiwhi of the London "Quarterly Review," as that of one of P&nl'a companions (Silas), and
whioh bronsht the author nnder the notioe of established the precedent, afterward dosely fol-
Fremdent Madison, who ^)pointed him seore- lowed by (he hrethren of the sect, of assmning
tary to th« board of navy oommlasioners. A the names of those who were friends of the
vUttoTir^idainlSlOfliniishedtheinaterials great apostle. After 27 years of labor, Oon-
fiir hb next work, " Letters from the Soath by stontine was put to death for the caose he
ft Northern Man" (1617); and In 1816 he pnb- had esponsed, which had already aaatimed the
liahedhis lootfeat and hMtpoem, "The Back- proportiotis of a formidable heresy. The offi-
woodsman," tnoronghly American in scenery, oer Simoon, sent to pnt the heresy down, he-
incidents, and sentimcDt In 181S he prodnoed came a convert, took the name of Titna, as-
a second aeries of " Salmagnndi," written whol- sumed the leadership of the sect, and was in
ij by himself and in 182S "A Sketch of Old his torn, after 8 years of toQ, bnmed at the
England by a New England Man," followed in stake. His successor was Pan], nnder whosa
18S4 by a ^milar work entitled "John Bnll eons, Tlmott^and Theodore, the xect was rent
in America, or the New Mnnchansen," pur- by schism, Timothy holding to the transmis-
tiortmg to be an English cockney's aoconnt of sion of spiritual gifts by apostolic sncces-
hia tonr in the tTaitod States. In 1828 appear- sion, which Theodore rmected. Timothy
ed his fir«t novel, " Eonigsmarke," followed (whose proper name was Gognfesios), having
by "Merry Tales of the three Wise Men of adroitly managed to evade in his answers the
Ckttbam" (18SS); "The Traveller's Gtdde" charges of heresy, was able to continue his
(1628), snbsoqnently called " The New Pil- preaching for 80 years. On his death another
grim'e Progress" in oonseqnenoe of a whimd- schism arose. The sect had gradnally increas-
eal mistake aa to the character of its contents; ed and dtffnsed itself, until it was fonnd not'
" Tales of the Good Woman" (1839), and the only In Syria and Armenia, hnt in the prov-
"Book of St. Nicholas" (1880), which were inces of Asia Minor, Abont the beginning
diiefly of a satirical character. "TbeDntch- of the 9th century, the conversion of the Gala-
man's Xlreside" (1631), a story of the " old tian Bergins by a Panlician woman gave new
A«aoh war," and commonly regarded aa his life to the sect. Under the new nsme of Ty-
b«Bt work of fiction, passed throngh 6 editions ohions, he preached aa an oTSogotist with &.-
in the oonrse of a year, was republished in defUigable zeal in every part of Asia Minor,
Ltxtdon, and translated into the French and imitating the apostle not coi^in his dleoonrse,
Ihrtch langtiagea. His next novel, "Westward hnt in his manner of Me, His enemies aeons-
Ho I" (1888), the scene of which is laid princi- ed him of arrogating worship to himself as the
pally in Kentooky, also mot with great sno- Paraclete. The PanlliMans were now driven
oess. In ISSiy he pnbllshed a " life of Wash- beyond the territories of the empire to find
ington" for yontb, and In the snocoedlng year protection fhim the Saracens, and reprisals
a work entiled "Slavery in the Unit«d States," were made, until Sergics, thongh he had pro-
in whioh ha defended tlutinslitntion on social, tested agahist this return of evil forevil, was
MODomioal, and phyriological principles. In in 885 assassinated by a fimatic named Izanio.
1687, bsviiig fbr a number of yean previous In spite of this persecntion, however, the sect
held the pontlon of navy agent fbr the port of conUnned to grow and spread. Under th«
New Ym-K, he was ^)pointed by Prendent Tan empress Theodora, a new expedition was sent
Bnren aeoretary of the na^. In 1841 he re- to exterminate them ftvm Armenia, and 100,000
lired U> a country seat at Hyde Park on the victims perished in this persecntion. In 949
Hndaon riv«r, where the remainder of his life the emperor John Zimisces transported a larg«
was passed. Ho wTot« two mora novels, "Tho nnraber of the sect to Philippopolis in Thraoe,
Old Continental, or the Price of Liberty" whence they were able to extend themselves in
(184A), and "The Puritan and his Dsnghter" Europe, not Instifying by any change o^Mth
(184^. He also pablished anonymondy an the emperor b hope of their conversion, A
illQElrated volume of stories entitled " A Gift similar attempt by Alexis Comnenus a cen-
from Fairy lAnd" (1886), and in conjunction tnry later had hardly better success. The seot
with his son, William Irving Paulding, a vol- continued to flourish under other names, and
nme of " American Oomedies" (1647). the principles of the Paniieiana were perpetn-
PADLIOIANS, a sect of esstem Christians ated by the Enchites, the Bogomiles, the Oa-
irboat ormn is somewhat obscure. Photius than, the Waldenses, and to some extent by th«
raraosea l£at the sect began in the 4th century, English disciples of WycUfTe.— The Paulicians
ua was a variety of Maniotueism, and that it held that the evil spirit, bom of darkness and
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
48 PAULTTB PATTFEBISH
fire, wu th« creator of the lower world : that ment. He was prohibited from lejirii^ it •
the Bonl of man, ori^nallj related to Glo^ had without a cartifioate from the parish ma^tnts,
beea made llithle to Bin b? ita imioii with the and if he did ao waa to be whipped and sent *
flesh; that all men are capable of recoyerj; back. In hia own parish ha might beg, thooKh
that Ohrist came down from heaven, bringing he wsb liable to be compelled to work. The
with him a bod7 of finer mould, wilh which aot 4S EUzsbeth, o. 8 (1601), waa a great od-
he pasBcd back to heaven when hia work of re- Tonoe cmi the preyioaa poor laws, and remained
demption was finished; tliat the mother of In force withoot mat«nal modifiution till ISM.
Ohrist was not ainleaa or a proper object of It directed the overseers of the poor in each
worship; that the cross was properly a symbol parish to take measares for emplojing the ohiJ-
of Ohnst'a diffhsive love, and not of the corse dien of all parents who were thought nnobfe
which he bore or of his vicarious snfi'ering, to i&aint«ui their children, as well as all sndi
They danied the validity of the sacraments, in- persons as, haviog no means to muntiun them-
terpreted spiritoally baptism and the Lord's sup- selves, did not practise any trade or labor to
per, would not recognize any priestly dignity, earn a hvin?. For this pnrposa, a tax on real
and insisted both in tne ritoal and in the house- and personal estate was to be levied, and all
holds of the church npon mmplidty of onstoms. Isme, blind, old, and impotent persons were to
They rated highly the study of Bcriptar& and be provided for ; children were to be put out
especially honored those who would mulUply as apprentices, and a sufficient stock of flax,
and expound its record. They made no scrapie heap, wool, and other material provided to
of nsing fhlsehood in dealing with other sects, set the poor at work. Poorhous^ were to be
and ware ready to deny their Mth when in- built by the chnrch wardens and overseera, to
terest served. — The ancient authoritiea on the acoommodat« the impotent poor only. Per-
history of the Faulidana are Fhotius, and Peter sons possessing means were to be assessed for
of Sitdly, ambassador to Amtema of the em- the support of their poor kindred. In cases
peror Basil (668). of bastardy, the putative father was compelled
PAULUS, H^NBiOH K''>"i"*«" GoTTLOS, a to pay a certain sum weekly to the mother,
Qennon Protestant theologian, bom in Leon- and in default of p^ment waa imprisiMied.
berg, WOrtemherg, Sept. IflTSl, died in Heidel- The effect of thia provision was to maketlM
berg, Aug. 10, 1851. He studied the oriental income of the unnjarried mother, in many in-
Imguagea and divinity at Tfibini^ and Qottdng- stances, greater than that of the honest wift
en, and made a voyage to Engund to examine and motber ; and as the parish sumwrted
tha mannscript treasures in the libraries of Lon- the illegitimato children, it aotnally ofi^d a
don and Oxford. Oubisretnmhomeinl78S he premium to licentionsness. Under these pro-
was appointed professor of oriental languages visions, the expense of the support of paupers
at Jena, which position he exchanged in 17M increased. In 1801 the expenditure for this
for the chur of theology in the Bsmeunivertity. purpose was £4,017,871 ; in I81B it had risen
In 1804 he became professor of theology at to £7,870,801, nearly donblmg in 17 years.
WOrzburg, and in 1811 taught exegesis and For the IQ following years it ranged from
philoeo^T at Heidelberg. Among hia works £6,000,000 to £7,000,000. The p<^dation of
are: PhtiologiieA-hritueher vad hitlorueher Englondand Wales inl818waBll,67S,000, and
CoiMMntar€£«rda*N«v«Tettameiit(lS00-'4!); theratoofpoorrehef per head to the population
Dot I,A«nJetu(182S)i and Bxegeti»M€t Sarid- 6«. Oid. But such was the aversion of the peo-
buch i^er die drei ertien Beangelien ^1880). pie to change, that, although several snccessiTe
PAUPERISM. In every organized ctnn- oommissions aom 1801 to 1838 recommended
munity there has existed a class of persons ob- plans of legislation, no material change woe
taining their subsistence, partially or whoUy, made in the poor laws. In 1828 another nan-
frt>m public relief. The best method of repress- mission was appointed, and continued Uiurin-
ing panperism has been one of the most im- vestigationa for several years. Their report
portant topics of consideration in the political in 1683 included a new system of poor Uwa,
economy of all organized governments. Bo- which became a law in 1834. Retaining tie
lon made provision against pauperism in his best features of the act of 1 601 , it ftirtber pro-
Athenian code, directing that the slate shonld vldea for a central board of 8 commiamcmeTS
adopt tha widows and orphans of those who for the general superintendence and control of
fell in battle, and support those who were sQ bodies charged with tha management of
wounded or (Usabled. "It is better," says the funds for the relief of the poor. Subordinate
Roman code, " that vagabonds should be left to these ore 9 district commissioners, and the
to die of hnnger, Qian that they should be whole are subject to the direction of uie aecre-
supportcd in their b^^ng." Mendicity was tary of state for the home department. The
disoonrsged and prohibited bv Oharlemagne oommisaioners are empowered to order work-
and his successors, while liberal proviraou waa houses to be erected or hired, enlarged or al-
made for the sick and snfi'ering poor. — In Eng- tered, with the consent of a n^jtnity of the
hmd, all enactments for the suppression of hoa- board of guardians. They may unite a number
gory having C^ed of effect, the effort was made of parishes in a poor law union, for the par-
te ocmflne the beggar to his birthplace, or to pose of a more economical uid effective admin-
the parish in which he had aoquired a settle- utration, but in snch a way that each lurish
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
own poor. Ttopwid^ oomposin^ *W 1*t ^ISSSSSaiffiJilK^SJXSS: ^
UDioit elect their board of trnarnione, without « afaattioai togtoUM- nur
U»ooD»«to».m5|oriljrfwhominoa«c«i- gSSiaS'Si^SaS'aWS: "*•
iiotMraiseaforbiiiiaiiigpiirpoees;buttheiiui»- tiaiu bejoDdOsiutnipoii^T??. .TTT^ mumo
ten of the TOrkhoosM, and other paid offic«rEL B mUoeliMiwa. ct^nie. 8.M8
are under the oideTaoftheoommiisionen, and Totdbamu £i,uuat
remorable br tbem. No wages are pud to the LtiiatrMifi^&tpi>».
poor ont of Uie poor rates, and exoept In extra- ib the woaiioiims ss,e40
ortoery caaee relief U only given to Uw able. O"*""!^ ^"-^^
bodiedpoor and their &iniliee within the valla winteinimlMTnllnsd vit,-[4a
jftb.,«tU,oj«,wh»»L*orl«™™todot fSffiSSSiSiS'iii-.V.SS
toem in return for it The provtsionB in regard BipndUDT* ftrpom nuS'Soleiy smfK
to iUeffitimate ehildreo are intended to materi- i
ifflfXk b,.«.raj. Tk. p,t.ti™ ath.. If ssmasss'saif- ''•*™
pnMeontoi b required to pay the snm flied by _in Fnmoe, worthonaee were establiBhed for
Ijw (Si. 6<t per weij) to the mdon Initeiid of tkt nble-bodied poor t 1613, by > decree of
the mother, tod mother end ddld uro reoeiyed Jtoi, do' Hediof end It lym dlnoted that aU
hiloth«woAho«ae. Theohlltoiiofpaopmi meoidliantoiliooldbeoonaiedlnthemaiidaet
are edoeated la wor^o™ r^b. In tro to ,ork. In ipite of the worlhoMei ho».
![!!r'?S""fTT.?'''"i!'"*^''.° "". >xm^ eontmied to mereaiTii the
ooet oflhareDef of lie joor 40 p^ oent. A „,,„ ^fjZalB XIT. the BleStre wa. (bimded
■taular wfltoin has been urirodaoed Into Ire- ^g » combined hospital, afljlnm, and alme-
hmi The fdJoinng jtatntioe diowthodmiln- i,„n,„. !„ U9s a terrible amliTocoiirred to
whed cost of the relief for the poor at penoda France, Then2C,000ofthepoorto Parte were
SOyearaapart TiJIe U. im giroa some data ntterly deetitnte, and menafoano; waa necea-
foracompariaon of the rcLef to Ihepoor m „^, pcroiltled. Haying once n««ned Ita
London with that to Parte and Now Tort footbclS, It oonttonod tTbe one oflie crying
Tuu L^-STAnRiiB or Fin-mmi m Enujm las erib of the country for the neit 100 yeara. In
i^asun-diuc^^^irikl .. iimioc W»» 'orkhonaiia weij agi^ eA.blijhed, and
a^^or'jSSnttlSild^iMW..™::.;::.: «S«^ mendicity Btemly prohibited. The decree of
B«aipta from othn muBMiB iidofpcnrnK Uaroh 19, 1798, took thc grocnd that the aa-
g^dflUtudM-nmnixiK^^iim BiBlanccof the poor waa a national debt, and
■ . divided the ftinda apprcpidated to theb relief
ofihi.«mttm™™i™itoMair«tiTL.*^'^"* " followa; tho aaeletancc of Ubor to the
ttianUar<^Baapaa(fuEi^w^udiarM healthy poor, to time of dearth of labor or of
liirMiirfaarfminniiwinniii^ wartton etbaild- Calamity; aaetetaoce (to money or provteiona)
SftiE?2!S55'4S^tr*'""'".t £UH,fe9 at home to the inflAu poor, theif children;
Tbe<rbo)*ramb«t«(p«ip«nLiSiiiJiiiduidWals tho old, and the tick; hospitale for the riok
PaKraSc^pnoiitioii """m who had no homes, or oonld not be oared ft>r
WibMt^uavtraiuOik'nuim'iniditaouMV/.V.V. lOT^OH there; foondllng hospitals and Bsrlmns for
. ."^^. ^._J"i!^f^-i: !S^ abandoned io&utB, the dd, and the homeless
5U^Sa!53teSi2Sri5.*:^;::::::::::::'SS:£? infirm; and aid for nnfores^n accidents. C
na«p*Bditan>nraMnliActfifa« poor Mdei}', par polooQ I. forbade mendioitT br BeTore laws.
Tir:i££f>S2SS&Sl;i;t- ***«£«« Boon after the aoce«ion of Lonis Philippe to
ofttwxDBapsDdMdtndrftirnlKtben the throne a thorongh tnTeetigation ot tAe
DSir^'£srSJSr!f^;;;:::;:";;-:-:2^S'""'*°'- ^hoie8abjMtofpmperimwasSiianited,and
^teilt^b^i^i;^];^........: &«e - *^ oodererised, thebasisof anaadstaooe to
Diua.au mimOEttOtatA to, SU3 " the poor being the principle of inciting them
HirfESh^^SSidKi";::::";:"-' iJm *" Mlf-mipport. There are now fewer men-
!io.(irMiHl*pvWiwiKittiMiDd*d ui dioants in France tboit In anj other conn-
£UmiMl.<wuaoeMowi8»(ifi&siuii,AD*ili« poor are aasisted, whero saeutaQco IS neoessaiT,
p^BiatHm hid inoMMd nwuUnM BfiS^ tAQitx at their homes or in workhonses (dipSU
Tabu n^Lonwa ToumuT Ohauum » ten ^ ^ mMdiaiti) ; the sidk and infirm poor are
isbMUdihntaaufaMomaat. <go(v»0 ftbrnidantlf prorided for in 1,881 hoKiltals,
^*"2mj»«JJJJ«2^«'B'*indl»«lUi. asylnms, and hospital aaylnms; and fonnd-
iipSSot^^uid^StomitoriMli''^!"!: ^Eoo ^i^S^i orphans, and abandoned cMldrwi, in
isdMrUkihrnB«f«ftiudMtitat«,b«wflciiig fonndliag hoflpitslsand orphan asflmns. Yet
uSSflS^-dibtiii;^d^Vi;iiii; "^ tl»«" *« » «t«»dy in<M;eMe rf abl^bpdied pi«.-
*e- torn pers in a larger proportion than the mcawase of
^i'hSiaS'^**'^"'*"''''""'"'' 101X0 the population. ThieinoroaBeinl868,aBoom-
ijprarMwttiodi^i:":::::::::::::::::::'.: SooS psredwith the epreoedmg years, was tI, of i
iliwMiaB«wUtia^tinianiiiigi,doapaiK[ia.... oajMB per ooHt On the other hmd, the number of
nli>l.>dMi«ol.piu«lr<d>^t.SKUnd... IM^ the Biok and inflran Is gradual^ deoresKDg, the
- - ise^ns diminntion being S.SS in every 1,000 inhabl-
TOuxm. — 4
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
50 PAUPEBISU
tanta in IStlS, as compared with ttie S precod- The nrntnal relief sooieliea of Fr&noe do mnoli
tug jean : and the number of fotmdlings and to benefit the poor and prevent panperism.
abandoned children in 1BC8, as compared with The members are ahnrat exolnsivel; from the
the 17 Tears preceding, had diminished 68 per laboring olasseB. In 1669 there were of tfaeM
cent. The following tables show the amoont aodeties:
and kinds of relief to the poor in Franoe in Apanrsdbjrgartnuiwiit i,tTi
1868, the latest year for which fall returns Aa&,aii»i - ^^'ntiS
have been made pnbuc: ^iESS^^CS^^Sib^::::":::;-.::" Its
iw^ -wtai ooxraitoa or mnam TMOM. Tbt gvfa]Ma<m otVnaix ia IXt vrm SSfn%tm
MC^'^^tfLSS <»..».» The M«™, «^. T.m„ to p.,,«i-
laSy.. SSitBie in Pans are of interest:
?''^!!l!!!;?J?i?5Li—>i:;;v™ J^W:1& Poi»i»uoiirfp«rmMn (m^qr
'^"'^^.'a.*"™™"™™™™™*" ..« Hii,rfllleglHiii«tBblrtlifclnmlotilof B8,SM,lnlBI» ie,Bn
™^?^.S^ SS Mo,<rfb«Silnth»h<milWtao(PuS«tolte!
Ditto, MBi... „..,.......„ M.n In iHwrftal* proper <,T«
<Ln In Aiuiimiic hoBiuii ew— n.iti
■"*' CoWof wipport ot flu hemlMlfc wjtiiiiii, mmI nrlim
„_ hoBlUitiiPuialiklsn .... fLWC«l
*-» C<»ts(vofUuHuei(<«pMid4bln>«Ktiotti)-- —•—
> ttorBign pupan SS(L4II
liBl^u «l,4n
Dlttt^islB.....^ iM xoW •l.ltt.sn
.d<r{Nmt,(nil£«p<(a{^tj%HM — Itwyt Spam, and Portugal have been oxer-
ToWniimborotbo^itilsMiduylnintlnFniica I,»i ran with beggars from time immemorial. Hol-
HonAtiiifcr uw gick >]«■>... v,-v;i;' SS land and Belginm, too, have dnrinit the pree-
H«idtd ttjim^ta HMnoTbUBd, dut- ent centnry at least been remarkable for the
-nntoLiiUatiLAfr ,_SS nnmher of thrff panpera. In 1865 the formtc
iSSSSSr.ff.lS'Siiii;: BS co«>tryhrf280,000p<K,rr«»l™g«ri««,«,
' ' lainiSM aaoM or 1 to everr 13 inhabitantfl; and the expend]-
AdiiiW«up.ri^tnhibttuuioi858 itot ""^ ^' V^™^ reiiei was aoont f^ooo.uuo, or
Totil oiponJo tor 18S8 mL*Bi,a79 71.4 cta. to every mhabitant. The religions
DiUt nimfa upenae fbr ncli lanute IM cli. to iT.l cta. ienoniination to wMoh the panper belonire iS
SSi'SSSBStSS !SSi .ffi" " "■*' •"p<«*«i » .«rt«o him, »S it b o,j, .h«n
uUa S8is,iBS their means are exhausted that the goTemment
JStf^ iS**! ■•*?* in ■with ita aid. Aside from this govern-
ffliiiftrtii liiidw-'iB jiiri """.'.'.'.''.'.'.'."."," 4»,»1B ment assistance, there were 3,884 societies for
DcBtha 1b fliB uylnnu ind Brltun hoR^til* la ^dlng the poor at their homes, of which SGS
lE'S"h^ii;'ft;'thi'ili"."f.i:".".:.rV*."a!S'^ were in the towns, snd 3,628 in the conntiy.
IIL anidrm aHittad,in ibundOne EdtpttaU, orjAim Belgium has the repntadon of being the pow-
Atj^vnu, Ae. est conntry in Europe ; a large proportion of
A-mmMran^nniDberofciiiidMninuTinnu, its peasantry never taste meat, but eabsistoa
nZuTIS"^'""'''"'"^'"'"^ ."■ K vegetables and the black breadV the conntry.
Annn*iBipMi»ofU»ir>opiwrtiBiB*8-^'M.... tt,Bn,i»T In 1846 it had 699,867 paupers, or I to B.SO
WaeUy o^enMiD isiB-tn ICLSO.B poorest portlos of the kingdom, having 400,-
jumMl6ip«i«»ri|»aini8e8 •list OOO panpers to 1,400,000 inhabitants, or 1 to
<MttiJi^^taMytani'*i,"fii'M«;Uwo»w»: 8,6 inhabitants. There has been conaderable
Ponirflinei nai improvement linoe 1846, and a large nnm-
taSS' ^"^Tfl?."^™::::: \m ^^ »" "^^ ^ •*« ahnahouses, woSionsa,
TemponriiViniitAd.'.' M^ ^°d reformatories, who were formerly mendi-
p™^™o('ih««ehiidrMito],o»iiihrt4t«iii. canto. Thronghont the states of GerTnany
Di5«l%..v.v.v.".':."v:::::::::::".::;::::'.: us (with the eingTe exception, we beiieve, of sa-
Proportiira to iw Mrtu In 1B«-M 9.TS varia) mendicity is strictly prohibited, and the
P«™"Bti«(rfdl»thi"iiii8«^..."":".:::" mU P^per is remanded generaUy to the pariah
- " 1808 ait where he was bom, which is liaUe for hit
p«r»ntww«M™™orinibnt™dtoi8».-M 1^ Bupport, and employs him in its workhoow,
□ , ., _,._i,_u 1. '" if he is able to labor. In Bavaria there is a
8™mug.pth«»it.>llrtic.,^.h.T.: privileged ola» of b.ggu^ In »ver J of the
HSSKmK'SSWSiiiBui !SS «■*" there 1.. poor tod, deriTOd from th.
roandUig boqtitiiB, oipbui ujiami, &a. ifiofies oonflscataoQ, Of the convents at the time of
'^^.^Ji^to^i*^*"**''"" LBtLooo tl»o "fo™«*ion. In Sweden, eaoh commone
^laimfprt^rM^miaiiaiKJV.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. i^^floa OF parish is charged with the support of its re»-
CItU iw, »ld to uuHtntioiB, pouioiH lo ident poor, and in many of the parishes the
«oB»d<ia»>idl«^te. • ''T'^W foandirtions,legadea, and gifts for the relief of
ToU nr.sssw the poor are so large as to reqnire v«ry little
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PAUFEBiaU 61
adffiioiMl tax«&m. The abandoned panpw, Tuu iT^PMroiM a KuucEmnn.
or one irfao has acqaired no noidence, ia com- <>•. I'M.
pelkd to enter the army or nayy. or, if nnfit 2?S?^lS°SrSid^to-;tail "' «
RT either, mnat labor on the imblio works, or bantM ii,sm ilmi
in a honao of oorreotion. In Denmark, aaaiat- *1?S?^ "*" "^ ''~'"'™" "*.,«.«_ „™-,.
ADM ia reorded aa an adnnce made to the HSb;;<iii»™',;iUVid iB;tei. "^^ R,**,*!!
iMmpflr, which he mnrt repay by hia labor. . i">oi« ii,b« lajtta
TbipMishdergynwn, the loW director of the *iS£."!f;^"'!!!?^..'?..'!^ >ih
poSoe^ And one or more notables or property Anne* wiiiii oott of (ojiport of
ISS^con«ita»th.b«rfto,UofX.p- jSS.SSeUSJ'JiSSE.-ii Sm Vi&
UKsbona for relief mnat be made. There are bUuutodTiiusofpuipeTliborintht
legal provi»ons for the relief of parishes which q^^^"*" *^ti **i^»I
ire orerbaraed with paupers. In RneaiH, pan- Weekly f^^'^ Irf' oaidiir piii *
p«ra have been of two kinds, serfe and ne«. pnfaead 11.10 |I.M
nw mastera are compelled to provide for bU HZbS»h?Kn^S"'Sw™nt **"
iha needa of the pauper serf. The serfs on tiitb*aUM ufiit ii,ns
ite crown lands, if sick, most be supported br 5"™!?" jlSfS" E?'''*" SS Si!
BfiT fHuhea, Orj If they are unable, by the Pupan in Bnueqneoeeor Intunpv-
^•riah. The panshes in the crown lands have "™ ;■■■■■ IM» iTiW
partiaUj endowed. The emancipation of the B*t upnuutan for tha uppoit of
HI the poor lAwa. In Tniley, amoiw the Mo- Movportwittpabiiotiiiaiaa. ynt
hmunedana, ^msgJTfaig fa cwaidereJaa eqnal- a a. »W -0«u»«*«. m«t «,«*« a( Jfert^ff-*'
It a aalBj with prayer; the {dona Itoelem de- /iiaiKt
Totca Uie tenth of his income to the poor, KuDberittbrgiiiiiiDKDrtiicyeir..... s,i«) i,<»t
ud sU the moaques have treasuries for their ^^^^SbiJ* "* '*" Sllu 7^
lien^t. ICoet m tbe aaltans have endowed Dtaduured....!!!!!!!!""!!'.!!!!!!! T/ss ^^
hospitals and aaylums for the sick, the Inflrm, dw loi *at
•leMtortiinate, the insane, and the blmd.- ^STSUSir "^ ^ '^^'*' tun fi OD
h) tbe United States, different systems of Ditto u Kdmrord'i lalud vLn
^o«g«menta« adopted mdiffe«mt portion^ ^^:r'^.'^??:^.f^,^: ^mm !.«,«»
m the conn^. In Sew England, the general For itete (•open not in anuhmui*. fajiVt
fsstorea of the English ]aw of 1601, though '"^St^'^K^jS^''' "" ""' ""* ,™bm rstMS
TithoBt ita perversions, are preserved. The pmniitiononfcSii'oJetuinVwii.'. i^i,«4 j,m|«4
readent p«npen are oared for in the parishes or Bate nr head oTpoiiaiitiDi] of ttuei-
wwn»li»wSioh they were bom or have gained P«^««" *» P*"**" WJae lotM
* MttlaiMnt. Bomedmea, where a &mily seem In ITew York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and most of
likely to becocue panpera, their taxes are re- the older western and middle statM, care of the
mitted for s aeriea of years by the town offioers, poor devolves Qpon county officers. Each oonn-
toprerent th^ graiiu; a settlement. In the t7luisitsBlmshonBe,itsworkhoQ8e,anditagao],
■laQer towna the able-bodied paupers receive and themorepopolons ones often also an insane
wly temporary and occadooal relief, while the hospital. In these institntions tbe feeble and
infirm, aged, or demented are provided for at infirm or insane pauper is cared for, and the
t pooihonse, or a oontraot is made for their able-bo^ed oom^ellea to work, usually on the
raffiort wi^ some citizen, who in bidding for ooonty taxm, which commonly oonsista of fyom
it takes into accomit his ability to exact some 100 toSOOaores of land. Theamoont of labOT
Iibor from them. Inthelargertownstbepoor- acoompUshed is but little, and does not mote-
lioiuee or olmahousea have usually some land rially lessen the coat of support of the paupers,
toaohed to them, and often workrooms for Thereisalsoprovision forrendering temporary
(jther rimple labor, where such as are able to and occasional assistance to the outdoor poor.
TDik are employed. Occasional and tempo- In New Tork, aa the great receiving port of
rary asaisUnce is also rendered to the out- foreign immigration, a board of commissioners
door poor st th«r homes, usually either in of emigration has been appointed by the state,
tiod or fhel, though sometimes in dothing and who levy a tax of $2 on each immigrant arriv-
anall sonis of money. There are beside, in all Ing at the port, or require bonds bom the own-
the larger towna, ben^oent sooietieB, widows' ers of the immigrant ships that they shall not
lociedes, and orfdian ai^loms, which ^d in the become chargeable to the state within S years,
rtliefof the poor; and the religions denomino- These oommissioners have established on
tioos to some extent provide fi)r their own Vard's island, New York, a hospital, reftage,
poor members. There are state almshouses insane ho^ital, &c., where the foreign paupers
for fiveiga paupers, or for Uioee who, from arriving there are maintained till the 5 years
snjeaiise^hi^enotg^ed a settlement. Table ore completed, when, if they still continae
IT. df ea the panper atatistke of Hassacbusetts paupers, ^vj are tamed over to the state an-
for t^ yeora 1858 and 18C9, which Aimish a thorities. l^e commisuoners of emigration
fur example of the New England ^stem. ore also liable for the mointenanoe of any for-
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FAUFEBIBK PAHaAMAS 58
eign pMipem wbo, vithin fb« K jrean, httre b«* ment, exAeedlsg, ftooording to th« best aotbori-
oome olumable to an; ot the isoaatj ahna- ties, IB per cent, of the irlude mnnber of pas-
hoiiBMOft£«>tBt«. The state has slao prorid- puv, the oost for the support and relief tn the
ed for the treatment of the paoper insane, and poor is In proportion to the pofnlation Ian
tibe instmotaon ot joxasg deu am dumb, blind, than half in the state, and eren u the titj at
and idiotao paiqwrs. New York bat abont half, that of England.
Tamim Y^Tavtw^mm u, th B>ai> of Siw Ton ^ ^^ riaveholdhig states, tie ohUg^on <rf^
(umain ntSaw Turk ud Ananj ooimtiB). master to Bnpport the aged, eiek, neble, innrm,
iM. ita. or mentallr disordered slave, has obvi^ed to *
JrfSShSSi*"*' tu^Sa ^'*" considerable degree the necessity of panper
Mtdincd t* rfiii-' '^^'^ laws. The state goremment, or the oodttr
"Mivi::-" BS SSS "nthorities, in case of general loss of bread
rS^SSS^.^.f^;; i^ i*^ crops, appropriate a apecttedanm, to be r^aed
*■ feuiBi.. .'..'.... iM ana bytaziand apportioned to the poordtherln
SSESK?aSS".''r?'^: Smt ^^ money or breadetoffii. In the new rtatea, the
VilMoriiborcfHnpai NMM HD,B8T poor laws are not m all oasea rojlf dlgeated
AsKMBtoqmMfbrdtDiAaiMaTdiet M8t,i>o nH^oi and In eacoessfbl operation, bnt they are geD>
.. ^. „j_^ jfi^ eraUyonthemoddofthoseofNewToAand
»T,i« lfn,Ki Ohio.— SeeDr. B. Bun, "The Hlatorrof the
u««^g^«j«Mo«rp™... iotSi (bio^ p^^ Laws" (8vo., London, 1764); BkV.1L
wS^^itS^TJiirf toiii: ^ ■■■■ Kden, "The State of the Poor, or ffiatorr of
^jioiitpiMit^tittd......... ........ W.*J •CLU tbe Laboring Olastee in En^and from the 0<Hi-
"'"' " ""' *~ flun SpeBt"^vda.4to., London, 1797) ;flirQe«fg«
M» Hioholl, " Hifltoriea of the English, Bcotoh, and
"g tirii Poor Laws" (4_ toU., London, 1854-^8);
8U Stephen Oolwell, "Themes for the Protestant
DMia^»b«w> VM MM OlorgT, by a Layman" (pUladelpbJa, ISW);
^'^rtTT:^'.!^.!^'"^: .... tVM 0.dl^onokSiV2«cAori«rfPaaSfi«wI
PHWcuidinBiidnis;«inariit* ti,n vn SKow (BmsBels) ; H. A. Frigier, Jkt rfftawa^a*-
^.«l«.au»i»fcfinpponofi«i.^^^ «MtBOT ff^rmaei de la pojmlatwn doiu U grandtt tiOtt
Fi^ia^'A"6^'iiiU'ii'v'^'i'-A •'-«•■" « vols. 8to., Parts, 1840); Ohristt^eMorean,
inis«o(*xoantamiKm>. S,iiMW MVMW Z>u preilime de la mitire et de n tAutim (S
flffSr?.*!?: lo^ |o.4iiT VOL). 8vo., Paria, 1861).
™poOT;_^... w «» PAOBANIAS, a Spartan general, son of Oe-
aSSStrf'SXJ^'t^aS*^ *^**^ "^ ombrotoe and nephew of &onidaa, belonging
Id Haw ToAdt; (■imiiunua d» to the iL^ branch of the royal fsnilf. Heeno-
FBtDenn...... -waipMi IS4M1 oeededhia&therBBgnardianoftheyoniigUng
"^S^S^^fiS^to'SS; PHatarohML the eon of Leonidaa, whlS^offlS
sS^Kr. t?V7. tan.* *mi« he retained nntjl his death. He first emnei
^■^SJ^^toSSo it«wr i,TKU« into notice as leader of the comWnedtoroei of
vSSavlti*^ a papiiaim'Wai the Greeks tn the great battle at Platffift amlnat
^m«tanfctt£.pMTiD tbu' the Perrians nnder Mardonina in 47» B. a
tt»rt^»«vtAiiW(« mu «U(Li The sQcoessfhlreenlt of the battle gave hfan so
In the dtr ct New York, tie charge of the poor high a repatsdon, that in 478 be vas choaen
and of crtminsla is in the hands of a boara of oommander of the fleet destined to sot sgidiwt
4 oranmisrioners of obantiea and OOneotionB, thePersians. ThearmamentfintaaUfldagainst
ander whose care are the BeiQeTne hoipital, in Oypnu, and restored to freedom most of tb«
the dty; the slmshonies, woAbonseik inssne <^ies ot that Island, and then tnmtng to the
■s^mn, island homital, small pox hospital, and Thradan Boqxmis rednced Byzantiom. The
penitentiaiy, on Butokwell's island; 4ettyprlS' natnral insolence of Psasaniss now beoam*
ons on NevTork island: the BandaB*ais)aDd eonqdcnona. After the battle of I^atna be
nnrsery, and tie nursery bos^tal, on Randan's had bealM^ lliebes, and hsTing obtained pos-
island; and the laty oemetery, on Ward's isl- session of Timagenidas, a leader of the Hedis-
snd; uie charge of tie ontdoor poor and par- ing fiiotion, had carried him to Oorinli and
tiaDy of the ottered home and odored orphan pnt him to deati without tiiaL In tie tripod
si^mn. There are also In lie dtr a great dedicated at Delphi by the viotoriana Oreeks,
number of societies and inatitntlonB having fbr be styled himself alone aa the leader of tie
their obtoot Uie relief of tbe poor, or of par- Greeks and destroyer of the Fenians ; vrhioh
ticnlar clasees of them. Te uve eadeaTored inscription wsa snbseqnently erased by the I*-
to bring the stadstica of these t<%etier, so aa oedamonians themselves, who snbsntnted in
toesbiUt at one view the public oharities of plaoeofhiinanie the names of the oonfoderate
the dty. (See table YL on the preceding nations engaged in the battle. Uptm tie cap-
page.) It will be observed that a large ma- tore of Byzanldnm he connived at tie eaoqte
iori^ of those receiving relief are eitier of of the Perdan prisoners, who carried a letter
foreign birA or bnt one remove from it Tet to Xerxes, oflbring to bring onder hts domhdoil
notimhstaQding Uda very large teeign ele- Snarta and the rest of Greece, and demanding
64 PAUBABXAB PAUV
in retorn the hand of his daughter In marriagQ, The minnteneea and completenees of his de-
siid thst a coTtBdeotial persoa nhonld be sent BoriptionB prove that he most hare visited per-
to the seahoard, throogh whom to oorreapond. sonaliT all or nearly all the plaoee' vhioh he
The Persian monarch acceded to these propo- deaoribee, and it is also probable that he had
sidons, promising to fomish as tnach money Tisit«d the islands of the Mgmaii, Rome, Pales-
and as manj men as wonld bo needed, and tine, and other parte of Sjria, His books era
sending Artabazns down to treat with him. chiefly taken ap with descriptions of antiqni-
PaQBanias now became more arrogant than ties, etataee, pictures, and pablic edifices, and
ever. He aaamned the Persian dress, imitated the phfsioal peonliarities of the coontrics in
the lamrions conduct of the Persian ohie&, which he trayelled. All the mjtholo^cal
and ioameyed throogh Thrace with a body of tales connected with these are narrated. Tho
Peraan and Egyptian goards. His treasonable general fidelity of hia topographical desorip-
course at length came to the ears of the Spar- tioo has been thoroaghly tested by modern an-
tans, and he waa recalled; bntalthonghpntapon thors. The first edition of his work, which
trial, there was no evidence snffident to con- wss exceedingly incorrect, was printed by Al-
viot him of treachery. Under pretenoe of tak- dng at Yenice (fbl., 1616). Since then there
ing part in the war, he now sailed to Byzan- have been several, of whidi the latest are those
tlnm, snd, resnming his oorreH)ondeiLoe with of J. H. 0. Schnbart and 0. Walz (8 vols. 8vo.,
ArUbazns, so conducted himself that the Athe- Lelpsio, 1888-'40), and of Dindorf (Paris,
nians expelled him from t^e dty. He then l&U), The "Itinerary" was translated into
retired to OolonnBa in Troas, where he con- En^ieh by Thomas Taylor (8 vols. Bvo., Lon-
tinned his commonioationH with the Persians, don, 1798-'^.
mitil he received a peremptory order from PAUSIA^ a Greek painter, a native and
Sparta to return. Upon hia arriva] he was remdentof Bicyon, whofionriahedbetween 860
immediately imprisoned, but soon released on and SSO B. 0. He was instructed by Pamphi-
hts demand for trial, in which be trusted to Ine, and was a contemporary of Aristides, Me-
olear himself by tiie use of money. Unob was lonthins, and Apelles. Pliny says that be was
nected, bat inasmuch as nothing seriona psrticiUarly distingaished as a painter in en-
i be proved, he remained at liberty and oansdo witii the cettTian, and be is believed to
prosecuted his designs, and to carry them out have been the first to decorate the ceilings and
tampered with the helots, to whom he ofi'ered walb of houses in this style. He was fond of
freedom and the rights of oitizenship. Al- painting small pictures of boys, and from hia
though some of the helots themselves divnl^ed intimacy with Glycera, a fiower ^1, whose
the plot, the ephors feared to take decisive portrait by him ia highly extolled by Pliny, ho
measures against a man of his position. At acqnired great skill in fiower punting, Aa-
length an Argilian slave, who was intmeted other celebrated painting by him, representing
wiu A letter to Artabazna, noticing that none a sacrifice, and remarkable for the foresbortea-
of the previooa . messengers had come back, ing of the victim and the strong relief of the
broke the seal and discovered that he waa to enrronnding fignres, was preserved in the por-
be put to death. He immediately showed the tioo of Pompey at Rome. This st^le of paints
letter to the ephors, and by their direction took ing is said to have originated with Pausias.
refuge in the temple of Heptnne at Teenarofl, The greater part of his paintings were probably
wheretwo of the ephorshid themselves. There transported to Rome when Bicyonwas obl^ed,
they heard the conversation of Pansanias with in order to pay her debts, to part with all her
his slave, which left no donht of his guilt. As art treasures which were pnhUe property,
he woa about to be arrested in the street, he PATJW, Ooksbliits di, sometimes called
fled to the temple of Athena Chalciceous, Niooiab, a Dntch historical wril«r, bom In Am-
where he was waQed in, his own mother being sterdam in 1789, died in Xanten in 1799. Ha
i^d to have 1^ one of the first stones for this was educated at GOttingen, and obtained
purpose. He was carried out as he was dying through the influence of hie brother-in-law, the
to save the temple from pollution. The data father of the revolutionist Anocharsia Ctoots,
of his death Is later than 471 B. 0. Ha left 8 the ofRoe of canon of Xanten, in the dnohy
sons, of whom Pliatoanax became one of the of Oleves. Bnbseqnently he wai made reader
kings of 8p^^ to Frederic II. of Prussia. He wrote several
PAIISAEnA8,aOreektopompher,sappoMd works In French, one of which waa SeehtreAet
to have been bom in Lydla. Notning is known tur lei Amineaint (Svo., Berlin, 1770 and 1773),
of his life except what be himself tells us, and designed to prove " the native inferiority of
fromhimweleamthathewasengagedonapart the savage Americana." In the parts relat-
or his work In the time of Antoninus Pius, who ing to Paraguay he bitterly assailed the Jes-
died A. D. 161, and wrote his 8tb book dnring nits, and bis attacks on them made bhn nnpop-
the latter part of the reign of Uarous Aurelius, nlar with the Catholic clergy. Another work,
which dosed in 180. Eis work is entitled l^t Secherehet tur let ^yptUta et let Chinci* (2
'EXXoSot nifuiryijinc, "Itinerary of Greece," vols. 8vo., BerHn, 1774; translated into Eng-
wUch Is divided into 10 books, and comprises lish by Capt J. Thomson, S vols. 8vo., Lon-
descriptions of the whole of Peloponnesns and don, 1796), was designed to prove " that no
of the most iuterestmg parts of Hellas proper, two nations ever resembled each other leaa
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FAT£lf£KT fifi
tbsD the Egjpdaai and the Ohiiiese." In this of the militarr roads, moiiT of which weia cou-
treatue heobearea that both nAtioDs were cy>ii- stracted 'with unmeiue lebor throagh hiUg and
denmed "to an «tenuJ medioorit;." His S^ mauea of rook, and, hy bridges and embank-
cK&rehn «w in Qnet (S Tola. 8to., Berlin, 1767) ments, through ewampe oud aoroaa ravlaefl and
TM tamnalatad into EngHah (London, ITBSV In riTera. The fioora of Bomau booaes were
oonnqnenoe of the invauon of the i^mj of paved with pieces of bricka, tiles, etoaea, ha, \
CleTeslo'Ote]Krenclirevolnt3ouar7ami7,Panw sometimea with tiles grosnd to powder and
beoame anbject to melancbolj, and horned his mixed in with mortar ; and agun witii pieces
S»eh«rthn wr let Qenuatit, which waa never of marble imbedded in a cement gronno, and
paUiahed. Althou^ a man of great learning well beaten or rammed down, whenoe the
and abilitj, he waa exceeding!; dogmado in name pontiMntwn. Uoeaio pavementa were
all hia •tTTitmgg. first made in the time of Bjlla, by whom, ao-
FAVEUENT (Lat. jfOfMumtum, &om]»mo, cording to Flinj, one waa constmoted in the
to beat or ram down), a hard covering of stona temple of Foctnne at Prnneste. Thej beoame
irmi, wood, brick, cemen^ or aepbaltnm and -^vrj common in the bonaea of Fompeii, and
sand for roads, wslka, and floors 01 hoosea. As were there prodaced with great taste in a
stated h^ Bec^mann, the earliest mention^of varietvof beantifalpftttems,iniaarbleofdifier-
paved highways is of thoee i>re^ed b^ Semi- ent colore, in tiles, and even glasa, aet In a £ne
rsn^ aooordinK to the inscription which she cement and laid upon a deep bed of mortar.
aet np, recorded by Yalerins Masimas, lib. iii. Some oftbededgns were of figures and scenes in
cap. 7. Mdoma states that the Oartha^niana aotnal life, being really pioturea in mosuc An
had Uie first paved roads. The streets of Rome aococnt was presented to tbe Britisih assooia-
wMe not paved in the time of its kings ; bnt tion in 1850, ty Prof. Bnckman, of an ancient
the ^[dan w^ waa constmoted h^ Appins Roman pavement discovered at CireuceEter, in
Glandms 1S8 yean after their expoMon ; and which appeared a medallion of Flora with a
many of tbe streets are known to have been head dress and fiowers of verdigris green when
pared with stone in the 4th and 6th centmies first uncovered. This being scraped off, the
after the bnilding of the city. Pavements of portion of tbe pavement beneath was fonnd to
Uooka of lava worn into mU by the wheels of be a beantifnl raby glass, tiae color of which
carriages are met with in Herculanenm and was derived from peroxide of copper, and this
PconpraL From the descriptions of pavements hy decomporition had become converted ex-
given hy Yitrnvias, together with tbe poem of temally into the green carbonate of copper. — ■
Btatina (m the Yia Domitiana and Uie frag- Though the paved roads of the ancient Romans
ments of ancient paving still remaining, a very sorpaas all other stmctnres of the kind that
clear idea may be formed of the care given by have been made by civilized nations since th^dr
tbe Romans to tbe constmctdon of their fa- time, there are found in Fern remans c^
mona roads. These were l^d ont with a width works of a similar kind of unknown age, and
of frcHD 8 to IB ftet by excavating a shallow exceeding them in grandenr and extent. Snch
trench aloiw each tide. The qiace between were the great roads from Quito to Ga&;o, and
these ma l£w dng down to a solid hed, or if continued south toward CbUi, laid oat throng
this could not be reached piles were driven, monntaiuons and almost impassable re^ons
upon -trUeh the materials of the road might be for distances variously estimated from ],S00 to
supported. The lowest coursewas of broken 3,000m.,and about^O feetin breadth. "They
stonea, none smaller than the fist ; over these were boilt of heavy flogs of freestone, and in
waa a conrse S inches thick of rubble work, some parts at least covered with a bituminous
or broken stonea cemented with Ume, well cement, which time has made harder than tbe
rammed ; over thia was a conrse 6 inches thick stone itself." (Prescott, " Conquest of Fern,"
of finer materials, chiefly broken bricks and vol. L p. 63.) In Central America, among the
pleoea of pottery, alao cemented with lime ; and mins of Falenqne, are also found pavements of
np<Mi this was laid the jioMSMntum, which con- large square blocks of stone couBtmoted with
dated of large polygonal blocks of the hardest great sliill and nicety. — In Europe during the
rilicions stonea, sometimes of bassltic Ists, of middle ages comparatively little attention was
irr^nlar tarv^ and nicely fitted together in a given to the paving of streets and roads. Cor-
Bort of mosaic. In the dties the slabs of dova in Spun was paved in 8G0 by Abderrah-
stone were sometimes of rectangnlar form and man II., Uie 4th caliph. Btreetfi in Paria were
of softer material, as in the forum of Tr^an, first paved in 1164 by Philip Augnstns. The
whkh was paved with travertine. In every improvement extended over the " Cross of
iDStance gr^ care waa taken to fit the stones Paris," as it was called — two principal streets
to eadi other so as to produce a perfectly even crossbig each other at right angles. In 1863,
mrface. Stones corresponding to cnrb stones in excavating for a aewer in tbe me St. Denis,
were sometimes set np to sustun a narrow this ancient pavement was met with about 8
gravel walk on each side of the road, and some Inches below the surface. It consisted of blockt
of theae were raised so as to serve for mounting of stone abont 4 inches long and 7 thick. A
blocks for travellers on horseback. The Ro- few inches below this was found the still more
~ ined to give great attention to the ancient roadway of gravel of tbe period of the
e of the pnhlio ways in the city and Roman emperors. Many of tbe streets of Lon-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
66 FATEIIENT
don were in a perilom condition by reason of requlrina any repair, Tlio pavement has elnce
deep pits and ^ongfas even as bte as the^ 16tb been lua in otber streets in Boston, and alao
and yiQi oentoriei. Holbom was paved bj in Ohioago and other cities of the 17iiit«d
rojal command in 1417 ; but the great market State* ; and it is highly Tecommended for its
of SmHliflald remained witliont pavement SOO dnrabili^, the secnre footing it affords to
years ]<»iger. — ^In modem times variooa methods horses, and its freedom from noise. On ao-
and mateiials of paving have bera) employed, oonnt of its keeping long in good repair, it ia
bi Holland all tiie streets are paved vith bricks, regarded as not oomparativ^ an expcnislTe
and these ere alao nsed for the same pnrpoae fn pavement. Kr. Nicholson found its ccst in
Tenioe. They obviously lack the strength and Boston wm sometimes a little nnder and some-
dnrability reqaired for the passage over them times a littie over $3 per square yard, alloiv-
of heavy loads. In other cities, instead of the ^ nothing for the patent riKht. At the
broad flat stones nsed by the Bomans, roonded West it Is fonnd better to nse aari -wood ia-
pebbles ot a few inohes diameter, called cobble stead of hemlock, pine, or spmoe, though no
stones, found among the gravel of the dUnvimn doabt at increased cost. The wood may also
or Blong sea and river beaches^ have been very be advantageously protected &om decay by
generally used. These, when of lurd stone, kyaniting or by the appUoatioa of the solution
dosely set, and well rammed down in a bed of of ohloride of zinc. In use It is fonnd that the
Svel or sand, form an eoonomioal and very fibres become sURhtiy opened at the sorCace by
aWe pavement, one which gives secnre foot^ the blows from the feet of the horses, and the
ing to horses snd is easily repaired. It is objec- sand ground in by these and the proasnre of
tionable on soooont of the rattling noise of the wheels contributes not a little to the pres-
tbe vehicles drawn over it; snd in the great ervation of the wood. The fonndation of con-
Uiorongtiiares of large cities, it lias been fomid crete laid npon and covered by coal tar forms
almost essential to substitute for it a pavement an impervious covering to the soil, protecting
of rectangular blocks of granite, trap, or other the atmosphere from nnwholraome emanations,
bard rook. Blocks of wood have been at timea A pavement not much nniike the Nicholson
in some repute, bat they have proved objection- pavement has been introduced into London, i
able on account of soon booonung slippery, par- and Is very hij^y recommended in a report i
tioularly when wet, and also of their tendency made to the conunisdoners of the Holborn i
to decay. They were oommonly ont in hexa- board of works. May 10, 1658, b^ Mr. Braith- i
gonal prisms and set nprigrht, eo that the wear w^te, who pronounces it superior to evei7
came across the ends of tiie grtdn. Hemlock, other paving material that has come nnder hU
being a chet^ wood, waa generally selected for notice. It is made of alternate rows of creO'
the purpose. This pavement is not now, how- soted wood and broken granite cemented togeth-
ever, in use, and wood was quite pven up in er with asphaltnro. ("Mechanics' Magame,"
America and In Earope, when a new method vol. Ixviil., p. 684, London, 16S8.) — The result
of applying it was introduced into Boston in of a j^eat number of eKpenments in paving in
1848 by Mr. fiamuel Nicholson. He laid a New York Is the selection of what b colled the
pavement of apmoe block^ S inches sqnare, in Belf^an pavement, as combining in the highest
alternate lengUis of 8 and 4 inches, so as to d^ree the advantages of economy in constmc-
fono a checkered surface, a depression of 4 tion, durability, and a secure footing for horses.
inches lying at each ride of each of the taller It is fbrmed of blocks of a blai^ trap rock
blocks. These depressions were then filled nii made slightiy pyrmnidal in form, which are ,
to the level of the top of the long blocks wito placed with Qie base of the pyramid upward,
ooaree pebbles or small ftiigments of stone, exposing a &/M of 4 to 6 inches in each direo-
After being rammed, boili^ pine tar was tion. llie stone is found in great abtmdance
poured over the whole surface, which pene- along the Hudson river opposite New York,
trated the loose materiab and the substance of the formation being the some with that of the
the wood also. A layer of sand abont an inch Palisades which appear ibrtlior up the river,
deep was then spread over the surface and It is remarkably well adapted on account of its
rammed. He also laid the 8 inch blooks in extreme tonghness end biu-dness to resist wear,
rows close together, interposing between each and it presents always a snfflcientiy rough anr-
row a strip of inch board, 4 inches high ; and fhoe to prevent horses from sUpping. Th^
in the space of one Inch thna made between streets <yt Naples are si^d to be paved with
each row of blocks, the same application of stoneof this diaraeter, and notwithstanding the
frwnents of stone, tar, and sand was made as oontinnous nse of the pavement for 1,000 years
before. In some instances the blocks were It has hardly been worn one inch in deptL
treenailed or pinned tt^elber; bnt this was The cost of tbis pavement In New York is from
not oonffidered important, particularly if a floor- (1.86 to t2.&0 per sqnare yard. In this respect
ing of boards was IMd npon the foundation of it is much to be preferred to the " Baas pave-
conorete of coal tar, lime, and sand, which In ment," with whicii Broadway has been covered
all cases was prepu^ for the blo<^ The at an expense of not less than $6 per sqnare yard-
specimena of pavement thus prepared continued This Is of cubical blocks of hard greenstone
in nse for 7 years, npon a road over which fi^m Staten Island or of trap from New Jersey,
heavy loads were oonstantly paadng, withont of abont one foot square. Ia nse it has been
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
finmS Alt Uoeks of tUa sice wear nnooth, vaDn, the Sn^iBh hare employed owmtehono
eradng horeea freqnentljtodipaiid≪ ud to some exteot The court of entrance ttf
smdi sxpenae has alreu^ been iuonrred In Windiw castle, and the ataiblea of the dock
either remoTing the Uows and snbatitatiDg 7ard at Woolwich, are thos paved,
others <^ amalier rize, or in grooTing them FATIA, a N. pTorince of the kingdom of
nptm the soifiMW. In bring the Btonea, the Italj.oompriaing the former Lombard province
first reqniidte i> to obt^n a good foondation ; of Favia and the Piedmouteae diatriots of Bob-
and tn sitoatloDB where the gronnd fs not bio,Lomel]ina,andV(^hera; Brea,l,SeOBq.m.;
^winsj, all that is neoeessrf la, after the re- pop. in 1868,410,146. Itlswatwod l^thePo,
movaT of tlie snperfiu^ esrtii, t<D spread npon the Ttolno, and tlie Olona, and the canals of
the nabiral bed beBath either a la^er of dir Beregoardo andFaria and theKavi^o Qrande
saod, or firat a layer of broken Btonea, wbiim pa«a through its botuodaries. The ooimti? ia
ahonM be weQ rammed, and npon thia the generallv level, and the soil httiie. Much at-
■tratimi of sand In which the paTlng stones are t«>tion is paid to the raiaing of ailk and the
to be imbedded. Insomeinsbmoesthelbanda- breeding of cattle, and mnoh of the cheeae
tion b prepared with a bed of oonorete, upon oaDed Farmeaan ia made here. The climate ia
which the pavement ia laid ; and in France the not very healthy. Bv the peace of Yillafranea,
moat dnraue paTonents are made by covering July 11, 1869, Favia, along with the other
the oUL witii sand and gravel in which the new provinoea of Lombardy, was ceded to EYsnoe,
etooea are bedded. It ia important to remove and by that power transferred to Sardinia. —
aQ earthy matters which omild be ctHiverted The capital, Favu (ano. TKnnum), ia aitnated
into mod by infiltration of water; foritafreez- on an eminence on the left bank of the Tidne,
iseand thawing wonld Inevitat^ Uft the Btones, not &r fh>m the spot where that river UHa into
and destroy tlie pavement Whenever a stone the Fo, and 10 m. S. 8. W. ftom Milan ; pop.
ftom any eanse to dqtreeeed below the level of S6,O06. It la about 1 m. in extent each way,
Ibe a^joinins stonea, it reoelves heavier ahooks and ia sarronnded by an old wall. A commn-
6om the wheeta which pass ovw it, and ita nioation with the enbnrb on the other dde of
Replacement goes on with acoelerated velocity, the river b made by a covered bridge of 8
The bed ther^ore most be miiformly eoBd, and arohea bnilt in 18C1. From thto briage the
thestrntea nnifonnly hard, and set together aa principal thoroo^ifitre, called theStradaNnova
closely as possible. Over the whole when or Oorao, extends tlironRfa the dly. PaviAwaa
finished sufficient sand is spread to AD all the at one time remarkable for the magnifloenoe of
Intoraticefl, into which it aoon finds its wi^. Ka bnildings, and for ita nomwons lofb' square
An arched form ia given to the paved floor, towers, designed for ornament, <^ need aa m^
the sidee abntttog aMinat the gutter and corb one or atrongfaolda, whence it waa called " the
Btone^ which shoud be snfflciently deep or dtyof ahnndredtowere." Oftheedifieesnow
von backed to prevent any spreading. In nring remaiidng, one of the moat noteworthy is the
rectacgoltr blook^ they are laid in conrsea cathedral, b^H"* ^t^ ^^^^Q^BtUlnnfiniahediin
naming diagonaDy across the street for the a side chapel of which is the magniflcant tomb
a of prevHiling the formation of rata, of St. Augnatine. The dhnrch of Ban Uiohele,
_ ml^t aoon appear along the edges of a Lombard building 180 fact long by 81 ftet
» lyi^ in Icmf^mnal oonrsee. The dura- vide, waa finished during the 7th oentnry,
tioa ot atone pavementa varies greatly accord- Santa Maria del Carmine, an immense Italian
ing to the matwiale empl<^ed and modes of Qothic church btiilt In 1878, is a remsrkahle
ooDstmction. In the most frequented streets spoctmen of the finest brickwork ; and the
of Paris good pavements have been renewed aa church of San Franoeaco ia of the aame s^le
often as once m 6 yeora, and others badly oon- and material. The celebrated church of San
stmcted onoe In 8 years ; bnt where the amonnt Fietro in Oielo d'Oro, which centred the
rf travd ia not very gt«at, the pavement has tomb of Boethins, is now mostly in ruina, the
lasted 80 yearv withont renewaL The material portion ta good preservation being used as a
larsely need in Paris for paving ia a somewhat storehonae. Of the law towers remaining,
friuile aandatone from Fontaineblean. This is those of Belcredi and Maine are most deserving
hardened by immersiiig it in liquid bitnmec of mention, each being abont 190 feet hi^.
and it is thus rendered much more durable, About4m. iir.ofthedtyisthemoHtmagnifioent
wUle the pavement ia also made more compact monastery in the world, the Certoaa of Pavla,
and impervione towi^er. — Blocks of caetiron founded in 189S by Giovanni Galeaszo Yia-
have been tried with considerabte sncoess both ooutl, the first duke of Milan. The onlverdty
in TWlmil mid in American dtiee. Tarions of Favia la the most ancient in Italy, and is
forme have been given to them with the view said to have been founded by Oharlemagne in
of eecnring Hie greatest atrengOi and dUhdi^ 774; but It received ita greatest Impulse from
the wei^ over the largeet si^face. They are the patronage of Oaleauo Yiaeonti. It haa a
made roogh on the upper aide by grooves or libruy of about 50,000 volumes, a collecUon
short prc^eotiiw poin^ ao that Uiey afford a of ooina, a museum of anatomical preparations
firm looting to horses. Bnt for the expense of and of apedmena of natoral Mat(^, and a bo-
thia pavement, it wonld probably be prdbrred tanlc guden iostitnted by the Irencb ; and
to any other. — ^For atablea, gardena, and foot- there ia also attached a school of the fine arts.
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
58 PA^W
Of the two ocdlegM nOT beloiiffiig to the md- BudthepAwseoobt^nBeecnritj'. Thereforethe
versity, the Ooll^o Borromeo ednoetes about bailee (or pawnee) is bound only to ordinair
40 stndents, and the Oolle^ GhiflUeri about oare, that U, not to the extreme care to whidi
80. The profteaora receive salariea Tarying he woold be boond if the benefit were all hu
from $600 to (1,200 per ahhtiiti. Among the own ; but it is not enoogh if he takes the alight
i^ttngnish^ men who have been iuatnictoTS care of it which would discharge his dnty and
here may be mentioned Te8alina,0ardan,Spal- shield him from responaibilitj if the benefit
luixoni, Volta, Scarh, and TambnrinL In were all the bailor's, the bulee lumself de-
18fiS~'l the nnmber of profeasorebelon^gto riTing none from the transaction. Hence a
the nnivereity waa 86, the number of assiBtanta pawnee is answerable for the lose of the pawn
31, and the nomber of pnpils 1,133. Favia is or for injoiy to it, only'^en there has been
a biehop's see, and oontuna a theatre, a gym- an abwnoe on his port of ordinary care, which
naainm, 3 hospitals, and charitable institntioos. the law defines aa that care which a man of
— JJthtnigh at tJie end of the Roman repnblio ordinary prudence would take of his own prop-
Tioinnm was a place of considerable impor- erty of like kind and nnder similar drcmn-
tanoe, it is mentioned first by the georawiberB stances. If therefore the pledge be lost by
and historians of the emi»re. In A. D. 4£2 it some intrinsic defect, the operation of whii^
was taken by Attila; but Theodoria, king of might possiblyhaTebeen})reTeuted, or bysome
the Ostrogoths, rebnCt and fortified it, and oasoalty which mi^t possibly hare been avoid-
ereoted a palace. Daring the Gothic wars it ed,orbyasnperiorforceorTiolenoewhichmight
was the principal etronghold of tiiat people in have been resisted, the pawnee b nevertheless
northern Italy, and there the royal treasury not reqionable. unless he was wanting in the
and valoables were kept ; and so well fortified ordinary care aoove described. — A pawnee has
had it been, that dunng the Lombard inva- a property in the pledge, but it is fecial, not
uon it resisted for 8 years a idege by Alboin. abBOIote, It is sumdent to maintain an action
Taken by liim in G70, the Lombard monarchs against a third party for ii^nry to or abdoction
chose it for their residenoe, and it remained of the pledge; and a jnd^oent in such an sc-
the capital of th^ kingdom until 774, when Hoa, when brought either by the pawnor or
Desiderius, the last Lombard kjjig, after a the pawnee, would be a bar to another action
riege of IS months, was obliged to submit to brought by the other. — A pawnee has only a
Oharlemagne. Before this time it had be- right to hold the ^edge ; therefore, if he uses
gun to be called Papia, probably from the it, he does so at his own peril ; and if the thing
fact that Titnnum when it became a municipal be lost or iqjured during such use, the pawnee
town was enrolled in the Fapian tribe. Dur- is responsible, although the loss occnrs wholly
ing the middle ages, the city underwent many without neglect on Ms part. So, too, if he de-
vicissitndes ; it was at one time an independent rive a profit from this use, he must account for
republic, at another ruled over by tyrants, and this oae of it unless the use was equally for the
again subject to the authority of the Viscontis benefit of the pawnor. Thus, if the pawn be a
of Milan. It is chieSy memorable in modem horse, the pawnee may use it enough to pre-
history for the battle fou^t nnder its walls serve the health of the horse, and for this use
Feb. 24, 1626, between the French under Fran- make no compensation ; but if he take a jonr-
ols I. and the imperialists under Uarshal Lan- nej with the horse, he must allow the nsnal
noy, in which the former were defeated and price. In all cases, the pawnee must socount
nearly destroyed, and their king taken prisoner, tor income or profits derived from the pledge ;
In 1627 and 1628 Favia was twice taken by the and if he is put to extraordinary expense or
French and lud waste. In 1796 it was stormed trouble for the benefit of the pledg^ or to pre-
and pillaged by Napoleon, alter an insurrection serve its value, although this would be for his
in which his garrison had been expelled. It own benefit also he may chaise the owner and
oame by the peace of 1S14 into the possession pawnor for all uiis, unless there be a bargain
of Austria, and so remained untO 1S69. to the contrary express or implied. — From what
PAWN, a word undoubtedly derived from has been said it inll be seen that if the pledge
the Latin pignut, and meaning any article of be stolen, the pawnee is not liable unless there
personal property given in pledge, or by way was neglect on his part ; but the question is at
of security for the payment of a debt, or the once important and dimcnlt, as to the l^al
disoharge of an obligation. The word is also presumption of neglect or care. By the ci\-il
used as a verb, and signifies to give such ar- law, the presumption was against the pawnee ;
tide in pawn or in pledge. It is a bulment, that is, if the pledge were stolen from him, he
because the essence of the transaotion is the was responsible luiless he could prove that
delivery of the pawn by the pawnor to the there had been no neglect on his part There
pawnee. Tbefirstquestion that arises is, there- are reasons for snpposing that the law of Eng-
fore: In what class of hailmentsis spawn to land and of thenmt«dState8isotherwiEe; and
he placed, in reference to the obligationa of that if a pawnee can prove that the pledge was
oare on the part of the bailee ) The answer is stolen from him, this will make it the loss of
obvious ; the bailment of pawn is a bailment the owner, unless the owner can prove neglect
for the benefit of both parties. The pawnor or de&ult on the part of the pawnee. — The
obtains credit or del^ or other indiugutoe, distinotion between a mortgage and a pledge
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PAWN 69
haa not been ngardpdu of mnoh moment, nor hu beat the rererse of this. ODehtASngmoli
has it been ebupij defined^ ontil of lata ; but stock hj wej of eecarit; has regarded hinmlf
recent b4]°^<>^''°'^ eepeoiallx in New York, only oa bonud to have that stock ready to be
have given to it very great importance. Kotfa- letomed when the debtia paid, and in the
ing is more common now than the giving of mean time he does what he pleases with it;
pemmal propert}', and especiallT' of chosee in that is, he sells it, or transfers it bj way of
aotion, as promiseorr notoe, and of stook or pledge, or makes nse of it as of bis own. But
scrip of inoorpi»«ted oompsides, by way of se- recent decisions in New York have declared
contr for loans or debts. Now this ^ving of that hj snch nse the right of the pledgee to
security may be regarded as a mortgage or as a bold the stook is wholly losL The pledger
pledge. Bntifitbeamortgage, thepartiesae- may therefore demand it at onoe, although lis
quire one set of rights, and come onder one set debt be not paid ; and if it be not forthwith
of obligatioiw ; aiM if it be not a mort^ige, but redelivered to him, be may have his aotion for
a pledge, thdr lights and their obligations are damages, and in this action recover its value
Tei7 d&erent. Ttie reason of this is, that it is at tbe time of the demand, and perb^a (fi>r
of the essence of a pledge, that the tUng this is not quite settled) an^ higher valne it
pledged shonld pass at once into the pomcaaion may have reached at any tune while in the
once to the mortgagee, while the possession somewhat teohnical rale is recent, and may
may and often does remwn with the mortgageor. need general confirmation before it can be re-
Bx pn^>erty, in law, we mean what no other gwdea as established law. Bnt there is for it
word ezprenea premsely, and none perhaps so this substantial reason. If a pawnee may use in
nearly as ownership ; the above mle therdbre, this way stock pledged to him, he forces npon
if pat into less tecnmcal phrase, might be ex- the pawnor the risk of his insolvency at the
pressed thos. A pawnor retains the ownership time when the stook shoold be redelivered,
of the pledge, bnt places it in the possession <^ For if the pawnee b« then insolvent, without
the pawnee as his secnrity. Bat a mortgageor the stock in his hands, the pawnor has oaly a
tranafersatoncetheownerHhipofthe property, claim ag^nst him for its valne, and most take
retaining only a right to annnl and defeat thu his dividend with other creditors. Bnt if the
trand'er by payment of a certain debt. (See pawnee retains in his hands the stock as the
UoKTOAflB.) Now the practical effect of this pawnor's stook, the pawnor then retakes it as
difference, which gives to it its importance, is nis property. — A plMger may always tranafer
this. A mortgagee who acqnirea the proper- the pawn, bnt subject to the pawnee's claim ;
ty in or the ownership of the thing mortgaged, and if the transferee pay the debt, the pawnee
may do with Uiat ttdng whatever he may do most deliver the pawn to the transferee. The
wiUi his own. He may sell it, or mortgage it, pawnee holds the pawn only as secnrity, not
or keep It in his own hands, always snbject does it become absolntely his even if tbs debt
however to tbe mor^igeca''srighttoiedeemitj benot paid at matarity. There is no forfeitore
and it makes no difrarence to the mortgageor of the pawnor's right to redeem, until some-
vhether, when be wanes to pay tbe debt and thing has been done which is the same thing
redeem the thing mortgaged, ne finds it in one in itseffectthat forectoenreisinacaseof mort-
hand or another. Bnt as a pawnee aconires gage. What this thing is may not be, in all
no ownership whatever, he cannot sell the caaes and in all respects, quite certtun. There
thing pawned, nor pledge it over, nor trans- is no donbt that the pawnee may apply to a
fer it in any way. His whole right consists court of equity and have a decree of sale, and
in tbe ri^t of possession. He may keep the may thereupon sell the pawn in oompliance
pawn as a secori^ for his debt, becanse the witii the terms of the decree. Some authoii-
owner has lost, not the right of property, but ties hold, or rather intimate that this, which was
the ri^t of poasesnon ; but tbe pawnee can tbe andent and regular way, if not the only
do noUiing elae with it Nor is this all ; for one, remains at this day the best and safest
he not (ody msy^hut most keep the pawn in Bnt we are satisfied that it ia not necessary,
his pospcflsion. This is his bargain with the and certainly it is not osnaL We consider it as
pawnor by eonstrnction of law ; and he holds now eetabliuied law, that a pawnee, after the
the pawn only on this condition. If therefore maturity of the debt, and after nnsrtisfled d«-
tlte pawnee, for any reason or in any way, vol- mand, may sell the pawn, provided he do so in
mitarily parts with the possession of the pawn good fUth and with all reasonable precautions
by transferring it to a thhd person, his lien or m favor of the pawnor's interest. There is
right ot poaseaaion is at once gone ; the pawnor perhqis no other way of doing this, which sat-
at once recovers bis right irf powesuon, and Mes the law, than a sale by pnbUc auction ;
may donand and repossess i|jmselfof the pawn, and at all events this ia the surest and most
sUhoiigh tbe debt to secure which it was glvm proper way. Nor will a sale by auction be con-
remains wboDy nnpdd. The oostom of brokers olnsire against the pawnor, nnless it ia oondnct-
and others, who lend money or give other ao- ed, as to time, place, advertisement, notice to the
Gcmmodation on the security of pledged stacks, pawnor, and in all other respects and cironm-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
stances, ill saoh wise as to IndieatoperiiBetBOod bonndoir has been entire^ duiiMd and the
fiutti, and to Boonre a dae regard to tho i^ts whole of Pawtooket annexed to Bhoda Island.
of the pawnor. The proeeeflb mnst be wplied The lirer has here a &11 of 60 feet, aapplying
to the payment of the debt If aaj baliutoe eztensiTe witftx power. The first eottMt man*
remains over, that must bs given forthwith to nfaotorT' in the ooantrj was eatsUiibed here
the pawnor. If anj portion of the debt ro- by Bamnel Slater in 17S0, and for 40 years th«
mains onpaid, the pawnee has an eqnallj valid place held the first rank amonc the nunn&o*
clum to that amount as he had originally for taring towns of the oonntry. It now CMttalna
the whole. It is not nnfreqoent for the par- 18 cotton mUla, B maobine shops, 8 fbmaoea, i
ties to agree, when the pledge is made, as brass and copper ibonderiea, S not, bolt, uid
to what shall be done With It ; as. for ex- tool eatablidunants, and 8 of jeweh?, beside
ample, that the pawnee may, if the deot be nn- other mannfuttoriee of beltang, leathn\ eabinst
p^ at a oert^n time, sell the pawn, if it con- ware, bair tHaOt, tin, eaniages, Ao. Tbei* are
sist of Btooks, at the brolurfi' board. But any also an extennv« oalioo printing eatablish-
andh agreement most be complied with literally ment and a manolkotoTy of Sre en^ea famona
and aocoratdy. Thns, it would give no right throoghont the c»nntry. UoontaunsllobDreh-
to make any nse of the stocks bdore maturity es, 1 pnblio library, S ^inting offloea, 4 banks,
of the debt ; nor to sell them without previom S Institntdons for sannga, and 8 pnbUo balls,
demand, nor in any other way than at the During 1860, 900 Tesads, chiefly laden with
broken' board. (See oases oited before.) It Imnber, coal, and cotton, arrived. The ta>wn ia
should be remarked, however, that negotiable beantifblly sitnated, and nas a moat {nctniiBeqiie
bills and notes come nnder an exceptional mie. tqtpearanoe, ita atone biidgo and waterfall sod-
When they are pledged, it is sud that the Ing to the effect of the scene. It has ^rect
pledgee has mnoh more power as to the nee and oommnnication with Boston brthe Boston and
oi^orition of them than of stocks; bnt this Providence railroad, and with Woroeater by the
exception is not very aconratelv defined. So Providence and Vorcestn railroad.
It should be sud, that althoogh delivery of FAX (Lat, peaoe), an instmment andently
possession is sbsolntelyesaontial to tiie contract naed in the Roman Oatholio chnnih,aud re-
of pledge, and if the pledgee voluntarily parta tained tor some time in the ohnroh of England.
wiui his poeseedoa he loses all lien or right to Li the early i^^ of Ohristianity it was custom-
hold the pawn, this does not apply where the ary for the bitiifnl at certain parts of the di-
pBwnee, in good faith, for a speoJal reason, and vine service to practise literaUj Bt. Fatd'e re-
tar a liinit^ time, returns the pawn to the oommendation: "Greet ye one another with
pawnor, reserving bH his rights over it. The anhol7kisa,"aaM)peara from the ".^tostolical
pawnor may in that case be r^arded as the Constitutions" (viiLll): "Let the bishop ealute
agent ofthe pawnee, and as holdlog it for him. the church and say, 'Thepeaoeof God be with
A pawnee, who takes a pawn as security for a you all ;' and let tiie people answer, 'And with
riiflc debt or debts, cannot hold It as security tiiy spirit.' Then let the deacon say to all,
other debts itom the pawnor, nnlcBS by a 'Salnte one another with a holy kiss; and let
bargain between them. — It may be added that the clergy kiss the bishop, and the li^en the
until a comparativel;r I'ecent date, nothing seems laymen, and the women tiie women." But in
to have been given in pawn, at least wiUiin the oonrse of time, when the separation of the
recognition of the common law, but personal aexes In the ohnroh ceased to be observed, a
chattels. Bnt now personal property of all small tablet called the pate, the tabala paett
descriptions, all ohoses in action, and even pat- (tablet of peace), or the oieulatoritim, was
ont rights or oopyrighto, may be given either in kissed first by the bishop, then by the inferior
pawn or in mortgage. clergy, and feially by the people. The oere-
FAWN!E£S,atribeofIndians(4,600inl8S8) mony called giving the pax, as performed in
inhabiting the coontry on the river Vlatte and Roman Oathoho chnrohos at the present day,
its northern tributaries. They were visited by ia merely a relic of the old custom. Joat before
Bonrgmont in 1724, at which time thoy occn- tiie oommimion at solemn high masses the offi-
pied tiieir present position ; but until a^r the dating clergyman turns to the deacon, and ex-
acquisition of Louisiana their existence waa tending hia hands and touching him on the
scarcely known to the people of the Uiut«d arms, inclines his head toward the deacon's left
States. They raise com and regetablea, and shoulder, saying : Pod teeum (" Peace be with
their hunting ground once extwided as far thee"}; to whidi the deacon answers: Steam
sonth as the Arkansas river, and as &r west as ipinfutuod'Andwith thy spirit"). Thedea-
the sources of the Platte. Thdr langoage U con gives the pax in the same manner to the
different from that of the nd|^boring Mbea. sub-deacon, and each of the inferior ministers
They are remarkaUe for entwanoe, daring, to the one next below him in dignity. Tba
oraft, and skillin horse stealing. people have no part in it.
PAWTTJOEET, a town of Providence oo., R. PASTON, Bm Josbph, an En^ih hortionl-
L,onbDtbiide8ofPawtncketriver,4m.K.from toriet and architect, bom at Ulton-Bryaot,
Providence; pop. in 1860, 8,880. Until 1861 near ■Wobnm, Bedfordshire, in 1808. Hisedn-
this town was partiy in HasMchosetts ; bnt by cation waa obtained at the Wobum free school;
an agreement recently completed, tiie eastern bat bin parenta b^ng in homble droumatancea,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PAYICBNT 01
be WW ttgfy tXBgfiH to ra^ tpon Unuelf for moner In ft hank to ftdr jdnt cndlt, » pt?-
aapport ObtaininKAritaAUonatOliiswiokgthe ment to dtber (tf them wUlioiit the oonoent
snbnrban viDft of Ue dnke of DeToiLshire, be of t^e oQter does not disohargo tlie debt. It
gained tbe eonfldenoe of that uoblemaQ, who te said, however, that p^ment to either of two
tranBferred bjm to Cfaatawortb, and aabae- or more ic&at ezeontors disoharges the debt;
qnendf made him Qie manager of hia Derbr- bntpaTmeattooneoftwoormorejointasdKD'
ahiro odatcB, and anperintmaent of tiie worax eee in liisolT«t<^, without the oonseiit of ue
which rendered CSuOnrorUi tbe most oelebrat- ot^n, does not aischarge the debt In geuer-
edoomitrjraent in England, In 1861 he laid be- al, payment to a tnutee is valid aa agfdnst an;
ftore the Indldlnff oonmilttee of Uie great indofr olwm of the part} having the beniAoial inter-
trial eiMbitiixi hia plan of tbe orjBtal paUoe. eat in tJie farOBt, even ifhe be demanded bj the
and the derign proposed bj him was adopted trustee, nnlesa the pereon paying be a party to
sod tile work carried on mider hia ■npetlnten- the frand or consent to it.— Formeriy, a pay-
danoe. For this serdoe Faxton was Knitted, mentofapartof adebt wBsnosatJs&otionof
ffince the completion of this edifice he has the whtde. even if that were agreed npon; the
pnrsned the profeadon of an architect to aome reason beuf that the creditor who promised
extent, and has been engwed in a variety of togireiipslargedeb^allt^whloliwaadneto
oommeroiBl enterprises. He constructed tbe Idm, on the payment of a part only, made the
greatty enlarged and remodelled cryHtal palace promise witJiont legal oonsideradon. Now,
at Sydenham, and had the entire oha^ of howerer, it secma to be eetabUshed, that a &lr
laying out tbe pleasure gronnds. fimntain^ and well understood compromise of a debt,
Ac., of that mii<|tie enterprise. In 18M he honestly ouiied into effect, is a complete pay-
was eleoted a member of parliament from mentordischargeof the debt Still, if a ored-
Ooventoy, and in 18G7 was rejected. He iter compel payment of a part of his debt by
was elecd»d fellow of the hortionltoral society process of taw, when he might as well have
in 18M, and fellow of the T.lnnni^Ti society in sned fbr all, aa i^ when the several instalments
188S ; sad in lB44t the emperor of Bossia ere- are all dae, he soes for one or two only, this
ated him a kni^t of the order of St Vladimir. wUlbar hb claim for the remainder, becaose he
Ha has written a "Fraotioal Treatise on the has no ri^t to pnt his debtor to the cost and
Cnltore of tiie Dahlia" (1680), and a " Cottage tronble of repeated and mmeoeasery litigation.
Oalendai','' beside editiiw or asalsting in edtt- — ^Payment of money is ofton made by letter;
big "Pnton's Flower Qarden," "Pocket Bo- end aome difficnlt qneetfona have arisen uider
traiioal IHotionary," " Hortionltnral Begister," this mode of payment The law may, however,
and the "Botanical H^adne." be Btat«d thns. If the money reaches the cred-
FAT3CEHT, in law, la the discharge of a itor, the debtor ia of oonrse disoharged. If it
debt b7 s dafivery irf the amoant dne ; and doeenot,heiBetiIldiBoha^edif he waedh-eot-
it is, of course, the mostdirect and most proper ed by the creditor to make the payment in this
dbchatgefrfit, and the most oom[^te &&nce way, orifhecanderivesnohaidhority from the
Bgrinat any clum founded upon it The part; certain and miqnestionable course or usage of
entitled to receive the money may ^ve notice boslneBB; but not otherwise. The aame rue or
to him who ahould pay it^ that ha requires the prindple wonld apply, if the creditor sent the
payment to be made ttirectly to himself and money, not by m^ bat by an ezia«asniao, or
thwi no other piQinKit dls^iargee the debt; '---■' '- —
bat without Booh notice, p^meut nuj- be ef- .
fiNtnaQr node in the ordmarr oonrse of boal- and p^ment la generally made bv them, the
nes to the creditor's gmenu agent, or to Ids law on this SQtjject ia of mach hnportanoe.
attorney. Bnt the agent or attorney most be The qneations are : If the notes are foiled,
agent fbr that purpose. Hence pf^mott to a where is the losst If the notes are genmne
mai^ wifo, (Md, servant, clerk, or even at- bnt the bank la Insolvent, wh«« Is the loeet
ramey or anotaooeer, has not the e£EM of a b the first pisoe, it will be eeen In the article
paymeot to tbe party hlnueli^ nnlesa this an- Tknox, that any one to whom bank notes are
thori^ to reedve the money be ahown ; bat It o^ni. In payment may refose them and de-
may be shown indireotly, by usage or other numd specfe. If he accepts them, and they are
circomatanMS. Hcce, however, another general forgwfes, ^y do not discha^ the debt, being
prindpleofi%en<7 comes in; and If the party oonridered in law mere nnUities, Iftheyare
receiving the money bears to the party payfaig genuine, but not good by reason of tbe insol-
tt aU the mearance of agency and antomty, venoy of the bank, the roles of law ore more
and tfak 1^ ue sot or consent of tbe creditor, nncert^n. It may be sud, however, that gen-
it Is tin same thing ae if he were actnaUy the erally, and where there is no frand or negU-
agent So ao aotnal agutt can receive pay- gence on either ride, the loss in saoh cases Mia
ment only aooor^ng to us anthority ; thus, if on the party paying, and he must make up the
he is snthoriMd to reoetve payment of a debt dlffbrenoe between the aotnal and the nominal
in mon^ and reecivfle It in goods or by note, value of the notes. If the debtor knew of the
and gives a rooeipt therefor, the principalis insolvency and ^d not disclose it, here of course
not bomid by the reoelpt^If there be Joint is taad- and the debtor is at once liable. And
credtt»s, ae if two or more persons de^writ if the debtor did not actually know the Insol-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
62 PATUEtlT
veiL07, but hftd saffldent m«aiia (rf knowing it, tion la dotenolned «r Bome rigbt aaeeitnited.
and must be oonridered as ignorant of it dther Snch a third partr b««omefl a atakeliolder. For
thron{^ dedgn or by negugenoe. mteti igno- the rights and dntiaa of a st^olu^er in a eaaa
ranoe wonld afibot liim as knowledge wotdd of wager, see 'Waokb. Bntouemaybe asUke-
do. Still, however, the general rote, whioh holder in other wajs. Thus an anctioneermar
oasts the loss nprai Qie dehtor iriiere there la receive from a pnrcbaser a sum of monej t>j
no fraud or &Dlt attending the p^ment, mnst way of deposit or seomity, to be kept bj bim
be so far qualified, as that If tiie creditor re- tmtil the title to the property boof^t can be
ceiviog the mone^, hj his snlweqnent neg^- inTeatigated ; and to paj it over to the seUer
genoe, as by reodving and retalmng the notes if that be good,or totbe pnrchsBerif itbebai
withoQt any inqniry or notice, prevents the If each a stakeholder pays the money over be-
debtor &oia profiting by any remedy or in- fore the qnaetion is determined, he pays it hi
demnity he nught have had if due notice had bis own wrong, and at hia own pfiril; for it ia
been given him, the loBS to this extent mnst his doty simply to hold the money. And it b
&11 on the creditor. — Payment ia also often aaid that if snch etakeholderpays me money to
made by the debtor drawing bis cheek upon a creditor before his right is determined, iia
a bank for the amount due, or by his pre- depoMtor may at once sne him and recover
senting to the creditor some oUier man's the money without any reference to the stale
check which he holds. Kow a check is a of the question between tbe creditor and Mm-
draft, and, being payable to order or to boar- self. But if the deposit be made by check, tht
er, is negotiable either by indorsement or by stakeholder may draw the money, and hold it
delivery; and it ia in most respects embraced orevenoseit, withontmakiDghimselfliabUfcv
within the law of promissory notos and bills <tf the amount.'— The law of appropriation of pay-
exchange. (See Nbootublb Papu.) If Uie menta ig of mnch importance. It determioet
creditor draws the money, then of oonrse pay- the right of applying a payment in one wsf iv
meut is made. But if he fails to receive the in another, or to one debt or to another. Th«
money, it is no payment, unless this &Uure be general rale, npon which all others are fannd-
his own &ult; for he must not be negligent cd, is, that whoever paya money may direct tha
with it. It need not be presented on the day appropriation as he pleases; or, inotherwonh,
on which It was received, but it must be pre- pay it on such account as he chooses. But if
aented within a reasonable time thereaft«r; for the party paying the money makes no snch »■
if the bank would have paid it when it was propriation, the party receiving it maymue
drawn, but the check was kept a week, and such qiplication of it as he plcasee. And if
then the hank failed, the creditor loses the neither party make any specino appropriatioii
money by this unreasonable delay. What do- (and an appropriation may be made in vanom
lay is excusable, and what ia not, is not settled ways), it rests with the law to make it acooid-
by any positive rule, but ia determined in each ing aa the Justice and equity of the whole
case by Its own (urcamatances. If the drawer case may require. These mes are held to ap-
had no finds in the bank, and no adequate ply even where the debts are of very different
arrangement for ftmds, when he drew the descriptions. Thus, if AowesBtlOOonabond,
check, it need not be presented at all In and aa much more on a note, and as much more
order to bind him, because the drawing of snob on nmple book account, and pays $100, the
a cbeok, and nging it as payment, was itself a appropriation of this payment ehall be deter-
frand upon the creditor. — Payment is some- mined to one or other of tbese debts, in ae-
times made by note ; and if this be a negotiable cordance with the above rules. As the pa^er
note, it may be an absolnto payment, discharg- may certainly appropriate the money as ha
ing the original debt, and leaving the creditor will, if he declines doing so, this gives the
no cl^m excepting on the note itself. The payee the power of appropriating it at bia
law of Uassachnsetts was quite peculiar in this ideasure, althoni^ in a way adverse to the
reapect; and as this was the law of Uaine p^er. Thus, if A's wife owed money to B
when they formed bnt one state, it continued before marriage, and A also owes B, and A
to be the law of Uaine after their separation, pays B a smn of money without specific appro-
At present aome part of thla peculiarity re- priation, B may apply the money to the aebt
mains. It may be said, however, to be the law of A'a wife. So, if A owes B two debts, one
of those two states, that if negotiable paper is of which is more than 6 years old and so is
^ven for the amount of a debt, the presump- barred, and the other is not, and pays money
tion of law la that it was given and received as without appropriation, B may apply it to the
Payment thereof; but tMs preamnptjon may debt whicn A was not legally compellable to
e rebutted by proof that the parties did not pay ; but he cannot by such appropriation re-
so understand it. Bnt in England and in all vive the remainder of tiie barred debt, and then
the other states, and in the conris of the United make B pay the balance. The appropriation,
States, the presumption of law is ag^nst the to have fan force, mnst be made at or very
note being a payment of the debt, without near the time when the money is paid. For if
affirmative proof that itwaa so understood and either party, at some subsequent period, finds
intended.— Payment ia sometimes made to a ont what will be to his advantage, and thai
third party, to be held by bim until some ques- nndertokea to make such a disposition of it,
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PATHE PAT80N 68
this irin not sveH Mm to Uie diaadrantage of "Yonng fTorral." The perfonnanoe Wbs en-
the other; but the law will consider this as a drelj saooeeaflil, and he gnbseqnentlr appeared
oaaa in which it most make an {^propriatioii before large and enthnsiastio andienoes m Bos*
becanae the parties did not. So aJso an ap- ton, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and elsewhere.
propriatioii hy either partj will not aS^ct the In 1818 he riaited England, and made his first
other part?' imlees it w commnnioated to him. appearance at Drar; Lane theatre in the same
Thna, mere entries in the books of either party year as Master Payne, the "American BobcItis,"
do not affect the other party ; but If these en- m his oriranal part of Yonng Norval. Both
tries were shown to the other party, then they here and in the provinces Ms performances
bind him. And althoogh the payment be gen- called forth mnoh applause, and he was gen-
eral, the creditor cannot make tiie ^propria- erally admitted to be superior to Master Bet*
tion, provided the debts dne to him are dne In ty and other yonthfol octom in similar parta.
different rights. Thns if A ^ exeontor of 0, For nearly SO years after this he pursued a
owes B a debt, and also owes him a private career of varied success in England, as actor,
and perstmal debt, and pays money generally, manager, and playwright. He made tranalv
B most appropriate it first to the payment of tdons of French drama^ and produced a numbar
the private and personal debt. Nor has the of original plays snd adaptations, bicluding
creditor the right of appropriation merely be- " Brntos," " Th6rS«e, or the Orphan of Gene-
caoae the debtor did not make an appropria- va," and " Olari," all of which proved highly
tion, if the payment were made in such a way ' succesafhl, slthough but a small share of the
OB to prevent the debtor from appropriating it ; proflta came to the author. The first, prodaoed
as on his account by some other person, or in in 1818, with Edmnnd Eean in the prindpal
aaj way which impaired hia power of eiercis- part, was made up in a great measure from 7
ing liis right. — Where the court makes the m>- different plays on the sobject, and still holds
propriatioa because the parties do not, it will possession of the stage. " Olari," which waa
generally favor the creditor so fhr as to ap- produced as an opera, contains the oelebrated
Sly it to the most precarions and least secured song " Home, Sweet Home" (written when he
ebL But if there be two or more debt^ was near starving in an attia in the Palais
and the sum paid will exactly discharge one of Bo jal in Paris), which alone will preserve
them, the court will consider that it was in- Payne's name from oblivion, and of which
tended to pay that debt. If one of the debta 100,000 copies were sold in a sngleyesr. An-
be contingent or uncertain, as if B were the other suooessfnl play by Mm was " Oharlea the
Boraty of A and might be bound to pay a certain Second, " the pnncip^ part in which was a
Bum tf A did not, and A also owed B a certain fkvorite with Charles feemble. In 1883 he
andBpedfiosuin,and Apaysasum ^nerally, B returned to the United States: and after em-
wiH not be permitted to hold it against his own ploying himself several years in literary pur-
snretjsbip, bnt must apply it to the spaciflo suits, he received the appointment of Amenoan
debt. On the other hand, a court sometimes consul at Tunis, which office he held at the
protects a surety, and, in bis favor, will direct time of his death.
an appropriation of money paid generally; as FATSOK Edwabd, an American clergy*
if Abnyagoodsof B, and Oia thesnretyof A, man, bom in lUndge, N. H., July 26, 1788,
and A pays to B money generally, B will be died in Portland, Me., Oct. 83, 1B27. He waa
obliged, in Justice to 0, to apply the money to the son of a clergyman in bis native town, was
payment for the goods. — Payments are some- ^adnat«d at Hu^ard college in 1808, and
times made by a debtor, not volontarily, bnt then fbr 8 years took charge of an academy in
by compulsion of law, or by his assignees. la Portland, la Sept. 1S05, he became a member
sneh oasa there is no amiropriatlon by either of the Congregational chnrch in Bindge. WhUe
party, bnt the payment is applied to all the in Portland he had given much attention to
debts in proportion to their amount. theolo^oal studies, and, npon quitting his sitn-
PAYITE, Jomr Howabd, an American actor ation as teacher, pursued them under the dl-
and dramatist, bom in New York, June 9, 17S3, rection of his fiither, paying especial attention
died in Tunis, Jnne 6, 1863. He erinoed in to the critical study of the Bible. On Uay SO,
early yonth a remarkable predilection for the 1607, he was licensed to preach, and on Dea
stage, together with considerable literary pre- 16 was ordained collewne of the Bev. Mr.
codty. At 18 years of age, while a clerk In a Kellogg, pastor of the Congregational (dinroh
mercantile house in New York, he secretly in Portland. There he remjifned till hia death,
edited a Bttle periodical called the " Thespian altbongh his health fiuled shortly after his ao-
Mirror," and showed so orach ability in this oeptance of the post, and was never completely
capsd^ that a benevolent gentleman named reesteblished. He declined in 1826 a call to
Seaman offered to defray the expenses of his Boston, and also in Jan. 183S one to New
education at Union ooOege. The bankruptoy of York. He published " A Discourse before the
his father led to his departure from this insU- Bible Sooie^ of Mune" (1814); " A Thanka-
tuCion befom completiag the collegiate course, giving Sermon" (18S0) ; '' An Address to Sea-
and as a means of supporting the family he men" (1831) ; and " A Sermon before the
went upon the stage^making his debnt at the Marine Bible Society of Boston and its Vicin-
Park theatre. New York, Feb. 24, 1809, as ity" (1824). Hia works have been oidlected la
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
04 FEA FEABODT
8 vols. 8vo^ Tith a memoir of Us Bib b^ the beat to lO". In the ^ring, in order to for-
Eev. Asa Oummiags, Bit. ward tie orop, the earliest sorts may be sown
PKA(Celtic,;iM;LBt.ffiufflJ, awellknown Inpotsand tranapJanted into rows, after tbe^
exogenoos plast with diadelpnons blossoms, have grown an inch or more bi^ The sorts
whose seeds are employed for food. The aer- known to BgricaltnriBtB as field peas are also
oral species of the pea are annual herbs with nnmerDos, but the principal are the gray and
ahmptlj pmnate, tendril-bearing leaves, each the white ; and the heat Unda of splitdng
having 8 paira of leaflets and l»ge folioceona peas are conndered to be the " pearl " and the
stipolea ; papilionaceoos flowers, the oalyx with " Soffolk." — The pea, like the other memb^s
5 foliaceoQs segments, the 3 enperior of which of the natural oi^er of legTimiTiota, is riclk in
are the shortest ; the corolla of S irregnlar nctiteient, and is nitrogenous in its elements.
petals, the npper or odd one (texiUum) ample Sir Humphry Davy foimd in 1,000 parts of
and reflezed ; the style carinated, villose above ; ped flour SY4 parts of nutritive matter, eon-
tbe fruit a pod (legnme), oblong, rather com- slsting of 601 parts of mndlage, SS sugar, 80
preesed, but not winged ; seeds globose, nn- gluten, and 16 insoluble extract. The pea is
merous, with a roundish eye (hilum) ; cotyle- suhlect to the attack of a coleopterous insect
dons lai]ge and thick. The common pea (^ known as the bruchut pui, or pea weevil ; the
turn mtitum, Linn.) is a hardy annnsi, native parent insect, visiting the yonng pods when
of the soath of Europe, and has been for a long the enclosed seeds are banning to sweD, de-
time nnder coltiTation. It has a weak stem, podts a tiny egg in the ponctures it effects op-
whioh supports itself hj tendrils ; terete peti- posite to the pea ; this is hst^hed into a grab,
oles beanng 3 pairs of ovate, entire, glancoOB and this in tnm b changed into tbe mature
leaflets with nndulated marina, ufiuaUj oppo- weevil toward the end of the year. Snch seed
site and mucrouuIat«, ovate, somewhat cor- peas ore called bu^y, and previous to sowing
date, slipQleB crenated at their base; 2- or should be scalded. The stems and leaves are
many-flowered peduncles, and rather fleshy also attacked by a species of mildew which
leKumes. The usoal color of the Sowers is covers them with a filamectonB and grayish
white, but sometunes red. There are 6 pria- web, impeding further growth of the pl&nta.
dpal and quite distinct forms of the comm<m Deep and thorough watering at the roots will
pea^ and &om these have originated many va- If applied in season remedy this evil, but
rietiea; theyQre«ti«eAaTatvffl(Beringe)orsugar usuiuly the ii^nryis too extensive befbre be-
Ka, with a tall stem, legomOB rather ooriaceons, ing discovered.— The eea pea (P. maritimvm,
tween terete and compressed, and seeds glo- IJnn.) occurs on the sea beaches of Sngland ;
bose and distant ; maorocarpumf with a large its seeds, though bitter and disagreeable, have
stem, large falcate legume, very much com- been eaten in times of soarcity and afibrded
presaed, and not coriaceous, every part h^ng relief. Several beautifol blossoming garden
edible, snd large distant seeds; vmbellatua, plants known as evOTlasttng pea, Tangier pea,
with quadrifid, acute Btipnle, many-flowered andsweetpea, are^>eoiesof btfAjnt(j,aclosdy
peduncles, terminal, and somewhat umbeUato allied genns, but not employed for culture as
(the Enjjish crown pea) ; guadratum (linn.), table esculents.
with veiT dense and square seeds (the jxni PEABODY, AncnKw Fsxstob', D.D., an
earri of uieFrench) ; and Aumtfc, with a weak American dereyman and echolw, bom in Bev-
and dwarf stem, legumes smaller and rather eriy, Uass., llarch 19, 1611. He was gradn-
corlaceous, seeds appmzimate and roundish ated at Harvard college in 1836, at the age
(usnaUj known as the dwarf pea). Don gives of 16. The 8 years subsequent to graduation
the names of 24 varieties of the common pea were spent by him In teaching, anatheSfol-
used for sowing in European cardens; but 6 lowing years as a student in the Cambridge
eepeoially are highly recommended by the best divinity school ; and in 18S2-'8 he was a tn-
hortJcultarists, viz. : the early frame, early tor in mathematics in the college. On Oct.
Charlton, blue Prussian (proliflc and snperior, 93, 1888, he was ordained in the south parish
and suited for middle crops), bine imperial (a church in Portsmouth, K H., as ooUeagne pas-
dwar^ fine, rich pea), and Emght'a marrowfat tor with the Kev. Natian Parker, D.D., whoae
(a tall and luxuriant grower, rich-flavored, and death a fortnight later left him in sole charge
of the latest crop). The following named va- of the parish, which he retained nntil Sept. I,
rietiea are preferred in the United States, and 1860. He then became preacher and Flmnms'
come into bearing in the order in which they professor of Christdan morals in Harvard nni-
are here designated, viz. : Dan O'Rourke, blue versity, from which in 1862 he had received the
imperial, champion of England, and marrow- degree of DJ). Dr. Peabody haa been an in-
fat. — Peas seem to prefer a moderately rich, dustrious literary worker, as a contributor to
warm soiL and one not recently manured, periodical literature, and a lecturer for lycenins.
When needed for early use, they are sometimes He wsa for several years a leadingwriter in
sown on a sunny border, sheltered by a hi^ the " American Uonuily" and the "New Eng-
walL Sometimes likewise they are forced by land JTagasine," and for a long period one of
beginning at the time of sowing with a tem- the principal contributors to the "Christian
peratnre of 40° to 60° P., and gradually rising Esaminer." His connection with the "Morth
to 60°, and after the flowering increasing the American Beview" in one or another capacity
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
F&ABODY PEACE BIVEB 66
has been oninterrn^ed for neari^ « nurter of to tiie Arotio ocean, lie contributed }10,000,
a centuij. and rnnoe less he has been its editor. In 1856-'7 ho gave the sam of 1300,000, with a
He has also ptibliahed more than 100 sermoiui, pledge to mcrease it to $G00,000, to found an
ontiooa, tracts, and pamphlets of rarions kinds, institute in Baltimore for the promotion of eel-
a Tolurne of "Lectoree on Ohristian Dootrioe,'' enoe, literBtnre, and tlie fine arts.
which has passed tbroDgh 6 editions, and " Ser- PEABODY, Willlah Bocbn Olivbb, an
inonsofConsolation,"whiobhaapasBedthroagh American clergTman, born in Exeter, N. H.,
S ediljons. July 9, 1798, died in Springfield, Mass^ May
PEABODT, Gkobse, an Amerioan merchant, 38, 1847. He received hts education at £zet«r
bom in Dapvers, Maw., Feb. 18, 1T95. His academy and at Harvard college, where he was
parents were poor, and his early edncation waa gradoated in 1817. Bubseqaently he studied
aoqtiired in the district schools. At the age of for the ministry tinder the elder Dr. Henry
11 he was placed as clerk with a grooer in his "Ware in the theological sahool attached to the
native towi^bnt left him when ho nad attained sameinstitation, commenced preaching in 1819,
his 16th year, and, after spenduig s year with and in Oct. 1920 wsa ordmned pastor of a Uni-
his grsnd&ther in Thetfora, Vt, went to New- tarian society in Springfield, Mass., with which
boryport as clerk for his elder brother, who he remained connected until his death. Aman
bad opened a dry goods shop there. The shop of fine tastes and extensive knowledge, he waa
being oonsnmed by fire, he next went with an partionlarly well versed in the principles of
oncla to Geoi^town, D. 0., where for the fol- landscape gordetdng, and in several depart-
lowing two years the bosiness was condaoted in ments of natural history : and to his exertions
hia name, though a minor. Finding himself in Springfield is mainly indeh(«d for a cemetery
dooger, d be continued in this telation, of ranking among the most beaudfol in the coon-
bung hdd respcmsible for debts he had not try. He also did much to awaken a taste for
contracted, be withdrew from tb« bnsineas in natural hiiBtory, through lectures at home and
lSI4,and became a partner of Mr. Elisha Riggs contribndons to the "North American Review"
in the wholesale dry goods trade, Mr. Ri^ on forest trees, insects, and birds. In oouneo-
fiimishinir the neoeesatr capital, and intrusCtng tion with this subject he prepared at the re-
Mr. Peabody. The next qnest of the Masraohnsetts legislature a " Re-
> removed to Baltimore, port on the Birds of the Oominonwealth,"
where it soon attracted a large bnsinesB, and in which did mnoh to arrest the wanton destruo-
1823 branch honses were establiabed in New tion of birds, and to convince the public of the
York and Philadelphia, In I8S7 Mr. Peabody important part they play in the economy of
crossed the Atlaatio for ike first time to buy natnre ; and he alsiD contribnted a memoir of
goods. In 1830, by the retbement of Mr. Alexander Wilson, tlieoniithologist,to8parks's
Rigga, ho became senior partner in the house. "American Biography." He was a freqnent
More than once, on his visits to Eorope, he waa contributor to t£e religions and secolor press,
intrusted with important negotiations by the and wrote a few hymnB and saored poems of
state of Maryland, which were bvoriably con- merit A memoir of him by his brother, the
docted with success. Early in 1887 he took np Bev. O. W. B. Peabody, with seleetions ttom
hisremdenoepemuuientb'inEi^and. Iul8« his sermons, and a volume of his essays and re-
he withdrew from the firm of Peabody, lUgga, views, have appeared sinoe his death. — Ouvkb
and 00., and established himself in London as a William Boitbk, twin brother of the preceding,
nierchant and banker. Through his exertions, died in Borlington, Yt, July 6, 1847. He was
theconfidenceinAmericanresponsibility, which graduated at Harvard college in 1S17, snbae-
had well nigh fkiled in the disastrous period of quently pratriised law for a number of years is
1S37, was muntaioed. He rendered repeated and Exeter, N. H., during which time he edited the
important ftivora in this respect to the state of " Roctungham Qoi^tte and Exeter News Let-
Maryland, which were gratefolly acknowledged, ter," and in 1823 removedto Boston, where he
but for which he refused all compensation. The cooperated witb his brotber-In-law, Mr. A. H.
house he established in London has been ever Everett, in the editorship of the " Korth
^ce its fbnndation the head-quarters of his Amerioan Review." At the same time he was
countrymen in that city, and the centre of for several years assistant editor of the " Bos-
Ameiican news and intelligenoe. In 185S, at ton Duly Advertiser." In 1843 he accepted
the bi-oentennial anniversoi^ of his native town ^e profesaorahip of English literature in Je&er-
of Danvers, be sent a toast in a sealed envelope, son collie, La., hoping to repair his shattered
not to be opened till the day of the anniversary, healtbby areeidence in a milder climate. Fail'
That toast was: "Edaootion a debt from the inginthb, he returned to Boston; and in 184fi,
present to fatnre generations )" and in order to in compliance with a desire long entert^ed,
psy his share of that debt, a check for $30,000 he was licensed to preach by the Unitarian as-
wos endoaed, to be expended in the founding of sooiation of Boston. He soon aAer became the
an institntei lyoenin, and library for the town, minister of a congregation in Burlington, Yt.,
By mbsequent nfts that amount has been in- in which office he continued during die re-
creaaed to $00,000, and an additional $10,000 mainder of his life.
has been beetowed upon North Danvers, for a PEAOE RIYER. Bee HuneoH's BaT Tkbbi-
bronch library. To the first Grinnell expedition tost, vol. ix. p. 834.
TOL. in. — S
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
«6 FEAOS
pRAOTT, a delidoiiB and well known tnat in apple orohsrdB; peach tiMS ttioi jdanted
originating in Persia, and for a long period thrive for a fev ^ean, gnAwi^ ^vhig place
familiar to horticoltitTiBta. The peaoh tree to the growing and ovenbadowiDg appk tnet
(flmygdalv* Ptrrnca, Unn.) has heen found b; their natoral deoiine. In gardens it is weS
growing wild in various parts of Turkey in to plant them on the bfirdftni nr thwt fhn wTlr^
Asia, and eeems to flonrish beat under coltl- and a sheltered ntnation near the dwelling
vation between lat, 80° and 40* H^ extending honse often jworea advantageous. The peacE
even farther N. in the United Statea. l^e is also raised in stmctTireB of glass, either
peaoh tree belongs to the natnral order drw heated artifidall? hj fines or wanned by the
foeem or almondworts, according to IJndle;^, son. It forces well, the precaution being takoi
which are trees or shmbe with simple, alter- so to regulate theheatthetasafScientspaoeof
Date leaves, QBOaUv bearing glands toward their time ahatl be allowed for the peribot foUatim,
base; simple and mostlf glandolar stipoles: blossoming, and maturing of fruit. Safficient
white or rose-colored fiowers, either prodnoea moisture should be Jndioionslj applied to the
nngl7 or in umbels, the oalyx C-toothed, d&> roots during the ^wth of the tree and pre-
oidnons, lined with a disk ; the petals 0, p»- vious to the ripening. Pruning la nnneoessajf
rigynouB ; the stamens about SO, arising from In outdoor standard trees ; but if practised, the
the throat of the calyx ; the anthers Innste, new shoots should be shortened so as to allow
S-ceDed, horsting longitudinaUr ; styles ter- 6 or 8 inches of strong wood. In artifidal
minal with a fuirow on (me side, ending in a management the pruning should be carefully
uniform stigma ; the fruit a drape with the attended to. Frectnently old trees of esteemed
nut (putamen) sometimes separating sponta- kinds become very irregular in their heads, by
neonsiy from the flesh (sarcooarp), seeds mostly the tall and strogghng branches; and it has
solitary; cotyledons thict plano-convex ; albn- been found to be a good plan to tie sod
men none. To this order belong many valnable branches loosely together by ropes to prevent
trees, snch as the almond, the plnm, the aprioo^ the winds fitting them down when laden
cherry, fcs. The peach tree has a low and with fruit The fruit buds are produced upon
brandling tmnk, an irregular head of numerons the young branches, and are round and plump;
brittle branches and twigs, oblong-lancedato, theleafuid shoot buds are oblong and pointed;
sermlaf« leaves, eolitaiy flowers, and a downy therefore In proning care must be taken to
or smooth drnoe, with tender, snooulent, and oat down to the uomted buds, rather than to
highly flavorea flesh. There seem to be no ^e round and plump ones, so that a new
positive distinctions between the peaoh and leafy branch above the fruit can be secured,
nectarine, the presence or absence of down The finer varieties of the peaoh, and those
upon the fruit being apparently accidental, thought to be tender, are sometimes bained
Nnmerons Instances are known where the against walls or on espaliers; but the greet
same tree has produced both fr^ts, and some- &Gility with which the peaoh ordinarily grow^
limes upon the same branch, and where like- and uie abundant crops it produces almost
wise a fruit has been partly nectarine and the without care, have made its cultivation a mat-
rest peach. There aro two prominent oharao- ter of little attention here, not even receiving
ters distinguishing the sorts, which are bow- so much as is bestowed upon other trees. — The
ever fonnd equally la the nectarine, where the fruit of the peach tree abounds in varieties,
fruits are known as freestones and clingstones, the London hortionltural society's catal<%ne for
the flesh parting readily irom the stone or nut, 1843 giving a list of S8 distinct sorts, each of
or else adhering closely to it. — The peaoh tree which has many synonymes. Downing rebkou
considered as sn ornamental shrub has severs! the number ooltivated in Europe to be about
beautiful forms or varieties, vit. : the doable- 60, while in this oonntry innumerable seedlings
flowering, with large showy blossoms like small have been produced, and some of them of the
roses; the whlte-blossomed, very ornamental, highest excellence. The comparative want c^
with fhiit of little value; the variegated- sunshine and of heat in England oansee the
leaved ; and the flat peach of China, with al- flnest American sorts to fail there in point of
most overereen foliage and rfngularly shaped flavor and worth, Amon^ the beet foreign
fhiit, whicn can be treated as a pot plant with sorts may be cited the Barrington. Bellegarde,
much facility. A curious variety with pendent ohanoellor, early Ann, Oeorge IT., Heath,
branches and large white flowers, called the Malta, noblesse, and royal Oecn^ which suc-
weeplog peach. Is of American origin. — The ceed under our cultivation ; and tne following
peach succeeds as a fr^iit tree wherever the superior sorts are of American origin : Craw-
winters are not severe enough to kill the young ford's esrly melaooton, Crawford's late melaoo-
wood. In Ibigland it withstands the usud ton, Cooledee's favorite, late red rareripe, lemm
winter weather ; it is a standard tree in Italy clingstone, Morris's red rareripe, Moms's white
and the south of fiance. In the United rareripe, Oldmizon freestone, president, and
States, where the winters are more severe, it red rareripe (early). There are many others
still does well, owing to the higher tempwa- of perhaps equal worth, which are but little
tnre of the summers. "Where the peach Is known beyond the localities where Uiey origi-
not extensively grown in orchards, it is fre- nated. — The peach tree is very easily prt^^ia-
qnently planted between other fruit trees, and gated. This may be done by the seeds of sn-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
eroaa impregnated, and b j budding the jonng tlie general appearance beW verj uuilar ;
leedliDga of the met jear'e growth, towud the the ssroooarp is uneatable, o^g deatitDte of
middle of September. This procesB is so BUc* pulp, tough, and fibroos. The pecnliar bitter
ceesfbl that any other is seldom used. On principle rwident in the seeds of the rarietj
planting oat the peach tree, it is foond advis- Known as bitter almond and in the leaves tn
able to severeh- head it down, as therebj' the the peaoh is attributed to the presence of b^-
growth b made more rigoroas and hardj. droojaitio acid.
Close priming is often fbond serviceable in the PEAOOO£, agaOinaoeons bird of the pheas-
sama way toi establiahed and standard trees, ant Eunilj, and sab-family pav^nina, whibh in-
The pltun tree is used for stocb with advan- olodas, according to Gra?, the genera paw
tage, especially fbr trees intended for walls and gimi.), polwleetron (Temm.), and enmoj^il^a
espaUers, as thereby a dwarfer habit is ob- (Hodgs.), aU natives of India and its arofaipelft-
tained. The beet soil fbr the peach is a rich go. In the genus pavo the bill is, moderate,
sandy loam ; next to thiB, a strong mellow with the base of the culmen elevated, &e api-
loam; then a light, thin, sandy soil. The last oal half arched and vaulted, and the sides cr~-
haa been con^ered the best, bat it has been presaed; wings short and rounded, with 6th
' and that the tree does not last so long as in qnUl the longest ; head plmned and created,
richer soil. — The diseases incident to the and orbital region naked; the tail composed
peach tree are the yellowa, the cnrl, and the of 18 feathers, loog and ronnded, but in the
gam. The origin of the first and most fatal males concealed by the greatly lengthened oov-
disease is not (uearly known, bnt it is sapposed eri^; tarsi long and strong, with large trans-
to indicate an original and organic taint, trans* verse scales in front, and armed with a conical
misdble through the seed; saoh trees as posr epur; toes moderate, the anterior ones nnited
sesB it abonld be eradloatod and their eeads not at the base by a membrane. They are splendid
sown. The oorl attacka the leaves, swelling birds, preferring in the wild state wooded di»>
and distorting thwi, and oaoslng tliem to pre- triots and low Jangles; they are sufficiently
maturely fall. This disease baa been attributed hardy to endure the severe cold of tiie monn-
to the cold of die spring, or to ^ihldes, insects tains of northern India; they roost on high
which nestle in the affected leaves; bnt as the branches, and make the nest on the ground
same appears in conservatories and on trees among thick shrubs; the male does not attain
grdwn m pots under glass, the flrst named con- his perfect train ont^ the 8d year. The wild
jecture cannot be true. It is more probably birds aremorebrilliant than the domesticated;
owing to the preaence of myoeloid threads of a QriSth says of them : " We find in their in-
minute ftmgaa which, ^wing in the tJssae of comparable robe tH Qiat glistens in the roia-
the leal^ produces a rf^d and abnormal growth, bow, and sparkles in the nune — the aznre tints
and affoi^ thereby a snoonlent pabulum to the of heaven, and the emerald of^the fields."
S hides as well as a secure and warm retreat. They are about the size of a hen turkey; the
e gmn is owing to the depredation of the fiightislow and heavy; they arc polygamous
peach tree borer (aforia seihom. Say), a lepi' and lay from 12 to 90 eggs, about the size of
oopterons iiueot like a blue fly, which de- those of a goose, and raise only one brood in a
pc^ts its eggs under the bark; these, hatcb- year. Some are more or less variegated, and
ing into worms, devour the inner bark and ocoasdonally one is seen entirely w£it«. The
cause the extravasation of the sap, which on food consists of grun, seeds, (hiits, and insects.
exposure to tbe air is couverted Into gum. The common peacock (P. erittattit, Linn.) is
D^troying the inaeot is the only cure. — The probably the most magnificent of birds ; its
value of the fruit of the peaoh tree tu a com- form is elegant, its movements gracefbl, and
mercid point of view in the United States is its plumage resplendent with tints of green,
very great. Thousands of bushels of peaches golden, bronze, and blue ; tlie long tail coverts,
are marketed &om tlie peach orchards of the whi<dk the male can spread like a fan, are beaa-
middle states yearly. In western New York tifol beyond descripdon, with their metallic
and in other pads of the country, the fruit is and iridescent hnea, white shafts, velvet-black
dried by artinoial heat, tbe stones being taken centre, and brilliant terminal eye spots ; the
out prerioosly, or even dried in the sun, and head is surmounted with a very elegant tuft of
thus made a marketable article. A spirituous feathers ; every one must have seen its display
liquor called peach brandy is distilled from the in public or private parka. The female b
ripe tndt, and h<^ are fed from the refWe. brownish and sombre, and destitute of the
The leaves of the peach tree, bruised in water train. The voice is harsh and disagreeable,
and diatlUed, ^ve peach water, much esteemed resembling the syllabtes jxi^ which is the
for flavoring artioles in cookery ; and when fVench name for the bird ; it is very fond of
steeped in spirits they commanicate to them being admired, and its vanity has been pro-
the fiavor of noyeau. The medicinal qualities verbkl from early antiquity ; it has been as-
of the peaoh &ee may be considered as nn- sorted that the principu use of its train is, by
tritious and refrigerant the bark, blossoms, Its sudden spreading, to bewilder and terri^
and dcins of the seeda oei:^ poisonous. The its enemies ; it has not this effect, however,
■Imixid (A. eOfnmimU, Linn.) is oonaidared by npoa the tiger, to whl^ Utis Urd ttOa a tn-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
68. PEAOOOE FXIALE
qiisnt TioUm. The peacock waa brought to Pal- covering the base ; timitrbvng, oorered in fSrant
wtine by die fleets of Solomon, and to Bnrope irith divided scales, and armed with a aptu';
Its very early period; it is now dispersed m hind toe ahort and elevated; claws strong and
ft domesticated state aU over Europe and the carved ; sides of the head covered with a pap-
United Btatee. In anoieDt Rome Qieir eostli- lllose akin; the feathers loose and hair-like.
nesB made them favorite lozmies fbr the table, The single species described (0. ourttvn,
and a diah of peaoocks' bruna and tongaea woa EodgB.) & peonliai to the monntiiW of Thibet,
regarded as a necessary part of an ostentatious and Is very rare ; the general color is white,
feast; even in the iniddle ages they formed a with the primaries brown, the BecondaH««
atanding diah in grand entertainmenta ; the blnish dnereoos, the feet and orbitii region red,
modems think their fleeh dry and tough, and and the crown bluish black, of rigid feathers
keep them only as omamenta. In the domes- in vertical lamina ; an ear ti^ of long, decom-
tjoi^ed state they agree well with turkeys, bnt posed white plomee ; the ttul with blo^, green,
not always with the other occupants of the and purpliah reflections, the lateral fbathen
poaltry yard ; it ia necessary to protect them with a snbtermin^ oval white spot.
from the cold of onr northern winters; in the PEALE, OiiABLXa WiLsoir, an American
wild state they have a propensity to roost on punter, bom in Ohestertoii, Ud., April 16,
the branches of trees, and ahonld therefore 1741, died in Philadelphia in 1827. He was
have an opportunity to perch, either on a tree, originally by trade a saddler, but at various
Tall, or roof; barley is the most oommon food times of his life followed the oconpationa of
given to them, and to thia may be added millet hameaa maker, watch and clock maker, silver
and other grains, and legmninous vegetables ; aroith, painter in oils, crayon, and miniatnre,
the females are apt to neglect their eggs and modeUer, preserver of tmimBia^ dentist, public
yonng, hence the services of a hen turkey are lectorer, &e. Fiunting however was hia (diief
generally reqnired to raise the brood. The employment, the others being incidental to it,
green peacock (P. mutietu, Linn.), from Java, or assumed for temporary purposes. He re-
hae the neck greenish and copper-colored, and oeived instmotiona in art from a Qeiman
■ toft of long thin feathers barbed from the punter named Hesselins, who had been a pnfdt
* i on the top of the head. Ur. Bclater of Bir Godfrey Kneller, and subseqaently from
("Annals and Magazine of Natural History," Ooplev, then living in Boston. In 1770 he
Aug. I860) makes a distinct species of the visited ^gland, and for several jrears was a
blaok-ahouldered peacock of Latham, under the pupil of West. Eeturning to America, he es-
name of F. nignpmnU; thia bird haa long tabliahed himself first in Annapolis and after-
been known in aviaries, bnt has been oonad- ward In Philadelphia, and for many years was
ored as a variety or hybrid of the other two; almost the only portrait p^ter deserring Om
he regards it as intermediate in geographical nsme In NorlS America, his reputation being
position as well as in characters between the such that people came to him from Canada and
P. oTutaUu and nutiea*. — In the genus pob/- the West Inaiea to be painted. During the
pUetron the bill is slender, straight, half vault- revolutionaij war he commanded a company
M at the apex, and curved to the tip, with of volunteers, with whom he partioipated in
compressed sides, and covered with plumes at the battles of Trenton and Gennantown ; and
the base; the tall is lengthened, broad, and he also painted the portr^ta of many officers
rounded, without the long coverts of the pre- and distlngoiahed men, which formed the nn-
oeding genua; the tars) armed in the males olena of a national portrait gallery snbse-
with 3 or 8 spurs, in the females tuberculate; qnently colleot«d by him. He also served in
toes long and slender, the anterior united at Oie Pennsylvania legislature. About 178B he
base, and the hind one elevated. There are commenced the formation of a mnsenm of
abont half a dozen species, all showy birds, natural curiosities, the idea of vhich had
found in mounttunons districts of India. The been suggested to him by the si^t of some
iris peaoock (P. Ueaiearatum, Temm.) is about foseil bones, brought to him to be copied.
OS large as a domestic fowl, mottled with aah- In a few years his collection of pictnres and
eolored, white, and brown; winga and t^ and other objects waa removed to a lai^ buil^g
tiielr coverts with rows of ^Ided. bronzed, pur- apeciajly prepared for their reception, which,
[da and reddish spots, with bluish and^een under the name of Peale's museumj was long
refleotlona. The Thibet peacock (P. TfWo- one of the principal flttractiona of Philaddphia.
fMiM, Temm.) is a rather larger bird, and difFers Subsequently the entire skeleton of a msmmoth
principally from the last in the blockiah linea was added to the collection, and In connection
of the plumage ; the tail is reddish, each feather wiUi his museum Ur. Peale lectured on natnral
luviug a double ooellated green apot; it is a history. He uded m founding the Pennsy]-
hardy Urd, and a great favorite in tlie aviaries Tarda academy of fine arts, to 17 annual ^[hi-
of the wealthy Ohinese. — la the genus erotto- bitions of whldi he was a contributor.— Hsir-
ptilon the bill Is shorter than the head, broad at BBAin>t, Sd son of the preceding, bom in Bucks
the base, with the lateral margins curved, the co., Penn., Feb. 82, 1778, died in Philadelphia,
upper mandible spreading beyond the lower Oct. 8, 1860, At the age of 8 he was atoler-
andoverhandngit; tul lengthened and broad, able draughtsman. In 1796 he established
lonnded at the end, with the coverts slightly lumself in Obarleston S. C, as a portrait
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FBAmrC FEAB 69
painter, and between 1801 at)d 1804 he rtnd- bQ the fine garden eorts of pears have or^
led in London under West. Bubseqnentl; he n&ted. The pear tree helotigs to the natnm
passed MTeral years in Psria. and ezeonted order oSpomaeea, being ezogens with rose-fikfl^
portnuts of emiaent men for his bther's ran- manf-p<^ed, r^nlar flowers, and oarp^ sd-
aenm. In 1809 he returned to Philadelphia, hering to the cujx by their backs. The dia-
where during the next few yeara he pamted tinctive cbaraoters of the pear tree prt^ierlj
many portrait!^ and also two pictures oele- bo called are: leaves simple, without glands;
bated in their time, the " Roman Daoghter" flowers with ue osItz uroeolate, the fimb S-
and the " Oooit of Death," the latter founded lobed, the petals S-spreading, fl^ and vhite;
on a passage in Bishop Porteos's poem on etsmensindefinite,iiiaertod in the throat of the
deatii. 'Tbis work, which was 24 feet m length <calfx; etyles mostly 5; fruit a fleahT p<«ne,
b; 18 in breadth, and contained 28 flgoi^ conta&iingabout 6 cartdlaginonscaipela; seeds
was exiilbited in the ohief cities of the United 9 in each carpel ; embryo erect with flat ootyle-
Statee, and bron^t the author e. large snm of dons. The onltivated pear tree has been knows
moner. Thenoefertili until near the doee of from Tery remote time& b^ng meu^oned hj
bis kntg lifb, he devoted himself chiefly to por- tbe earliest writers and JBHiil'ar to ^eophras-
trut paintingj nnmbering some of the most tus and VirgiL Pliny describee numerous w
eminent men in the oonntrj among bis ritters, rietles known to him, and fh)m hb remarks it
The work in this department by w^oh he was would appear that the earlier ripening kinds
cUefly known was his portrait of Washing- and the winter pears were then in anstenoe.
ton made from life studies. He published a It Is co^Jeotnrea that the poar was Introdaoed
book of European travels, and a small treatise into England by tbe Romans ; and some of the
on elcmentery drawing entitled" Oraphics." older sorts still in existence are mentioned by
PEANUT, the seed of tbe oroeAu hypogaa name in the account books of the excheqner
(Line), an herbaceous plant belonging to the in the time of Henry YIU., and by Gerarde, a
pnlaa family of the natnral order M^vrntncws. celebrated herbalist, who published a oatalogne
This order comprises the l^uminouii plants, a of trees, &o., as early as 1G06; while, acoOTd-
vaet group, widch, thongh differing in the ing to Killer, who wrote in ITSG, the nnmber
stmotnre of the flowers, yet tmita in tbe com- of cultivated varieties known was 2SQ, frvm
toon form of the seed vessel, which is that of a which he selects 70 or 80 as the best. Sinoe
pod. The peanut has an aunual root ; a pro- that time the nnmber has been oonstantly in-
cumbent stem from 9 to 18 inches long, branch- creasing from the efforte of the French^ and
ing and piloee ; leaves borne on petioles and espeoit^y of Van Mons of Belgium, while in
oondatang of 4 broad, blunt leaflets in pdrs, England and America very flne and Insoions
sabaeadK minutely mucronate at the apex, sorts are annually springing into exietence
entire and bordered by a pilose nerve, the sti- throngh the sowing of seeds and by hybridiz»-
pnles adnata to the petJoIe. The flowers are tion. Through tbe efi'orta of gentlemen omi-
papilionaoeous, the bairen ones yellow and nected with the London hortionltural sode^'a
small, and the tertile destitute of oalyx, cord- garden, all the varieties that could be obtdned
1a, and atamenfl ; the ovary after Impregnation were collected and classified ; and in its oatft-
gradually elongates, and curving downward logue published in 1843 no fewer tlian. 443
boriea ttaelf in the earth, where it matures into kinds are speoified, with their accompanying
an oblong, terete pod, with thickened and re- synonyme^ In the United States the readers
tionlately veined indehiscent valves; this when of the various horticnltnral magarinea arefi^
mature la of a pale yellow color, often eon- miliar with the hosts of improved and valuahls
traoted in the middle, and oontiUni 1 to 8 seeds varieticR which have ^ce originated or been
of an irregularly ovoid ahape, with thick ooty- introdnced to notice. — Ibe cnltivated pear tree
ledons aiul a str^bt radicle. The seeds are thrives in any rich losmy soil, and manure jo-
taH of oil, which when expressed is said to be diciously apj^cd proves very benefidaL Old
in no way inferior to that of olives. The trees whicn have ceased to bear good fridt
plant IB tropioal, and is largely cnltivated in have been reoovated by digging trmsA their
hot countries for food, as in tiie southern roots and sppljing a oompost of w^ rotted
United States, in Sonth America, and In Africa, manures mixed with vegetable matters, sof^
Tb« seeds are eaten both raw and roasted. mda, ashes, Ac The pwfection of the frmt
FKAS, an ediUe fruit, the produce of tbe and the flavor of particular kinds d^end very
pgrta eomtutuui (Unn.). In its wild state the much upon the nature and quality of the soO ;
pear tree has a pyramidal-ehaped head, with and particular varieties have been fonnd to do
thorny branches, at first erect and afterward perfeotiy well in situations which vary in some
becoming pendnlous and curving downward ; essential particular from otiiers in their vioin-
tbe leaves varying greatly in form, and downy Ity, The pear Is cnltivated in a variety of
or glatmnia, narrow or broad ; the fruit small, modes, being set out as a standard tree, when
KOBten, and unfit to eat. The wild pear tree la it is grafted apon some seedling stock and eof-
a native of Europe from Sweden to Uie Uedi- fered to grow to great size ; or used as a dwarf
terranean, and of Asia as far east as Ohina tree, by being grafted npon the quince root ; or
and Japan. Erom the variety of the common planted near walls ana grown upon eepaliera,
pear designated as tbe Mlwa by De Oandtdle when its truning aod pruning are Btul more
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
70 FEAS FEABGB
ooiutrained and BitificiaL The modes of train- b«KU of pen? i
ing dwarf and wall trees are TariooB, but on perrj poara are ... „ ., .__
voUb tjiio 8 principal methods are the fan- field, luid Teintoa eqaash. The great ^' to
shape, the penduloos, and the horizontal. The which the pear tree may attain in^oates eome-
maui object being, however, to distribute eqaal- what the valne of its wood as timber. It »
It the vigor of the tree, it has been found that heavT', Etrong, and compact, and can be nsed
uie last named mode is the best. This ia done In making Joiners' tools and in cabinet work :
bj cutting back a central shoot and training it also fiinusbes a good i^el and excellent char-
branohea horizontany to the right and left. coaL — The pear tree is mbiect to two principal
For market gardening and for farmera the diaeaaes, which are very injnriona to the cnl-
atandard treea are the beat, many bnahels of ^ tivator, known as blights, bnt originating from
fruit being raised on single trees. For small very distinct oanses. The yonn^ branches ore
gardens the dwarf trees are preferable, en- sometimes attacked by a mischievonB coleop-
abliug many choice varietdes to be grown near terons insect, first described by Prof. Feck
toge^er and on a email area. Sometimes anch in the "Ifassacbiisette Agricnitnral Bepod-
trees are trained into artistical forms by tying tory," vol. iv. No. S, as the teoiytvt pyri, which
ttie young and growing branches to st^es, or bores into the bark and wood, and cats off the
by bending them down toward the earth, se- passage of the ascending am ; when this anp-
Onring them ia snoh position by strings and ply fuls the branches suddenly perish. The
pegs. In making a selection, the pecDfiarities other disease is the efiect of late growth dnr-
of the different varieties, in reference to their ing the previoos antnnm and of imperfect ri-
Stocks, soil, and crops, shonld be studied, pening of the wood, in conse<]QeDoe of which
Borne will not grow in tie open conntry, and it becomes frozen and the tisanes killed and
reqnire the shelter of the garden ; somedohest disabled fi^)m carrying on the vital flmctioni;
grafted on the pear, and others on the quince; this is termed the sap blight or frozen sap blight,
and others require more than ordinary man- Varieties of the pear tree which matnre tfaeir
Bgement. The great varie^ of climate in the wood early are rarely affected in this way. —
United States enables the froit grower to find The trae pear tree b not reprmented in the
congenial situations for every foreign sort, and American flora, and its nearest species in the
accordingly treatiaes on pear culture assign natural order pomaoea ie the American crab
certain sorts to certun aectiona. For the farm, apple (,pyrv* eoronaria, Linn.) of western Kew
standard trees of the following autumn and Tork, and the western and sontbem states,
winter fhuts have been recommended, viz. : PEABOE, Zi.ob.uit, an English prelate and
Oatillac, Chelmsford, black pear of Worcester, scholar, bom in 1690, died in Little Ealii^
Spanish bon Chretien, Uvesdale's St Germdn, Jane S9, 1774. He was the son of a Holbom
andvicar of Winkfield. ForasncceBsi<niofear> diatiller, and was ednoatedat Ealing, at West-
ly, aattmm, and winter fraits in small gardens, minster under Dr. Basby, and at ^inity col-
amoMg others the following foreign Unda may lege, Cambridge. While in college he is said
be named : Madeline, Williams's bon Chretien, to have written two numbers of rne " Specta-
Bummer franc r6al, white doyennfe. fondante tor" (678 and 688), and Hoa. 114 and 181 of
d'antomne, Marie Louise, Urboniste, Van the "Onardian." In 1716 he publidked an
Mens' Lion leClero,beurr6Boac, winter Nelis, edition of Cicero i>e Oratore, with notes and
and benrr6 d'Aremberg: and of American emendations, and dedicated it to Lord Chitf
". . 9 -. - .. ^^^^ .
seedlings, the Bloodgood, Dearborn's seedling, justice Parker, who caused him to r
Andrews's, Beckel, Six, Columbia, &c. — The various preferments. ' In 1724 hb edition m
value of the pear is twofold, viz. : for the des- "Longinus on the Sublime," with a new Latin
Dried pears are as weU Jmown in fiance and made dean of Windiester, in 1748 bishop of
Belgium as dried apples are with na. Deaaert Bangor, and in 17B6 bishop of Rochester with
pears embrace not only the summer kinds the deanery of Westminster added, and later
which ripen on the trees, bnt some of the win- was offered the bishopric of London, which be
ter kinds which are not fit for eating until to- revised. When 78 yeara old he wished to re-
ward the following spring. To ripen these it ugn his offices, and for that purpose had an
has been found convenient to constraot frnit interview with the king ; but in consequence of
rooms in which the pears are laid separately on the disapproval of the episcopal bench, Geoi^
ahelves and kept as nearly as posdble at a uni- III. refused him permission. Beside the works
form temperature. Another use of the pear ia already mentioned, he published a "Review
tor makinf^ from Ita juice a liquid called perry, of the Text of Paradise Lost," in oppoation
which ifl ncher and more esteemed than cider, to the emecdationB of Bentley; "An Ac-
In some parts of England, France, and Ger- count of Trinity College, Cambridge;" "The
many there ore particular varieties called perry Miracles of Jesas Vindic^ad," in 4 parte (Bvo.,
rrs. Several trees of such ore mentioned by 1727-'6); beside a namber of aermona, trea-
Boso as being about 400 years old; and ac- tises, and discourses on various snUecte. Bis
cording to London a very extraordinary tree greatest work was published after nia death,
in the parish of Holm-Laoey, Herefordshire, nnderthetitleof" A Commentary, with Notes,
England, has yielded f^m its fruit IB hogs- on the Four Eyangeliata and the Acts of the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEABL 71
ApoHilea, tt^ether with b hot Trandation of repast, moat hsn been of extraordinary size, sa
Bt. PaoI'B I^istle to the OormthiaiiH" (3 vob. thej were valood at 10,000,000 eesteroee, or
4b>.,1777). A oolleotion of " Sormona on Var about |8eo,000. At the Paria exhibition of
riona Snl^oota," from Uie manuscripts of Biahop 1866 Napoleon m. exhibited an enormous
Fearee, appeared in 1778 (4 vola. 8to.), with pear-Bhap«d pearl. The latest known in
a detention to Qoorge m. hj Dr. Johnson. modem tames belongs to O. A. J. Hope. Esq.,
FEASL, a round, tnbercnlar, or irregnlar of England. It weighs G oz., and is 4^ mohea
oonoretion, oonsiating chiefly of carbonate of in oironmferenoe and 2 inches in length, bnt
lime, foond in nuiny bivalTe shells, eqieciaUy irregular and imperfect. The art of piercing
iatbaatieulamargarit^ftra, or m^ea^na mar- and dtilUng them is well nnderatood and akil-
garitifira of Be Lamarck, or the tme pearl folly exeontod by the Hindoo artisana. They
oyster, and among ftesh water bivslTes in the drill a nnmber of holes of varying dzes over
tmw inargarit^fervt. (See Ifvsszi.) In form the sorfaoe of a soft hoard, into whidi they in-
tfH7 are osnaUy erpheriool, and their color ia sort the pearls, which are aecnred by dampening
yeluwiah or blniah white. The purest white the board and so oansing the porea to expand
pearls are most esteemed in EnroiM and Amer- and the wood to tighten round tiie pearls until
ioLandthoseofyellowishtingebytheHindoos drilled, when the board is allowed to dry. A
ana Arabs. Th«r hardness somewhat exceeds slight tap disengagea them. — The pearl oyster.
that of ealeareous ntar, tboogh when treated from which almost all the pearla of oom-
'tb aeid they are fonnd to possess the same meroe ore obtained, la a bivalve of nearly
mposition with this mineral, with the addi- circnlar form, slightly convex, and sometimes
tion of fine films of membrane or albuminoua as large as 12 inches in diameter. It ia met
matter, whlob remains behind, retaining the with in different parts of the world, especial-
form and Btmotare of the pearl, and in na- ly in the Indian ocean and the northern Pa-
croons pearls the irideeoenoe also. They differ oiflo. Like the common oyster, pearl oysters
in atrnctnreacoording to the portion of Uteani- congregate in large nnmbers on banks, and
mal in which they are foond. Those developed are obtained year after year from the same lo-
in the inner layer of the mantle and in ^e celities, Vhere the water Is shallow, they are
gins are often of amall nze and numerous, and sometimes dredged, bnt they are gener^y
are known as eeed pearls. Others are formed taken by divwa. The most famous pearl fish-
around partldea of aand or other for^gn bodies eries are near the coasts of Oeylon, Japan, Java,
lubodnced into the pallial cavity. These con- and Sumatra, and in the Persian gulf. The
sist of ooneentrio layers of wavy oaldfied mem- coast of Colombia and Ihe hay of Panama were
brane, bnt the external pearis from the outer long since famous for tiieir prodnot of pearls,
layer of the mantle and attached to the shell and they have fomiahed large amounts of
conaiatof a concentric layer of minute verHoal them, but generally of inf^or valne to the
prisma The Chinese have long been in the oriental pearls. StUl, one posHessed by Philip
habit of canaing the formation of pearls by in- IL of Sutln, obtained in 16H fivm Uargarit^
trodadng Into the shells small beads of mother- weighed S60 carats, and was valued at 1|160,-
of-pearl or other substances, which soon collect 000. The Spaniards who first visited the
an momstalion of oaloareona matter. It ia anp- American continent fonnd the natives decked
posed that the natural accretion of the substance with necklaces and bracelets of pearls, and
of pearls is always owing to some injury the Hontezuma is described in his first interview
ftnirna.! hss rec^Tod. LinJuBUB first called at- with Cortes as wearing garments adorned wi^
tention to this phenomenon, and was knighted this preolons ornament. In the trade in pearis
for demonstratmg the &ct — From a very early from the Bpaniah American coast which soon
period pearla have ranked among gems, and sprang np, the ialet of Oubagua became famous
been highly esteemed as ornaments. In the for the abundant supplies it famished. On the
timeof Jobth^wereaooonntedofffreatTelne, V. coast of Central America pearls are still
and frequent aQnrions are made to tnem in the procured. Tbey are of fine Instre, bnt of ir-
Bcriptorea. The Greeks and Bomans used rwnlar fonns. Small resgelB from Uazatlan
them in prc^nuon, and even decorated their and Aoapnloo are employed in thLi business.
faet witit pearls. Pliny, after referring to the Beside the orew, they oarry Indian divers, called
prodigal wtpli^ of pearls in his time, adds: hvM*, who receive fbr their services \ of the
"Hay, even more than this, they put them on profita, the remainder being equally divided
their feat, and that not merely on the laces of between the govemment and the owner of the
their sandals, but they must needs tread upon vesseL Humboldt remarks with surprise that
them and w^ with tJiem under foot as well." he had nerer heard of pearls found in the
He also alhidee to the breastplate which Ctesar firesh water shells of Sonth America, though
brought home and dedicated to Yenns Gene- several species of the tmio genus abound in
triz,*tatingthatltwas formed of British pearla; the rivers of Pern. The aoddental discovery
whieh confirms the statement of Suetonius, that at Paterson, N. J., in 1808, of some of un-
pearls were Crasar's chief inducement for bis usual size, occauoned the New Jersey pearl ex-
British expedition. The two famous pearls of oltement of that time, which was no doubt
Cleopatra, which she proposed to dissolve in heightened by the largest having been found
vinegar in honor of Ajitony at her Inxnrions at the commenoement of the search ; it was a
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
72 PEAEL PEASAHT6' WAE
pearl of mora tiian an Inch In diameter, per- Bahr^ lal&nds In the Penrian golf sre aaid to
fectlT spherical and with fine orient; it vas yield annnallT- from $1,000,000 to $1,200,000.
pnrchawdbyMesara. TMfanyoifNewToFk.and — Pearls are valned m well for the purity of
dispoeed of through their establiahment in their Inatre as for their size. Hie smaller ones
F^ris, where it is said to have become the are worth from EO cents to $S each ; sinzle
property of the empress at a price esoeed- fine pearls are worth |6 and upward ; and m
log $2,000. — Among the most famous pearl handsome neoklaoe of pearls as large as peas
fineries are those ^ Osylon and Oorom&ndel, is worth from $600 to $15,000. Pearls in oom-
which are now controlled by the iinglish gor- merce are classed as oriental and occidental, or
eminent, as formerly by the East India com- Indian and Pacific, and divided into roeind,
pany. Prom the time of Pliny, when the pear-sbq>e, and baroque ; when smaller than -fm
Romans obtained iheir pearls fi^nn the same of an inch in diameter, they are termed aeeo
region, Ceylon has always been celebrated for pearls. The Saaon, Scotch, Welsh, and Iriah are
its pearlfl and its pearl divers. At present the from the aame eonrce as onr New Jersey pearl,
fisheries are annually enrreyed and farmed out the ft^sh water mnssel (unto). The beantiAil
to the highest bidders, each portion bebig pink-colored "West Indian conch pearl, and onr
fished only once in 4 yean, that the young clam pearl, are not strictly pearls, being mere
oysters may have time to grow. The diver* calcareons aggregations, seldom naoreons, and
are natives trained to this pormlt, and aocos- never conoentrio as the tme pearl is. — Nacre ot
tomed to descend to depths of 6 or 8 fathoms mother-of-pearl is tiie iridescent inner layer
40 or DO times a day. They take down a large of the shell ; it is excreted as a fiSmy matter
stone to hastes their descent, and a bag in on the interior, and becomes hard by the de-
which they place the oysters, as they tear position of oarbooate of lime; it forms gener-
them off from the rocks, lliey remain nnder ally the ohief part of the shell, the roogh ez-
water a minute to a minntfi and a half, and terior epidermis being thin and dark-colored,
come op with abont 100 oysters. The oc- The iridescence seems to be dne to the mi-
onpatlon is very l^orions, and the divers nnte nndnlations of the concentric layers, from
are unhealthy and diort-ltved from diseases whose ontoroppiog edges the rays of light are
of the heart and Inngs and congestion of differently r^racted, or to the smsll folds of
the brain daring immersion; they also run a ungle lamina; it has been snooessfblly imi-
great risks from the attacks of sharks and tated on steeL Mother-of-pesrl is fkmiliariy
the large hook squids. The fishing season known in its spplicatioo to ornamental pttr-
eommences in March or AprQ, and continues poses, and thoosands of tons of the ehells are
abont a monOi. For a few mon^s the bay of annually exported from the Indian and Pa-
Oondatchy, on the "ff. coast of the island, which cifio oceans, valoed according to quality fi«m
is the most attractive point in this fishery, pre- $70 to $660 a ton ; it is nsed pnncip^y for
sents a most lively scene, in striking contrast buttons, knife handles, inlaying of &mitDrD,
with its nsnally quiet aspect. Amotley crowd 4o., and is often beautifully carved. The na-
of people of various nations, with their strange ere of the genera oDtetila, tvtio, haliotit, nou-
diversitieR of dress, language, religion, and man- tilui, and other bivalve and univalve ahella, is
ners, is collected from all directions — Brahmins also used as mother-of-pearl. — False or arti-
andBomanOsthoIica, Mohammedans and Jews, fioial pearls were formerly made at Mnrano,
merchants and ^vers — all eager and eicited In a suburb of Yenfce, of ^lass lined with a
speculation and trade. Sometimes not fewer pearl-colored vamiah, or with quicksilvet; but
than 160,000 persons are thus assembled, liv- the French have been of late years the moat
ing under the temporary belter of light bam- successful imitators of the natural pearl, and to
boo hntg. At daybreak the boata start oflT at such a degree of perfection have they carried
the firing of a gun, and at noon their return is the art, that only the most careAil examination
signalled inthoHsmemanner. On landing, the discloses thedifference between the trueand
freight is delivered to the owners, and some the fidse gem. The artifldal pearls are lined
of the shells are immediately opened and the with wax and fish scales, which sre taken from
pearls extracted ; others are piled in large the body of the fish while living, in order to
neaps and left in the sun till the bodies of the preserve the glistening hne. The roach and
animals putre^, when they open of themselves dace, which fbmtsh the scales, are supplied by
and the pearls are removed. These are passed the nahermen of the Seine, who derive a very
tiirongh a succession of sieves, and thus thoee considerable profit from this souroe. A va-
of corresponding (dies are brought together, riety of the smelt, said to be pecnliar to the
A single BheQ often contains from 8 to 12, and Tiber, has long afforded the Roman Jewellers
in some instances it is sud even 20 pearls, the means of coating waxen beads so that they
The nsnal dimenrions of good oriental pearls haveagreaterresemblancetotherealpearlthaD
are from the size of a pea to about 8 times that either the Yenetian or French ; but being ex-
size. Those smaller are called oance pearls temal, it is much leas durable. The exact yM>-
from being sold by weight, and the small- cess is k^itjealonsly secret.
est seed pearls. To the latter are attribnted PEARLASH. See Potash.
bnportant medicinal virtues by the natives of PEASANTS' WAB, a revolutionary move-
Jq>an and India. The pearl fisheries of the ment tn aontliem and central Germany, which
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PKAflAKTff WAB 78
accoroptnied the nfomution of Latiier. The insarreclions broke out In Franoonia over 200
peaaantai* wu bu freqnentl; been represented castles and oooventa were destroyed. Tbenoe
ms ona of the «SboU of the reUgiona refonn«- the war extended to BsTaria, Aastria, Hnn^u?,
tiOD, ^rhile in &ct it waa mn^lj its corollair-, Oroatiti, and Bohemia In the eaat, throngh Hes-
Bprin^ng from the same caase, whioh, in work- se, the Palatinate, Alsatia, and Lorraine in the
ing Tipcn di&rent conditions of society, pro- west, and even to Thnringia and Sazony, where
dnoed diSbrent results. Thus, while the refor- in Thomas Uanzer the peasants found an en-
mation was principally a morement of the thnuaeticandgiftedleader. The Swahian peas-
middle olaMM, as they are now termed, the ants, with whom the moTement had began,
peasants' wars were the uprising of the lowest proclaimed the following proposItioiiB, the at-
strata of socfety. Throngh the reformatdon the tainment of which was to he the common ob-
AouiydMiu^ifthat modem term may be allowed, ject of the leTolntlon : I, the ministers shoold
stroTd for mtBtery OTer the nobility ; vhile in be elected by the lay members of the dmrch :
the poManta' wars broad, universal demooraoy. S, the proceeds of the tithing should be applied
however onide in its fitrms, made ansneceasftil to the snpport of the poor and to mnoioipal
effbrta to hriiig downtime lof^ and complicated pniposes, a reasonable salary only being appro-
Btraotare ot a social system based npon privi- priwbed therefrom to the mhuater ; 8, servitode
InipKi and iHiHnfitltmfi nf nlinnnfi Aatherefor- ehonld be abolished ; 4, the exclusive pririlegea
matioa waa preceded in the ItiJt and IBth oen- of princes and noblemen in regard to huntmg
tories by many nnsnooessftd attempts, ao waa and fishing ehonld be abolished ; S, the wood-
thegreatMasants'warbyisDlatedinsaiTections. lands impropriated by the clergy and nobility
In 1 470 Hans Bnohheim, called "Johnny the ehonld be retnmed to the village corporations;
I^>er," proolumed himself a prophet, and ral- 6 to 8, the socage service should be fixed by
lied the peasants of Franconia against the mle law, the ground rent reduced, and the fend^
of the bishops of Wllrzbnrg. In 14SS the tenure regulated; S, Justice should be admin-
Ksmbriier (eheeae boys) in the Netherlands istered furly and firmly according to plain
■ooceeded so &r as to tue and hold for some written laws ; 10, all fields and pasture grounds
time the cities of Alkrnaar and Hoom. In the arbitrarily taken from the village corporations
followingyearariidDgof the Alsadanpeasantay by the clergy and nohUity shonld be retnmed
against tiie despotism of the burghers was sm- tothem; 11, tiie right of beriot shall be sbol-
preasad with the utmost omelty. In 1609 the ished; IS, any of the preceding articles should
peasants of SwabU formed a league, known un- be null and void whenever it should be proven
der the name of the league of the hrc^aCStouI- not to be in accordance with the Scripture. In
fcAuA^, which was promptly put down by the two oolunms, one led by Gotz von Berliching-
nobili^. Another eff(^ was made by the peas- en, the other by Florlan Geyer, the peasant
ante' league of the " poor Oonrad," but it army marched toward Worzhnrg, whose citi-
proredaqnallyauBaooeesM. In 1018 the peas- 2ens made common cause with them. Bntin-
snts of Hnngary, having been called to arms stead of vigorously pushing to the north and
sgunst the Tnrb, vera fbrmed Into an army nnidng his forces with those of MQnzer, Gotz
VS George I>6»a and levied a war of eztermf- von Berliohingen, who at heart was a trutor
' ' " ' "" They muntained to the cause, whioh he had espoused from mer-
, , ley were vanquish- oenary motives, remained inactive and gave the
ed by John Zipdya. Yet of all these move- princes time to concentrate their armies, tsk
ments no one was so well preconcerted and or- April, 162J;, Count Waldhnrg led the army of
ganiaed, or eo well defined in its ol^eota, as the the Swabian leagne through Wltrtemberg, and
peasants' war which ravaged a large part of defeated all detached corps of the peasants.
QeTmaDy in 1624 and 1696. It broke ont in On Hay S a oolnmn of 36,000 peassnts waa
Bwabi^ where the peasants, having conqnered routed after a bloody struggle near BOblingen.
the abbey <rf EeD^)ten, compelled the prince When, on Uay 16, MQnzer's army had been an-
abbot to rerign by treaty all rights and privi- nihilated near Frankenhansen, and at the si
dniok HorlewagM) led the peaauits of the All- In two sanguinary battles near Scherweiler and
gan against the prince bishop <rf Augsburg, and Lupstein, u^e war was virtually at an end. A
within a few weeks tens of thonsands of peas- horrid but«hery followed. In the Palatinate
snts rallied under the emblem of a plough 17,000 peasants c^itulated. The duke of
wheel. Obtoiniut the secret support of lie Lorrdue pledged his princely word not to mo-
expelled Duke IJlrich of WOrtemberg, they lest them on ^eir return; yet they had scarcely
soon became masters of the country, and many laid down their arms wheu the soldiery was let
noblemenfellvictlms to their hatred; noqnor- loose npon them, and they were massacred al-
ter was givoi or asked. Hundreds of castles most to a man. The noblemen and burghera
and ooavtnta were soiled and burned. The who had taken sides with them while tb^
people of the smaO dties and towns made com- euocess seemed probable, left them as soon as
moo caose witli the peasants; a number of the tide turned, and even Joined their enemies,
noblemen even took sues with them and f^ave The AJlgan peosante alone withstood the power
them a more perfect military organisation, of the Bwabian league fbr some time longer. At
Therever the news of theee snooessee went, last they saocombed to the greatest general of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
74 FKAT
tlie lime, Oeo^« von Fnmdaberg. Tbe tbii- eral timllatitr of compodttoD, the moat vuiaUa
qaiabed wore treated with enormoiiB orneUf. ingre^enta being the sand of accidental miz-
TltonsandB upon thotuandB of prisonerB were tore. Be«de this they consist chieflj of hJU-
bebeaded,h&nged,impaled,ortortiiredtodeath. cate, tmlphote, and carbonate of Ume, and sol-
Himdreds of the imtsbtbuits of those oities phate ot iron. With these are phosphatea and
which had emrendered to the peasanta shared hjdroohloratea of tJie same bases, and also (^
the aame fate. In Bothenburg, Weinsbergj and potash, eoda, magneda, and alnmiuo. The asb
TflTibnrg wped&Il7, nearlj all the promment being deducted, the carbon generally ranges
dtizena wore hanged. It is estimated that dor- from BO to 60 per cent, of air-dried peat, «« seen
ing the brief duration of the war no fewer in the aualjsee presented in the article Fuel.
than 100,000 or 1G0,0D0 people lost th^ Uvea. Recording to Ur. W. Longmaid, the best sam-
The pTopofdliona of the peasants were as vio- piles contain ftom YO to 75 per cent, of oarbon.
lently denoonced by the leaders of the ref- The more earthr varieties of peat^ thoQ^
otmation as ever the tenets of the oommnnista poorly adapted lor fael, are often valued as
have been by the liberals of the present day. manures for the sake of the phosphates and
The immediate effect of the peasanta' war, like other fertiUi^ salts they cont^ ; they are
tliat of all ansnooessM revolnlionB, was a tea- most advantageously employed in the preparfr-
foldincreaseof the abases agtunat which it had tdon of composts with animal manm^ and
been waged. — See Zimmermanu. AllfemttM sometimes for tempering sandy or clayey soils.
QmAieht« del grouen BavertJcrtegi (2 vols., Other important nses of the materiiJ will l>e
Stnttgart, 1841 ; 8 toIs., 1856). noticed after describing its varieties and nan-
PKAT, the spongy mass of vegetable matter ner of preparation for use. — Two sorts of peat
composing the eoil of swamps. It consists of are recognized ; one in which the forms of the
matted roota, leaves, and stems of plants, the roots, stems, and leaves are distinctly pre-
fbrms of which are sometimes distinctly pre- served; and tbo other in which they are In
served, and at others are lost in the mncky great part or entirely lost by decomposition,
mlMtance prodnced by tlieir deoompoution. and Ibe result Is a dense, flne^rained snostance,
It forms layers sevwal feet in thickness, and in of shining Instre like pitch. The former is of
some localities repetitions of these are foond at recent growth, oonstitnting tbe upper layers
different depths, alternating with others of of the bog, and is a spongy, elastic, and tough
aand. The manner of formation of peat beds, material, unless by dr^age of the b(w it be-
the gradual spreading of the spbagnons growth comes brittle. Its color varies from light to
of whii& they are made np, frcmi the moist blackish brown, according to the extent of its
idtoations in which it originates, over surfaces decomposition. Both cont^ a large amonnt
natarally dry, and the conversion of these into of water, which escapes as the pest is dried,
awampy gronnds, together wiUi other pecnliar- leaving behind, it may be, only | or 4 of the
itiea of these deposits, have been described in original weight. Both sorts are combustible,
the article Boa. Reference is there also made but the older peat is preferred, as by its greater
to Qta immense bodies of peat in Ireland, where denmty it gives ont for the same bnlk a greater
the material is most hignly vtdued as a fneL amonnt of heat. Even Ibis is rarely so heavy
Feat also abonnds in ^otiand and upon the as the same bulk of water, only one of 37 sam-
oontinent along the coasts of the German ocean, pies examined by Bir Bobert Eane and Dr. W
the waters of which by their overflow have K, fiulUvan, and described in their report i]
peat, of e
where the dimate u moist, and the snbsoil is ohoidal earthy fhkcture, from Athlone bog in
impervioos to water. In the soatbem bemi- Ireland. The vegetable strncture was almost
sphere Darwin states that 45° marks its nearest entirely lost, and when apparent indicated re-
^>proach to the equator. In the United States mains of ear«z, grasses, and erica In abnndance ; '
it IS little known sonth of the state of New its density was 1.058. Another sample, of
Tork; but it is met with inbogsof condderable density 0.B84, stud to be a valnable fuel, found
extent In the N. part of that state, in New in Eiversdsle bog near KJmegad, is described
England, and in Canada. In the article Fnn. as an extremely hard and compact peat with
(vol. vii. p. 781), the properties of peat for this no trace of vegetable strncture, and when
use are briefly noticed ; and it is there observed broken exhibiting a resinous conchoidal f^ac-
that its composition and valuable qualities are ture. The lightest varieties, of specific gravities
greatly affecCod by the vamble quantities of O.fiS, 0.SS3, ic, were sponey masses of almost
mineral matters which it contains. This is nnaltered ipl^num and nyprmm^ with re-
rorely as low as 1 per cent, of the dried ma- mains of various grasses, twigs, bark, and roots.
teriaJ, and in peat used for fuel sometimes The dense compact peat appears to represent
reaohes 8S per cent., and even more. The ashes the first step in the progressive changes from
consequently are often bulky, and according to vegetable substances to mineral coal. — The
their proportion indicate to some extent the method of gathering peat, aa practised in
relative values of different samples of peat. Europe, Is flnt to remove the snrface If^er,
Ytom the nnmerons analyses that have neen which containa tlie living plants and ui«r
made of them, tbey are found to present a gon- roots, extending to the depQi of 6 int^ee to one
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
foot, inth ft ipade ocnatnioted to oat ^tber dendtf <tf whioh is about l.li. Dr. LoUte]^
S or 4 >id« of a paraMomm. the material ia reftorts of this ftiel that it atovs 71.24 lbs. to
tban dividtd into oUrag Uoon^ vlkioh, b«ing the enbio foot, while Newcastle coal stowa
raised up to Oie anr&oe and spread for a while about 49.69 lbs. It ooatains 9 per cent, of
exposed to the nm and air. are afterward piled hrKioeoopio moisture, 66 of volatile matter,
in OBQB staoka and are ums more afibetnaUr and 86 of charcoal, indailiiigS.8 of ash. Bong
driad. HoweTer well dried in this maone^ diatalled ia an iron retort, aod the volatile pro-
the peat still retdns from SO to SO per oent of dnots being passed through a red-hot iron tube
ni(riatare. If thepeat Isof mDokT-oonidsteame, in order to eonvert the pwafflne and ingredients
so as not to bear handling when dned, the of the tar into gaseons nrdrooarbons, ICK) parts
practioe is to shorel it ont from its bed, and of peat yielded, of pmrnisoharooBl or peat coke,
nuristening it with water oanae it to bethtw- 86 parts; nFnTnf>nla<'al liquor, 18.SS; thick tar
onghly intermixed and broof^t to nnifonatex- ocmt^ning paroffine, 6.14; and illuminating
tore bf the trampling 4^ mm and lieastB. fie- ga^ 40. The illommating power of the gas
ing spread ont In an even bed, it is marked off was eqnsl only to that of 7 candles, bnt the
in reotangnlar shi^wa ; andwhanthe water has quantity obtained was at the rate of about 14,-
drsined away from i^the blocks ate cat out 000 feet per too, which is as much as is af-
with a long knife and then are dried in the forded by the best Boghead oannel ooaL Wboi
manner altneady deeiaibed. When the peat to purified by paadug it throngh an alkaline mix-
thin and wet, it is gstiMred i^ by means ture, it was fonnd free frran solplinr, and in
redgte, ladles, and eren with mstramenta tliia req>eot preferable to coal gaa. The qoali-
s a tttherman'a net^ formed of an iron hoop tiea t£ the taai are highly extolled ; and one
ik ooa ahatp edge, and haTing snmoidea of these b^ug its freedom from snlphur, it is
m the other a ba; at strong doth throngh well adiq>ted for the i^notion of ores, m the
which water can £aia The matwial thna treatment (rf which the presence of this element
ooDectod is kneaded in a kind of trough till it is highly ot^ectionable. The patentees (Ueesrs.
t^peais like mortar. Tlus to laid i^cn a levd Gwynne and oo.) propose to iq^Iy it to thuose
fiooring of hay in large cribs or toooahs <f 12 by mixing the pnlvenied materials— wes, fnd,
to 80 teet in width, the aides of which prevent and finx— and oompresainr the mixtura into
its flowing away. When snffiuMLtly draned it globnlar massee, with whidi the fbriwoe shall
to troddmby women and children, who wear beoharged.~^Then*eofpeatasafDel invariona
npon thdr feet flat boards 8 inches wide and metailarsic operations, as practised in Europe,
12 to 14 long. It thns beoomes more solid ; to notioed in the aTtioles Ohaboou. and Fcxl,
and when it will bear a person's wtigfat it to and in the former the methods of charring it
well beaten with paddles, and tiben diidded by are described. The caloiiGo power of good
lines into squares of 4 or 5 inohea. On these dry peat, compared with coke of good bitomir
lines the pest U ont into reotoiupdarhloeks, the nons oo^ to estimated by Mcjlet to be as 1 to
, — -^ -•— '^'-' '- ■'iedepthoftheI«y«r,al>ont """■ ' . . ..
rery thin an
>f dredMS,]
length of which to the depth ofthe btyer, abont 7.61, and as equal to the oonvereion of its own
6 inebes. It to important that tJMse shonld be weight of water into steam of 313° from 60*.
pretty wen dried before they are stored away. By oestnictiTe distillation peat affitids a vari^
for letmentatioa to liaUe to take place in large of osefol prodnota, as pyroligneoas add or
doss stacks of the moist material, and generate erode aeetio add, ammonia, volatile and heai^
soffident heat to set them on fire. — Mndi at- dto from which paraffine may be obtained,
tentioa has been directed tn Enrope of bte wood n^ththo, inflammable gases, charcoal,
years to tiia nses to which peat to ^)pIioa> tar, &a Peat, more than ot£er combostiblo
ble, and various processes have been pitted bodies, favors the prodaction of these organic
by whioh its valne as a Aid to increased, or by oompcnrnds on sooonnt of the laive amonnt of
which it to made to fomish a number of nsefol water in its composition, which keeps the
prodnots. To rrader it more efficient as a Aid, temperature low dnring the distillation. The
It has been powerfoUy compressed by hydranlio inflanoaable gaseoos bt^ies m^ be advaotage-
maohinea, the blocks of peat being mteriaid ooaly emijoyed to prodnce by tiieir oombos-
with matting. Ito volume to thns redoced tion the heat required for oontiDning the dis-
aboDt f, and lbs wdght f The water that to tiUhig operation, or for the 6v^>oratinK pans or
ezpelted carries with it a portion of soluble boilers. In 184B a patent was granted rh- thto
mmraal matter, that would be left bdiind if prooess to Ur. Beaoe, and exteonve works
the water were ev^»orated ; and thns the qnan- were afterward estsUiahed by the Irish peat
tity of adi to diminished. By another process company near A^, in Eildare, Irdand, for
drying to e&eted by pladns the peat in a oen- carrying it on. The peat to distilled in for-
triifiwa] madiine, Attet into it is ground to nooes, like the ordinary blast fbraacea, S3 feet 7
powder, and then tLoronghW dried in oyHn* inches high, made pwfeotly tight I^ being en-
derswhiohrertdveinaheiSeaduunber. From cased in b<»ler-pjate iron, and covered at t4^
thwe, while at a tempwatnre of abont 180°, at with a dose conical valve and a donble hopper,
which the tarry pnqiertiea of the peat are Just Air to blown in in linoited <mantity through
enongh davdc^md to canse it to oaka under ttiree tnydres at the base. The vdatile pro-
^essore, the powder to pasaed under the press, doots are taken off at (lie top by two 12-mdi
and to tmmediatdy converted into bloolcs, the pipes and o(»iveysd into a hydranlio main 8
r«et In diameter, from wfaloh the tar and otlier
liquids flow into a tank, and the gssea and to-
fon liiroiigh series of eondenmiig and porifying
pipes and other apparatos, in which Uieir sepa-
ration ia effeotaaU7 completed. The diarooal
is entirely oongnmedin the fornace. YaiionB
experiments of diflbrent chemistB save great
enoooragement to the companj. "Die r^nlta
of acme of these trials are presented in the foi-
FEOOABT
lowing table, those of Bir Bobert Kane aod
Frofeesor SolBvan having been arrired at b?
the distillation of samples of peat from difier-
ent looalities in Irelano, both in retorta and bj
combustion of a portion of the material h; a
blast of air, as the (^ration was thenpropoeed
to be condnoted in the large waj. lliere was
Utfle diffbrence obserred in Uie reeolts of these
two methods.
r™*-^
K— .-.-.
Dt.lM|«.
•"""izr
-'"'^
BSViS.
(LIH
Sis.
(lais
P"-^
The mannfactorj' is stated bj Br. Haspratt to
have " now established itself, although it had
many diffionltias to contend against." The
following late commnnication from Dr. Snlll-
Tsn, however, does not give a very favorable
view of the operation : " Now that a ready
market exists, I have no doabt that 8 lbs. of
parafflne per ton of good dry peat conld be
separated, especially by keeping over the sum-
mer oUs nntll winter ; in cold winters perhaps
even more. Gas eaoo^ can l>e produced to
work the factory (heating stills, &c.), but it haa
now been satiefactorily determined that the
larser the mpply of gas, the less will be the
yield of tar, aai viet terta. The yield of tar,
when the temperature has l>eea carefoll; at-
tended to, has ftdly reached the antaoipated
quantity ; but neither the ammonia nor the
wood spirit has. The real eonroe of profit,
therefore, is the tar. Tar about S.6 per cent,
paraSne 0.18 per cent." From these oonoln-
rions it wotdd aopear that the chief valne of
peat is likely to depend on its employment as
fael; and as it is abuDdant in the northern
parts of the TTDited States, and bnt little es-
teemed, the experience of other nations with
whom it is largely nsed merits attention.
Houlded peat in small bricks, that dnk In
water, is sanplied to Paris from several sonroes.
It is brongnt ^m near Uanoonrt, a distance
of 1? leagues, and scdd at the rate of 20 franoa
for 2,804 lbs. avoirdnpois. In 186S one Orm
oonverted from 10,000 t« 13,000 tons into
obarcoaL obt^ning from 40 to 4S per cent
niia sold at wholesale for 100 ftanos tbe 1,000
kUc^nrnmes (8,204 lbs.), whioh was abont the
same value as wood oharooaL tCneral coal
and wood at the same time were worth abont
\ as mnoh for tbe same weight Id tbe ex-
hibition of Paria in 1S6J5 speoimens of peat and
peat charcoal prepared by different patented
hibited,that ' -'^'
leoosness, del
nesB, and attnicted particmar attrition. They
ir homogeneoosness, densi^, and cheap- secretes
were said to be eeonomieally employed for sta-
tionary steam engines, and eyen for looomoUvea,
PiEOAN, the name of a ^leeiea of Mwya, a
North Amertoan genus of trees belonging to
the natural otAei juglandaeta, representing the
walnut &mily, and embracing many other spe-
cies which prodaoe edible and deUdons-fiavor-
ednute. (See HioxOBT.) The peoan ((7. elt«»-
/ormi», NnttaL) is a slender tree with aregnlar
trunk 60 or TO feet high, the pinnate leaves
13 to IBlnches in length, the petioles angntar;
the leaflets are sessile, from IS to IGin number,
oblong-lanceolate, acnminate, serrate, under
dde pnhesoent, terminal leaflet snbpetiolate,
attenuated at ihe base. It hears annnaliy an
abmidanoe of eweet and Savored nnte, Uielr
hnsks being thin, and their shells eoft and
eaaly broken, and of a yellowi^ brown or
ashen brown oolor. Miohonx considera them
anperior in point of flavor to any of the nnts
of Europe, especially in some partioidar varie-
ties. The peoan grows spontaneonshr on lirw
banks from Dlinou southward to tussismpid.
In gardens and in sheltered tdtuationa It bears
tbe winters as far northward as the banks of
the Hudson river in New York. It was Intro-
dnoed Into France many years dnce.
FEOOARY, a pachydermatoos mammal at
the hog family, and genns dieotyUt fCuv.),
peculiar to America. In this genus tne in-
cisors are t ; the canines \z\, not projecting
beyond tbe lips as in the wild boar, hut yerj
mnoh as in other mammals, small, triangular,
and veryahaip, thenpperoneadirectedstraifAt
downward; the molars fzS, tnberoalate; uis
fore fbet are 4-toed, and the hind ones 8-toed,
the outer aooesso^ hoof being wanting; a
mere tubercle in place of & tail ; aecor^ng to
Ouvier, the metacarpals and metatarsals of the
2 longest toes on all tbe feet are nnited as n
mminants, but this Yan der Hoeven says is ftr
from being always the case. On tbe back, a
few inctaee from the taih in both sexes, con-
oealed partly by tbe hair, is a gland which
secretes a veryfetM flnid; thia l>ears a rude
resemblance to a navel, and the generic nam*
was derived from it, from die, double, and
iBorvktf, cavity. The head is broad, pointed,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PECK 77
and ntber large in proportloa to the body ; «aine a member of the Ifethodkt ^tlacoiMl
the ean modarate aad pointed, the ej«B ameSL ohnroh in 1818, and entered the ralnutr? in
the BDoat bhmt, the lep thin and slender, and 1610. He was principal of the Oneida confer-
tha akin ooreredvith dose, TerjBtiff and sharp enoe Bemisar; from 1886 to 1839. He has
brisdes. The odlared pec«ai7 or Meiioan hog boen a member of 9 mooeaaive general confer-
CD- Uirqtuttttt, F. Onr.) ia about Si feet in the enoea, and repreBented 4 annaal conferences in
nule from snont to root of t^ the female that bodj. In 1840 he was appointed editor of
being ft litUo amaQer ; it is ahorter bnt more the " Qnartorly Keviow" and of Uie books of
compact than the domesticated hog ; the h^ the general catalogue of the Methodist book
is rixtged with blaok aai white, rather long, concern, and in 184S editor of the "Ohriatian
lightest at the tip; from each shoulder runs a Advocate and Journal," winch post he held
more or less distmot white ooUor on each side until ISCS, when he entered the regular work
of the neck. They usually go in couples or of the ministry. Dr. Peck has written "An
in small parties of 8 or 10, and not so often in Examination of tTniTersalism," " The Lives of
large flocks as the next species; they prefer the Apostles and EvauKslists, " Christian Per-
woods and swampy grounds, but they wander fbotion," " Knle of FaiUi," " Eeply to Dr. Bas-
wberever food is abondant, even int« the fields com on Blavery," "Wyoming, its History and'
and enclosures of the planter, where they often Inoidente," "Manly Character, Lectures to
commit great havoc; when attacked by wild Young Men," and "Early Methodiam in the
beasts or by man, a flock will form a circle, Genesee OouJerenoe."
with the yoong in the centre, and repel even PECK, Johk Mason, DJ>., an American
the jagnar with their sharp teeth, in this way clergyman, bom in UtcJifield, Conn., Oct. 81,
often killing di^ and severely wonnding the 1789, died at Bockspring, 111., March IB, 18C6.
hDQter. The food consists of nuts, fruits. He received a limited education, and engaged in
seeds, gndn, roots, and whatever living thing teaching for several winters, while he labored
they osa find on or under the ground; they npon a &rm in summer. In IBII he removed
are omniToroos, though less camivorona than to Qreene CO., N. Y., where not long after he
the dcaoeatJa hog ; the flesh is white and tender, nnited with tjie Baptist church. He was li-
more like that of the hare than the hog. and censed to preach in 1813, was ordained at Cats-
with very little M ; when the animal is killed, kill K. Y., in 181S, and in 1814 became pastor
it is necconary at once t« cat out the dorsal of the Bt^ldst church in Amenia, Dat«hes8 oo.,
^and, else Hie whole flesh would be tfunted by S.Y. ^ 1816 be restguedhis pastoral charge,
its secretion and rendered unfit for food. They and went to Pbilsdeliddfr to study under the Bev.
lire in holra in trees or in the ground, or in Dr. Btaughton. In May, 1817, newas set apart
any cavity which affords shelter; they are as a missionary of the B^tist genersl oonven-
often very bold, attacking the traveller with- Idon to the West, went to St. Loms, and for the
out provocation, and oompelliog him to ascend next 9 years was an itinerant ndssionary in
a tree for safety; & dog unaccustomed to hunt- IGssonri and Dlinois. In 1836 he visited New
ing tham is at once surrounded and kiUed. England and New YorLsollciting aid to sna-
Thos ^tedes Is found in Mexico and Texas, in t^ missionariee in the west, and to assist in
the United States as far as the Bed river in Ar- founding a literary and theolo^oal seminary at
kanras, in lat. 81°, probably as far west as Gall- Rockaprlng. These objects were secured, and
fomia, and in Bouth America as &r as Para- the Bock^ring seminao' edifice was erected
guay in lat. 87° 8. When taken young they on lands given by Ur. Feck. In April, 1829,
are easily domestioated, bnt do not mix or breed he started "The PioneeTj" the first BapUat
with the common hog ; they bring forth only Journal published In the Weet, which he mun-
onoe a year, and one or two at a birth ; they tained for 10 or 13 years, at an annual loss to
are rather aensitire to oold, and ea^y Irritat- himselfl In 1680 and 1631 he had charge of
ed, and manifest pleasure by a hog-like grunt, the seminary as princlpaL In 1881, in oonneo-
The white-lipped peccary (A labiattu, Cuv.) is Uon with the Bev. Dr. Going, he originated the
of a general blackish oolor, with the lower Jaw American Buitist home misdon society. Inl8S3
wMte; it is a larger animal than the laat, liv- tie published " The Emigrant's Guide," which
ing in solitary forests in large troops, and is led to extensive emigration to Illinois and other
hnnted by the natives for ita flash ; it ia found nortii- western states. Soon afterward he oom-
in South America, but does not assodate with menced the publication of a monthly Sunday
the other species. Travellers speak of a variety school paper, with a view to promote the or-
or perhaps a distinct spedes in Honduras, of a gKolzation of Sunday schools in the West. In
dirty black color with long tangled hair, going 1884 he published a " Gazetteer of Illinois,"
in latge flocks uid very ferociona when attack- In 1B85 Shortleff college was founded by his
edjthis goes by the name of warree. exertions at Upper Alton, IlL, and the Book-
PEOE, a dry measure equal to i bushel, or spriog seminary transferred to the new insti-
S gaUooM. Being dependent on the bushel, its tntion. Mr. Peck during the year travelled
exact C(q>acity may be learned by referring to 6,000 miles, and raised 120,000 fiir the endow-
that titlet ment of the college. His next eflbrt was fbr the
FECE, CtsoBai, D.D., an American clergy- organization and endowment of a theological
sua and author, born Aug. 8, 1707. He be- seminary at Oovingtoa, Ey. In 134S-'S he
UigmzoQbyGOOglc
78 FEOnO AOID PEDBO IL CBuzn.)
t4M)k up hlB restdenoe in PhSadelidiik as wr- 181S. After tbe death of the qoeoi Dona
reapoDOlng BecMtarf and g«iMnl agent of the UarU I. the father of Dom Pedro bec«iue kiog
Amuiean BMitM pnbBoattoa society, and har- of Portngal under the title of John VI., and in
Ing placed tne socie^f on a mbetantiBl basis ISSl retomed to thkt oonntry, leaving his son
r«tnniedtotiieWe8t,andfor the next 18 rears as regent of BraziL Tbe arbitraiy acts of the
was a pastor in Tarions ohorohefl of Uiasonri, Portngoese oorte^ vhich admited measaree re-
niinois, and Kentockr, at the same time con- dadng Bradl agau to the rank of a o<jonj, and
tribating largely to reriewa and periodicals, oommanding, among other things, the prince
DuriDg this period he wrote a life of Daniel regent to come to Eorope tbr nis ednoation,
Boone for Sparks's "American Biography," aroosed the indignation of the inhabitants. A
and a memoir of Father Clark, a westeni revolution took place, and Dom Pedro, placing
preacher, edited the "Anhsls of the Weet," himself at the head of tbe movement, vraa pro-
and tuded in the organization of historical so- olsimed protector and perpetual defender of
deties in most of the north-weHt«m states and Braeil; and the country being declared iode-
territories. He left a very lai^e collection of pendent in Oct. 1832, he was proclaimed con-
mannscripte, nuunly historical in their oharao- Btitntional emperor, and on Deo, 1 waa crown-
ter. Harvard nniverBity conferred npon him ed. The diffionlties to be enooant«red were,
tbedei^oe of D.D. in 16J(3. however, of tbe most serions character. So
PEOTIO ACID, See Jkllt. eooner had the resistance of the Portogneee
PEDDLER, Pkdlsb, or Pxnux, a word of boopa been pnt down than rebellion broke oct
nncert^n origin, bot probably derived in some in the northern provinces, and at tbe same
way from I^LpM, a loot, and perhaps through time the emperor was involved in a qnarrel
the French word pied. A peddler may he de- with the constJtnent assembly, wberem the
fined inlaw as one who travels about the conn- demooratio element was predominuit. In I8£6
try carrying with him goods for sale, nsnally Portngal recogniied the independence of Bra-
by retail. Formeriy, and in some oonntriee at zil, and a treaty was made on t«nns highly mi-
this time, a large part of the internal com- satis&otory to the Portognese, In 1BS6, tbe
meroe in things of domestic nse was carried on sovereignty of the province Oiqdattna (Banda
in this way. Peddling is now superseded, to Oriental) being dispnted between Brttdl and
a' great extent, by permanent stores or shops, Buenos Ayree, Dom Pedro declared war against
to which bn^ers come. This ia the natural the latt«r, which terminated Tin&vorably to
effect of the mcrease in the number of towns, his interarts. His father dying in 1B28, he be-
or marts of trade, and of the greater facility came king of Portngal, but immediately abdi-
of access to them by the improved roads of cated in tavor of his in&nt danghter. Dona
modem times. It still exists, however, and in Uaria da Gloria, as the Brazilians fbared that
thinly settled parts of this conntry may he they wereoncemoretobemadedependentnpon
said to flourish. In many, if not hi all the tbe mother country. The internal disoontenta
states, peddling ia regulated by statntory pro- increased ; ijie feeling in tbe (jiamber of depn-
visions, which are sometimes very sbingent. ties against the emperor became of the most
They are intended to guard buyers from fraud, violent oharaeter; and at length a popular tn-
and also to protect the interests of regnlar mult in Bio Jan^ro compelled him to abdicate
traders. From the probable derivation of tbe in favor of his son, April T, ISSI, and to retnm
word, it might be inferred that peddlers travel- to hia native country. In the mean time tbe
led on fooL In tbe United S^tes this is not crows of Portngal bad been usurped by his
usually the ease at present, as they commonly brother Dom U&nel, and Dona Haria, after a
carry their commodities in a cart or wagon, residenoe in En^nd, bad taken reftage in Bra-
wbiob is somelimea a large one. In many sjl, whence she now accompanied her &ther to
of the states they are obliged to take out and Eorope with the hope of conquering her throne
pay for a license to carry on their trade. by his assistance. Dom Pe^ landed at the
PEDEEj Okbat, a river of Sonth Carolina, Island of Terceira, one of the Azores, issued a
which, rising in the S. W. of North Carolina, decree in favor of Dona Haria, and with the
at tbe base of the Blue ridge, is called the aaaiptance of French and English volnnteers
Yadkin until it enters the fonner state near b^an a war which terminated in 1884 by the
its N. E. comer. Thence it flows in a nearly complete encceas of the qneen's party. (See
S. direction, &lling into Winyaw bay at MioraL.} On Uay SS a convention was signed
eeomtown. Among its tributaries in South by which Dom Miguel an%ed to leave the
Carolina are Lynoh'a creek, and the Little Pe- kingdom for ever. Dom Pedro was now ap-
dee. Black, and Vacoamaw rivers. It is navi- pointed recent during his dan^ter^s misoriQ',
gable for amdl vessels toOheraw, about IBO m. but be died before it expired. In 1888 he had
FEDOMETEB. See Oookbtsb. been excommnnicated by tbe pope for confis-
PEDRO I. na ALOurrARi. of Brazil, and eating monastic propertyin Portugal.
IV. of Portngal, bom in the palace of Quelnz, PEDRO 11. d« AioAsriiti, emperor of Bia-
near Lisbon, Oct. 13, 1798, died there, Sept. zil, son of the precedmg, bora Dec S, 1825.
94, 1884. On the invasion of Portngal by uie Be was little more than 6 yean old when bis
French in 1807, the royal fiuuily fled to Brazil, &tber abdicated tbe crown in hia favor. Dnr-
whiob was raised to tbe rank ot a kingdom in ing bis minority the comitiy was diatracted by
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FEDBO V. (PoBTtrau.) PEEBUSSHIBE 79
rival tielioBB; uid at length, when Pedro IL lnlS60reviTedh!sol^mtotlietIirone.ln whloh
was 14 jaars of age, a biU tbs passed in the he vas supported by the pope and Oharlei Y,
legialatore deolaring that he had attained hia of France. Pedro songht reftige in Bayonne.
a^orit;r- <^° ^^7 ^> 1^^> ^^ ascended the where he obtained the assistanoe of EdwKrd
throne, and was crowned Jmj IB, 1841. The the Black Prince, who placed bim again on the
disturbed state of the ooontr? still oontimied. throne : but disgusted with hia condnct he loft
Several of the provinoes wwe in arms ; in that him to bte fate, and in the battle of Montiel, in
of ^o Paolo (nder was restored by Gen. Oaxl- La Hancha, Pedro was defeated, and elain hj
aa; bnt the war was prolonged in the provinoe the baadof his riTa], who saooeededhimnnder
of Ifinaa Gerees nntil the decisive viotoiT of the title of Eenrj II, *
the rojBliats at San Lnda in 18^. The Bnbse- I^DBO, Dom, duke of Ooimbra, and r^ent
qaent reign of the emperor has been peaoefUL of Fortngal, bom In Lisbon, Deo. 9, 1S93, died
with the exception of llie war earned on against ISaj 20, 1449. He was the second son of John
Baeoos Attm, for the Independence of Urogoay I. of Fortogol and Pbilippa of Lancaster,
aoA Para^oay. The troops of BrazlL J&tre daughter of John of Gaont. While jet yonng
Bios, Oorrientes, and IJmgnaj, nnder Urqniza, he was intmated with the command of the fir^
defeated those of Buenos Ajres nnder Roraa on expedition againat Oeata. He next devoted 4
the flflid cf Mimte Oaseros. A diapnt« with jeara (1424r-'6} to travel, rioting ail the conrta
Great Britain on aoeonnt of the ncm-oItserTanoe of Europe, and penetrating even to Bagdad,
of tlie treaty regolations in regard to the abo- where the anltan received him with great mag-
lition of the alaye trade waa aatiabotorily set- nifioence. At Venice the repnblio presented
tied by the prohibition of the traffic Under him with the works of Marco Polo, which ware
fais rale Braiil is steadily increasing in power, reproduced in Portngal, After the death of Ed-
the goreinmeut has been oonsofidated, the wBrdl.thepeoplebecamadiscontentedwiththe
finances are in a good condition, and internal regency of the qaeen, who had been awointed
improrementa are aotiTely carried on. Dom to that office dnrins the minority of A^naoT.
Pedro possesses remarkable literary and soien- Dom Pedro skilfully fomented the dlssatisfao-
tific acqiurementa and a liberal tnm of mind, tion, and was nominated by the cortea defend*
and enJOTa the enthosiastio affection of his sub- er and regent of the kingdom, Not. 1, 1489,
tecta. On Sept. 4, 1849, he married the prinoeaa He aboMied undue taxation, enconraged mari-
ThereaaOhiisuna Maria, danghter of Francis L, time enterprise, waa the patron of letters and
king of the Two Sidlies. He has two childrm, the arts^d himself a poet of no mean preten-
the prteceaaes Isab^a and Leopoldina. sions. He sadoeeded in bringing about a mar-
PEDRO v., king of Portomil, bom in Lis- riage between his daughter Isabella and th»
bon, S^t. 16/1887. He is the son of Dona youn^ king (1446). A quarrel between himself
Maria IL and Prince Ferdinand of Baxe-Ooburg, and big illentimate brotlier the dnke of Bragan-
and Us mother dying In Nov. 185S, he sncceea- ^ each clamiing the dignity of constable of the
ed to the throne under the regency of hia kingdom, broke out into open rnptnre and final-
father. He visited England in the same year, ly into civil war. Bragan^a gained the king
and France at the time of the great exhibition to hia interest. Pedro having retired to Ooim-
in Paris in 1 8CSG, and also travelled in Italy, bra, bnt not caring to sustain a siege, advanced
Snitzerland, Holland, and Belgium. During to meet the royal troops with a force of 1,000
his minority the most important transactiona horse and 0,000 in&ntry. The hostile armies
were the concludtm of extradition treaiiea with met at Alfarrobeira, May 20, 1449, and abattle
France and Belgium, and commercial trestiea euraed, In which the regent's forces were de-
with the states of South America. He assumed fbated. In the thick of the fight Dom Fediv)
the reins of government Sept. 16, 18SS. On waa mied by an arrow. His niend, the ohlr-
May 18, 1S58, he married the princess 6te- alrous Almada, was- also alun. Tlie duke's
Jhante of HohenzoHem-Bigmaringen, who died head was cnt off and his body left expoaed on
oly 17, 18S9. the field, bnt after the lapse of 4 days was
PEDRO TBB OmnL, king of Oastile and buried by the ^emy in a chapel hard by,
Leon, bom in Burgos, Ang. 80, 188^ ^ed whence at the entreaty of tbe qneen it waa
March 14, 1869. B^ succeeded his fkuier Al- permitted to be removed to the family vatdt
fonso XL in ISSO, and in 1858 married Blanche bi the monastery of Batalha, in 1466.
de Bourbon, rister of the king of Franoe, but FEKBLESSHIBE, or Twhesdale, an inland
in three days deserted her, and devoted himself connty In the 6. of Scotland, bonnded N. by
to his nustress DonnaMana Padilla, whose rel- KdinbnrghahlrejE. by Selkirkshire, S. by Dum-
atiree he raiaed to the higheat offlcea. Bnbae- fiiesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire ; area, 819
"~hepoisouedhiaqiieen,andoraellyper- sq.m.; pop. in 1661, 10,786. It is watered by
members of his own family and Oastillan the Tweed. The greater part of the surface
grandees, nntil aninsorrectionwaer^edagdnst conalsta of mountain, moor, and bog, ^e eleva-
him nnderthe lead of Henry of Trastamara, his tionofthe first Taryingftom9,400to 3,800 feet,
natural brother, who claimed the throne. At Ooal and limestone hare been long wrought In
the same time the pope esoommnnioat«d the variona places. There are manufactories of
Ung and laid hia kingdom nnder an interdict, woollena. Peeblesshire returns one member to
Henry waa defeated and driven to France, but pari^ment.
UigmzoQbyGOOgIC
80 ISEL
FXSX. I. Sir Bobxbk an EngUah maim* liiSept. 161S, be was i^ipt^nted chief aecretair
&otnrer, boni at Peel's Gross, near LauoaBter, fbr Inland, an ofBoe tbea cnnmcalf beatowed
April 26, ITGO, died at Drayton Uanor, Stafford- upon (he most pronudng of the yondtftil mem-
shire, Uay S, 1680. He uiheiited a moderate hen of the paitj in ^wer. In the then dis-
propertj, and in 1773 entered into partneiBhip tnrbed politioal condition of Ireland the arriTsl
iritii William Yates, a cotton mana&otnrer of of a secretary heading the high tory principles
Bury, Lancashire, irbosa daughter he maiTied of Ur. Peel, and opposed to Oathdio emanei-
in 178S. By indostry, activity, boldoesa of pation, was the et^ial for an attack npon him,
enterprise, and consonunate sagacity, he smaas- whiohwasmfUnt^edwitlinnwaTeringseTeritr
ed a fortune j))efore reaching middle life; bat daring his whole term of office. No term of
be nevertheless contdnaed to conduct biudnees reproach was considered too strong, no abuse
as a manufacturer for many years mbseqaent too violent, and the ultra Koman Cathtdica sel-
with uninterrupted prosperity, having had, it dom called him by any other appellation than
is Baid, in 1808 upward of 16,000 persona in " Orange Peel." O'Connell, who was then tiie
his employ. In 1780 he published a pamphlet popular idol of the oppoMtion, ungled him ont
entitled "The Kational Debt prodactive of for attack, and forthe Timlenoeofhislaogiiaffe
National Prosperity ;" and in 1?Q0 he waa re- was cbaUenged by Peel, who proceeded to the
tamed to parliament aa one of the members continent to afford his lulverBary a hostile meet-
ff om Tamworth, a oonstitaency which he con- log ; but the duel was prevented by the arreal
tinned to represent nntil 1B20. In politica be of O'Connell in London. His most important
was a stanch supporter of Pitt and the tories, act while in Ireland was tbe eatabUahment of
and in 1797 be testified his loyalty and patriot- the regular Irish constabulary, nicknamed the
iam by sobBcribing, in conjunction with Mr. " Peelers," which was tbe first stop toward the
Yato^ the sum of £10,000 to the "loyalty Introduction of that system of metropolitan
loan." Daring the alarm cuised by the threat- police now familiar to every oon^derable pro-
Hied invasion of the Frenob he was active in vincial town of Great Britain. Inl817heiras
the fbnnation of volunteer corps, and raised retamed to parliament for the nnivernty of
among bis own workmen a regiment called the Oxford; and in the succeeding year ha r»-
Bnry loyal volunteers, of wuch he was q>- swned his Irish secretaryship, and soocMdad
pointed lientenant-colonel. In 1800 be was 1&. Homer as obairman of the bullion oommit-
created a baronet. He left property, real and tee, in which capaci^ he introdaced in 161t
personal, eBtimated at above two miOions ster- the bill authorizing a retnm to cash payments
nng, the greater part of which after liberal pro- which bears his nsme. It brought npon him
visions for his numeroos family, was settled on no slight odinm, and was the first political act
his eldest son. H. Sat Boncar, eldest Bon of in wbioh bis father, who still held his seat la
Ibe preceding, an English statesman, bom near parliament and was a Btanoh supporter <^ I^tfs
Bury, Iiancasbire,Feb. 6,1788, died in London, oarrencydootrinea,difirered from him, Jnl83S
July 3, 18G0. He received his early education he succeeded Lord 81dmouth as home secretary,
under tbe personal superintendence of his and during his term of office procured the pafr-
btiier, and was subsequently sent to Harrow, saw of an important series of acts reforming
where his industry and ambition soon placed and remodelling tbe criminal law. Upon the
him at tbe head of the school. "There were dissolution of tbe Liverpool ministry in 1827
always great bopee of Peel among oa all, be retired from ofSce ; but upon tbe aeoemaoa
maetorsand scholars," writes Byron, wbo was of the torygovemment of thednke of WeDing-
his schoolfellow, " and be has not disappointed ton in 18^, he resumed the seats of the home
tbem." At IShewasenteredagentlemancom- department. The agitation of the repeal oi
moner of Ghristehnrob, Oxford, and was grad- tiis penal laws affecting the Boman Catholics
uated in 1S08 with unprecedented distinction, had now reached a point which compelled the
bung tbe first wbo ever took the honors of a ministry either to consent to the meBsore or
donbia first class — first in classics aai first in to resign office ; and in a speech ddiv««d mi
mathematics. Upon attaining his m^ority in Uarch S, 1829, Mr. Peel, yielding to what he
1809 he was retamed to parliament for the considered tbe exigencies of the moment pro-
Irisli borough of Casbel, and entered public life posed Oatbolio emancipation. The orthodox
aa a member of tbe tory part.y. His university tories at once denounced bim as an sptmtKte ;
reputation and bis father s prases drew toward and upon offering bimeelf to the electors of
bim more attention than is generally pud to Oxford oniversity, bis seat for which he bad re-
yoong men entering upon a politicdi career; signed upon beoondna a convert to emandM-
and he was wise enough during bis first year tion, be was defeated by Blr Bobert H. bi^ia.
of parliamentary life not to nsk his prestlM He was however tempwarily retnmed ibr tbe
by any set speech, contenting himself wiUi borongh of 'Westbuiy. and in 1880 became am
brief remarks on comparativdy nnimportant of the members for Tamworth, which conatit-
ocoaEnons. In 1810 be seconded the address nenoy be represented until his death. During
in reply to the king's speech, and in 1811 the respite wbicli tbe mimstir gained by their
was appointed nnder secretary of stato for the concession Mr. Peel remodelled on ita preaent
colonies, a podtion not at that time of mucih basis the London police force — a measure with
prominenoe, bat which he filled with credit which his namewiUeverbehonorablyaonnect-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEEL FBLE 81
ad. He rrtired with his oallMgnM in Not. oeeding d&y, irhib riding oa Oonstitattoi biD,
1880, baviiig a few montha preTions encceeded he was thrown from his horse, and died after
ta> the b*rc»etcj and the greater part of the Ki'eat physical Buffering in conseqnenoe of the ia-
immense eataCea of his father, and for the next juries received. Hia death excited a nniTereal
4 jean remained in opposition. He oppoaed ueling of regret. It was admitted hf thoM
the r^rm bill with earaeabieBB and ability, but who differed with him on the great political
with bupaliod influence: and in the first see- meaanree he anooesaftillT advooated, that no
Hon of ue reformed parliaiDent he fboud him- man ever ondertook publio afiairs with a more
B^ Kt the head of a party nnmberinc not thorongh determination to leave the institQtions
more than 800, bat whiim imder hia goidanoe of hia coontry in an orderly, honest, and ef-
w» dereloped into a compact, powerftd, and fioient condition ; and hia friend the dnke of
well dieeiplmed oppootirai. In 18S4, ap<m the Wellington once obserred of him: "Of all
diseoJotion ol the Mellxrame miniatry, lie was the men I ever knew, he had the greatest re-
gmmiuHied by the king tront Italy to form an card for tmth," In private life he woa honoved
■dmiDidtration, which ne nndertook, although by all classes. Of hia eimplicity and inde-
of the ofonion that the time waa inopportone pendenoe ot character it is anffldent to re-
to attempt a conservative reaction. For ser- cord that he daolined a peerage and the order
enl montha he straggled against a formidable of tbe garter, and left in his will a solemn in-
oppaaMoa, bat was obliged in April, ISSR^ to junction to hie children ORBinst the accept-
retire. For ft years he ramuned in opposition, anoe of such honors. By his wife, a dao^-
h&ving within that time declined to form a ter of Qen. Sir John Floyd, he leCl. 7 ohildran,
oatnoet, oiring to the rd^isal t^ ^leen 'Victoria 6 sons and 3 dang^tera, all of whom sorrived
to dis^sa cntain ladiea of her boos^hold hav- him. III. Sn Robkkt, eldest son of the pre-
ii% whig conneotiona; and in Bept 1841, he oeding, bom in Londonl May 4, 1822. He was
became first lord of the treasory, wiHi a large educated at Harrow school and the oniTersity
and well orgaaiMd surioritr in both honaee of Cambridge, and eitter«d public life in 1844 aa
of parlianeBt. His ministry, though foimed an atlaehi to tbe British embassy at iUadrid.
emphatieallr on protectionist prinotplea, did Snbsequenth^ he served as seoretary of legation
not bwitate ultimately to adopt free trade and thargi m Switzwiand ; waa a Junior lord
doetriDee; and Sir Robert himself inangorated of the admiralty ftom 1866 to 18S7; and in
in 1842 a more liberal flnantial poUoy '^j re- Hie latter year was present at the coronation
morii^ tbe dnttea on certain articles of !m- of Alexander H. of Rnssia, aa secretary of the
port, md oratnderaUy abatdng them on many special ndseion despatobed by the Britiah gov-
otbwa, indudiiig breadstnffl and raw materials emment to Moscow. He sncoeeded hia &ther
of manttfeetore. At the same time an income In 1860, and unoe that period has represented
tax tbr 8 yean waa imposed, by which the Tarn worth in parliament. Inl86Q hewaamai-
eOTemment was enabled to repeal upward of ried to Lady Emily Hay, dan^tor of the mar-
£18,000,000 of indirect taxes. In 1846 this quis of Xweeddale. lY. Fsxdebic, brother of
tax was renewed fbr.S years ; and in 1846, tiie preceding, bom in London, Oct. 2B, 1638.
in view of the approach of famine in Ire- He waa educated at Harrow and at Trinity
land, the premier carried a total abolition of ocdlege, Oambridge, and in 1849 waa called to
duties on breadata& So great a change in the Hie bar at the Kmer Temple. From Nov. 1661,
oommerciai policy of tbe kingdom broo^t upon to Feb. 1866, with the exception of seveTal
Sir B(^»ert a large degree m odinm among the mcoiths in 1863, be was under seoretary for the
BgricnUnral classes, whose interests, it was sup- colonies, and ftom 1866 to 1867 under secretory
posed, would be rained by tbe repeal of the for war ; and eince 1860 he baa been one M
oom laws. A coalition of the protectitmlsta the secretariea of the treasory. In 1869 he waa
and the wbigs, the fbrmer led by Diaraeli and retomed to parliament from Bory for a second
Loid George Bentinck, overthrew him on the time.
Irish coercion bill, end on Jane 39, 1846, he PEELE, GioBai, an En^ish dram^ist, bom
reeigned office. In addition to tbe mesBDres in Devonshire about 1562 of 1668, died prob-
mentioned,hlaadministiatiouirasdiBtiiigniBhed a]:dydK>rtly Neviona to 1698. He was edn-
by several of a liberal ohoraoter totudimg Ire- ostedatBroadgateshalL now Pembroke oolle^
auL, aad for relieving tbe disabUitiea ot the Oxford, where he took bis baobelor'a degree in
diaacoiten and Jews. Its for^gn policy was 167^, RibseqnwUy established himself In Lon*
also cottdocted with snoeesa tn Eiirt^ and the don, and beoame a writer for the theatre, on
East. On the other band, KrBobert did notb- occasional performer, and an intimato assotuato
ing to ebeck the railwar mania of 164ff-'6, but of Hash, lUrlowe, and Greene. like many of
rsiuieraiooaragedit, asasouroeof prom^ty, the oontemporary dramatists, he shortened bis
Altbon^ ont of offioe, he still retdnedmndi Ufb by diaripation. Six dramas by him, oom-
"" (^ and his efibrta tended to r^>eal the priringj however, probably not more than half
„ aa loirs snd to advance tiie p^Mlple of Ms works of this class, have been collected
of Jewish emandpatiiffl. He qK^ for the last by Mr. Dyoe, together wiui poems and miaoel-
time in pariiament on Jone 88, 1860, in oppori- luieons writings (8 vols,, 1B8&-'S9). His best
tim to Lord ^Imeiston's fiv^gn poUcy, as ex- pl^, " The Love of King David and Fair Beth-
sm^iSed in the Greek qneeUon, On the sac- sobe with the Tragedy of Abaalom," is pn>-
VOL. xm, — 6
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
nomwod br Osmpbell " th« earliest fonntain of BetUehem, litobfield oo^ Oonn., Nor. 19, I'm,
CM ADd harmony that can be traced in onr Hie father ms a fanner. At Hie age of 16,
latio poetry." sad for B iriiit«n robse^uotly, be taiviht a
FEER (Let. par, eqnal ; Fr. pair), & term district school, and vas afterwud an aMUtant
originally applied, in t£e feudal law, to all the Instrnotor in prirata aoademias. In IBIS he
TswalB of t&e mme lord, beoaose, whatever went to Phillips aeademy, Andover, Uass., fit-
might be tli^TdatiTeoondition, they were all ted himself for otdlege, supporting himself to-
equally his Taesak and boond to render their tirelj by his own ezerlions, ent«red Tale ooi-
ftndal serrioe in his oonrta, or In war. It is lege in 1818, and was Kradoated in 183S. It
now applied aometimee to thoae who are Im- was his porpoae to study theolt^, bat he ao-
Cellea in an inqneat for trial of any person ■ oepted an inTitation to engage as an instraetor
they are not only peers with each other, of the deaf and dnmb in tiie asylom at H«^
aBhavingeqnalpowerandanegnaldnty, bntby ford, where he was soon appointed steward.
the common law of En^and evetj man ia to la 1681 he vaa appointed prindpal of Qte
be tried " by bis peers." hi tbe triiit«d Stat«B inatitatdon for the deaf and dnmb at Nev
this principle has no practical applicaticm,aa all York. For some years he was principal, sn-
are equal m law where no one has any legal peristendent or steward, teaober, and ohapl^n,
rani;. In Ensland the word Is moat common- as well as seoretary of the board of direeton^
ly nsed to de^^iate a lord of parliament, all of and maii^;ed all the detwls of tbe instjtoticai
whom are called "the Ungfa peen," not be- alone. Ua appealed to the iMrislatore tot Qa
canse they are in any aense equal with the eztoisioR of tiie odraJitaMs of instroction to
king, bnt beoaose they oonstitnte his highest all tbe poor de^ mntes of snitablo ago in tbe
court, and, whatever may be the Aegroo of rtate, and visited wiUi a olaaa of pnints the
their nobili^, all, as nobles, are eqoal in the prindpal uties snd villagM of t3is states eibil^
dlsobarge of tbelr official doty, as In their iting the snocesa of bis metlkod ot instroction.
votes in parliament, or npou the trial of any The want of snitable books for eleuMOtaiyteaoh-
person impeached by the oommons; and aU intf of the daaees led him to pr^are a series
share alike in all tbe priTlleges of the peerage, which arenowiQgraieralweintheiDBtitQtJonB
rSee Lords, Hottbe OF,and PAXLUJtxsj.') The for deaf mutes in this comitry, snd to some ez-
different d^reea of English nobility are, in tent in Great Briton. He alao investigated the
the order of precedence, duke, marqnis, earl modes of instraotion adopted in other ooint-
(whioh corresponds ia English to the word tries, uid partioiilariy tbe instmetioik in articn-
connt on the continent of Enrope), visooimt, lation in Germany. Hewasaomttribnlortothe
and baron. The eldest son of the first three " AmerioaaAnnsIsof thePeaf andI>nmb"frtHn
is nnially eaUed by bis father's aeoond title, ilacommenoemeiit,aodlsnowone of itadirect-
and their other sons by the term lord prefiz' ore. From 1846 to 18D9 he was preddoit of
cd to their names. These titles are oaUed ti- the institittdon in New York, retaimng his pom-
ties of courtesy, tlieir bearers having no legal tion as principal, which he still holds. In 18S1
right to them. Tbesonsof avisooimtareoalled he visited Sorope wilJi three of bis poinls, and
honorable. — In France, the word pair has re- made a oarefnl ccaminatioa of the principal
mainedinnsetbrongballthegovemmeutsfrom deaf-mnte institotionB of England and the omi-
fondal times, and is in nse now; bnt Qieflmo- tinent. He received the btmorary degree of
tions and privileges of tbe peerege hs^e varied LL J), from the regents of the oniversi^ of the
very much at different tdmes, the term bdng state of New York in 1849. In addition to the
destitute of the definite meaning which It has " Oonrse of Instmotion" and the " Scriptnre
attained in England. Louis JtViii. in 1614 e»- Lessons," he is the author of a great nnmber
tabliehed a house of lords, or more sccorately of wo^ on file education of the deaf and
a peerage, in some degree resembling the dumb.
English system; but TillMe, the minister of FEET- w KKi; a common name of the jotted
Charles X., cretried at one time T< new peers, sandpiper (tringoidet mamiariat, Gray), de-
when ho wanted them for apolitical purpose. — rived from its note.
A peeress is a woman who is noble by descent, FEGABUS, in Grecian mythology, a winged
by creatiou, or by marriage. A peeress by horsewhidi sprang from MedDsawhmFeisens
descent or by creation retains her title and no- struck ofTher bead for havii^ Interoomw with
billty in law, although ahe marriaa a common- Neptune. His place, aoooiding to the most an-
er; bnt a peeress by marriage loses her nobili^ oient writers, was in tiie pdaee c^ Jupiter,
by ber marri|^ with a commoner, bnt com- whose thonderbolts be carried; but later au-
monly retains her title in society as a title of thors plaoe bim amcmg tbe stus as the horse
courtesy. It la one of the privileges of the of Aurora. When Beileropbon was endeavor-
peerage of the realm not to be liable to urest Ing to kill the ClumiBra, Uinerra gave him a
for debt. This rule applies equally to peerese- goldMi bridle with which he eaught Pegasn^
es, who are peers of the reabn, and con only and having slain the monster by hie means, eu-
be tried by their peers, although they cannot deavoied to rise upon hie back to heaven ; but
sit in parliament or on trials. Jupiter sent a fly to sling the home, and oansed
PEET, Habvky Pbhidlk, LL,D., an Ameri- the rider to be thrown. When ML Heliocm
can instniotor of the deaf and dnmb, bom in rose heavenward with delight at tbe sin^ng of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEGU fZDTB FOBTE XT DUBX 8S
the Mnaea, FegAsos b^ advice of Keptnne dwtrOTed bj the Bnrmeae in their final triompli
sU^ped ita asoeat with a kick ; and on the spot over the coimtry in 1167. It has nnoe been re-
whue hia hoof tonohed the ground there sprang bnilt, and the popnlation is fkst inoreaaing. It
np Bippocroie, the inspiring well atib.6 Muses, was captored br the British in Jima, 16S3.
la the later writers Pegssos is known almost FSI-HO, or fTosTH BirxB, a river of Chins,
exoloriTel]' as the horse of tlie Mosea. which rises in the hwhlanda of HantohoiHia,
PEQIT, a Britiah province of Indo^IUna about lat. 89° 80' NT, long. lia° 80' K, and
(Farther India), on the E. aide of the baj of after a \mj oiroaitnone Imt generally £. ooorae
Bengal, bonnded N. b^ the Bormeee empire, of S60 m. flows into the golf of Fe^e-U in lat.
KbTtheTeiutsMrimjiroviDoes, S. bj the golf 88° 80' K., long. 117° 47' E. Near the month of
of Hartaban- and W. bj tha province of Ara- the river are the villages of Ta-kn and Bi-kn,
can wad the Day of Bengal, extending from Ut and a little higher np Tang-kn ; but the most
IB' if to 18° 80' N., and from long. 84° 11' to nnpottant town on me Pei-ho, and the lai^gest
SS'SS'E. ; extreme length 840 m., breadth portN. of Shanghu, iaI1en-tfdnattheJanoti(ni
ITO m. ; area, 82,800 sq. m. ; pop. 570,180. of the graiid canal, abont 70 m. from the ae^
The most important towns are Rangoon, Uarta- Tong-onan, where all the boatc land thdr pas-
ban, Pegu, and Prome. The whole provinoe is senKers and cargoes for Peking, ia mtnated 110
intersected by branches of the Irrawaddy, ro. hif^er np, or by the nnoosities of the river
which flows S. frtnu Bnrmah, and enters the 180m. from Ta-kn. The prinrapal tributaries of
^If of ICartaban by an extensive delta, afford- the Pei-ho are the Hoen-ho, Tasya, Obn-lnng^
ing sevwal good harbors. The Sitang forma and Tnng-hni ; npon the last named, 13 m.
the £. booodary line ; and both tbeee riven are from tlie main stream, Peking ia sitoated. The
navigable by vessels of considerable size to dis- velocity of the stream, ariring ttom the great
tances &r beyond the hmlta of Pegn. The altitude of ita aonroe, has sooivedoDt a narrow
Yonmadoong monntaina extend along a great channel throngh the deep allnvial plain of Po-
part of the W. frontier, bnt the snrface in obe-li, and cot into the sntwtratnm of clay
other directions is level or imdnlating. The beneath it For the last 5 m. of ita oonrse the
minerals include iron, tin, lead, and aeveral plain is little if at all above the level of hi^
kinds of predons stones. The climate is wann water at spring tidea, and the current oonae-
and moist, but ia not oonmdered unhealthy, quently becomes mnoh weakened and the river
The soil is remarkably fertile^ and v^etation ia oischargea itadf over an extensive bar. Tbia
Inxnriant. Much of the eorfooe is covered with bar is fiinned of tenadoos olay, and the dia-
forests, and agricnltnre has been neglected, land taooe at low water from a depth of 10 fbet
that was cnltivated formerly bdng now overran without to 10 feet within is nearly 4} m. Ia
with jandc The principal prodnctiona consist the channel leading over the bar thcve ia a depth
of rice^ timber, partioalarly teak, gums, ivory, of 11 feet at hl^ water; bnt at low water
and various wooda used in dyeing.— F^ was there is only 24 Indies in moat plaoes, and ex-
formerly an independent kingdom, but after a tennve dry mnd banka on either hand. Within
series of contests, extending over many ages, the tiar the channel winda upward for about
it was conquered by the Burmese assisted by a mile between steep mud banks, which are
the Portngnese. Tne P^aaiui revolted abont ooTn*ed at high water, and render navigation
the middle of the 18th oentnry, snbdned the at that time very dangerous. At this distance
BarmeaOj and made their king prisoner. A the banks become covered with reeds, the
long aeries of ware fbllowed, in which the breadth ia about 100 yarda, and the current
Burmese were assisted by the Enriish and the runs from 3 to 8 m. per honr. Porta and
p^nans by the French ; and tne former at earthworks have been erected npon natural or
length berame masters of the country. In artaflcialmoundawith an altdtnde of ftom 10 to
1824 war broke ont between the British and 18 feet at high water, and, fhim the peculiar
Bnnnese, and among other provinces Pegn conflguration of this reach, &oe and flmk it on
WB3 oonqnered, tint restored at the oonolnsicn all sides. — The mondi of die Fel-ho waa the
of hostilltiee in 1826. The imprisonment of scene of an engagement between Ei^lidi and
the matter of a ship, end aome other British French gun boata and land foroea and ^»
sntgecta, 1^ the govemor of Ran«xnLled to a Ohinese on ICay 10, 18S8, hi which the Ohineaa
second war in 1803, which resolted in Fega be- were defeated. Another attack was made on the
ing annexed to the Eugliah poaaessions in India, forta, June 35, 1369, by 11 Engliah gnn boats,
(See BuBMAH.) — Paou, a town in the above de- manned br 500 men, with TOO mannea, when
scribed province, is situated on a river of the the Engli^ were repulsed with h loss of 89 Ull-
same nnne, which Ms into the Irrawaddy 58 m. ed and 840 wounded^ On Aug. 31, 1660, the at-
N. F. from Rangoon ; pop. about 10,000. The tack was renewed with an English and Froioh
streets are broad and regular, and paved with fleet of 800 sail and a land force (tf 36,000 man.
brick^ and the bonees are bnilt of wood and The Ohinese fortifications were onitnred and
elevated on posts. There is a remarkable pa- destroyed. The Engliah lost 19 kiljed and 183
goda, shaped like a pyramid, built of brick of wonnded; theFrendi,801dlledandl00woiind-
an octagonal form at the base, each side meaa- ed ; the Ohineae losa waa eatiinated at 8,000.
nriug 163 feet. Fegn is aaid to have formerly PEINE FORTE ET I>UBK Fonnetly, in
contained 160,000 inhabitanta, bnt it was nttedy England, when a priaoner indicted for a otqiital
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
$4 FBEHE FOBTB ET DDBB PEIBOfl
felony or petit treason stood mute, bb the piuel]rnierdAi]deTioa,whiohtiftd gradoallre*-
phrsM was, tipon his axTBigmnent, Uiat is, re- tabliahed itaelf between tiie reigns of Edward
nued to plead and so to pat himBelf apon his IH. and Henry IV., (ud wfts de^xQod to ddivec
trial In the mode whidi the law prescribed, the prisoner the sooner from oia sofferings,
answering eitiier not at all, or impertinently, to The penalty of p«tn« forte et dare was not
the ohsj^ preferred against Mm, he waa eon- aboliabed until the 12th year of the reign of
demnedtot£«pnni8hmentof j>mn«,7t>rt««tdt(fv. George m. (1772). — At common Inw a refosal
This waa the penalty of hto contempt In refcs- to plead to an indictment of felony saved the
ing to sahmit nimself to the legal form of triaL atx^ued from the form of trial, and therefore
It wrought & fbrfeitore of goods, hot no at- from conviction and its conseqaenoes, cornip-
tainder and cormption of hlood, and, therefore, tion of blood and escheat of his estate ; and it
no escheat of luids. The peine forU et durt was for the pnrpoee of extorting a plea and of
WM on infllotion of ettreme severity. The Becnring their escheats and forfeitnreH, that the
booksof entries and other old books of the law, fendol lords devised this penalty of a ernel
varjing only slightly in the description of the death. Generally, no donot, the device oc-
a*)lmtent,agreethst the prisoner waa carried complished its end; thongh there were in-
to prison, end laid m some low, dark stances of persons who snfiered death in this
room, ahnost naked, upon his back ; his body mode in order to preserve their estates to
was burdened with very heavy weights; he their familiee. The statnte 12 G«o^te UL, c
received once each day portions of the meanest 20, prevented further coed of this huvh coer-
bread and water, of bread one day and of water oion, by providing that, if any person thereafter
the neztj and so on alternately ; and thus he should stand mate on his ornugoment, he should
Continned until he died. In early times, it is be convicted of the felraiy oWoed, and Jadg-
sopposed, the torture lasted only until the pris- ment and its consequences shoold ibUow in tiie
oner dedared himself willing to plead ; bat same manner as if snch person had been con-
later, says Hawkins, he conld not save himself, vioted by verdict or confesdoa of the felony
if once tlie ponishment hod been ordered, charged against him. — The only instance, so
Women were snbjected to the some torture. — fkr aswe are aware, in which jMtfw^rtoeCtiurt
It is matter of aispnte how and when peine has been inflicted in this coontry, was when in
forte et dtim was introdnoed ; whether it exist- Uassachosetts, in 1363, Giles Gory, on old man
ed at common law, or was created by legialatiye of 80 years and the hnsband of a reputed wit^^
provision. The statute Westminster the first c. stood mate npon his trial, and was orademued
B, which was enacted in the time of Edward L to be pressed to death.
(and there is no mention of this peoaltj before FEfPUS, Lake, or Toannio Lun, a lake of
that Tfaga), says that felons standmg mnte diall Enropean Russia, bounded by the government
^Mmstmpriionjbrteetdvre; and as it does not ofEsthoniA,8t.FeterBbDrg, Pskov, and Livooia;
expl^ tiieee words at all, it seems to imply extreme length 100 m., breadth from 10 to 86
ttiat liieir meaning waa already familigi' in prao- m. ; area about 1,500 sq. m. The southern part
tloe. 8!r Edward Coke contends therefbre that is connected with the norihem by a strait, and
the punishment was known befi>re the statnte ; ia sometimes called Lake Fakor, the town of
that by no oonstmction of the words of the act. tiiat name being utnated at its S. E. extremity.
priton forte et dure, conld Jndges have framed There are sevwal small islands at both ends
BorigoroaBasenteDceasthatwhiohwehavejost of the strait. Feipna recdves the rivers Em-
described ; and as there is confessedly no other baoh and Eosa trem the S. W., and the Tchems
statnte to which it oan be referred, it must be and Yoetaba from the E. and 8, E ; and the
presnmed that it ousted at common law. Narva flows to the gulf of Finland from the
fflr Hatthew Hale adopts this opinion, and N. E. end. The shores are low and marshy,
Hawkins seems also to assent to it. It may be and the greateat depth is about 60 feet,
suggested in behalf of this view, tliat the an- PEIBOB, Bktmaihh, LL.D., an American
thor of Fleta and Britton, both of whom wrote mathematician, bom in Balem, Uass., April 4,
near the tdme of the above named statute and 1806. He was gradnated at Harvard college
omunented on it, do not refer to it the ori^ in 1636, and after teaching for two years in
of the peiMjbrte et dure, nor give indeed any the Bound Hill school at J^orthaoipton, was
particular prominence to the similar words or ^pointed tutor in motbematioa at Oambridge
the act thoiuih it is highly probable that they in 1881, nniverrity professor of mathematicB
would have done bo if this statute had created and natural philosophy in 1888, and Perkins
fliia, in any ujb, remarkable penalty. On the professor of astronomy and mathematics in
other hand^ ^w^kstone thinks that the punish- 1B43. He still holds the last office, as also that
ment had a statutable origin. He nrges that of consulting astronomer to the " American
neillier Braotoo nor Glanvil, nor any other an- Ephemeris and Kautical Almonao," to which
dent author previous to Edward I., makes men- poution he was appointed npon the establish-
tion of It, and in &ot traces its introduction to ment of the tUmaian in 1849. ne is a member
the lonsnage of the statute of Weslininstar Qie of the leading ecientifie societies d the United
first. He concludes, however, that this reqnirea States, and was elected am assodate of the royal
Imprisonment only, and s^s that the practice astronomical sooiety of London in 1849 ; mem-
of loading the f^on's body with weights waa A ber of the royal society of London in 1863;
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
preddent of the AjMrion wsocistion for the ma diaoorored and annomuwd br Peir«a fa
■dranoeaoentof sdanoelbrtiieOlevelAiid meet- 1801^ and demonabvted fh>m pnrelf aaulTlioal
i^ in 18S8 ; and on» of the eoientiflo ooim- oonaideralioits. In the fnU demoaiAradoB,
ou which eetabUafaed the Dndley obaervttlory which for peooliar reasons he withheld for two
in 1865. Th» mathem&tioal powers of Prof, jesre, he eHtoblished the important fact tliat
P^roe were promineatlj maiufested in early no ring is capable of snstainiiig itself in atable
lift. HewaasMi^ofBr. Bowditch, and the eqoilibrinni about t primaiy wlthont the mip-
[ffoof sbeetot^uie translation of the Jf^nifu« port afforded br the attrsotioa of satelUtea
eilettt pAsaed nnder his scmtiuj and saperri- properlj ntoated for the pnrpoae, nor under
rionbttore going to tfae press. Whenthelate any nromostancee if solid. Dniingthefollow-
Vi. QUI edited the " Ustnematioal IGaoeHanj," Ing year Prof. Pdroe prepared a Totome of In-
Frc£ Priroe was ammig the most effluent ooa.- nar tables for die use of the .^oerioan " Kan*
tribtitora. Aftwward he himself nndertool: tioal Almanac" Thoogh founded anon the
the pnbSoatitBt of the "Onmbridge HisoellanT general theory of Flans, by the employmemt
of Mathonatics, Flymos, and A^ronrany," of (d ooeffldents in a manner emidrioal, and i»ly
whiidi however only 6 nnmbers appeared. It intended by the author to serve a t«i»orary
was in this that he gave faia eelebrated and ex- pnrpose nntil the long ezpeoted taUes of Han-
hanstire ^scosstos it the motion of a top spin- sen dionld appear, they still represent the ob-
ning npon a plane aniftoe. A series of text serredplaoes of the moon with snob precision,
boon on the difibrent branches of mathema- tint they are yet (1661) employed ui the al-
tiea, pr^iared by PnA Ftiroe daring the yesra manao office aa the htuaa of all the oompntfr-
I685-'4S, attoaoted the attention m edenlofio tions Into which the place of the mo<m enters.
men by QuAr originality, and the ringnlar pow- Dotted comparisons of the errors of these ta-
er of generaUzataon md condensation which bles with those of Hansen's, as determined by
they d^^yed. The retnm of Encke's oomet aetoal obeerration, have been published in the
in 1843, and the appearance of the great oomet "Astronomical Jonmal," and show that the
of FebrouT and March, 184S, aerred aa an op- aooordance of Peiroo's tables during the last
portonity for Prot. Peirce to attract pnbHo ii- 18 years ia quite comparable with uiat of the
t«ntion to the need of a wdl flirnl^ed obser- tables which Hansen had obtained from 10
yatory ft* the college, and to his efforts the years of profonnd research. In 186T appeared
moraoent was dne which resulted in the e»- Peirce's "Treatise on Analytic HecHanlaa"
t^lisbment of the present weH endowed insti- (4to.), designed to form one of a series of 4 trea- '
totion. The tret of his investigationa which tises, tiie others being respectively n^on " Oe-
may be said to have oompelled the notice of lestlal lfe<Jianics," " Potential Physios,'' and
Boientifla men throughout the world was liis "AnalytieUorphoIogy." As one isthasolen-
<3itidBm of the oompntations and reeulte of tiflo council of the I)aaIeyobaerTatory, betook
Xeverrier, npon which this geometer based his an active part In the struggle in 1869 betwew
demonstration of the existence and place of the that body and the truBt«es of the InstitntioiL
nnknown planet to whose attraction the ir- and in coqjmiction with Professors Baohe and
regolarities observed In the motions of TTranus Henry pobUahed the defence of the director
were to be attributed. Inthefaceof thestrik- of the observatory. Among the discoveries
ing acoordance between the direction of the and important Investigations of Prof. Feiroe,
pUKQet predicted by Leverrier, and that of the are especially to be named his theory of the
planet Neptune discovered by Oalle, aearohing t^ls of oometa, published in the " Astronoml-
at Leverrier'a request Peirce boldly aanonnoed eal Joamal," ahowing the mode and laws <^
to Qie American acaden^ that tiie planet Kep- their formi^n ; hie methods of iaveatlgeting
tune did net accord with the computations of terrestrial longitudes and the form Of the
Leverrier, and declared that its trne position in moon's limb by means of occaltataons of Qw
qtace and its movements were incompatible Pleiades, published in the report of the super-
will) them. A statement apparently so im- Intendent of the coast snrve^; his resesrehes
probable attracted great attention and severe upon penonal equation, showing tbe ezistenoB
critjcism. It is related that Ur. Edward £v- and means of measurement of a new and before
erett, being present at the meeting, actually unrecognized form of personal error, in obser-
addressed the academy npon the subject, and rations "by eye and ear,"" arising fhnn ibo
b^ged that so utterly improbable a declaration proneness of every individual to award an un-
n^tit not go out to the world with the aoad- due prominence to particular fractions of the
emy's sanction. " It m^ be utterly improb- second ; and the singular and valuable " Orit»-
able," retorted Peiroe, "but one thing is more rion for the B^eotion of DoublAil Observa-
improbable still, that th.9 law of gravitation tlons," by means of which the propriety of
and the truth of mathematical formulas ^nld eulurion of specially discordant observations
foQl" Pmt Peiroe followed up his aunoonoe- from a series, is definitely determined in each
ment by a thorough discusrion of tlie mutual individual oase by the mathematical lawa of
influences of Uranus and Nqitane, whicdt, in probability, and removed &(mi the arbitrary or
conjunction with the oompntations of Walker, uncertain Judgment of the computer. He haa
soon placed the theory of the new planet npon also investigated the forms of equilibrium of aa
a Arm basis. The fluidity of Saturn's rugB elastic ea<^ oontafning a fluid, researches whioh
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
Si
emAootad htm to hia &vorite theory of aiu- Ha Alt, hoirever, tbat taacibiiig rattwc than
Iftio morpholo^ ; the phrllotactio series of preaching was hu rooatlou, and at Uet with-
nnmbftra; and me corions and elegant cyolio drev from the mmistr^/iid in ooimaotion with
eolation of the oelohrated " sohool-girl puzzle," a relative, Ur. Simeon jRitnam, opened a Bcbool
to which problem its author had found DO B;m- at North Andover. In 1880, In oonqtliance
meiaioal solution whatsoever. ^oC Feiroe re- with repeated aolicltationa, he returned to Nan-
aeiTed the degree of LLJ). from the muTersitj tnoket, and for 6 rears managed a Urge school
of North OaroW hi 1647. with hardly a resort to the use of the rod, bot
PEIBOE, BsADFOBD K., an American der- with the most perfect order and sQoce6& Bj
ra^nan, aod fonnder of a reformatory school for his luvent advice and in accordance with a plfua
girIs,borninEoyalton,Vt.,Feb.8,1819. Hewaa devised mainly by him, the pnbUo schools of
gradnated at the Wedeyan nniveTsity, Middle- Nantncket were reorganized npcm. a thorough
town, Coon., in 1841, and in 1842 was received system of gradation, emhracing primaiy, int«r-
M a Uetbodist Qunister into the New Enstand mediate, and grammar scbod% and a hi^
conference, and stationed at ITaltham, Uass. scbooL Of this last he became the principal m
He was suDseqnently transferred to Newbory- 1687. In 1830 he was chosen principal of tiie
ir^ OhorleBtown, and Boston. Hia health normal school jostfomided at Lezington, If ass.,
-.Wing, be received a local relation, and spent tbe first insUtntion of the kind established in
the next 10 yesra in Boibnry, Mass. During America. The duties of this position proved
this period he prepared a series of biblical ques- too ardaoos for his health, and at the end of 3
tion books for Sunday Bcbools, a " Bible Sohol- years be was obliged to resign. After 2 yean
are' Uanual," a " Oommentory upon the Book of rest he took charge of tne female normal
of Aota," and several small books for Sunday school, now removed froai Lexington to "West
schools. He also published a volume entitled Newton. In IB46 he was aoun compelled to
"TheEmiaeDt Dead," which had a very large resign, and made a voyage to Europe, his friends
Bale In 18S0 be was appointed agent for New and pupils having r^ed a parse of ftSOO tode-
EugUnd of the American Sunday sobool onion, fray his expenses. After bis return In 1850,
Ja 18G5 and 1666 he was elected state senator his health being partially restored, he became
from Norfolk oo. He now entered heartily an assistant in a sobool at West Newton, and
into a movement for establishing a reform there continued to teach till near the close of
aohool for girls, and when It woe organizei his life. He published a "Letter on Normal
under the name of the state industrial school Schools," addressed to the Hon. Henry Barnard
ibr ^rls, at Lancaster, Mass., was appobted (18G1), and a prize essay on " Orime, its Cause
nCorch, I8C6) Buperintendent and cbapl^ of and Oore" (1863).
the institution, a position whlcji he still holds. PEIBBSO, Nicolas Claudx Fasbi, setguenr
The school was opened Aug. 26, 1856, under a do, a French scholar, born in Beangender, Pro-
plan fropoeed by Mr. Peiroe, It Is exclusively vonce, in 1S80, died in Aii in 1687. He travel-
for girls, between the ages of 7 and I S, who led in Italy, Holland, and Great Britain, became
have been guilty of petty crimes, or are ex- aoquajntod with most of tbe soientiflo and liter-
posed to the danger of a vioions life. Theyare arymeu in those countries, and.extended his
eiamined by a board of commisMoners appoint- researches to nearly eveiy branch of hmnaD
ed hy the governor, having been committed on leamiiiK. He possessed a large fortune, which
the warrant of a judge of probate. They are he ^pued to the patronage of scholars and men
divided into families of 80, each under the care of letters, and tbe collection of books, onUqni-
ofamotronandtwoasststants. Ontbegrounds, ties, and works of art. Scaliger, Sahnasins,
which comprise about 80 acre^ there are 4 Holstenins, EiroLer, Uersenne, Grotina, and
"homes," and a obapel and residences for the Valois were the recipients of his liberality.
Enperintendent and the farmer. There are no He devoted much attention to natural history,
walls or high fences, tbe restrunts being whollv and imported into France several niecies of
moraL Corporal punishment is not permitteo, plants and trees. Although be pnblisbod notb-
and the whole management is tbat of a well ing, he was deservedly styled by fiayle the
ordered lamily. It has been thus far success- " procurator-general " of literature. Science is
fol, more thui 100 girls having been sent out indebted to Mm for valuable observatitHis and
into Booiety completely reformed. discoveriea ; he declared previous to Oovier
PEIROE, OiBTB, an American teacher, born tbat fbssil bonea, which were considered remuns
In Waltbam, Mass., Aug. 16, 1790, died in Vfeat of giants, belonged to well known animals.
Newton, Mass., in May, 1869. He was graduat- Hia death was almost nniversally mourned ; ibe
ed at Harvard college in 1610, and immediately Boman society of " Humorista" alone pnblidied
afterward took charge of a privato scbocj iu poems in bis honor in no fewer than 40 differ-
ITantucket, where he taught for 2 years. He ent languages. Out of bis voluminous corre-
then returned to Cambridge and studied the- spondence, his letters to Holrtenius are peifa^»
ology for S years, after whion he resumed bis of tbe greatest interest. They may be found
Bctiool at Nantucket In 1618 he commenced in Boissonade's SoUtenii Epiitolm ad Ditenot
preaching, and In the following year was settled (8vo., Paris, 181B}. His ttfe was writton tn
as minister of a Congregational church at North Latin hy Qasaendi(4to., Puds, 1641; tronolated
Keading, Mass., where he remained for 8 years, by Band, London, 1667).
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PBUMO, mfExntiOUiuMPt-Xintr, fiortii- oenwr, aflbrd quarters fertile tHX^&nd nurd.
«ra oniUal), Om <iMpitu of the Ohineaa <aq>lra The Interior of this enoloeiire is uvided into $
and <ff flw proviBoe of Ohi-]i, wlBaatoi on the parts fe^ waU« nmning from N. to 8., and the
TWerTang-initftimall tribotuTof thePei-ho, vhtde it oooapied by aniteofcoort ywdeuid
in lat M* M' N- long. IIQ" S?' E., aboat 13 ^nrtments vMoh are saperior to aaj other
m. ftom the Puwio, 40 m. frtKn the nearert btdldinn <^ the kind in Ohina. The 8. Mte,
part «r the gi«at wall, and 100 m. H. W. from oaUed Ueridian gate, leads into the middle
the pUf of Fe-ehe-U; pop. about S,000,000. diviaioii, in which are the iinperisl boildinga.
■ It ataxda on an ^denaiTe sandj ^ain, and oon- It ia resMred for the nse of the emperor, Kod
rista ot two parts, Kni-dhlng; Ute Tartar ^tj, when he paaaee tJuoo^ it a bell and «mg
to the N., and Wid-ohing, the CBunese dtj, to iJaoed in uie tower atiOTe are stnuk. When
the S. liie CTtinoee d^ k a paralklocraai ia nis' troops return in trinmph, the priaoners
outline, with an area M 16 sqoare milea; the Uiey bring are here presented to lum ; and
Tartar 0U7, whicJi a^loina one of the loni^r hwe the presents he confers on Tassals and
rfdss of tne other, is uwot ti miles mnan, or ambassadors are bestowed with great pomp.
IS square nuke in area. Both these divinons Psstfng through tliis gate into a urffer ooort,
are enelosod t^ walls abont SO feet liigh,8S over a small (»eek spanned bjfi marble bridgea
fiwt thfaik at the base, and 19 feet at the top. whioh are OTuamented witii soolptorea, a aeo-
The waBs oonsist, fer the most psrt, at earth cmd ooort is entered, paved with marble and
or mblu^ Iheed witii abme or i^ok, Ud in tennkiated on Ute aides hy fCatefL pcotiooa, and
very dnraUe oement composed of ou? ^"^ pillared corridors. At the head of this oovrt
lime, Tbof are amooth, bnt not quite perpen- m a soperb marble straotore 110 feet high,
djeolar on ttie ontride, and tm the insids the called the " gate of extensive paaoe." It U a
tvido reeedo one above snotlier like steps ; sort of bsloonj where the emperor, on New
sad diare are Blo|dng e&baakments at inter- Tear's day, his birthday, and other oooasion^
rata to enable hcmeman to ssoend to the top. reodvee the homage of bis oourtiers assembled
Square towers pv)eet40 or BO feet from the in the oonrt below; fi flighte of stairs decorated
outride at dlstaneee of about 60 jards ; and in with iMlnstrades and eoalptnres lead ap to it,
some places thwe are ditches. Outside the and S gates open through it into the next court
walls there are sereral soborba, and extenaire jard. Bejond it are two batlg, one where hia
earOtwoAs imon tbe K, H., and W. sides of nu^es^ ezamlnes the implements used in the
the Tartar t&f, Hi* whole bdng nearlj S6 annual plonglung, and the other where he
ni.la nroomferenee. Upon approaching ?»• feastshjs torSgngnests and other dlatjngnisbed
Ung, verir Uttleis seen of the bnildinga inride, persona on New Tear's day. After ascending
andthoNindpalreiieftotiheinonotonjof tdw a stairw^ and paaring another gate, the Eien-
dead wall b the watch towers over the gatea, Tdng-kong.or the "tranquil palace" of heaven,
the Sag stsflb in paira befejw the diSbrent ot- is reached, into wbloh no one oan enter with-
fidal reridenoea, a few pagodaa, and tbe tops ont R>e(^ permissitai. In it Is the oonncil
of large dmnps of trees. Tbe cities are en- dumber, and here caudidatea fbr offioe are
tmed bf IB external gates; and there are 8 prcMnted to the sovereign. It b tlie loftiest
wUdi open fN>m the Tartar dtj into tbe and most magnificent of all the palaces. Be-
Ohinese. These gates are formed by arohe^ yond it stands the " palace of earth's "
eaoh snrmoonted br a wooden towsr generallf where the empress roles bar miniature ooort u
5 stories hi^ with embrasores in each story the imperial harem ; and between this and the
oloaed bf shntten upon which ve painted N. wall of tbe prohibited eitf Is tbe imperial
bnll's ejM that at a little dhtewce have the flower guden, designed for the ose of its in-
appoarsnceofgnnii The gates are flirthtf dft> nutee. The gardens are adorned with degant
fbnded bj a swni-«ironlar rampart In front of p«vili(His, teiiq>lee, and groves, and interspersed
eaoh, with towers at the ends, so that the en- withoanids,fonntains,artid<uallakea.and9owsr
tranee is fh>m the sides and not from the frtmt beds. In the £. division of the prohibited dtf
of the gate. The Tartar ettj consiita of 8 en- are the offioeaof tbe calonet and tbe tTeasorj,
dosorea, one within anotiur, eaoh surronnded North of these Is the " hall of Intense thoaght,"
bj tta own valL The inneiinost oimtains Iht where aacrifioes are offered to Oonfodna and
imperial polaee and Ita snrronnding boildings; otlier M8m; near this is the library, a oata-
theaeeoiidlioeca[dedb]rthe8eTenloffieeeap- logne of the eontoits of wbidk is pnblished
pertdning to the government, and by manrpn- from lame to time. At the K. end of tbe£.
Tste reddenta who receive apodal permission division are nnmerons palaces utd buildings
to redde within its limits ; ud the outer one, ooonpied by princes of the blood and their oon-
for the sost part, oonsists of dwellincr hoose^ nections ; and in this qnarter is dtnatod the
with shops in the larger avenoea. — "Hie inner Fnng«en-1aen, a small temple where tbe cm-
area is called Sn-ching, or prohibited city, and perorcomestoUeeehiaanoeatora, TheW.divi-
its dremnArenoe is sbout 9 m. ; the weuI is sion contains a great variety of edifices devoted
nearly as solid aa that vonud the city, and is te pnbUo and private porpoiea, among wbiob
feoed with glased bricks and ooped with yd^ may be mentioned tbe hall of distlnguisbed
low tjlea. n is entered bv i gtfes, eadi SQr< sovereigns, statesmen, and literati, tbe printing
mosnted by a tower, wUeb, with one in eaeb office, tbe oourt of comptrollers for regulating
i$ PEKIKQ
the reoeteta and dMntrsements of the oonrt, wUcb Hi extenrire view ot Qte metrt^Us is
and tiie Ohing-Iiwuig-mian, or ^udian torn- obtained. Near Qie N. E. end of the park ia a
pie of ih« oitr. The nnmber of people within temple dedioatod to Tnenfl, the repntod diaoor-
the prohibitea cit7 is not very great, and moet erer of the ailkvomi, near wiiioh a plantation
of them are Mantdioos. — ^The second enolomre, of mnlberrir trees and a cocoonery are mun-
whioh aarronnds the one jtut described, is tainedforthepreparationtrfdlk. bithen^b-
called HwaDg-ching, or imperial citj, and is of boriiood of the "temple t^ great baptoneaa,"
oblong form abont 6 m. io circnit. It is en- and not far from the preceding, on the borders
dosed bf a wall about SO feet high, entered by of the lake, is a gilded copper statue of Bndd-
4 gates, and none may pass through them with- ha, 60 fbet high, with 100 arms. — l^e third or
ont special pennissioa. From the B. gate, onter enolosnre sorronnding the imperial oit7
called ti)e "gate of heavenly reet," abroad aVe- is called the Tartar city, and consists of several
nne leads np to the prohibited city ; in front wide atreeta croadng each other at ri^t an-
of it, outside the wall, is an extensive endo- glea. The principal government offices are
snre hsTing an entrance from the 8. which no ritoated along the svemae leadii^ 8. from tiie
oneispermlttedtopass throoghezoeptonfoot. imperial Atr to the Ohineae citr. Several
On the right of the avenne within the imperial boards h&vethMr bnreanaontiieS. idde; th«
dty ia a 1hi^ collection of bnUdings sorronnd- board ctf pnmsbmenta, irith ita snboidiBaU de-
ed by a wall, where offerings are preBent«d partments, has its courts on the V. Bde^ and
before the tableta of deceased emperors and the oenaorate atanda Immediatdy B. of it. The
empresses, and worship is performed by the astronomical board, the medical «dl^e, the
members of the impenal fiunily and clan to national aoademj, and the colonial' office are
^eir departed fbrebthers. Upon the opposite also on this avenne. Near the colonial office
Bide of the avenoo is the altar of the gods of is the temple where the nearest ancestors of
the land and grain, where in spring and antnmn the reigning &mQy are worahipijed by his ma-
the emperor alone makes offerings to these di- Jesty and the princes of his &milj on the first
vini^ee, who are supposed to have been origi- day of everymonth. The temple is pleasantly
nally men. On the E. side of the imperial mtnated in the midst of a grove, and the large
city, N. of the great temple, and not for from enolosore around it is prettily laid ont with
the £. gate of the prohibited city, is a deposi- trees and ahrabbery. Ilia observatory stands
totycMFni!]dtarystores,with workshopHfortheir in the 8. E., partly npon the walL Jtwaaat
manniketnre. The wtablishment of the Ens- one time anperintended by the Boman Oathtdio
sian ooUege lies N. of this gate ; and in the K. nisdonariee, bat is now confided to the oaie
E. part of this side are the residences of the of Ohlnese astronomers, whose predecessors
Imnas, with noroerone temples, monasteries, were instraoted by them. Close to it is the
and other religions edifices. Much of this hall of hterary examinations, where the oandi-
quarter is occopied by dwelling honses and by dates of the ^vince aseemble to write ihw
temples dedicated to varions inferior gods in essays. The Bnssian ehnroh of the Asamnp-
Ohinese mythology. On the N. side, snr- tion is in the K. E. comer, and near it ia the
ronnded by a wall more than half a mile in oir- splendid "temple of eternal peace" belonnng to
cnit, is the £iDg-shan, or artifidal monntain, the lamaa. The lamas have about SCO Cliinese
abont ISO feet high, with 6 summits, each of and Man tohoo pupils nuder their care, wholeam
which is crowned by a pavilion. Tariona kinds the Thibetan langnage ; and a similar ct^ege
of trees border its base and line the paths lead- for the Ohlnese and Mantehoo langnages atanos
ing to the tops, and the enolosnre is enlivened near the temple. The Tartar dty is nnder the
by tbepresence of nnmerons animals and birds, control of the general of the nine gates, who is
The W. part is chiefly ooonpied by a park, in rcf^ongible fbr the peace and good ordw wUh-
and aronnd which are fonnd some of the most in ite limito; the post is conferred only on
beantiftil spots in the metropolis. An ariiflclal Mantchoos. Near nis establishment, or head-
lake, more than a mile long, and with an aver- qnartera, which lie abont half w^y between
age breadth of S20 yards, occniues the centre, toe imperial ci^ and the K. wall, ia a hi^
It is crossed by a marble bridge of 9 arches, tower oontainlsg an immenee bell and drnm
and ita banks are shaded by groves of trees which annonnoe tiM honra of tbe m^l. This
nnder which are well paved walks. There are tower is hidier than those over the gatet^ and
many artifidal hills of rock-woit, groves, gar- ia one of the moat conspionona objects seen
dens, and parterres of flowers. On the B. £. when wproaohing the dty ; and the bell is said
side of the lake is a large summer hooae con< to wei^ 120,000 lbs. A large number of Ho-
fflsling of several edifices, jiartJy in or over the iuunmedana reside near the 8. W. comer of
water. On the W. side is the haU for the the imperial dty, where they hare a mosqne.
examination of military candidates, where the Their ancestors were brought ft«m ToorUstas
empcrorln person witnes»es their eihibitiona abontaoentiiryago,and allUohammedanevlB-
of equestrian archery. At the N. end of the iling Peking resort to the quarter where they
lake isabridge leading to an islet, the centre redde. 8oathofthemoeqneBtandathe"cbBreh
of which presents the aspect of a hill of gentle of heaven's Lord," with a convent atteobed to
ase«nt covered with groves, temples, and sum* it, which the Jeenito and Portuguese built dor-
mer houses, and snnnonnted with a tower fhnn ing the time of their influence. Itwasthe finest
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
■peolmeo of areUteetnre in the place, bnt is onrionB ^ipearanoe, bearing some reeemblanM
aow going to deoaf. There sre thos religions to triumphal arohes, are ereoted in honor of
edifloes in the ODdnMe metrapt^ appropriated dletingoished individnalo. Upon tho E. ode
toman^ fiwins of religion: to the Greek and of the avenue vhich leads from the S. gate
Uin6hiirohes,IalBnnsm,Bnddhlaminitaprin- of the Tartar oily and adjoining the outer
cipal fonna, rstlonatiim, ancestral worship, and gate atande the alter to heaven, in an extensive,
state wordiip, snd templee dedioated to Oon- enolMnre. The altar Is a ronnd terrace oon>
fiidas and other defied mortals, beside a gr«at tiating of S stages, each 10 feet high, and to-
nnmbor in widiii the popular idols of the oonn- spectivd^ 190, 90, and 60 feet in diameter,
tTT are adored. Among them is the temple paved with marble and protected with baloe-
wbere the tablets of the kings and empwors ti^ea. Within the enijosureia also the "palaoe
offonnerdjnasties are coHeatively worshipped, of abstinence," where the emperor fasts 8 da/B
with the exception of a few who nave betoi ex- preparatory to offering the annnal BBCrifioe at
eluded on aooonnt of tiieir wiokednees. Near the wbitar solstioe. On the opposite side of tho
this is Oie white pagoda t«m^e, m> oalled fhnn avenne ia tiie altar to earth, dedicated to the
a costly obelisknear it ereotM bj Entdai Khan supposed Inventor of agricoltnTe ; it stands in
m the IStb oentoTf, and retndlt and exqntdtelj an encloenre abont 9 m. in circnmferenoe, and
ornamented in 1819. This temple oontatns a in reality ocaudeta of 4 separate altars : to the
scab taken fh>mthe forehead of Bnddha, oamed spirits vt the heavens, those of the earth, the
bj his coQstantlj knocking his head on the planet JDpit«r, and Slun-nnng, the inventor of
grotmd in worship ; and aronnd the edifice are agrionltnre. The worship at this altar is pe^-
106 small pUlarfl on which lamps are bnmed in formed at the vernal eqoinox, at which time
his honor. Ontdde of the city on Che E. is the the ceremony of plonghiikg apart of the endo-
"temple ofheaven," which oovers a large area snreis performed by the emperor, assisted by
ai^ is soiTonnded with many spadons bnild- membera of the board of rites. A little W. of
inxs; on the V. is a corresponding strootnre this endoflore is the pool dedicated to the spir-
c^ted the " temple of earth ;" both of these are its of the waters, where his n^jesty performs
connoted with the state religion. — The sonth- i^edal snpplications whenever the country euf-
em or Ohineee dty is more populoos than the jers from drought or delnge. The sonihem
~ ' ' " . i.- . .. ....- .. , . . ,...., ^^ strict miUtary
n consequenee re>
- - . . > Iw many persons inqnest of relaxa-
than 100 feet wide, and extend betweot Mutes tlon and maripatioo. Daring the night the
at opposite sidee of the taty ; bnt those mdeh great thoronchArea are nsDally qoiet, and are
branch off from the chief thorouglifores are oimly Ufdited by lanterns whidi hang from the
mere lanes. They are all nnpaved, and ao- doors of the honsea. The air is polluted by
oor£ng to the state of the weather are either the etenoh arising ftom private veBsels and
knee-deep wiOi mnd or covered with dust, public resenoirs for urine and all kinds of
lliehoitaeaare boilt of brick, and seldomexoeed offal, which Is oareftiUy collected and carried
one story in hdght. They are roofed with tiles oat of the gates in the same boxed carts in
' of many oolors ; and most of the private red- whioh the vegetables are brought to market,
dmces nave a parapet wbH In front, upon which Oarriages (or rather covered carts without
note contdning flowen and ehmbs are i^aced. springe drawn by mules), saddle horses, and
IB the back sbreeta the edifices have a mlsera- donkeys are used for locomotion, and can. be
ble and aquaHd appevanoe, bnt in the prin- hired at numeroas stands thronghont the oil? ;
ripal thoron^ifiues many <f them, particnlariy bnt sedans are not permitted to be used so
the sbc^M, are iii^7 ornamented with paint- near the emperor except by privileged peraoos.
ii^ and gH^ng. The shops are open in front. The Mantohoo women ride astride, and their
and the goods are exposed in henw outside the nnml>er in the streets, both riding and walking,
doors. At each side of tiieestablishmeat there imparts a peoalEarity to the crowd which is not
is generally a wooden jaUar or si^board, high- seen in cities fbrther S. The varioas tribes of
er titan the housetop, bearing mscriptions in central Asia have representatives among the
^letters setting forth the anperiorqnalitiee of tihrong, and their different oostmnea add to the
the wares and the probity of the dealer. Elaga liveliness of the scene. — The dimate of Peking
and stnamers are hnng out from these posts, ia ezceasively eold in winter. The therm<»neter
and lanterns of different material and fbnn are ranges from 10° to 95° in winter, and in som-
arranged with great ingenuity and taate. Hob- mer it sometimes rises to 106°, bnt is generally
witlulandiag uie breadth of the main streets, between. 70° and 00°. Water is frozen from
tiiey are much obstrncted by the wares eX' December to March, and violent storms and
posed ouMde the shops, and the number of whirlwinds occur in spring. Bnt upon the
ocoopa&ms that are carried on in tents and whole the climate ia healthy, and epidemics
in the open air in movable workshops. This are rare. — The manufactures of Peking are tri-
erowd and bnsUe, however, is wholly confined fling, and the trade of the place is oon&aed to
to die prindptd thoronghfiires, and the lanes anpplyiag the wonts of the inhabitants. The
and cTOM streets are perfectly quiet. Whwe principal part of the provisions consamed
Qt» vain streets intersect, moauments of very o(»nea from the S. provtaoea, or from the K,
90 fXEore
wtof Caii-U,tlMidaiB«4olniDga»d^|ao- inUc^WMd wWi mnali, oooia^ limlati, and
dncing bat Utile. Th« tazea of dun* ar* £)P UkM, the baaks of which 1i»t« 1>«ea fhiovn
the most part paid in kind, and large tpunti- ap or divensfied in imitation of natnre. Same
ties of grun are stored in the princjp*! graan- parts are iJoUivatedtgroTea and tangled tbioketB
lies t4 Peking at one seaaon of the fear ; bat ooonr here and thwe, and plaoee ate pnrpoee^
the sapi^r beoomea exhausted b^re the next left wild in ordw to contrast the better wiU
harreeit is reaped, and when this haOT>enainaii7 the highly onltivated predncts of a palace, or
of the people die of fbndne. Ooal is Invnght to fbnn a rnral pUhwajr to a letired nmuner
from the B. and 8. W. iipi»i the backs of earn- house. The number of residenoes for the em-
ela and mnlea ; and the houses are heat4d b^ peror or hia ministerB within this park is esti-
Btores, the fuel being a eompoimd of ooal dnst mated at 80, each of which is sorronnded iy
and earth. All the neoessariee of life are ex- manj houses ooonpied bj ennachs and ser-
oeedinglj^ dear, and manj of the inhabitants vsnts. The annuner pakoe and priudpal ball
are miserablv poor. — ^The goTemment differs of audience, the most extenuve and b^ £ar the
from that of other cities in the empire ; it ia meet ^endid of theee resideiices, was pluk-
separated from the a&trs of the deparbnwt, dered bj tlw Fr«nah and Eni^isa forces in
and administered b; ofBoers reaidins in the 4 their advance upon PeUnK in Oct 1860. The ,
drcidta into which it is divided. A minister entrance or r«oeption balTwaa 110 feet long,
of oneof the boards is uipointedsnperintendeat 42 flMt wide, and SO feet high. It was payed
oftheoitj, andsabordmstetohimisamaror. with marble, and planted with gold, asnre, and
These fhnotjonsries are quite independent of scarlet, in the most goraeonsBtrle. The throne
the provincial governor, osirTing anj- a&irs of the enqterorwaamaleof adarkwoodbesQ-
whioIi thef cannot determine diroctly to the tdfbllv carved, and the onshiona were embroi-
emperor. The poUoe is mateiiallr aaristed in dered with golden dragons. The inner cham-
ite doljes hj the gates which ai« placed at Ute ben and saloon wet« bandsomel]' fitted np.
heads of the streets end dosed at nidkt, and The rolls of silk, satin, and crape, aQ of the
watchmen patrol the citj, marking Uie time best qnalitf, not only fanushed torbans and
bj sta-ikhig two pieoea of bamboo together. l>edolcthes for the EVenoh soldiers, but vera
Ihere is freqnentlf mnoh troable in keepinK nsed to wr^> aronnd fowls, old pots, and other
the popolace quiet, for in times of nnnsnal vulgar I>oot7. The jade stone and china were
BoanAtf the^ rise in mobs and pillage Uie of great valne, and some Bivres china of Louis
pnbllc granaries. There is a govenunent Joor- Qoatorze was fouod ; and a presentation sword
nat called the "Peking Qazette" published with the Engliah ooat of srnu^ studded with
daily in the fbrm of a pamphlet, which contains genu, and evidently of antiquty^gave rise to a
from 60 to 70 pages. Nothing is printed in it good deal of speaalatioD. The JEo^iih treaty
without first being examined ^ a political or of Ti^i-tsba was also discovered, and an hu-
litentry eominiUee, and the official part em*, mense qoantitj of plnoder of all kinds made it
natesfrom the emperor's cabinet. Itnotioeaall difficult to decide what to taka awn*. The
pablio affairs^ and gives a sacoinct accoant of emperor had retired the day before, and all the
tlie principal events. It contains the petitiona ladies had disappeared, but thnr little Japanese
and memorials preeented to the emperor, to- dogs were miuiuig alraat in a distractM state. .
gather with his replies and his orders and in- In the treasury there was about $SI,000 hi
striiottons to the mandarins. Beoords of ja- gold and silver. The total value of the prop.
didal events conclude the official part, which erty carried off and de«ti'Oyed amounted to
the editors cannot chauge or alter in any re- seversl millions. Among the most curious dis-
nect, without Hubjeottng themsalveeto the pen- coveries made were a suit of magnificent ar-
uty of death. Examples of this punishment, mor, inlaid with gold, and the aelmet sor-
oocnrring from time to time, maintain among mounted with an enormous pearl ; a saloon
the pnhlio an almost religions respect for all furnished in oxaot imitation of the style of
that appears in the "Gazette." Tlie journal is Louis XV., deoorated with the portraile of the
retarded aa an expression of the emperor's ladies of the oourt of that monarch, and the
will, which every one obeys, and before which name of each lady inscribed at the bottom of
every one bows. — The environa are occupied the frame; and among the porcelain were some
with groves, private mansions, hamlets, and col- immense vasee whioh had passed more than a
tivatedfields,uior near which are trees, so that oentoryat the bottom of the sea, and to which
the eit; viewed from a distance appears as if marine vegetation had dung in auoh a manner
rituated ia a forest The pork of Yuen-ming- aa to produce the most ringolar ornaments.
juen, or " round and splendid gardens," eo Borne valuable books snd patera were secured
celebrated in the history of the foreign embas- for the Britosh mnnnnm, and the coat of armor
dee to Peking, lies about 8 m. K. W. from the was reserved for the emperor of the I^vuch. In
city, and is eirUmated t« contain 13 sq. m. The revei^fortheomelty with which some iWich
country becomes hilly in this direction, and sd- and Rngiiah prisoners had been massacred,
vantage haa been ti^en of the natural surface this palace was burned to the ground. — Though
in the arrangemMit of the different parts of the Peking ia r^^arded by the (Siineae as one of
ground, so that the whole presents every va- their most ancient cities, it was not made the
riety of hill and dale, woodlands and lawna, capital of the oonntry until the otmqoest bj
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
_ _ ^. _ . „, - - g of 8 MolMMBdail and 4 lay
ert»Mih«d Ilia eonrt tint at Qua spot, th«a nuoobon, to itii& the OidnMa and Haatohoo
called ffltuntieii Foo. He afterward temoT«d laiwii^es,w>thatuiterpretersooiiidbeprepat6d
it to Baag-cbaw. The native entperora who aadoMnmonioatioBB oanied onmoresatidUMto-
wwoeafled tbe MoBg(da held th^ oonit at rily ; the membov ta this college are ohaaged
Nankmg, nutil the 8d prinos of the Ulng deeraniaUf. TheiuterooaraeoftbeEnglialiwiQi
drnaatr traoabned tike Beat of govenuaeat to China, though it oommenoed later tbutUiat of
PekioR in 3,411, where it hu ever liam re- most m the otlier jnaritiine natione of Europe,
maiuad. Usder the Afonatja tii» aty was has been &r more important In its r«Balts.Th^
called Ehaif palik, ct titf of the khaa, «nd tm ooromerma] UaoMOtione with tiie Chinese be-
the Ohineae taua it ia uoaSj oalled Eing^-eae, came bo complicated toward the eloae of the
or ewital of the oonrt. It was at flnt enr- last oeotiuT, Uiat it was determined to smd an
nHwded by a angle wall ineroed by 9 gatea, embaaay to the court of Chioa to plaoe thur
whenoe It Ja aometinwe oalled the oity <x nine afiJure on a better footing. In iTsa Lord
gatea; bat rinoe than the S.saborbBlia'n been Uaoartnerwaa deepatohed with a largesoite,
enoloaad. The N. portion waataken pooaeoJon and preeents for the emperor, which it is sup-
of by the Mantohoos in 1U4 fin* bairaoka and poaed were looked npon aa Talnable tribute.
naioeDoea. The goremment pnrohaBed tit* Thoof^ the embaesy niled in its most inqior-
famldin^ fhnn the Ohineae and gave tJiem to Uat pointa, it nerertiielem prodooed aome
thttr <^ows; but neoeamty soon oUiged theee good eSbotik and Sir many ; ears the trade
TTum tcBB frugal and thrift tJ>§n the natiTes, went on wittiont interruption, fnrtlier di0-
to aell tiuBX and ecottent tiiemaelTea wUh oidtiea aridng between uie Ti'j'gii»T' and Ohi-
hmnbler abodes; oooseqaently « great part of neee,a seooni wnbas^y was aent mtder Ij&ri
the Tartar dty ia now tenantea by Ohineae. Amhent, aniving ■£ Peking in Ang. 1816.
In the latter half of the llib eentory the <nty llda ndanon waa sommarily ^amissed withoot
waa destroyed by an earthqaake, ana 400,000 an andienoe, beoanse the ambasBador would
psraonsareeud to have perished. The Fortor not perform iota*, or u>pear before his m^J*
roeae aent an embas^ ^ Ptklng In US17, bat vtj the d^ be arriTsa. A letter was autt
the emperor reftued to reodTe itiatd the am< from the emperor to the prince re^jeut, in
baaaadora were aent to Oaoton. Iltey were iin> wbieh among other things it was said: "I
miaooed there till 16S8, when they WM« pot to have sent tidne ambsssador baok to hisown
death. ABeemidraabassTWaBaeattromQoain ootmtry without punishing him for the high
1662, bnt prooeeded no farther tiian Ualaooa; crime that he has committed." The inter-
and a third deapatched ttom tbtt aame plaee in coarse of foreigners was for many years after
IQftT bad ofA a satisbotory resnlt. Jn IIM this in a very nnaatdsiaotory condition. On
another envoy waa sent, who arrived at Peking Jane 1^ 1868, Oonnt Putiatine, the Bossisa
ioHiay, 1787, and bad nis andienoe of leave in ambnaimdor, sigied a treaty in which the chief
July, reoeinng aome gifts hi ezotunge for the ptnnts conceded by the Oblnese were the right
80 oheeta of prenenta which he brought from of oonreqpondence npon an eooal footing be*
the kjiu <tf Portiwil- No more advantage re- tween the Bnawan minister of foreign affitiia
sohad from thia (£an friHU at^oftheprevioaa and the first minister of state at Pekmg; p^
embsMies. Another, and the ust that the Por- mission to s«id diphnnatic agents to that eUy
tngnMO a^i^/eaehed P^ing in 17fi(^ and end- upon specnal oooasions ; liberty of oironlation
ed mnoh the aame as the others. A Spanish t£rotighoat the empire for mJ8Bi<nuuies under
amj who came out in 1660 was Impnsooed, a system of passports : and the right to trade
snd only released thronj^ the intervention of at ports then open, and la addition at Bwatow,
the governor of Hacao. A Dntch embassy in at a port in Formosa, and another in Hainan.
16M reached PeUng, bat waa not snooeatflil ; On the 18th of the Bsme month the American
and a aeoood in IW was Seated with coo- treaty was ngned by Ur. Baed, in which the
tempt. The Bosriana have sent aeveral embaa- same privileges were accorded to the govem-
Bsa to PeUng^and from thor frontier tmng in ntant of the United States, and a olaose added
oattnetwWiCniina have oompelled the Ohineae conferring all privileges that might in future
to treat tbem as equals. Thur first recorded be grtmted to " the most favored nation." A
visit was in 1610, but it is donbtAtl whether it few days afterward the En^^ish and French
can be properly atyled on embaasy. In 16BS treatdes were aigaed, respective^ by Lord
theboondary line of the two em^ree was fixed Elgin and Boron Gros at Tien-tom. In due
by tresty, and the following year the ratifies- course the ratified copies of the American and
tion waa exehanged at Peki^. The next mio- Boasian treaties were exchanged at Peking ;
elm was sent by Peter the Great in 1719, and but a dispute arising between the ambassadors
the evident Importanoe of keeping on good of other powers and tiie Chine«e with rward
tttma with the Bnaaiana led the Onlnese to treat to Qie route by which they should proceed to
their envoys with mmsnal reqwot, and attend the oapital, Uiey were forced to retire. Early
to the buaness wUOh th^ came to aettla. In in Oot. I860, an English and French foroc up-
1727 another embassy soooeeded in placing the word of 86,000 strong, after destroying the
B between the two nations on a still sommer palace and devastating seTarol cities,
; and a misuou was established at qnietly encamped within the earthwork aboni
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
A mil* outride tin K. mil of F«kiiig. Th» the gronnd of «bi«h}i«TU declared gnStr of
emperor had escaped to an ancient palace be- hereej, are the foUowine ; 1, Adam was crwted
yood the great wall, and had ]«ft hia brother, mortal, bo that he would have died whether he
Prince Emig, who was anthoriied to treat aa had eliuied or not ; 2, Adam's ein iignred csHj
jtoupotentiaTT with the invadera. The prince himaelf, and not the hamAn raoe ; 8, new-bora
dioired great relnotance in complying with infanta are in the same condition in wldch
acme of Qie demands made by Lord Elgin and Adam waa befbre the foil ; 4, the whole hnman
Baron Groe, and only yielded when aasond race neither died in conaeqnenoe of Adani'i
titat Peking wonld be ntterly destroyed in death or trangreBdon, nor rises from tlie dead
case of his reftisal. One of the dty Rates was in conaeqaenoa of OhriBt'a raaurreolion ; 6, ia-
idaced in the hands of the Trench and another fonts obtain eternal life, thon^ ttiey be not
In those of the English ; and every thing waa bfutlted ; 6, the law is as good & meana of
done tiiat appeared likely to hnmble the mtn- salvation aa the goi^el ; 7, there were boom
later and mortify the pride of the Ohineee men, eren before the ^:^«aranoe of Ghriat,
emperor. On Oct. 34, the day appointed by who did not commit cdn. These 7 propotitionB
Lord £1^ for ezohanging the ratification! of (others count only 6, leaving ont the &th, w
the treaty of Tien-tain, and signing the oon- Jotning it to one of the other propodticmi)
vention of Peking, the streets leading to the were and still are regarded as the cardinal
inxthibited dty were occupied and the aodienoe points of the Pelagian eystem, althongli it is
nail within ita limits where the ceremony took difficult to decide how &r Felagins aiooorded
place muTonnded by British troops. Lord EI- with ail of them, sinoe he expressed himaelf
pa passed through the streets with a nnmer- very canljoiuly. In consequence of the con-
vm escort, and entered the andienoe hall with demnaticHi of Oodesdna, PelasiaB himself wm
hie suite, bowing coldly to Prince Knng, who aoon attacked tn Palestine, wh«« Jerome be-
approached with the nsoal salutation of re- oame one of his most zealous i^qxHtrnta.
nkeotfhl greeting, and appropriating to himself Jerome, ooi\joinUy with Orosias, a distrnde ot
the most honoraUe seat, pladng Sir Hope Angostine, aocuaed Felaf^na at a moa baU
Grant, the commander-in-ohief, in a chair on at Jerusalem in 4US, under John, biahop of
his left. On the fbllowing day the same oere- that oitr. John, however, <Hd not pronouwe
monies were perfbrmed between the IVench his condemnation, hot referred the whole n«t-
and Ohineae plenipotentiariee. The substance ter to the see of Borne, then oconmed by Inno-
of the treaty waa as fbQowfi : 1, the emperor cent L At another synod of 16 biahopa, held
of Ohina expressed regret at (he misundenAaad- in the same year at Diospolia, under Eulogins
ing oooaaioned by the affair at the Takn forts ; of Onssrea, Pelag^us was acquitted. The
3, the right of ui6 queen of Great Britain to chorches of Africa, on the other hand, reiter-
keep a resident minister at Peking was ao- ated their reijeotlon of the system in a ^nod
knowledged ; 8, £S,100,000 was to be paid by of 69 bishops held at Carthage, aad in a synod
the Ohineee government as indemnity; 4, Tien- of 61 Nun^an biahops at Mileum, both held
tsin waa opened to trade ; S, the interdict upon in 416. Both ^noda urged Iimooait to ivo-
the emigration of Chinese to the British colo- nounce on this aaltject, aa did elag, in » private
nies was removed ; 6, a portion of the mdn- letter, Augnstine, who now entered the arana
land opposite Hong Eong, called Oowloon, aa the most powwftd oppwient of Pelagianiim.
was ceded to the British ; 7, the fanmediate The reply <« Innocent waa to tlu sattafoetka
operation of the treaty and convention waa of the Amoan biahops, and Pela^us deemed it
provided fbr. The Frencb also received a neceesary to addreea to him an ezplanatwy
large indemnity, and Tien-tsin was to be oo- apology of his syatem, whioh, however, did not
cnpied by the allies tiU their claims were sat- reach Rome nntil after the death of Innocent.
isfied. Though this was the first formal em- His saooeasor, Zorimns, was iadnoed by the con-
bassy sent by the French to Peking, they have fbagion of foith that Oceleatins, who was now
by their misaionariea made the rest of the in Bome, had drawn np, and also by the letter*
world better aoqnunted with Ofaina, and given and protestations of Pelagina, to declare the
the Chinese more knowledge of western ooon- two accused eonnd in faith, and m^natly perse-
triee, than all other Christian nations together, onted by their adversaries. The AMcan biah-
PELAOnjS, the founder of a relirioos ays- i^s, 914 in number, met again in a synod at
tern in the 5th century. Uttle is knows of <hi1hage, and stood by their farmer ^dsioa ;
his life. He was a British monk named Hor- and Augnstiue appealed to the emperor Hono-
gan (signifying sea-bom), of which Pelagios is a rins (418), who issued a rescript to the prefbct,
transl^on, and by the uonrsioiia of barbariana ordering the immediate snppresnon of uie new
waa driven ftom his native land. Ha went first heresy. Another council at Carthage, which
toBome(409),whereheniadetheaoqualntanee waa attended bydelegates from all the prov-
of OcaleBtins, and the two afterward (llOwent inoee of Africa and even from Bp^ speciSed
to Carthage. Pela^ue soon Idt Africa tbr Pal- and solemnly condemned as hwetical 9 doo-
esfine, bnt Ocelesthis, who endeavored to be re- trinee of PefagiuB. BimUar dedarataona were
cdved among the preabyters of Carthage, waa issued by the bishops Theodotos of Antioch
accused of heresy before a tynoi held at that and PrayUns of JeroBalem ; and Zosimns now
place In 412 uidoondeoined. Thedootrinea on also lost confidence in the new teacher^ and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FSLABGOinUK PELEW ISLANDS 98
pnblished Ub Spi»tola Thietoria, In whkih &m nee ; and there la reuon to Bmpect that tiie
Pelagtaa doctrine is condemned. AU tlie biab- aime element entered Urgdf into the oom-
ope of the iraatem chorohes were called upon poritlon of the I«tin people. At one time the
to snbacribe to this efdstle; ntany Tielded, bnt popnlotdon of Etniria waa also Felu^an to a
Julian, bishop of EolaninQ in Apulia, the most veiT- ^eat exlMit At the beginning of an-
pft«d of all Pelagian tbeologtans, undertook thentio history the Felasgians of Asia irere tl
the defence of Ihe system, th<^(^iFithontauo- declining race, holding only a tbw scattered
oess. He had to aaerifloe lua office, and to posts, " the last atron^b<ddB,'' says Bawlinemi,
raptdr with Feladna and Omlestins to Asia, ''of apeoplefbroedeTerywheretoyieldtoecm-
where somemorefrnitlesaeffbrtaweremade to qnenav. The natnnl exidanation of the his-
gun influential Ushqia, as Theodore of ICop- torical pheoMmena is that (in Pelas^ were the
snestia and Keetorina of Constantinople, over ori{dnal population of w«item A^ and that
to their cause. little is known of the rarther tli^ emlgrationa across the eea into Enrope
history of Pelagjos, his two frienda, and their were ooouioned by the preasnre upon them
doctrinea, except that the last were again con- of immlgranta from the east, Jl>diuia, Phry-
denmedasheretioall^tJiemoimMnioaloonnoil gians, and Oarians, who forced them wMt-
of Epheena in 481. The fiidlowers of Felagins ward, and so canaed their oooapation of Oreeoe
never formed a sect properly so called ; bnt and Italy." The Pelasgisna of Enrope were
Pela^anism, as a theolc^cu eystem, though celebrated for th^f^tderings, to which they
condemned, retained its adrocates. The beet were qiparentJy omnpelled by the enoroacb-
works on the history of Pela^ianlsm ue : "Wig- menta of strmiger races who drove them from
, Vertuft eintr frof/matuehm DanUlbtng coonby to country. TtuAi leading tdiaraoter-
de» Atiyiu&iiani»am* und PeloffianUnuu ^ istJos seem to iiaye been peaoeMhatttts, aori-
Tols., Berlm, ISBb-'S ; English translation by enltnral pnranits, a love of navigation, and a
Prof Emenon, New York, 1840) ; Jacobi, Dit nataral taste for art They were skilled i
LAredei .PutagMM (Leipsio, 1648). fortifloatlon, and in every land which they
PELARGONIUM. SeoGEKAinuii. onoe hihabited their preeraoe can still be
PELABGIAN8 (Or. HtXaoyot), an andemt traced by nmnerons works of defence, built
people, who in pre-historic timea oocnj^ed the of immense polygonal blocks <^ stone fitted to-
Orecian peninsula, the islands and ooasta of gether withont mortar or oemeait, and of studi
the .^Egffian, and portions of Asia Minor and sobatantial strength that they have outlasted
Italy. Onr knowledge about them is very the etmotares of saooeeding ages and raoea.
vague and contradictory. The term is some- These works are commonly known as Qyclo-
timea used in a broad sense to include the pean, a name given to them for thedr grandeur
great ethnological fiunily who were the ear- and antiqnity. The ultimate &te of the Pe-
fieat inhal^«nts of Greece and Italy, and some- laagians b wrapped in mysteir. They diasp-
timea in a narrower sense to mean only a ringle peued a few centnriea before Christ, prol^y
tribe or nation of that &ndly. The moot an- absorbed by other races more or leae akin to
dent writers give the name a wide rather than them. Li Greece proper they minted with
a narrow meaning. Homer, who was the first the Hellenes, and in Asia Minor with the
to mention them, connects them at onoe with Oarians, the Lydians, and the Phrygians ;
Crete, Dodona, and Thessaly. jEschylna makes while in Italy they were either reduced to the
Pdasgns, the king from whom the race de- condition of ser& or united with thetr eon-
rived its name, a mler over the whole of querors to form a new people, the Latins.
Greece; while Herodotus says that Greece "Their whole character," aan Bawllnson,
was called Pelasda, and includes tmdcr the " was plastic and ylddlng, not firm n(«(bnna»
common name of Felasgians the Athenians, tlve ; and their fide was to ftunish a mbstra-
the Arcadians, the lonians of Asia Minor, the turn upon which stronger nationalities ectab-
Lemniwta, the Samothraclans, and the Ores. lished and devdoped themaelves."
tottians. On the other hand, Thucydides, PELKV ISLAcTDS, a chidn of idands in the
whose authority is of the hi^est weight, IT. Fadflo ooesn, forming part and rituated at
states that the Pelas^ans were only the most the "W. exbemity of the Oaroline archipelago,
numerous t^ the many kindred races which between laLT* and 8° 80' N. and long. 184° and
inhabited Greece. They came from the East 189' E. The group consists of about 30 prin-
at a very early period, passing over from Asia dpal islands, nearly Mtdrded by a coral ree^
Manor, where uey bad built the two dtiea and covers an extent of about 190 by SO mi.
which t>ore the name of Magneda, to the iai- Babelthonap, the largest of the iilanda, la about
aods and the mainland of Greece, and estab- 38 m. longand 14broad,aod oontduamonu-
Ija^'ig themselves principally in Thessaly, Ept- tdn n> high that the vrhiAa group m^ be aeoa
ms,anjlPeloponnesns. The Aroa^Ans, lonians, fitHn its summit. 'Whanaeen'
n aeen ftarn the aea the
and Argiveeseemto have been Ftlmgian raoea. islands qipear nined and moantdnons; bnt
Atdca wn Pela^ at a very remote period, the edl is ridi and totilB, and Ow wbde an
and the earUeet population of Uaoedonla watwed by several broou and p<mda. They
may hare been of the same stock. In Italy are well wooded, and produce breadfruit, oo-
tbfl sonthem nationa, snoh as the Penoetiana, coannta, bananas, sugar oane, yama, lunona,
(Eaotrians, and Japy^ana were of Pdasgio and oranges, beside numerous other tropical
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
M FEUQAN
fimita and TcgsteUn. Horned cattle, jigt, tnost rtmndmdr in trtq^od n^aaa, freqant-
eoata, aad fbwt are nimMtna; and tnrtM*, ing botii the eea ooaftand luteriw lake* and
Sab, and ihell flah aboutd oa flw ooaata. The riTsre ; they are veiy ToracdoQi, fteding en-
InbabitantB are of the ICaUr raoa. They p^ tirelj on flshea, and the ponoh ta eapaclou
great attenliim ta tbe comTation of tnefr ttoongb to hold fish nffldent for the dinner of
ground, and ohow oonrideraUe tngumitj In half a doEen men ; they are good swimmen,
maUng their canoea, aome of vhkh can earrj diven^ and fliers, uid can Mrda eanlf ontreet.
80 men. The men go voimlj nafced, and the In Ae morning and arening thej laare their
▼omen afanoet eo.— The Pelev idanda are aaid roostang plaoea in flooka of abont a doaen, and
to hare been diaeovered by the Spaniards in fiytothdrflahinggronnda; they fl^ until Mt-
1645, and th^ vera afterward seen sereral imed, awaOowing their pr^ on Qm apot, and
timaa by aibipB bomid to China by &e E. paa- retiring with a ful crop to some aotitary plaoe
awe; but they were flrttbronght to the notice todiRWtit; Oiey often dose on the water dnr-
oTthe eiriUzed W(v]d ^Vthe Iom of the Brit- ing t£e progreas of digeetlon. They Sj eoine-
iah ship Aat«tope.Oq)t^ Wilson, In 1768. The times elevated, and at othwa skim near the nr-
natires teeated the oraw of the wrecked fMg &ce, and, balaiuHng themselves when tliey see
with tiie greatest kindness. O^t. Wilson took a flab, fall headltmg upon it with the apparent
the son <^the ohief to England, where he was risk of breaking their necks. — The white peli-
plaoed at sohocd and displayed oonnderabla can (P. onocmtalm, Linn.), the onocntaha of
aptitnde for dvHiEed onstwns and an ezoellent Fliny but not of the Qreeks, is between S and
^spoBition;bQtbediedofama]lpoz,attheage 6 feet long, and 13 to 18 in expanse of win^;
of SO, the following year. Sareral oHier nar- tiie raiend odor is white, with roay tinges,
ratires of voy^eis give on equally &T<waUe and the primaries are black ; the npper mandi-
aooonnt of the islaodere ; but it w<rald appear ble ie bltdih with red and yellow tmta, and the
tiiat a mors extended aoqnaintBnce with the hook on the end is bright red ; the poach is
white man has made them tnadiMvaii The yellow. It la fonnd in 8. E. Europe, Asia, snd
Kren, whalw, when pasring the 6. island in AfHoa, sometimes coming aa fiw w. as 0«r-
18S8, waa boarded by 100 men who speared many, but not to Great Britain. The nest is
to be Mendly, bat when iqtportmd^ offered sen^mly mode in a mde manner on inaooeEO-
attaokedtheorew, and were only repnlsed after ble rocks, near fresh or salt water, and the ^gs
a desperate fight, in which most of the ship's are!) to4; it bnitds Bometiiiies on treea r«noie
company, 87 in number, were wonnded and 2 from water; t^e yonng are fed by the regnr^
offleerakiUed. Since then several T«asels hare tated food of tite parents: this operation is
hadreiT narrow eaoapea tma btong ont off rendered easier by presBing the ponoh and lower
while viritins the lalmda msadible sKainst the breast, and the contrast
pelican; a genua of lar^ web-footed of the red iiook of the bill a^tdnst the white
birds (fMlasnnut, Linn.). The bill is very l<mg, of the breast probably gave rta^ to the poetic
nearly straight, and mnehdepreaaed; the npper idea of the ancients that the female pelican
man^ble has an elevated ridge, beooming flat nonriahed her yomw with her blood. It ia a
toward the end, the tip bdng strong, hoc«ed, very long-lived bird; in esptivity it will eat
andooote; the lower nundilue is wider ^Qie rats and email mammals as well aafieh; Itsfledi
base than the npper, and its branohea are unit- wasforluddento theJews,andfew wonldcare
ed only at the t^ ; the nostrils are scarcely to eat it, as it is voy rau, flshy, and oily ; it
peioeptible, in the lateral (pwm at the base ; is said to have been tamed and empl^ed in
tliewingsaremoderate, the 9dqnill the longest, fishing, like the cormorant among the Chinese,
and tJie aeomdariea neariy aa long as the pri- Its poach has been need to make caps and bon-
mariee; the tail is broad, short, and rounded; nets and tobacco baas ; the fitamese make of it
tiie tarri short and stout, covered with retioa- strii^ for mosioal instnanents, and the Nile
lated acalee ; all fonr of the toes on the same and other boatmen use it with the lower jaw
plane, the hind one tmned more or less inward, attached for baling water from their canoes;
and all oonnected by broad webs, the middle it will hold in the living bird 10 to IS quarts
toe the longest. The head ia moderate and of water, andhenoe the^licanisoaQed''rTvw
created, the neck long and slender, and the feet oamel" by the Egyptians. A variety or ^wciea
toward the middle of the body ; under the (P. eritpvt, Bm^.) in 6. E. Enrope ia some-
lower Jaw, and extending to the throat is a what larger, of a more grayish while, with
loose, naked membranoua ponch o^>Bble of oorled feathers on the b^ and ridee of the
r It distention, which is naedaa aaooop-net head;theeeoolleotinflookB,aiideztendinglheir
fish; aronnd the eyes and base of the hill lineintheformof aoreeoent^byfl^>ldngtheir
are bare qtaoea. The skeleton is remarkable wings and pinning into the water, drive a
for the greatextent of itsair cavitiee, the bmiea ahodof fish mto a small and shallow naoe, and
w«l|^iing leas than 9 lbs.; ftom these the air there speedily obtain a full supply. — TheAmet^
penetratea into the areolar tissue under the ioan white or rough-billed pelican (P. tmAf-
light; the (eeophwoi is very cspacious and &e is about 6 feet long, with an ^ar extent o
stomadk small. The apedesare not nomerone, betweoi 8 and 9 foet, and a wei^t of IT or
bnt are found in moot parts of the world, and IS lbs. It much resembles the P. onoentdhm.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEUOAN 96
bdng of a g— 1 wUte eidor, ttegad iritfa doife obartMt bmnrn: back, vinga, and tdl
TOMOW in tbebnMlingaeaaon; theprimariM gr^idi adi, nui^piMa vitli dns)^, the lut
are Ufldc, and the iria wldte; the uad and with ttte abafta white at th« base and blaok at
Bodt aM eorerad with ilamder, aanll, and tha end; primarias brownish black; below
downy feathwa, elongated into a eraat on the dazk brownish ash, with narrow lonntixUnal
m^sidraBningdownthebaokof theneek; white lines on the sides; iris white; iwa and
on the body gaoerallr tha fbsthen are narrow feet Uack. The female is like tbe male, bat
and Icmg; Ute erest i» rdlow, the eyea v«r7 Uie feathers of the head are more rigid; tite
bri^it, aol in qniiiK the lega, £Mt bill, nd young are dosky brown. It ia found from
poooh are orange red, fkding ta yellowish in North Oarobiia to Texas, and on the ooaat <d
theantnmn. TheTnUiaUinebeslong^andtha OaMania; it is a oonstaitt resident in Florida,
'-' 'heztandaStnobea on ttta and ia now ran N. of St. AngtHdne; it goat
lua length a:
gTincuead
. - „s are k»g, narrow, and rounded, tai It ia not seen on fredt water bejond the i^^
tite primariea mnoh eured; the tail ooulsta itfUietide, like the white pclioan. Tltefli^t,
ofMfeatiiers; tbe homy and flbrona ridge (oi thon^ i^arentlr heaTy, te well eostained,
tha iqiper mandible (rftlienialeBincreaaes with pertOTmedbj alternate easy flwpings and sail-
age, and is used as a means of defenoe in their ings, and in long nndolating Imes; in oafan
iMttles during the love season ; the f^malea are weather they pmorm intricate aerial eroln*
rather mailer tlmn the males. Abnndant dnr- tions at a great height ; during flight Ae head
ingUie winter in Elorlda, it is found in sommer isdrawn between tbe shonlders and tbefeet
in ttie interior of theftir oomdrieaas&raalat. extended. The; are alwayH awake dnring the
81° N. ; it doe* not occur on Hie ooaat of the ooming in of the tide, which is the favorable
middla and northwn states, as the eonrse of time for flahing; they are nerer seen t&r from
migration is along the great inland rrrera. above when a storm ia threatening, and their
They- do not dire for their prey ^therfhna the appeara&oe at sea is regarded by aailors aa
wing or the anrboe of the water, bnt thmst a nre «iga ot ideasant weather. Tliey pro-
the head Tinder as &r as the neok will allow, core di£ fbod on the viag, plnngtng from
fbeding moatly in shallow places, as they swim a hetf^t of 16 to 9S feet, witn tiie lower maiK
■Icmg against wind and anrrent with ihe dible wide cqwn and the pouch exteaided,saoop-
wLoes partially extended andUie npperman- log npiheiuhaad awaUowing them at once;
diUe only of Uie IhU ^tpearing above the anr- their plnnge is very ringolsr, snd seems to the
hoe; tbeyvesometlnHa Been uoompany with spectator oalonlatMd to break the neok; giving
the Imnra speciea, next described; ooeaalink- no indication of b^g about tophmge, (~ "~
ally they drive fish to shallows, where they ing birds nsnally do, they fall soddenly
speciea, next described; oceaalink- no indication of b^g about to phmge, aa dir-
. rive fish to shallows, where they ing birds nsnally do, they fall soddenly aa if
easily sooop tbon up with the poach. As from qioplexy, sbiUng Ute water with great
they etKod npon the sand bars, ther have a force and q)lashing it MMat so that it is ii
aedate and grave look, and a very indiorooB rible to detenodne whether the whole bony m
habit of gaping or opening their long mandi- immersed or not. They do not owry fish or
Ues ; they are rathw stapid, and not very sby ; water to their yonng in the ponoh, as has been
inactive dnring most of the day, they fish in generally believed, and, aeeccding to Aadnban,
early morning and evening; the gah ia very this part is always oontnnted dnring fli^L It
awkward; th<7U« said to !» very teoadons isnot nncommon tosee theaeUrdswlth ahole
ofltCs. They destroy a great number of email thfonf^ the pouch aaosed by the spine of a
llah; several hundred minnows have been taken iah, mid tfadr throats are oooaaionally redden-
fhnn the stomach and (saophagus of a single ed by the blood wbldi has flowed firom such a
individnal ; when ^proa^ed after a fUl meal wound. They are fond of fidlowingporoolBea,
they AsgOTge tb^ food UJn the vnUnrea ; tite picking up their share of the terrJled nah on
fle^ is rank and fishy, and nnflt for food. The which these cetaceans feed ; and in thur torn
see ia expanded by uie opening of the MD, ttid they involuntarily provide fbr the black-headed
They breed to the tea conntdea, gall (larvM atrisUia, Lion.), which watchea
bnt not generally in the sonth like the next tiielr plunges, and as they emerge alights on
speoies ; they are foond in the Booky monn- their head or bUl, seizing any small fry which
tains and in Oalifomia. — The brown pelican may protmde beyond tbe bill or ponoh; the
(P. fateut, Tjnn. ; genua onoerotdbu, wc^ler) peliouu do not seem to notioe the thefts or
cUffera from Hm last species in habits, die, and diunor of the gnlis, and make no attempts to
colora-,itiaaamallw bird, beingonlyabotit66 dislodge or drive them away ; this ia certainly
inohea lonx, with an extent of wings of 7 feet a very onrions instanoe of animal instinct and
andawelghtofTorglbe. Thebillisl8i-inab- Aratemisation. They are awkward walkers,
ea long, grayish wiiite, tinged with dnsky and but bnoyant ewimmeta; when woonded they
with spots trfoarmine ; there ia no ridge on the will bite severely; they fbed on flsh generally
upper mandible; the orbital space is bine, the 9 or 8 inehea long, rardy taking one as long as
eroBt light obestnut red, and the tdl baa only tha Inll ; they are powerful \ArSA, bnt very sen-
SS feathers. The head and sides of the neck tittve to cold; the fleeh is tough and vnnt fbr
are white; the hair-like feathers of the forehead fbod, and the eggs are not muoh better; the
yellow; theneck bdiind and in front below seuaaa of sight and hearing are very acnte;
alwajs kotip in flodu of from 90 to 60, amd be- of tho doled Biaha, an Arab tribe who i
j^ to pair ij tbe nuddle of April; um nert Is refbge in one ^ tiie npttdou o&T«aii8 io wbioii
nutde of sticlm, lined with lesres and graasea^ their oonntiT aboimda. Into Umbo fiutneaata
oeata are bniltin the same tzee, and the trees loabilitr of an tatmj to penetnUe th«m, tl>«
ore often neat together; th^ breed in oom- tribes had began to oonaider Utemselves inrm-
panf with the egrets, barons, and qMonbiUs, dble. To sU summonses to Borroider tlw;
and on islands frequented also bj white itnses reflued to Usten, and even prerented the ap-
and frigate peUoans: if not distorbed ther dm proaoh (tf messengers by the discharEe of fin-
t3i6 same breeding plaoee Tear after jear. The anna, altbon^ aware that death wonld be the
egga, 8 in nomber, Si hjH iuehee, are tiaek' eonseqaenoe <rf th«T onwillingDesB to complj
shelled and roo^ white, more or lees IJnged with the terms ofiered. After S8 hours i^eot
with blood. The yonng are at first fed by re- in frnitlesa nesotiBtioim, P61isuer applied bntn-
gnrgitatioa of the food of the parents, and bo ing fagota to me month of the cave, and snfio-
abnndantly that the refeio fills the ur with t^e oMed nearly 600 of the Arabs. The transae-
most diagiiBtiug odor ; they grow &st, and are tkm exrated great horror, as well in France ai
veryfat; they are highly pmed as food by the in other conntrieB. Hsrsbal Sonlt, then mini»-
Indians and n^roes, and form a lame ioueht ter c^ war, condemned it formally, bat Maralial
for many a Toltnre. Bngeand declared Uiat bis subordinate had aot-
p£LID£S. See Aobtllis. ed in accordance with his orders, and jostiBed
FELIGMI, an ancient people Oi central Italy, the operation as " a necesn^ of war." In lUI
of Sabine origin, who dwelt between tike Uar* F^Iisaier became brigadier-general, and in 18G1
rotdni, Hie Marsi, Banmium, and the PruUani general of division. He remained in Algeria
They were renowned as warliis, like the Hard nutUJan. 186C, when be was suddenly ordwed
reputed as magicians, and long warred against to the Orimea as second in command to Gen.
the B(»nsns, bat tog^ihw with their nei^bors Oanrobert ; and when on Uay 19 Oanrobert re-
ccmdnded a peace with the republlo about the signed he was ^pointed in his place, which he
end of the 4th oentury B. 0. They played a retained till the close of the war. Lnmedlatelj
{vino^al part In Hm social war, one of thdr afier the fall of Sebastopol P^liseier was created
ohief towns, Corflnium, near the Aternua, bfing marshal of France and duke of Ualako^ from
selected by the allies as the future capital <tf the oaptnred Russian fortification of that name,
Italy, and therefore somamed Italioa. They and was voted by the le^slative body a ponoon
were finally enbdued in 89 B. 0., by 0. Pom- of 100,000 france. He replaced Oonnt Fereigny
peios etrabo, Uie Mber of Fompey the Great as mmister to England In April, 1668, but vas
a mountain range of Tbeasaly.eztwding along to take oonunand of tlM anny of obaorvatioD,
the ooast of Uagneria, and forming the prom- the head-quarters of wMoh waa at Nancj. He
ontorics of Sepks and .£antdnni. On uie N. haa been made a member of the jnivy oomicil,
it is oonneoted by a low ridge with Ut. Ossa. avice-preudentof the senate, and in July, 1669,
On its sommit there waa a t«mp1e of Ju^tcr waa ^qxrinted grand chancellor of the le^on
Aotceos, and near this waa fobled to be the of honor. Quetti Victoria has also conferred
oave of the centaur Ohiton. Its magnificent nptm him tlie honorvy grand cross of the or-
foreets, for which it is still distingui^ed, for- dor (tf the bath.
nished the limber for the ship Argo, (md the FELLEBIN, Joseph, s Ft«ncb antiqaai^,
shaft of the celebrated spear of Aobillea. In bom in Uarly le Boi in 1664, died in Fans m
their war with the gods, the gianta are atdd to 1769. He hdd a aubordinate office in the navy
have attempted to scale heaven by piling Pe- department, and devoted the leisore bonis of
lion and Ossa on Olympus, or Ossa and Olym- his long life to the collection of medals. He
pas on Felion. The name I^essfaibi is now MoumnUted 82,600 q>ecimens, which he finaUy
SfipJJ«dtotlieN.'W. summit of Pelion. sold to Louis XYI. for 800,000 francs. Hepre-
PSLISSIER, AiunLE Jus jAmma, duke Tioosly had them engraved and pablJehed under
of UalakoH; a marshal of France, bom at Ua- the title ot SmmU de midaiiiet tUt roit, ptit-
rMnme, near Ronen, Nov. 6, lYO*. He studied plet et vOlti (10 toIb. 4to., Paris, lY6«-7%
at the military schools of La Fldche and St. witli ex^anations and oritdcal observations.
Oyr, and beoime a sub-lieutenant of artilla? PELLEW, EnwABD. See Ezkouvh.
two dm before the retom of Nqtoleon from FEUJOO, Siltio, an Italian poet and pa-
Elba. He served in Spain in 1838, beoame a triot, bom in Salnzso, Piedmont, m 1760, died
oaptun in ISas, served hi Greece, and in 1680 at the viUa of Uonoag^eri near Toiin, Jan. 1,
took part in the expedition against Algeria. In 1664. Hia father, who owned a mlk manuhfr
1683 h9 returned to France m ill health, bnt tory at Pignerol, waa a man of literary taste,
in 1889 be went back to Algeria asaUen- Abont 17M the fhmily removed to Tunn, and
tenant-ccdonel, and remaned uwe man than ^vio studied nnder a priest until he aocom-
10 years. In July, 1848, he waa made otdonel, Muiod bis dster, on her marriage, to Lyons;
and oommanded the left wing of the am^ in There be remuned several years, gaining an
the battle of laly. Daring the insurrection of intimate knowledge of the French Iwigoage and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
mUOO FELOPIDAB 97
Utorstore, and & taste for I^euoh nanitan, tier, and spent the rest of hia life at Turin, set-
Sb native land vas almoet forgotten, when tha lug as Beoretary to the marqais of Barolo. In
readingofUgoFosoolo'spoenii/MpoMri, whioh 18S1 he published an acoonnt of his 10 years'
speared in 1607, exeroised a great innoence snffering, in a work entitled Le mU prigKtU
over his atndies and feelings: and in 1810 he ("II7 Prisons")- This volume, which at onoe
retornad to Italf, takiox op his resideooe in became widelj celebrated on aocoimt of die
Jfilan, wh«« his ikther had obt^ed a ntQ»> intense interest of the story, and the rirople
tion ditder the goTemment. There he became pathoe and nnaffected piety pervading its
a teacdier of French in the eoUtf/ic dtf/K cr/ont pages, has been translated into ]^(^iBh, 8 timea
mJlMarJ, and spent his leianre honra m aoqnir- into Bpaiuah,fi times into German, and 14 timea
ing the Bngliata and Qerman langoa^ and In into Frenoh. After his release ha spent bia
poetioid stodies. Fosoolo ukd Monti, then at life ohieflj in litwary pmvaits. HJs 'MVorka"
IClan, wahwmed him wumlj ; and soon after- were pnldiBhed in Fadoa in i toIb, (1881) ; and
ward entering the familj of Oomit Lni^ Forro at Torin, nnder the title of " Three New Trtr
I^mbertcBigM as tntor, he became acquainted gedle&" u>peared In 18S3 a Tt^nnie oontain-
with many distingoished persona, among whoa ing im Giamvnda da Mmdritio, LnmUro da
wne Ume. da Stafil, Sohlegel, Byron, Hob- I}ertotia,9tiA.SndiacU. The following year be
honae, Davy, and Brougham. His first proda<^ pnbliahel the Iragedy of Tantmato Soro. In
tion was the tragedy of LaodamUi, It was fed- 1887 a eolleotion of his " biedited Vorlcs" t^
lowed by that of Pnmeeiea da Bimini, foimded peared in 2 vols. One of his laat prodnotiooa
npoa a piaHge ia Dante's Ii^amo. This Im- was a religioos treatise in prose, entitled " The
mediatdy axdted oonsideraUe aensation, was Dntiesof San," Hielife was written by Ohiala
acted in the principal theatres of Italy, and in 1863.
^o PelUoo a high rank as a dramado poet. PKLOFIDAS, a Theban general and ststea-
His next work was a traoalalion of Bynm's man, killed at the battle of Oynoeeephabe, in
,.»r_. II. T H«,™ __.,, ,1. . ^ , . "■• - B_ o_ He was the son of
of noble descent, and inher-
d great posseeeions, of which he made a lib-
Oanu^noia eral use. la a battle in wMob he woe ia im-
first appeared. Sismondi, Romagnon, Giojs, minent danger of losing his life, he was saved
and wier prwninent men of letters oontribnted by Epaminondas at great risk ; and from tUs
to its ootmnns. On aoconnt of its liberal ten- time a ftiendahip began between these two
denidea ttwaa early sat|]6cted to a rigid censor- patriots, which lasted ontil the death of Pd<n>-
ahip by the Analrian anthoritiee, and in 1820 it idas. His wealth and his devotion to public
waa enJorelysoppreasad. Ahoat this time PfJ- a&irs made Pelopidas a prominent member of
lico ftwean to have beoome a member of the ^e popular party, so tht^ upon the seizare of
reTolononary sooie^ of the carbonari. The the Oaomea oy the Spartan general Phcsbldaa
insniTQctJons which broke out both in Naples in 882 B. 0., he with 800 others went into
and Redmont m>w gave the Aostriaoa a pre- rolnntory esile at Athens. There he remained
text for severe proceedings in the ease of sua- 8 years, seeking an opportunity of overthrow-
peeted iadividaals, and on Oct 18, 18S0, Pel- ing the Bpartan rule in Thebes; and there
lico was arrested. He waa first oonflned in the finally was ivqjected that enterpriae which, ao-
^isoa of Santa Ifargherita at KGlan, and thence cording to Plutaroh, waa called by the Greeks
was removed to a state prison on the island of " dster to that of Thnt^ybnlns," and whioh re-
" '^ " ■ " ' "■■ ' ' " ■ ' ■ ■ - -Be. Via " ■ ■
^-— . ^--^Jall,pnt
He waa oondemned to death, hot by an impe- philo-Laconlan polemarohs, slew Leontlades,
San IGehele near Venloe, called " the Leads." stored demooraoy ta Thebea. with 6 others he
Here he remained imtU his trial in Feb. 189S, entered Hut dty at nightfall, pat to death the
rial FMoipt the sentence was commnted Ut 15 the leader of the Spartan party, with his own
yeora <tf severe imprisomnent (careen dvro}, hand, and guned poseeeaion of the citadel by
In April, 1833, he was token to the prison Hie garrison's oE^ttul^Jng and consenting to
of Spielberg near Bmim in Uoravia, wlure, withdraw. From that tdme until his dea£ he
throng the kindness of his gaoler, he was was every year elected one of the Btsotarchs^
treated with comparative indnlgenoe fbr abont and during tlie following year be bore a oon-
18 montiis, beuig allowed to read the Bible, qilouons part in the war against the lAoedffi-
Homw in Qreek, and eeveral favorite Italum, monians. In 876, while rebiming from an at-
Qermau, and Sngliah antbora. Bat the goider tempt to aurpriae Orobomenns, he feU in at
was reoioved, and from tliis tame his treatment Tegyra with a Spartan force soperior to his in
during the remaining yeara of his Imprison- nnmbwa. Witea the meaaenger oommnnieated
mant was exceedingly rigorone. "Thoaeoon- the news, si^^g: "'We havie fUlen into the
demned to «irwn dWTff," says he, "weobliged midst of enemies," Feloi^daB answered: "Why
r, to wear el
a I>oards,an<_ . , _. „ „. ..„ „^ _,
In this manner Fellioo dragged oa a miserabia vlotorioos. At Lenotra in 871 he ooOperated
life, until, when nearly at ^e point of death, wiOt Epamlnondaa in inaplring reeolulioa into
he was freed by an imperial order on Ang. 1, his timid countrymen, and In the Mvpoaol of
1680. He waa taken to the Piednumteae fron- ''°"p'^'"e an Immediate battle. In the ea-
VOL. xm. — 7
''sayshe, "weobliged midst of en«amiee,"F6loiddaB answered: "Why
I OS their feet, to sleep so, more than they into the nddat of na )" oimI
on -bare boards^d to eat the poorest food." in the battle wbkh followed waa eompletely
to labor, to wear ch^na os their feet, U
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
98 PIXOFIDAS PELOPONNESUS
gagement he commaaded the sacred band, promiiietit men Tbebea ererprodnoed; a do-
which led the charge against the enemy's right voted patriot, a disinterefited oiend, and bo tb-
iring, and by defeatmir it decided the fate of aorbed in hla devotion to the pnblio good, Uut
the a&j. .dJterward ne seconded Epaminon- he n^ected all core of his private fortnne,
das in peranading their oolleagDea in the armr and to the remonstroncea of hia fiiends voald
to maroh into the Spartan territory, althoogh reply that money was certainly nsefiil to eodt
by BO doing they would exceed their tenns of aa were lame and blind. Hih life was writtoi
oiBce, an offence which aocording to law was by Flntarch, bnt the order of events given hj
pnnianahle with death ; yet on their retom they mm differs somewhat ftom that given above.
were trinrnphanUy acquitted. In 868 Pelopl- PELOPOHnfESIAN W AE. See Qkbecb.
daa mafohed at the head of a Theban force to PKLOPOKNEeDS (Gr., " the island of Pe-
sncoor the inhabitants of Thessalj, oppressed lops," so called by the Greeks because King
by Alexander of Phcrte ; he occapied Larissa, Fdops was snppoaed to have settled a colony
uid compelled the tyrant to acknowledge his there), a peniiumla at the B. end of Greece,
anthority. Advancing into Macedonia, he com- forming one of tlie gT«at geographical divisions
poved the differences between Alexander n. of that conntry, and now called the Mores;
and Ptolemy of Aloms, and took aa hostages fbr area, 7,770 sq.m.; pop.in 1866,662,841. Itlies
th«r flitnre good oondoot 80 boys, among betweenlat. 86°33'andS8°a0'N.,andlong.8r
whom was Philip of Uaoedon. In 867 he was 6'and28''8a' £., and is abont 1S6 m. in length
sent aa an envoy to the Perrian oonrt at Bosa, and the same in extreme breadth. The Greeks
where, thongh he refhsed to make the custom- compared its sharie to that of the leaf of a vine
ary proetralaon to the monaroh, he obtained or a plane tree. The coast ismnch indented, «>
every thing for which he came, vir, ; a rescript the 8. by the gnlfs of Laconia or Kolokythia
of Uie great king that Heseene and Amphipo- and of Messenia or Ooron. and on the E. by the
lis aho^d be antonomons cities; that Athena galf of Anolis or Naaplia. It is connected
ahonld order home all the Hhips in active ser- with centra Greece by uie iathmna of Oorinth,
vice : and that Thebes shonld be deemed the which is 6 m. wide at the narrowest part, and
head city of Greece, and any cities refusing to eepsrates the Oorinthian from the Sarmie
acknowledge her leadership shonld be threat- gnlf. The sorface of the peninsola is gener-
ened with oompnlBion by a Fenian force. Bnt ally monntainons. In the centre a long and
this rescript was treated with contempt by lofty ridge bent into a oircnlar form endosei
most of the Grecian cities, and in performing an elevf^ed be^, the famons vale of Aicadia,
■ nuBsioainTheBsaly, Inordertoobtiunitsreo- the largest of the ancient states. Rve other
ognition, Felopidaa was treacberoaely seized as ranges, running from the different sides of the
a prisoner by Alexander of Fhene. A Theban central one to the '6 most prominent pmnte on
force, in which Epaminondas served as a pri- the coast of the peninanla, enclose plains or
vate soldier, was sent to resone him, bnt fuled valleys wluch formeriy were the seats of G
in accomplishing its object in consequence of states : Ach^a in the N., Alalia in the E,
the alliance of Qie Athenians with the tyrant. Laoonia and Meseenia in the B., and Elis in
A second expedition nnder the leaderBbip of the W. The mean height of the monntains ii
Epaminondas socc^eded in releasing Pelopidas, abont 1,200 feet, bnt on the W. side they at-
who dnring his confinement is said to have tain a height of from 8,000 to 4,600 feet Jit
treated Alexander with marked defiance. Bnt Oyllene, on the J]', side of Arcadia, risea to
thepoweroftiie tyrant of Fhene was still pre- the height of 7,788 feet; and Mt Taygetns,
dominant in llieBasly, and in coDseqnence of the ridge which stretches sonthward from Ar-
repeatedmisEJonsonthepartoftiieinhaMtants oadiatoOapeUatapanCsnc. SWorvm), is at the
cconplaining of his cmel^, Pelopidas was de»- highest pomt abont 8,000 feet above the sea.
patted in 864 into that ootmtry at the head The principal rivers are the Alphens, now called
of an army. Although the portents were nnfa- the Bonpbia, which rises in Arcadia and flows
vorable, and his troops were terrified by an W. through Elis into the Ionian sea: and the £a-
eolipse of the snn, he pressed on. Arriving at rotas, now tJieYasilipotamo, which riseeinthe
Pbarsalns, he enoonntered Alexander at the N. of Laconia and fiows sonthward into the La-
head of a larger force than his own, and a oon- oonian gtilfl The climate is mild and the soil
test immediately ensned as to which shonld gtun frcitftiL The chief prodncUons are com, wine,
possesdon of the billn cfdled Oynosoepbalfe. oil, and fruits, honey, figs, silk, cotton, and the
After a severe stmggte, the tyrant was defeat- small raisins called oarrants, which are the
ed; bnt Pelopidas, seeing Alexander himself, prindpal article of export At present the
and burning with a deeire to revenge bis im- penJniola is divided into 6 nomee or province^
prisonment, mshed to the spot where he was viz. : Argolis and Oorinth, the capital of which
standing, attended by a few soldiers only, and is Nanplia ; Achaia and Elis, capital Patns ;
was slain. His death oansed great lamentation Arcadia, of^iital Tripc^tza ; Menenia, oa[dlal
both amimg the Thebans and ThessaUane, the Kalamata ; and Laoonia, captal Sparta. Itsan-
latter asking and obtaining p«inis^n to take dent popnlation has been computed at 9,O0IV
thediiefpartinhisftuiersf FelopidaB,titkotigh 000,irt^ohl8probabl]ran 6zag^ntk>n,tbon^
inferior to Epaminondas in military skill and it was certainly mnoh more popnlons and flonr-
mental power, was nevertheless one of the most Ishing than at present. It contalna many ruins
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
F&LOFS FEN 90
of Amoos uident oKiea, among which those oomuTanoe of HippodanuA, and wer« expeUed
of Sparta, M^ceiue, and Mantinea are the moat hj Felops from tne kingdom. Their goilty
mtaresliiig. — About 80 ;reara after the &11 of mother fled to Argolig, when ^e died. Pe-
Troj', Feloponneeoa was conquered hj the Do- lopa wan held ia great veneration after hii
nans, led hj the descendants of Heiwiles, who death, and a aanotoar; was dedicated to him
clumed poaaeaaion of the oonntry by aooestral in die I^to Altia at Olympia.
r^ht. This event ia known in LiatoFT' aa the PElfeBOKE, a seaport and ooonty town of
r«tam of the Heraclidse. The Doriana eatab- Pembrokeahire, Walea, aitnated on a oreek of
liahed Beveral states, one of which, Sparta or IClford Haven, 206 tn. yf. from London ; pop,
Laoonia, became under the inatitations of Lj- in 18C1, 10,107. At the "W. extremity of tiie
enrgns the most powerM in Greece. A com- rooky ridg« on which the town stutda are the
lunation of the Feloponnesiaa aUtea against mina of an ancient fortresa, erected in 1098.
Athens in ttie latter part of the Gth centarjr Pembroke dock ia a government naval eatab-
B. O. gave rise to the great conteet known aa liahment situated abont 2 m. N. W. from tJie
the Peloponnesian war. In the decline of town. The dock yard contra an area of 60
Greece In the Sd cantnry B. 0. a temporary acres, and is enclosed by a lo% atone wall, in-
hnportasoe waa given to Peloponneana by the aide of which are the public offices, Ac. Tuere
ActuBaa league, to which a politjcal organ- are 12 biulding sUps.
ization waa given by Aratoa in 251, and FEUBBOHIB, B""- or. See Hxbbebt, "Ww
which played a dominant part in the aflitlra luh. ^^
of Greece till the conqneat of the oonntry by FEMBE0KE3HIEE, a county of 'Walea, oo-
the fiomans in 144. On. the divinon of the oupying the extreme S. W. point of the pnnd-
BonuB empire Feli^tmesna became anbject pality, and bordering on the Bristol ma Irish
to the emperor of Constantinople ; and on the ohamiets; area, 610 aq. m. ; pop. in 1861, M,-
decUne of the eaetem empire it was taken 140. The chief towoa are Pembroke, Haver-
poasessian of by the Venetiana, from whom ford 'West, St. Davida, lEiford, and Tenby,
the Turks conquered it in the toiddle of the Milford Haven ia the chief port The coast line
ICth century. The Venetians regained it in la very irr^dar, being indented with nnmerona
1S99, but restored it to Turkey in 1715. Dor- baya and studded wi£ istanda. The rivers are
ing tiio Greek revolution of 1831-'8 it was of tittle Importance. The aurface is gener^
the theatre of many interesting events, and the nndnlating, with low hills and rich meadows
result of that straggle left it a portion of the and com fielda. The anthracite coal tract bi>
present Ungdom ofGreece. (Bee Gbkkob.) Bect« the county. Oopper ore is found, alate
PELOPS, in Grecian mythology, the aon of and ooal are worked, and the fisheries are val- ,
Tantatos and grandson of Jupiter. Hisbtber, nable. The county and ita towns return ft
having inrited the gods to a banquet, killed members to filament.
Pelops, and served ap his rematus at table. PEUISOOT, a S. S. oo. of Uo., in the ex-
Cerea in a fit of abstraction ate a piece of the treme comer of the state, bounded E. by the
shoulder; but the rest of the ImmortaU, per- Uiaaiasippi river; area, 800 sq. m.; pop. in
ceiving whet the diah was, ordered Heronry to 1860.2,861, of whom 268 were alaves. Itssnr-
reetore the youth to life by pntdng the fleui In face la nearly level, much of it being covered by
a caldron. Pelopa waa aocordin^y taken out swamps, the laraest of which. Lake Pemiscol
alive, and in place of the part which Oerea had haa an area of about 76 sq. m. It was formed
eaten received a shonlder of ivory, whence all ia 18S1 outof NewUadrid co. Oapital, Gayoso.
his descendants, the Pelopidn, were supposed FEUUIOAK, a preparation of preserved
to hare one ahonlder remarkably white. Af- meat, made by cutting lean meat into thin
terward he applied to <E^omaus, king of liaa, atripa, and, after they are thoroughly dried, re-
for the hand of his daughter Hippodfunia; but dncing the substance to powder and mixing thia
the king, having been told by an oraole that with melted faL It ia largely used by the
his son-in-law would kill hhn, refosed unless northern Wf/agetirt, and constitutes an impor-
Pelops ahonld conquer him in a chariot race, tant item in the anppliea tumished by the Hod-
declaring however that be would take his life son's bay company to their employees,
it he faued. Petopa bribed the king's chariot- FUN, an instrument for writing with a fltud.
eer Uyrtilna to remove the linchpins of the Pena of aome aort have been tn use from very
royal chariot, and in the race CBnomaos was andent times, adapted to the material upon
thrown oat and killed. Thevictorthen took whichthewrittencharaotersweretobeimpreas-
Hippodamiato wife, aasumed the government ed. Uponstone or metallio plates gravers c^steel
ofn9a,and aoon made himself master of Olym- fervea for writdng, and snob are referred to by
pia, wherehe restored the Olympic games with Job in speaking tn an "iron pen." For the wax-
great qtlendor. He had promised Hyrtilns ea tablets of me andents a metallic atylns was
half the kingdom, bnt after he had guned bis employed, one end of which was sharpened for
oly'ect threw him into the aea. By ffippoda- marking, and the other waa flattened for eraa-
mia helisd 16 otuldren, the two eldest of whom, Ingthemarka and amoothin^thewax. It was
AtrvosandThyestes, beoomingjealouaof Ghn-- also the practice in andent timea, as among the
sippus, who was their &ther's son by Axiocbe Obinese at the present day, to paint the letters
or the nymph Danais, murdered him with the witb a fine hair pendL Pens of reeds also
u,9,-„zoQbyGao^Ie
loo FEK
were made at a verj earlj period for the am were devised to give in the greatest perfection
«f a fluid ink npoB papTras. The reed eeleolr the required eltwticitf, and the capadtj- of
edfor this pnrp&se u deeoribed as small and holding apropersapplyof ink, and of shedding
hard, and abont the uze of a swan's qaill. It it freely when preyed upon the paper. Most
was fbnnd in Egjpt and Armenia; and Cairo of these forms were more onrions tnan nseiid,
and Alexandria were famooe markets in whioh and the manafactnre baa rinoe been chiefly
it was sold. Along the shores of the Persian limited to the simpler shapes, snoh particalar^
gulf reeds are atilT colleot«d for this nse, and aa resemble the form of the old pen cnt from
an distribnted throughout varioos parts of the goose qnill. The trade centred in Birming-
Qm eastern oonntries, being better a^pted to ham, whioh supplies many countries In Eoiope,
Ute ink and paper employed in th&e regions as also the principal demand for steel pens in
than any other kind of pens. They are pre- the United States. The number of mann-
pared by leaving them mider dung heaps for ^otorers in that city is reported to be 18, and
aereral months, which causes them to acquire 8 more are engaged in maJdng pen holders,
a mixed hlaok and ^Uow color, and a smooth The processes are brought to snoh perfection,
ta^ hard sur&ce. The pith is dried up by the that better pens are now sold at 12 cents the
heat generated. The mtrodnotion of paper gross than uiose which were produced in 1831
rendered neoeesary pens of finer character, at a cost of tS6 the gross. The pricee vary
and qniDs of the goose and swan next came from 4 cents tlie gross to T6 cents or |1. *"
those of other birds, as of the crow, were estimated at not less than 1,000,000,000 pens
found wen adapted. A great trade grew up annually. In the TJnited States aereral at-
tn these articles, and oontinned for several tempts have been made at different times to es-
oentdries. Poland and Bnssia were largely en- tablish this mannfaotnre ; but it has been fbond
gaged in it, and immense floolu of geese were almost hopeless to try to compete with the
raised in tJiose countries chiefly for uieir qnills. BirmingLun manufacturers, and though large
In a riiuleyear St. Petersburg has famished to sums of money have been expended, the enter-
Enfdudovw 27.000,000 qui^. Germany and prises have generally been abandoned. InKew
theNetherlandshave also been large producers York city a manufactory bin operation, called
of goose qnUls. From each goose the average fheWashington medallion pen factory, in whidi
imnd)er ot good quills obtained is only 10 or the processes are cooducted upon the English
IS, though eometjmea they have amounted to plan. ThesteelsheetsimportedfromSheffield
without with a tlmi membrane. They are first in dilute sulphuric add, and rolled down to the
sorted according to the length and tbicknees required thickness. The ribbons of ateel are
of the barrel into primes, seoonds, and pin- then pouched in a cntter by hand into blanks.
ions, and are then bnried for a short time In These are next pierced by a^unch in a hand
hot sand, whioh dries the ontside skin, so that screw with a hole near the pomt and where the
it Is easily scraped off. and the Inner lining slit will terminate. They are then annealed by
becomes shrivelled and detached. The pro- leaving them 24 hoors In a pot in the mufSe
cess is repeated if necessary. This treatment of a ftimace, AAer this they are stamped with
is called, from having been practised in Hoi- their peculiar device, by means of a hammer
land, "dutching." After One the quills are worked by a treadle so rapidly that one nri
hardened by dipping them into a boihng solu- may stamp 90 poaa in an hour. The bla^a,
tion of alum or of diluted nitric acid, which which are Btill flat pieces, are now shaped hy
also renders the barret yeUow. A portion of being struck in dies; and after this they are
the barbs is tiien stripped off, and the ^aiUs are hardened by heating and {Jamnng them into
tied in bundles fbr the market — ^The unmense oil. When the oil has partluly dr^ed ofi^
oonsnmption of qnills [ooved the neceasity of they are Airther cleaned by alkaline washes,
more durable snbstitntes. In 1808 Ur. "Wise and rolling in a rerolvhig dram with saw-
of Great Britain prodnced pens of steel of bar- dust and sand. The tempering is effected by
nil form, monnted in a bone case for carrying placing several thousand t<^ther in an iron
in the pocket. These were expenrnve and lit- wlinder which a boy keeps taming over a Are.
tie Dsed. Mr. Gillott of Birmingham com- By frequent trials it is ascertained when they
tnancedthe monnfooture about the year 1823, have been sufficiently treated, and they are
and introduced great improvements m the steel then taken ont and t^ad to dry qnickly. An-
pen, making it of thinner and more elastic steel, other scouring in the revolving drmn succeeds,
and of higher finish and temper, Ur. Ferry and the color is thus transformed from bluish
also was among the first large mann&otmrers to nearly a clear white. The pens ore next
of the artidle ; and by th^ improvemmte the ground on the nib upon emery wheels by (pils,
cost was so much reduced, that a gross of the who take each one up in a pair of pliers and
rs, now made irithont the barrel, conld perform tills operation with singnlor rqtidity
pnndiafied for about the price of one of and exactness, completing about 10 gross in an
those made by Mr. Wise. Otner makers ano- honr. This, called the "straight grinding," is
deeded, and a great variety of forma of pen dlstingniahed from the" cross grin<Ung," which
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FDT 101
is applied to HiebwAftftite pen Mtbia la held who was employed by Mr. Brown. He eon-
intbe hand, oonsomiiig almost double the time, tmned to make these maolii&ee of vatiou
The dita are next made by enttera workhig forma and of eztraordmarr perfection from the
against each other in a aorew press, and the rear 1844, and famiBhed them to Ur. Bag-
ronghnees thos oooaaioned ia removed by an- ley and Mr. Barney, who ware wall known aa
other potiahing in the dram, after which the among the early makers of gold pena. To
pena are browned or otherwise colored by these inventions is chiefly dne the exoellenoe
beating them to the proper temperatara in a of the gold peas made ia tbla oonntry. lb,
reTolvmg cylinder over a fire, and immernng Bendell ayatematized the prooeea, giving to
th^n In a solution ot lao. The last process is each worionan hia peonliar branch, and thos a
to examine them, reject the imperfect ones, and nioe^and eert^ty of good wwkwere attained
pack the good ones in small pasteboard boxes by each one which waa essential to the pwfeo-
for the market — The manu&otnre of pens of tion of the pea. The processes emplt^ed are
elaatio material fiiTiiiahed wiOi durable points more nnmerona and delicate than one not ao-
ot some extremely hard snbstance commenced quunted with the manofsctnre wonld readily
in England with attempts to secnre Mte of l^nagine. In the factory of Mr. Leroy V. Fair-
metal topena made of pass, tortoise shell, and child in New York they are now oondncted
horn. IliesebegitmlQgBled atlasttothapro- with the original machines of 1&. Bendell, and
dnctlonof gold pens, the mano&otore of which tiie Improrements and additions to these made
ia carried to the highest perfection in New by Mr. Faircblld have materially eontribnttd
York, ao that the oolr really excellent pen nsed to &o peonliar delicacy, elaeticlty, and flnldt
in Bivopa ia obtuned troia this country. In of the perfect pen. In 1650 the bnaineea had
1883 Vr. John Isaac HawUns, an American by grown to anoh importance In this establiab-
birHi, rending in England, imbedded jdeoee of ment, that a steam en^e waa procured for
diamMid and ruby in the points of tortoise shell running the machines, the first ^)plioalion of
pena,' which were softened in water to receive steam power to this purpose. The number <rf
the stones. The same mannfactorer, hearing pens which saoh a factory may prodnoe d»-
that bits of an extremely hard naUve alloy of pendg entirely upon the amount of oare and
iridium and osmium, sent bj Dr. 'Vollaston labor spent on each one. Of the more oom-
to a penmaker to be used for points, had been men sorts 800 may be made in a day as readily
returned as too hard for working, obtained as SOO in a week of the best. The following
these for his own experimento, and was the is a general description of the different opera-
first to produce the ^nons " diamond points" tions in the order in which they follow each
Bolde^ed to gold pens. Mr. Mordon, a penoU other. The alloy of gold and silver of 16 oarata
caee maker in London, also made some gold fine ia melted, and when at the ri^t tempers
pens ; but the^ were of litUe value, being da- ture to prodnoe the peonliar grain that indioatea
flcient in elasticity. The mannfiutore ot ttieee gold susceptible of the grsMeat elasticity, it is
pens made hut alow progrees, great skill, the cast in hot Ingot moulds in cakes of about 20
reanlt of long ooutintted experiment^ being oz.each. These are then rolled ont into sheets
neoeaaary to prodnoe the exact Bluq»e anited for 10 or 19 foot in length and oonsiderably thicker
the required elastidty of the pen, utd to com- than the finished pena. The sheets are Uien
bine this with the proper die and form of the taken to the stock cutters, and short blanks are
points. They were moreover ooatJy aa well on pnnched out ttom them bearing some reaam-
aoconnt(^ the metal empli^redaatlie labor ex- trlance in shape to the pen. Eaon blank is then
pended in the manufacture, llierl^tomab notched on the under ode ofthe point by a litlla
gold pens WM purchased of Mr. Hawkina by toothed whed, against which the point ia held
Mr. Cleveland, an Amraican dargyman then in as tiie pen rests in a seat made for tiie puipoae
Sngland, who on his retarn induced Mr. Levi in the machine. An iridium point, earemQy
Brown, a watchmaker in Detroit, to undertake selected with the aid of a microscope from the
their manufacture. This was about the year stock kept on hand (see Ibisiuk), is then laid in
1885. The ezperimeut was attended with lit- the notch ; there are sometimes two such points,
tie success. Mr. Brown removed in 1840 to bnt generally only one, to each pen. A little
New York and there introdnoed the business, borax is used to secnre It In its place, while by
which gradually inoreased in importanoe as the thejetof a blowpipe the gold iaaoftened around
Dualt^ ttf the pens was Improved, and the price Ae point end the metala are welded together.
ffinUmshed by thdr more rapid production. The point is then applied to a copper emery
At first the pens were cut with stdssora into wheel and brought to a aqnare evco &o& The
shape ftom a thin flat strip of gold, and a alit pen ia then brightened up by a wadi of nibio
being cut in the nib a bit of iridium waa sol- add. In what are called the breakdown rolla,
derad to each point separately, and the points which are carried half round by a littie lem
were Oen rounded up uito diape with a mallet held in the hand, the blanka are drawn out to
upon a stick. The inferior pens tfaua made by the ftall length of the pen. The rolls take the
hand sold fi>r $6 to $10 each. The first ma- pen by the point, and ae this passes between
ehina^ and almoat the only important ones in them a spring set in the under one sinks into
use applicable to the diSbrent branches of this the roll, thus guarding the point agunst the
trotk, were invented by Mr. John Rendell, pressure which is qi^ied to the rest of the
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
pen. The rolling ie repeated In otiher rolls, ^nallr the head of the eBtabliahment nhmlti
celled ^tniahing rolls, of siinikr constntotion. each pen to thorough trial bj writiogwitii it,
Thia proo«es learea the pen with no partioidar and otherwise proying its perfection. The pens
etaMidty ; thia is imparled to the lower end are loade ohienj of B mzes, ratwing from \i of
b^aaiciatl planishing hsmmer worked bj the auinchto2incheBinlength,aiidthelargerBtze9
hand, while the pen is held across a little anvil in long nibs and short nibs. 8ome bsrrel pens
of anrred sorfaoe. The next operatdon ia to alsoaremade,theIongestbeingabontSi inches
trim the pen, whioh is done in a finishing cnt- long. In New York city there are 7 or 6 &c-
ter, worked b; a hand lever, similar to t^at in toriea devoted to this manufaetare, some of
which the blainks are punched. This takes off whioh prodnoe howeyer only cheap pens. In
a narrow strip round the margin except at the Brooldjn, N, Y., there is one octoiy ; in
point The name of the maker and sizo and Brooldjn, Oonn., 2 ; in H^densville, Hass., one ;
number of the pen are now stamped on the and in Oincinuati, one. In the last are made
back; and the pen is then ready to be "raised," the pens of Dawson, Warren, andHvde, which
or bent into the partlallj cylindrical form. To rank among the best in the market. — Pens
insure perfect shape and a permanent set to the have also been made of hardened gntta percha,
new onrre, it has been fonnd neoeeaary to em- and of caontchono similarly treated ; bnt they
plo7ftpreaaof great powerand diesof extreme hare not proved of mnoh service. The so
exactness of figure; and this has perhaps prov- called " Protean foustun pen" contains a snp-
ed the most difBcnlt part of the whole process, ply of ink in its hollow handle, and the tube
The lever worked by the foot acte npon another which holds it extends nearly to the point, the
with SQch increase of power, that the pressure presanre npon which in writing causes the ink
obtained amounts to over three tons, from this to ooze down to it i ast as it is required. These
the pen goes to the machine known as the pens are famished with holders suitable for
*' ouriage cutting point," whore it Is nicely ad- cartying in the pocket, and thus are always at
Jnsted across a horizontal axis, which is then hand fornsewiththeirownsnpplyDf ink. The
turned over, bringing the iridinm point npon Introduction of metallic pena has not lessened
the edge of a thm copper emery wheel kept theprice or the production of goose qnills.
in rapid rotation. A slit is soon made throngh PENANOB (Lat. paaitrntia, repentance), a
the iridium, dividing it into two points. In penalty accepted or self-imposed by way of sat-
another latiio carrTing a cironlar saw only isfaction and token of sorrow for un. Ecolesi-
half an inch in diameter, made of the finest steel astical pienances were inflicted under the Jewish
and provided with very sharp teeth, the slit is dispenaation, and we read in the Old Testament
extended up into the gold as far as is necessary, of mdividusJB and whole dtles <»' peoples fest-
Baniisbutg ^e nibs, which snoceeds, spreads ing and performing other acts of humiliation.
the gold, partially filling the vacant space of The idea of penance seems to have been familiar
the slit, uid the proper elasticity is given to even to hesthen nations, The revolting ans-
lie lower part of the pen by hammering. The terities practised by the Hindoo devotees, if
edges ofthe slit are next smoothed and trimmed they can properly becalled penances, are among
by running into it the edge of a very thin wheel the most strikii^ examplea of this class. In
of tin fed with the finest emery. By the same the early Ohristim chumi penances were of S
operator the set Is given to the nibs by bending sorts, secret, public, and solemn. The first
them in with the fliers till they have each counted of such acaons aa are commonly im-
a nnlfonn and precise curve. The pen being posed by confessors at the present day, as for
now held in a steel holder that leaves only the mstance the recitation of certun prayers.
point projecting, this is applied to the snrfoce of Public penanoe was in use from the earUest
a revolving cylinder of copper fed with emery, days of the churchy and accompanied the read-
and the iridium is chamfered on the back and mission to communion of personswbo had been
' gronud on the under side into a somewhat excluded from it for grievous offences. It was
hooked or beaked shape ; the edges of the nibs frequently very severe, and the penitents, be-
are also smoothed and rounded. In another side being required to kneel in vrorship while
suitable holder the pen is placed to be honed the rest of Jhe faithful were permitted to stand,
or stoned on the back or convex side prepara- had to make a pnblio oonfesaion of their sins in
tory to polishing, and in still another the lower the ohnrob. Of solenm penance, which seems to
or concave side is exposed for the same pur- have originated about the middle of the 3d cen-
pose. Similar holders are used for the polish- tury, or aoon after the rise of the Novatisn her-
mg, whioh is done on wheels covered with felt, esy, there were 4 degrees. The first was that
^ra snmJied with rotten stone. An application of the weepers, who remained at the Aw« of
of lye IS now made to remove the oil, and the the ohnroh clad in aackdoth and ashes, and
pen is completed by roughening the concave begged the prayers of the faithftil as they passed
nrface of tlie mbsto prevent the ink flowing in. The 2d wsa that of the listeners, who were
too freely. The finisher now takes the pen, re- permitted to enter the vestibule to hesr the
o^justB the nibs, opens the alit agun on the slit^ reading of the Soriptnrea and the sermon, but
ter, and smooths and polishes the points by went aw^ before the mass of the catechumens
delicately touching them to the polishing wheeL oommencad. The proatrate, who belonged to
This work requires mnoh skill and experience, the Sd class, knelt in the space between the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FENAKG FESCIL lOS
doors of the ehnroh and thaomdo, or desk vlwra nunjsniall Btreazoa, bat no river of any great
the episUe aod goqi«l were read. Thej were rise od the island. The sorboe ia nneren, and
dismissed at the aame time with the oateohn- Interseoted bj a monntam rauKo, the higheat
meDB. The 4th degree of penitenta were the point of whidi, West hill, is B,7l8 feet above
emutftutttt QitersUf, oo-standera), who stood the level of th« aea. These heights terminate
widk Hm falttkfhl b^ore the altar and remained on the E. and W, in level plains, and the shores
throagjionttheBerrioe,bnt might nether make are bordered bj a belt of ooooannt treea: that
oblatiooB with them nor reoeive the enoharist. on the E. aide being more fertile than the W.
Daring tbe term of peoanoe e^^reasions of J07 plua, which ia swampy. The whole of the
were to be laid aaida gtj dnoses p nt of^ and ooontry where not ooltivated ia densely wood-
marriage, &as1ing, hnUihig, and Tsrions bodilj ed, and the forests extend to within a short
grstifioationa ah£ained Imn. The men were diatanoe of the enmmits of the monntuoa,
to ont tiieir hair and beards, and the women to which terminate in rooky peaks. The dimats
appeiae with dishevelled looks. The penitents is, upon the whole, healthy. Tin ore ia said to
were also expected to abound io good works, be abnndant in the moontuns, bnt the mines
and be presrait, as far as it was permiCted them, have never been worked to any great extent.
at erecy r^i^ona assembly. I^e oolleotion of Olovea, tea, cotton, tobaooo, coffee, angar, nnt-
oanona wUc£ ^^inted the time and manner mega, rice, and nunerona tropical fcmte and
of penanoes fi>r diSbrent sms was called the vegetables are grown ; and the foreeta yield
I^nltentiaL 'Whether priests and deeoons were timber of a anperior qnality. Boffaloea, homed
obliged to sntmdt to the same ceremonies of re- oattle, and pigs are abnndant, and there are
oonSliation as l^men to not certain. The final some goats, bnt aheep do not thrive. There
readnuerion of penitents to oommtudon was is a bank of pearl oysters on the E. ooast,
attended with certain forms, and in ordinary The original inhabitants were a few Malays;
oases the officiating miniater was a bishop, bnt since the Britiah have been in possession
though t2ie inferior cler^ oonld admit a peni- of the island, people &om Eindostan, Bar-
tent from a low degree into a hi^er one. In mah, Siam, Oliina, and all the neighboring isl-
the eastern dhnrch, the ceremonies of eolema ands have settled upon it, nearly i of the
penanoe were retained antU abont the close whole being OMneee. In 1854 the total valne
of the 4th centnry, and in the western ohoroh of the imports waa $2,906,200. — The island
imlil near the end of the 7th. It gradaslly be- of Penang formerly belonged to the king of
came enstomary for the blahopa to commnte Qaeda, bnt waa ^ven by him in 1TB5 as a
the canoniool penances for pious works more marriage portion with his daoghter, who mar-
agreeable to the spirit of the age, sneh as pil- ried Oapt. Light, the master of a British ship
gnmagea, works of cliarity, and alms deeds, and trading in the atri^ of Ualaooa. The Englisn
Uicee in tnm were exchanged for indnjgences. East bidia company aoqiured possession of it
(See LmiTUiCKOs.) — In the Bomsn Oathollo by purchase from Light, and appointed him
ohnroh, penance is also the name of one of the governor; and afterward, in ooniaderation of
7 sacram«ite instituted for the remission of an annnal inoome paid to tbe king, the aover-
po6t-b*tpt,iBinal sins. It oonjdsts of 8 esaential eignty of the ialana and the oppodle coast was
parts, oontrition. ooufeeeioa to an anOioriied o^ed to tbem.
priest, and abaolation, to which may be added PENATES (LaLpemtt, Inmost), the honae-
adispoedtion on tbe part of the penitent to make hold gods of the Romans, who dwelt in the
satiabotion to God and man Kir his offenoes. innermoat parts of the house, and were the
A ali^t penanoe by way of satisfaction Is al- gnudiana of the fiunily. They were of two
ways eqjcrined npon the penitent by the con- kinds, private and public. The former liad al-
feosoT ; and thoc^ a wiilmgnesa to reoeive it ways their place at the hearth. In their honor
fa a reipuKte disposition on the part of the for- a perpetoal &n was kept burning, and at the
mer, the neglect to AiMl it doea not invalidate departnre or return of any member of the '
the sacrament. (See OoimsaioK, AcbiculasJ) honaehold, the Penatea were anlnted in the
PEKAN&, FiTLoPBirAsa ("Arecaislwid"), same manner aa the other dwellers in the
or PmsoK or W^Lca'a IsLAm), au idand belong- bonae. The Lares are probably to be numbered
ing to Oreat Britain, situated in Uie strait of among the Penates, although evidently not the
Malaooa,extendingfr<nnlat 6° 16' to 0° 80' N., only Penates, asafamilyrarely had more than
and from long. 100° 6' to 100° 3C' E. ; extreme one Lar, while the Penates are never spoken
lengtii 15 m., breadth 12 m. ; area, 160 sq. m. ; of in the dngnlar. YaiTO says that the nom-
pop. in 1856, S9,6S9. Georgetown is the oui- ber and names of the latter were indefinite,
tal, and seat of government of the Britiah atruts The pnblic Penates of Some, depicted as two
settlementa, which comprise Penang, the prov- young men holding lances in their hand, had
inee of Vellealey, Malacca, and Singapore. The a sanotnary near the centre of the city in a
ohannel dividing the island troai the munland spot called nib Velia. Baorifloeswere made to
is navigable fbr large vesselB, and varies in them by generals when departing on their
breadth from 8 to 7 m., the harbor of George- campaigns, and by oonsala, pnetors, and die*
town being Uie N. port of it. The fbrm of tstors when t^ey gave np th^ office.
Penang is Tery irregular, and the coaats are PEN'OIL, a delicate bmah made from the
bold and indented by several bays. There are fine hairs of various (mimalii, eepeciaUy the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FENDLBTON
, D-' -^ ■ . tl by ar- sohoola. . „-—
Usts for lft;ing on their colon. The beirt, and Lezin^n ridlroad, which ptwes through
being Belected, are urasged in a little roll, and the MpitaljFalmoiith.
a imng is tightlj bound arotnid the end oon- PENDLETON', Eniiinro, an American states-
methig of the roots. The point* are also tem- man and jorirt, born in Vi^inia, Sept, », 1T21,
poiwrl? boond together. The roll is then in- died in 180B. He began his career as an ap-
trodnced into the largo end of a quill tube, prentioe In the derk's office of Caroline co., In
which has been softened hj moistnre, and is 1740 was made derk of the ooontj eonrt mar-
f ashed throogh till the larger end is arrested tial, and In 1741 was licensed to practise law.
7 the narrowneta of tlie apertnre. Ab the In 1?61 he became one of the county Justices,
qnill dries, the increased pressiire caused by ila and in the foUowing year was elected to the
contraction holds the hnrs securely in Qieir honse of bnrgesses. These posts he continned
place, the points projecting through to make to fltl nntil 1774, at which tune he presided In
the pendl or bmsh ; bat it is essential that the Oaroline court, and discharged the trust of
preesore shiiald not be so great as to make the eoimty lientenant. He was elected to the co-
points spread ^>art when ttiese are untied. The lonial convention of 1774, consequent on the
ioeet pemnls require very careful selection and Boston port bill, and chosen by that oonTen>
arrangement of the hairs, and much expeilence tion to tlie first congress. He aooordisgly
for obtaining a ronnd and even point. The attended In Philadelphia in 1774, end again in
holder of the pencil is made by inserting a 177B, in company with Peyton Bandolph,
H^t std<& into the large end of the qoilL The 6e<H^ Washin^rton, Patrick Henry, Benjamin
q^lls used raiy in size according to the kind Harrison, and Richard Henry LeeL In 1775
of pendl, from that of the wing of the crow he prerided orer tlte colonial conTention, and
to uiat of a swan ; larger penoila than these are was appointed president of the committee of
made by the nse of a socket of sheet tin. — A safety. In Hay, 1776, he again presided in tbe
lead penoO is a sort of crayon used in drawing, conTention, and drew up the celebrated resoln-
made of slips of the mineral graphite or plnra- tion of that body, instructing the delegates
bsffo, as described In the article QraJhitz. from Yiivinla to propose in conerees a deda-
Oolored pencils are also prepared by the nee ration of indepenaence. After the inaugura-
of various coloring substances in the place of tion of the commonwealth he was cdled to
Epbit^ as reddle, a red ochre for red pencils, preside over the first house of delegates, and
The ooloring substance is reduced to waBappoint«dbytbatbody,incoi]Junctionwith
powder, formed into a paste with gum Arabic, Chancellor Wyttio and Mr, Jefferson, to rerise
and moulded into hollow cylinders of wood, the colonial laws. In Uarch, 1777, by a fell
Fendls for the slate are abipa of slate itself of his horse, he received an iigury of tiie liip
made round and smooth. Artificial onea hare Joint which made him a cripple for life. In
been made of the powder of slate moulded the same year he was nnanimonsly reelected
with TuloaniEod India rabber ; butpendia into speaker of the house of bui^^esBes. On the or-
which this materisl enters have always the un- ganlsatlon of the chancery court that year be
pleasant odor of the Tulcanised rubber. was again nnanimouHly elected its president;
PENDL^rOIf . I. A central co. of Ta., en- and when, in 1770, the court of appeals wss
dosed between two ranges of the Allegbanies, constituted, he dso became its preddant. This
and intersei^ed by the south branch of the Po- last responsible position he held till his death,
tomao river and two of ita tiribntaries ; area He was elected to the stat« convention of 1788,
about 800 so. m. ; pop. in 1860, 9,136, of whom in which was to be considered the proposed
244 were slaves. Its snr&oe is monntainoos constitution of the United States, and was ap-
and covered with forests, and the soil not very pointed to preside over its deliberations. In
fbrtile. The productions in ISfiO were 100,888 thosedeliberationg he took a leading part, and,
budids of Inoian com, 44,187 of wheat, 20,980 by a masterly advocacy of the great nationsi
of oats, 7,0M tonsof hay, 20,107 lbs. of wool, compaot,JnsdSed the high encomium of Jefibr-
and 69,803 of bntter. There were SO grist son : " Taken all in all, be was the ablest man
mills, 40 saw mills, 7 wool-oarding mills, 7 tan- bi debate I ever met with."
neries, 12 dinrohes, and S90 pupils attending PENDLETON, Bxsst, an American Jurist,
pnblio sdiools. Oapital, f^«nklln. II. A for- bom in Virginia about the middle of the 16th
merdistrict of B.O.,intiieN.'ff.comerofthe century, died in South Carolina in 1788. He
state, now indnded in the two districts of Pick- emigrated to South Carolina before the revoln-
ens and Anderson. HI. A N. co. of Ey., bor- tion, and In April, 1776, was elected to the
dered N. E. by the Ohio river, and interseot«d Judidary of the colony. When the state was
by the Licking; area, 800 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, overrun by the British in 1780, he took up
10,449, of whom 4B4 were slaves. It baa an arms on the patriotic side, and served until the
undulating and well wooded surface and fertile dose of the war, participating in the final battle
sdL The prodnotionB in 18C0 were 429,855 of Eutaw Springs. In 1783 he resumed bis
iKidielsof Indian com, 44,307 of oats, SSb!8S7 judidal duties, and wss the author of the
lb*, of tobacco, 20,163 of wool, and 858,827 of oountyoonrt act of South Carolina. Inl7BChe
bntter. There were B grist mills, 2 saw mills, was one of the 8 Judges appointed to make a
14 ohnrdies, and 880 pnpila attending pnblio digest of tbe laws of Uie state, ud in 1788 he
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
EENDULUU FENGUIN 105
was ft member of the ooiiTentlonwM(dkTiliA«d the Urd etacds; the bonea ire heavy, filled
the o(nutitation of the United Statee. with marrow, and without air oaTitieB. The
FENDTTLTTIL Bee Oixmkb asd Watohxb, Patagonian pen^ina of Shaw and Pennant
and Ukohahio^ toI. xJ. p. 8S4. were difibrent birds to whiob the aanie name
PEKDTTLTJU, Buxibtto. Bee Ouhnuci:. had been pven ; to avoid confiudoa O. R. Gray
PENEUDPE, a gallinaoeona bird. SeeOvAn. oalla one the emperor and the other tbeUng
PKHELOPE, the wife of Tllyssea and mother pen^oin, or A. Fontori aud A. Pmnantii, In
of Telemaohtu. Bhe was the daughter of loa- the former the loigth is 60 inches and the bill
rina, and having many enitors, her &ther prom- S, in the latter 44 and 4^ ; the general color of
ised to ^ve her to the one who ahonld oonmieT both ia alate above and while below, with the
in afoot raoe. TbeviotorwaaUlysaeeiandwlien bead and throat blaok, the latter in the first
her &ther nrged her to remmn with him and ^ledee divided in front by a point of the white
not aooonuiaiv her hoaband to Itbaoa, the feathers (tf the ohest, and in the Sd ending in a
hero gave oer leave to do aa she pleaaed. She blnnt pcdnt ; there ia an orange yellow stripe
indicated her resolntion to go with him by on the sidee of the head, dMoaoding and paas-
eorering her &oe witb a veil to hide her ing gradnally in Mbtb former and andden^ in
btoahea, wherenpon loarina erected a etatne of (he latter into the white of the chest. The
Kodee^ on. the spot. WhQe Ulyaeee waa at ptmnage ia eolt and close, with a silvery gloss
the nege of Troy, she was eorronuded by many below, this part b^ng used by for dealers for
imporbmate suitors, whom she deceived byde- ttppeta and collars ; the neck ia short and stont
claiing that ahe most finish a robe whidi she the akin hard and thick, and the bi^y loaded
woa weaving before ahe oonld make np her with fat They are foand in immense nnmbers
mind. Bat she nnravelled each night all that abont the stralta of Magellan, the Falkland
she had done daring the day ; and when at laat ialanda, and the western gronp of the 8. Padflo
the snitors dtaeovered her atratagem, Ulyaaee idanda ; Ih^ gronp themaelvea, when on shore
onxntnnely arrived after 20 years' absence and (which is only dnrmg the breediiu; season), in
UDed them all. She waa regarded aa a model regular ranka like soldiers, olasaed atrictly ao-
of ft chaste, bithfnl, and indosfariona wift, ocnrding as tb^ are young, monlUng, Inonbat-
thon^ some writers later than Homer give her ing, or with perfect phunage, those ^ one olaas
a very di^rent chanuter, alleging that oy Her- not bung permitted to intmde npon aaodter.
eorj or by all the snitors together ahe became They present a strange appearance as they ait
the mother of Fan, and waa r^ndiated by her upright ; they employ their winga like anterior
bnaband on hia retnm from Troy. limba on land, crawling along cm the belly
FENQTJIK, a snb^milT of web-footed, im- pretty fast to and from their breeding place*
perfteUy winged birda, mhabttlng the seas In the manner of qnadmpeda ; they are exoel*
artmnd the roa^ooasts^ islands, and ioe Adds lent swlmmen, and fly awiftly under wat«-,
of the eoQthemPaiMe ooeao, and the extreme naing th^ winga as fins, and breaating the
portaone <rf Sooth .imwica and AMoa — the most violent waves ; thongh stupid and nther
mandtoU of the French. Some of the earlier helpleea birds, they often boldly attack intm-
wrltera give this name to the auk (aUa, linn.) ders on their breeding plaoe^ inffiotlng severe
of the arotio seaa, but it will here be restricted wounds with their eharp billa; the food is
to ita more modem t^Uoation to the antaretio principally animal, oonsiating nt fishes and
snVfiumfy. — ^In the g«nis Oftmiodytet (Forst.) onrtaoeani. The egga are laid on the ground
the bill ft dender, Iraiger than the head, onn- or in hcdea, and tm hatched by keeping them
pressed on the rides, and ali^dy ourred at the dose between flie thi^ ; the males ooHeot
point, which is aonte; the vfpec mandible k fbod for the females, which beoome very fat
clothed with abort dose-set pnimes as far as the during incubation; the young birda also get
nortiils, which are in alaterd groove in the mid- verynt before they quit the breeding plaoei^
die of uie bill, and the lower la covered with a which are covered with ezcrementa and re-
smooth naked skin ; the wings are very small, mains tX dead birds, aocumnlated into heaps
fin-shaped, without quill feathers, having only of guano during many snooesaive years. The
short imbricated plumes with flattened uisfts, flew of the penfoin, thon^ black and fiahy, ia
and are unfit for flight ; the taU is very short, considered eatable by hungry mariners.— In the
flat, of narrow rigid feathers ; the tarsi very gentu eatanliaetM (BriasI) the bill ia moder-
short and flattened ; the toes abort and de- ate, strong, oompreeeed, grooved on the ride&
pressed, the anterior united by a web, and the and allghuy howed at the tip, with the end <a
hind one very small and almost entirely con- the lower mandible tmneated ; the tall is long,
nected to the inner aide of the tarsus; the of narrow ri^feathen; the toee are long and
dawa large, fiat, and slightly curved. Aa in stnmg. Several apedea ere deacribed, inhabit-
tiie other genera, the breast bone ia deeply In- ing in small parties the southern ocean, in opm
cised behind on each ride ; the acapnia ia uuve water or on fields of ice, sometimoB more than
and broad, aoii flat behind ; the bonea of the 800 m. fmn land \ they go to the shore only
forearm and arm are very flat, the former mafc- In the breeding seaaon; they are more active,
ing with the latter a rather obtoae an^ ; the if possible, than the preceding genua, and awlm
feet are Terr far back, and the whole posterior and dive with great quickness ; their cries are
ssi^oe of the tarsus toudiee the ground when harsh and disoordsnt, resembling the br^ of a
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
106 FEHir TnilAU FEN2T
dookej. lli« created pengnin (0. tihrytotomt, retnRi in the sama year vaa elected momber
Gmel.) is u large aa a atoat doi^blau above of parliament from Wejmoiith, bnt was for a
and TrMte below, with a ^r^i'viut white oreet tdme confined in the tower on the charge of
on each side oi the bead, and red bill and feet ; having abaented himself from his oommand
it inhabita tiie ▼iduit7 of the Falkland itlands withont leave. In 1660 he was made eommis-
and Tasmania. — ^lo the genna (pAmJtMM (Briaa.) sioner of the navy, governor of Einaale, vioe-
tlie biU is nmob aa in tiie last, with a more admiralof Mimster, andamemberof Qieoonn-
booked tip and the nostrila imooTered in the cil of that province. He was also kniglited.
middle of the lateral groove; the tail and tand Entering the naval serviM agun in 1614, be
are verf short, and the toes and olavs long, was oqitain-oommander under the duke of
The speoies are few, foimd aboot the rool^ Tork in the victory guned over the Bntoh off
islands of the sonthem ooean, and on tbe W. Loweatofie in 1666. In 1600 he left the naval
coast of South America and AMoa ; thehabita Bervioe,lnitreteinedhiaotberoffioeanntil 1609,
are the same aa in tlte preceding genera. The when be went into retirement altogether. He
Cape or Jaokaae pengida (iSl dBtaemu, linn.), was the author of several tracts deeigiied to
frcon tbe Oape Of Good Hope, is black above imwive the naval servioe.
and white below, with a wliite stripe over the PENlf, Wuxuh, an English Quaker, tbe
eyes, the throat black, and a black line on tbe fbnnder of Fennaylvania, bom in Londixk, Oct.
breast oontintied along each flank; the bill is 18, 164^died at Bnscombe, Berkshire, JiUy 80,
brown, with a white band across the middle of 1716. He wae tbe eon of Admiral Pciio. who,
its length: tbe length ia 21 inches; ita common notwithstanding bis hostile prcrfbssional rela-
name is derived from the resemblance of its tions with the Dutch, took to wife a woman (£
v(doe to a bray, Itoomes tothaanr&oe of the that nation, Uargaret,dangbtOT of John Jaspw,
water to breatlie vrith snob a spring and dives a merchant of Botterdam, to whose noble and
again so qnickly, that it seems more like a flab religiona oharaoter and lodioiona government
leaping for sport than a bird ; it seems per- the son owed many of tne excellent traits by
feotly at home in this element. Hamboldt's wbiob he waa through life distiugaished. Wil-
pengiun {8, HvniholdH, Ueyenl common on liam Penn received his first education at the
the coast of Peru, resemblee the IssL but is free grammar achool of Chigwell, Essex, where
larger; it u readily tamed, and follows its he experienced strong reli^oos impressions.
master abont like e. dog. The Uagellaoio pen- When only 11 years of a^e be was the snUect
gain (8. MageUafUevi, Forst) is 3 feet long, of de^ ezerdaea of spirit, which in tbe Ian.
and sometimes weighs SO or 80 Iba, ; the gen- gnage of the time are represented almost ae
oral color is black al>ove and white below, with miracnlons. Wbile alone In Ma chamber he
white streaks on the sides of tbe bead and a thnoied himself snrronnded by an external
black band on the breast ; it is fonnd abont the brightmees which seemed to answer to a myete-
Bonthem parts of South Ainerica, and is well rions motion within, and be regarded himself
known to navigators, who have Ions been in aa called by this experience to a consecration
the tiabit of invading its breeding places, and of heart and life to tbe service of God. At
UlllnE the birda for food or for sport. the age of 13 he waa removed from OhtgweU
PEkS, Obanville, an English autbor, bom to receive privato instmction at home, and 3
Dec. 9, 1761, died at Btoke Park, Bnokingbam- years later entered Christchnrcb college, Oz-
shire, Sept S8, 1844. He was the gnuidaon of ford, where he numbered among his companions
William Penn, served for a time as chief clerk John Locke. While in college, Fenn, tnrongh
JntbeBritiHhwarofflce, andby tbadeathof his theinfinenoe of Thomas Loe, became a convert
brother (1B84) came into tbe poeseasion of the to Qnakeriam, and not only refOsed to conform
4unily estates. He wrote " Oritioal Bemorka to the worship of the establidied church ta to
on Iraiab vii 18;" "Eemarks on tbe Eaetem wear the surplice of a student, which be oon-
Ori^natjon of Uankind, and of the Arta of sidered a relic and emblem of popisb ecpersti-
Oaltivated Life;" "A Comparative Estimate of tion, but, with some of his companions who
tbe lOneral and Mosaic Gencalo^es ;" "Hemo- had embraced his principles, assaulted several
ri^ of tbe Professional Life and Times of Ad- of the stsdente in public and stripped from
miral Sir William Penn" (London, 1888), and them their robes. For this outrage he was ex-
many other works, the most important being a polled, and on bis return home his father, a
translation of tbe Kew Testament with anno- worldly and ambitious man who was aiming at
t«tlons under the title of " Tbe Book of the a peerage, and was greatly vexed and mortified
Hew Oovenant"i(2 vols., London, 1880). by his eon's &nalio^ ossodationa bdA condnct,
FENIf, Sm WiLLUK, an English admiral, beat him and drove him from the house. A
bom in Bristol in 1021, died in Wanstead, £s- reoonoUiation however soon took place, and in
sex, Sept. 10, 1070. He early entered the naval 1002 the admiral sent bis son to Franoe, in
service, asd before he was 32 years old had hopes that the gayety of Paria might counter-
gone through the gradee of captain, rear ad- act the BobcmoBB of bis Quakerism. Theyonth,
miral of Ireland, admiral to the straits, vice- however, had no taste for the disaip^on (tf
admiral of England, and general. He was one tbe French capital, and preferred to stndy the-
of the commanders in the expedition Uiat took oIckt at Bamnni' with the fimiona Oalviidalia
Jamuca from the Spaniardain ISSfi, and on bia divine and professor Moses Amyrault. Aitor
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
TIUIAM^NN 107
toATeSfatguftrHTorinlieinaTOoaQedlicfflw wajotli&aitiBaln&on. Fr«BentadtoFrinoM,
by bis fi£her iiil6ft4, and is tlma mentioned by IMests, and People, that the; ma; repent, be-
Pepya in Ills diftir, under date of Aog. 26: liere, and obey. By WiUiam Peon, wbom XK-
" Mr. Penn, Sir William'a aon, ia come back vine Love oonatrfuna in an hoi;- contempt to
from Franoe, and oome to viut mj vife: a trample on £g7pt'egloi7,tiot fearing tbeSJng'a
moot modish pwaon, (crown, Ae Bays, a fine wrauu haTJng beheld uie Udesty of Him who
gentlemao." WithontloBing his reli^ons seri- la inviHble." Thla was followed by a oon-
onsneaa, he had acquired on the oontlnent more aiderable nnmber of tracts on similar topics,
poliah and ooortesy and livelineaa of manners, which with his other writings hare been ool-
In compliance witti his Other's wishes he en- looted and pnbliahed l^ Joseph Beese (3 vols.
t»«d as a student of law at Lincoln's Inn, but foL, London, 17SS), In 166S be published
shortly after, Jost as he became of age, waa " liie Bandy Fonndation Shaken," an attack
driren bwa London by the great plagne of npon "thoseso generally believed and sppland-
1606. Under the influence of that terrible ea dootrinee of one God sobsisting in three dis-
TiaitstioD bis religions inipreesions acquired re- tlnct and separate persons; of the impossibility
doabled foroe ; and when ids father returned of God's pardoning doners without a plenary
&ainseainl666,hofonndhisBODmoredemare aatjabotion ; and of the jnstifioalion of impure
in looks and formsl in language than ever be- persons by an impntstiTo righteousness." This
fore. He made another effort to change these work caoeed a great exdt€^ent by its bold op-
tendenoies by sending the yonng man to Ire- portion to the commonly received doctrine of
land, and oommittingto him the management of the Trinity, and Penn w^ apprehended and im-
tvo large estates which he owned in the conn- prisoned in the tower for 9 months, during
tyofOork. PMin readily assumed this oharae, which hewrotehisprindpal and most popular
md executed it to the entire satis&ction of nis theolofpoalvor^ "No Gross, No Grown j adia-
fittbcr; bnt enoonnterlnff again at Oork his oonrseshowingtheKatureandDiscnpUneofthe
former teacher, Thomas Loe, he was induced Holy Cross of Ohrist" By the interference of
to attcmd Quaker meetings, at one of which, the duke of York he was at length released and
Sept. S, 1667, he waa apprehended with others permitted to live in his father's house, though
and carried befbre die m^or, on a charge of the admiral would not admit him to his presence.
att«ndiDg unlawful assemblies. Befludng to He had however such confidence in bis son's
give bonds for his future goo4 behavior, he waa integrity, that be gave him through bis mother
sent to prison. He wrote^ however, to the a commission to go again to Ireland to look after
lord prendent of the oooncU of Kunster, with his estates. On his retora Penn was reconciled
whom be was personally acquainted, who pro- to his father, and lived with hin) on good terms
cared his immediate dis<jiarge. From this tune till ^e latter's death in Sept. 16T0, though b»-
he Identified bunself with the Quakers in every fore tiiab event the son had once more been
thing ezoept costume, and on returning toEng- committed to prison with another Quaker for
land-soon after became involved in disputes preaching in the streets. He wasnot, however,
with his ftther, who wss greatly shocked at convicted ofthecharge,thejury,BfterBremark-
Ua departure firom established forma, but finally able trial (during which they were kept for two
o^rea to compromise the matter by tolerating days and nights without food, fire, or wster),
every other pecnliarity if his son wonid only bnnging in a verdict of not guilty, for whiui
agree to remove his hat in his presence and in each Juryman was fined 40 marks and sent to
that of the king and the duke of York. Penn Newgate ; while Fena and Ms companion were
before answering retired to hia chamber, and also &ied and impriaoned for contempt In wear-
after deliberation and prayer declared that he ing their hats in presence of the court, Th^
ooold not remove hie hat by way of oompU- appealed to the court of common pleas, where
meat to anyone. His father at once turned thedeoisionoftbelowercourtwasreversedgand
him out of doors. This persecution confirmed the great principle of English law established
Penn still more in his Quokcriem, and he soon tbat it la the right of the Jury to judge of the
became a prominent preacher at the meetings evidence independent of the dictation or direc-
of the Friends. Throogh the inflnence of his tion of the court. The admiral bequeathed to
mother Iiis father's indignation was so t&r soft- his son on estate of £1,500 a year, with large
ened that he permitted his son to return home, claims against the government ; and thcnceforut
and used his interest with the government to the cares of busineas and the daties of his lay
relieve bi'm &om the persecutions to whioh his ministry seem to have equally divided the time
attendanoeattheproMbitedmeetltigsft^qnent- of Penn, InUoroh, isfl, while preaching In
lysuttjeotedblni. In 1689 Penn m»de his first ameetioghooseinLondon, he was arrested and
^>pearanca as an author bv issuing a cmde and committed to the tower, and was soon after-
aerimonions tre^ise entiued "Tmtii Exalted, ward tried under the conventicle act, but ac-
in A abort but sure Testimony against all those quitted for want of testimony. The magie-
Teligk>us Faiths uid Worships that have been ti'ates, however, required him to take the oath
fbnued and fbUowed in the darkness of Apos- of alle^ance, which he refosed to do from con-
t^y; and for that Glorious Ught which is now acientionascrcples about swearing, and was con-
risen and shines forth in the life and Doctrine sequently sentenced to Newgate for 6 months,
of the despised Quakers as the alone good old 'WbUe la prison he wrote and published 4 trea-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
108 mUIAKPENN
tiMa, one of tliem entitled " The great Case of onAj to his dotlea aa governor, and made traa-
Xibert^ of Oonadmee," which is a good com- tiea witb 10 Indian tribe* ; and so long aa an;
prehemriTe statement of the principle of reH- of the aboripnea remained in PenntjlTania or
giooa toleratitai, then so little nnderstood. On its neighborhood, th^rtraditioiia bore testimoD;
reg^niiiK his liber^ he made a tour in Hoi- to the strong Impreunon wbioh the justice and
land and Germain, interceding with the mlera benerolenoe of Hignon as the Delawares called
of those ooontries in behalf of the pereeonted him. or of Onaa aa he was styled by the Ito-
Qoabira, and on his retam home in the h^tit' qnois, made on their savage hearts. Fenu vis-
uing of 1672 married Onlielma Ham Springett, ited Kew York and New Jersey; and after
daQghter of Bir William Bpringett, and went to meeting with the general assembly of the prov-
resideatBiokmansworthinEertfordBhire. The luce at Hew OasUe in Uay, 1684, he intimated
next few years were devoted to preaching and bis govamment to a cotmcil, and in Angaet
to defending by his pen the doctrines of the termmated his first visit to America by s^ing
Qnakers from vorions assailants, in reply to for England, leaving behind him a prosperoos
whom he pnblished a nnmerons series of hbo- colony of 7,000 people. Dnring Us abeence
riooB tracts and Iwoks. In 1674 his attention the Qnakers bod suffered severe persecntion in
was colled to the Quaker colonies in Kew Jer- i&igland, and Penn's first care was to intercede
sey by a dispute between Fenwi^ and Byllii^^ in th«r behalf with the king, frran whom he
both Qnakers, about their proprietarr nglM in obtained the promise of ^ilire relief for Uiem
thacolony. TbecasebeingEDbmittedtoFema'8 at an early period. Oharles II. died Feb. 11,
arbitration, be decided in favor of Bylling& 108C. JamesU, who sacMeded, had been the
who snbaeqnently, being too mnch emtiarrassed pnpil in naval a^irs of Penn's &ther, and was
to improve hia property, made it over to Penn his own intimate fHend. Fenn took lodgiDss
and two of hu crecOtoTB aa tnuteea. Pennim' at £enungton to be near the eonrt,nponwhidi
me^ately engaged with zeal in the work of colo- be constantly attended, and where he had encb
nization, and at length in 1681 obtidned from infiuence that his house was thronged by hnn-
the crown, in payment of a debt of £16,000 dne dreds of snitors asking his intercesdon in th^
to his father, a patent for the territory now behalf. His intimacy with the king led to ibol-
fi)rming the state of Pennsylvania. The char- ish stujiidonB that he was secretly a Jesoit, and
ter vested the perpetnal proprietaryship of this in April, 1686, he published a pamphlet entitled
vast region in nim and his neira, on the fealty "Fiction Ponnd Qnt," to rebut the charge. In
of the annual payment of two beaver skins. 1S86, partly throngh his infinenoe, a proclama-
Ee designed at first to oall his territory New tion was issned bj the king and conncil for the
Wales, and afterward suggested Sylvania as ap> release of those imprisoned on acoonnt of re-
plicabJe to a land covered with forests ; bnt ligiou, and upward of 1,200 Quakers were set
the secretary who made out the patent insisted tree. This was followed in April, 1687, by a
on prefixing "Penn" to 8yl»8nia. Fennofibred proclamation declaring liberty of conscience to
him 20 guineas to leave off hia name, and, the all, and removing all tests and penalties. Fenn
offer being reinsed, complained to the king, who meanwhile made a tonr on the continent, dur-
iosisted that Pennsylvania shonld be the deug- ing which by order of the king he had a coo-
nation, in honor, as he swd, of his late friend ference with William, prinoe ot Orange, whom
the adiuiral. In Feb. 1682, Fenn became, with . he endeavored to convert to his views of ani-
11 others, ft joint pnrchaserof East Jersey, which versal toleration. Soon after the revolution of
was already a flonrishing colony. Aided by 1Q68, and the accession of WUliam to the
the advice of Sir William Jones, and of Henry, throne of England, Fenn was called before the
the brother of Algernon Sidney, he drew up connctl to answer to a charge of treason ; bnt
a liberal scheme of government and laws for no evidence appearing against him, he was dis-
hla coiony, and in Aug. 1082 embarked for the charged. Soon afterword, a letter Irom the
Delaware, reaching that river after a voyage exiledjamesreqnestinghim to come to France
of 0 weeks. He was received by the settlers having been intercepted, he was again arrested
with great enthudasm, and after several meet- and brought before the conncil in presence of
ings for conference and treaties with the Indians, TTfag William ; but after a long examination,
he held his famous treaty with them under a in which he declared his friendship for James
large ehn free at Shackamaxon, now Kenaing- though he did not approve his policy, and said
ton, probably on the last day of Nov. 1682. A heconld not prevent nim from writing to him,
numerous aasembly of the I)dawares, Uingoea, he was discharged. A third time, in 1690, he
and other Susquehanna tribes met on this occa- was arrested on a charge of con^iracy, tried
mon, and fbnned with the Qnakers a treaty of by the court of king's bench, ana acquitted,
peace and friendship, the only treaty, says Vol- Bnt in the following year the charge waa re-
taire, "neverswom to and never broken." Soon newed by an informer named Fuller, whom the
afterward he laid out the plan of Philadelphia, house of commons afterward branded as a
to which he gave its name in the hope that cheat, a rogue, and a false accuser ; and to
brotherly love might characterize its inhabit- avcdd arrest he concealed himself^ though not
ants. Ho purchased the Iimd where the city verydosely. MeantimePenuBylraniahadbeen
stands of the Swedes, who had purchased it greatly disturbed by civil and religious quar-
of the Indians. He now devoted himself zeal- rels, and such representatjons of the state of
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
STB hit «anwat atU^raon to Tsrions r^ tegii^ altogether proof against tlio temptati<mB
and cepeeiBlb^ to the am^oration of to vUoh it vas exposed In that Bpleudid and
uUtion of the Indiana and negroes. Qs polite, but deeplr corrupted eooiotririth which
wmiAU pEini 100
the eolony irere ttude in Eni^d, that In OoL that Penn was vitbont donbt a num of eminent
1692 the king and qoeen depriTod P«nn of Tirtaea; thathehadaatrongsenseof rellnoiu
hia antfawi^ as goremor, and directed Got. doty anJd a fervent degire to promote the n^>-
Fletoherof NevYorktota^enponluniBelfthe pineeBof mankind; that on one or two points
adDuniatoatioD 9t FennB^lTania. PownrM of h!^ importance he had notiouB more correct
frienda, amons them Loolie, !nUotaon, and the than were, in hia ia,j, common even among
dnkd of findon^iam, now intei«eded In hia men of enlarged mii^: and that he will al-
bebalf with the king: and he had a hearing wajs be mentioned with honor as a founder
before the oonmul on t^e chaima against Iiim, of a colony who did not in hia dealings with a
and was honorably aeqaitted in Not. 1698. sarage people abase the strength demed from
Bhorlly afterward, in Feb. 1094, his wife died, dvilmdon, and as a law^ver who, in an age
and he bore testimony to her Tirtnonalife and ofperae(intion,made religions liberty theoomer
Christian death in "An Aeoonnt of the Blessed stone ot a polity, the diatingniahed historian
End of my dear wife Gnll^ma Uaria Penn," alleges that "his writings and his life fitmish
Witliin two years he married a second wife, abundant proo& that he was not a man of
FT«iiii«ti CUIowhill, a Qoaker lady. His gov- strong sense. Ha had no skill in reading the
enunM^wasres' ' ' " '" ' '""' "' "^ — ' " " "^ — "' "' '
in Srot- 18», 1 __ . _.
Amariea, accompanied by his wife and dangh- great erroia and ndafortonee. His enthosiasm
ter. Hefomiduieo<donyinaproBperoaBO(ai- for one great principle acnnatimes impelled him
dition, ita tronblea baring nbdded, and was to riol^ oOier neat prindplee which he
v^^nly reeetred by the petmle. He Immedi- ought to have held sacred. Hor was his in-
atoly gave his « ■ -"-■ *- ■ ' .-_.^-. .^ -___,-_.,v ._^.___
forma, and eepc . .
the eontUtion of the Indiana and negroes. Qs polite, but deeply corrupted society with which
plana, howsrer, were arrested by tidings from ne now mingled Unhfqtpily it cannot
KngUnil that a measore was pending before be oonoealed that he bore a ehlei ^ut in some
the honae of lords fer bringfaig all the jvoprie- transactions condemned, not mwely by the
tary gorernmenta nnder the erown. This led rigid code t^thesociety to whioh he belonged,
him to retnm to England in 1701. One erf hia bnt by the general sense of all honest men.
laat ofBdsl aota beiore he embarked was to He afterward solemnly protested that his
make Hiiladel^ia a dty by a charter signed hands were pnre from iUtdt gain, and that he
Oct. 85, 1701. Boon after his arrival in Eng- never reodved any gratidty from those whom
land the projoot of bringing the proprietan he had obliged, thoogh he might eadly, while
Kovenunenta under the crown waa dropped, his inflaeuoe at oonrt lasted, have made
For several yean after this he waa fatvolvadin £120,000. To this assertion fblioredit isdne.
graat tronble by the sSUrs of Pennaylvsnia, Bnt bribes may be offered to vanity as well aa
where hia son, whom he had sent there aa hia to onpi^ty; and It is Impossible to deny tiiat
re|ffeaentative, had disgraced him by vidona Fenn was «0''^ ^^ bearing a part in soma
and riotooB oondnot; while his trnabed agent m^natiflable transactions of which others en-
in the colony, a Qnaker named Ford, proved J<^ed the proflte." Among the transactions
diahoneet and left to his exeontors felse olaima to whkh Uacanl^ here allndes was an attempt
Bgainat Penn to a very large amonnt. To to persnade Dr. Hongh, president of Magdalen
avoid extortion Peon suffered himself to be oollege, Oifbrd, to comply with the wi^ee of
committed to the Fleet prison in 1708, where King James in a matter whero compliance
he remained a long tbne, till he was released woiHd have involved a violation of his official
by the aaristanca of his friends, who com- oath, by holding ont to him the bait of a bish-
ponnded with his creditors. Wearied at length opric Bnt Dr. Hongh himaeU^ In his account
with the tronble and expense of hb govern- <a the oonvenatlon with Penn. intimates that
meni^he had in 1713 made arrangements for the Qnakn waarady q>«akinginjest — "had a
the transferto the erown of his rights as pro- mind to drdl imon us." Another and mora
prietorfor£19,000,whenheBastainedrepeated aeriona charge ia that Penn sntmiitted to l>e
ihodmof pan^^; and tbon^ he lived 6 yean made an agent of the r^aoions maids of honor
longa, be never regained hia mental vigor, and of the royal court to extort money for pardons
for suioh of that period was deprived of mem- frtjm the relatives <rf some young girls at Tann-
ory and <rf the power of motion. He was inter- t(m who were implioated in Iftmmooth's rebel-
red in Jordan's bnrial groond, near the village lion. The only feondation ii>r this eliaise la a
of ObaUbnt Bt. Giles, in Bnokinghamshire. letter rotating to the transaction written by the
— Tb» npntation of William Fenn m his own eari of Bnnderland, which t>egins thoa : " Jit.
day did not «Mape suspicion and cenanre. The Fenne, her m^esty's maids of honor having
extraotdinarr mingling <rf Qnaker simpUdfy acquainted me that they design yon and Ur.
and oonrt innnence whioh marked hia life gave Walden in making a composition vrith the re-
rise to uany ImpiotaHonB upon his character, lafions of the mdds of Tannton;" and Maoan-
whioh hare been rerived in the present day lay assumed without hesitation that the person
with mooh fbroe and pertinacily by Ltn^ Mao- to whom it waa addreased waa WiHiam Fenn.
anlayln hia "History of England." Admitting Butitbas been recently proved by the re^
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
110 PENSAHT PESNSYLVAOTA
ten of the priv? coimoil, that at this vorj time of HindoetaD," formiiig the first portions (^
a certain George Fecme was engaged as a par- a work designed to embrace an account of
don broker at Taimton, and it is moat probable every conntry in the world. Two additional
thattheletterwaaaddreBsedtohimramertban Tolnmes were iseaed after his decease by his
to the respectable and infinential Quaker. In sod, completing eastern Asia. Pennant also
the edition of 1868, Uaoanlaj considers the wrote "A Tour in 'Wales" (4to., 1778); "A
strictures on bis previous statements, and says : Joomey from Chester to London" (1762) ; an
"If I thonghtthat Ihad committed an error, I " Aooonnt of London" (1790); and the "His-
sbonld have, I hope, tbe honesty to soknowl- tory of the Farisbes of Whitefbrd and Holy-
edge it; but after foil consideration, I am satis- w^" (17M). He wrote too mnch and too
fied that Snnderland's letter was addreased to rapidly to be accoimted an anthority of the
William Pens." — See "Life of William Penn," highest kind, altbongb his attainments, espe-
by Qeorge E. ElUa, in Sparks's " American Bi- ciwy in the department of natoral history,
wr^hyl*' 2d series, toL xii. (Boston, 1853) ; were of a verf respectable order.
Hepworth Dixon's " Life of Penn" (new ed., FENNASTB MARTEN, Bee Pibhie,
London, 180fl); and "Inqniry into the Evidence PENNSTLVAHIA, one of the 18 original
of the Gba^es brongbt by Lord Maoanlay states of the American Umon, induded in the
' against WiIlismPenn,"byJ.FBget(Edinbtu-g^ middle atates, and now the second in wealth
185^. and popnlation in the Union. Its geographical
FEKITANT, Thokas, LLJ>., an English nst- posiuon is nearly central as regards the area
nralist and antiquary, born in Downing, Flint- of tlie original colonies, a position which is
ahire, Jone 14, 1729, died there, I>ec. IS, 17SB, popclarly recognized in the cnstomary desig-
He was educated at Wreibam and at Oxford, nation of thia aa the " keystone state." Peon-
At the age of 13 he was presented with the aylvaDia was somewhat indefinitely bonnded
"Omith5ogy"of Francis Willnghby, the read- aa ori^nally granted by chMter; hot in the
ing of whicE inspired Tiim with a taste for nat- final aqjnstment of colonial limits it was made
nral history. An aocoont which be wrote of a nearly perfect porallelo^am W, of the De!a-
an eartbqoake felt in Flintshire, April 2, 1750, ware river, a small addition being made at its
qipeared withont bis knowledge in the " Phil- point of contact with Lake Erie to nve i^
oeophioal Transacticna ;" and m 175S be con- access to lake navigation and a good Earbor.
tribnted to the same work an article on certdn It is boimded N. by Lake Erie and New York,
oonilloid bodies occurring in ShropEbire. This mainly along a ri^t line at tat 42° 15' K ; E.
coming mider the nodoe of Linnana, he waa by the Delaware river, which separates it from
elected upon hia recommendation a member of Hew Jersey along an irregolar line between
the royal aooiety of UpsaL In 1761 appeared long. 74° and 75 W, ; 8. by Delaware and
the firat part of bis ereat work on " Bribah Zo- Maryland along a right line at lat. 89° 48' N. ;
ology." Thia treatise, wbicb was translated and W. by Virginia and Ohio, along a right
into Latin and German, embraced nearly every line at long. 8B° 86' W. ; average length 810 m.,
species of the animal kingdom then known to width 160 m. ; area, abont 46,000 sq. m., or
exist in Britun, with the exception of insects. 39,440,000 acres. The atate is divided into 66
The best edition ia that of 1776 (4 vola. 4to.). counties, viz. : Adams, Alleghany, Armstrong,
During the publication of the work, he trav- Beaver, Bedford, Berks, Blair, Bradford, Bncks,
ellad on the continent (1766), and became ac- Butler, Cambria, Cameron, Carbon, Centre,
qniunted with BufTon, Bailor, Trew, Grono- Chester, Clarion, Clearfield, Clinton, Oolnmbia,
Tins, Pallas, and other men of stnenoe. On Crawford, Cumberland, Danphin, Delaware,
his return he began a work on " Indian Zo- Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, ftanldin, Fulton,
ology," which was speedily discontinued. He Greene, Hnntingdon, Indiana, Jefferson, Jnnia-
made a journey into the northern part of ta, Lancaster, Lawrence, Lebanon, L^lgh, Lu-
Scotiand in 1769, and another in 1772, of zeme, Lycoming, Mercer, IiTKeaniMifBin, Mon-
both of which he published acconnt& In roe, Montgomery, Uontonr, Northampton,
1771 iqipeared his " Synopsis of Quadrupedi" Northnmberlani Perry, PbUadelphi^ Pike,
which waa snbseqnently enlar^ied and repnb- Potter, Schuylkill, Snyder, Somerset, Sullivan,
liahed under the title of a " History of Quad- Snaquehanna, Ti(^a, Union, Venango, Warren,
mpeds." BbortJy afterward he b^an a work Wasnington, Wayne, Westmoreland, Wyoming,
oaUed"TheQeneraofBirda," which was never York. The chief cities and towns are: Harris
completed. Hia "Arctic Zoology" (8 vols, bnrg, the seat of government; Pbilftdelphia,
4to., 17&4r-'7) contains descriptions of many the commeroial centre of the state ; Pittsburg,
ffiecies previously unknown, and in its oompilo- Beading, Lancaster, Pottsville, Easton, Erie,
tion he was largely assisted by foreign natural- York, Nom^town, Allentown, Bcranton, Wil-
iats. In 1798 ne published an autobiography liamsporL Danville, WUkosbarre, Carlisle, Get-
entitied " The Literary life of the late Thomas ^sburg, Colarabia, Phraniiville, Chester, West
Pennant," stating in the advertisement that his Chester, Lebanon, Ohambersburg, Holltdays-
existence as an antbor ended March 1, 1791. burg, Brownsville, Beaver, Meadville, Hones-
Speedlly reviving, however, be published aev- d^ Uauch Chunk, Port Carbon, and BristoL
enl other works, amoog which were " Outlines — The following statement exhibits the decen-
oflheGlobe,"Tols.i.aadfL,iuclading "Yiewa nial progress of population dnoe 1790
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
c— .
WUk
>»*_
m™.
T«l
pu wL
ii
isn
81,1W
f
^
:;::
El
Si
11
PEHKSYLVASIA 111
Beyond all these is the AUeghaof range proper,
which eztends in a onrred line through tho
entire at&te, oonneoting with the chief range
of the same name in other states. Its highest
ridges are the Eagle, Ohestmit, and Laurel
ridSes, which are 3,B00 feet high on an average,
with some peaks of 8,000 feet. The? pass out
of the state at the 8. W. into Maryland snd
Virgiaia. The ridges E. of the Allegh^
Batio to the total popnlation of the United range are too ahmpt for cultivation, hut its W.
States in 1860, lO.OS per cent jpopnlatJon to slope is nearly all arable, even at an elevation
the square mile in 1860, 88. The population of l.BOO or 1,800 feet The valleys of Pennsyl-
of IS60 was classified as follows : white males, vaiua correspond to the mountain ridges in 'Qie
1,143,7B4; white females, 1,119,426; colored central part of the state. They generally cross
males, 86,869 ; colored females, 28,35T. Born the line of the great rivera conforming to the
intheBtat&l,844,S7B; lnotberBtate9,181,129; mountain configoration. Uhester valley In the
in En^and, 88,048; in Ireland, 161,728; in B. E., Wyoming and Lackawanna valleys in the
Scotland and Wales, 16,213 ; in British Amer- K. E., Juniata and Sinnemahoning in the cen-
ica, 2,fiOO ; in Germany, 78,592 ; in France^ 4,- tre, Onmberl^d in the S., and Monon^ela
OSS ; in other countries, 7,796 ; unknown, 2,296, v^ey in the S. W., are the prindpal. Many
Total of foreign birth, 286,986, or nearly 18 per deep narrow valleys oocnr in the monntunons
—"• The leading occupations in 1800 wore : region which traverseB the state from N. E. to
: remo)
; 8.T?.
agricultnre, 207,683 ; mann&ctures, 106,888 ; B.vf. in a belt 160 m. wide and 260 m. long.-
commerce and trade, 31,809; learned prof^ The Delaware river, which forms the E. bonnd-
riona, 9,901. Deaths in the year ending June 1, aryof the state, has tide water 133 m. from the
I860, 28,661, or 1.2 per cent, of the popola- seatoTranton, and great depth at Philadelphia,
tion- panpers, 11,6G1 ; deaf and dnmb, 1,146 ; ^e average depth at the wl^rf line of that cit>y
blind, 969; insane, 1,914 ; idiotic, 1,467. — The exceeding 46 foet It is navigable fbr the
aor&oe of Pennsvlvania is level in the B. £., largest ships to Philadelphia, for steamboats of
hiDy and monntamons in the interior^and gen- large size to Trenton, and for sm^ steamboats
erally level or arable in the W. The S. E. to Easton. It breaks thnragh the Blue rid^ at
oonntiee are hat little elevated above the sea, the Delaware Water Gap, above which it is
bnt in proceeding westward and northward a not navigable. The Basquehamia river drains
series of ridges are met, rising higher and be- the central part of the state, and runs sonth-
coming more abrupt to the Blue ridge and the ward to Ohesapeake hay ; it is a rapid, broad,
ABeKnanies, These ridges and mountains all and shidlow river, not navigable for steamboats
trend N. E. and S. W., those eastward of the in Pennsylvania, but it floats great qnantitiea
Alleghany range being precipitous, bnt weat- of timber. Canals along Ita bwika convey coal
ward from this range the surface declines and prodnce in great quantities. The Basque-
toward the Ohio river and Lake Erie in grad- hsnna has two great branches, the North branch
nal slopes. The passes of this interior range riamg in Kew York, and havii^ an irregolar
are about 2,000 feet above the sea, the lower course of 260 m. to Northumberland, the point
valleys of the Ohio where it leaves the state, of junction, and the West branch rising W. of
and Uie plun bordering Lake Erie^being aliout the Alleghanies, through which it breaxs east-
800 and 660 feet respectively. The Eiterior ward, and is 200 m. long. Below Northmnber-
valley through which the Susquehanna river land, 160 m. from tlie sea, the course of this
flows is but little elevated above the sea, and river b more direct. The Ohio river and ita
it occopies a latge area, dividing the mountain* branches drain the W. part of the state ; the
ons belt. The mountains of the state are part Alleghany river di^ns the N. W. psrii, and has
of the great Appalachian chain. At the N. E, a length of 160 m., running sonthward to Rtts-
thev connect with the Shawangunk monntaina burg ; the Honongahela, rising in Yiiginia, has
of New York and the Bine ridge of New Jer- a course northward within the state of 70 m.
sey, the last named being continued southwest- to Pittsburg. Both these last are navigable fi»
ward through the entire state and into Kary- steamboats about 60 m. each, and the Ohio, be-
land under the same name. The Blue ridge is low their pomt of junction, ia a ffreat thorough-
abont 1,600 feet high. The only considerable breforsteamnavigation. The Juniata, a tribn-
mountun 8. and K of this ridge is the South taryof the Bnsquehanna from the west, and the
monntun, a broken ohiwi of ridges about 1,000 Lehigh and Sohnylkill, tributaries of the Del*-
feet high at the highest portions. Next N. and ware, are the principal remaining rivers, each
W. ot the Blue ridge a number of sharp irregu- having canals and lock navigation. There is no
lar mountain ridg^sucoeed, the Tuscarora^Path considerable lake within the state, but it borders
Valley, Broad Top, Sideling hilLBhade, Black onLakeEriefbradistanceofiOm., aff'ordingao-
hog, and Tossey's mountain B. W. of the Sns- cess to its navigation and a snperior harbor at
qnehaona ; and Mahanoy, Sharp mountain, Erie. — The geological formations of Pennsylva-
Lackawanna, Wyoming, Uooaio, Pocono, and nia are limited to a few only of the great divi>
Neaqnehoming, N. £. of the Snaquehanaa. rioDS of the rocks. Thesearemetamorphlo(i))-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
112 PESNBTLVANIA
cloding the gneiseia as well la the altered lower the SonUi moimtaln and coming out on the
pa]sozoicgroiipB);fliapBJffiozoio8er{eefhimtiia Delaware at tbe mouth ol the L^iigh, and
Potsdam sandstone to the coal measnree; and thenoe to the bend of the river below Dnr-
the middle secondarj red sandstone. The ter- ham. The lower eilnrisn forniationB contain
tiar; and npper secondarv, developed on the the great depodte of hematite iron ore, se the
E. ude of the Delaware, do not extend to liie Oheetmit hill mines near Oolmnbia in Loncos-
other side of the river. The nortbera drift ter co., and the nimieroiu beds in Berks and
formation of Band and gravel, which over- Lehigh oos. which form the chief dependence
Hpreads all the states to the S., enters Penn- of the blast fOmacee on the Bchnylldll and the
sjlvonia at its N. comer, and Is represented Lehigh rivers, (See Appalachiaii Uouktaikb,
lif a thin sheet of gravel, which dwindles awaj Hkuatto:, and ^ir.) Hagnet^o iron ores also
mthin 80 or 40 m. of the New York state line, occur in the some geolo^o^ position in nnmer-
ezcept where it is traced dava the vallejr of ons localities. The Oomwall mine in Lebanon
the Delaware at the E. and the branches of co., aitoated in the Potsdam sandstone close to
the Ohio at the W. Along the middle portion the S, line of the red sandstone tract, is one of
of the 'S. booadory of the state the height of the most important mbiea of tiiis ore In the
the table-land appears to have been soffldent United States. — The red sandstone formation is
to arrest the omrent b; which this formation & continnation of the same groap that crosses
was deposited, for its bowlders and travel are New Jersey and Maryland. Its N. line, rang-
rarely detected in this portion of uie state, ing with the Ifnaconetconc creek in New Jer-
The gneissia rooiks, and the middle secondary sey. crosses the D^ware nver below Dnrhsm,
red sandstone that lies within an elongated ha- and extending in a 'W. direction crosses the
sin of tlie former more ancient gronp, aro lim- Schnylkill S m. below Beading and the Sos-
ited to the S. H. connties of the state, the gneiss qnahitana 5 m. below Harrisbnrg. It then in-
occupying a margin of varying width along the olines more to the S. and crosses the 8. line of
DolawarebelowTrenton,&tFhiladelphiareBch- the state near the B. V. comer of Adams co.
ing np the Scha^ldll about 10 m., and giving The B. line of the same belt enters the state
place on the N. w . to a narrow belt of meta- opposite Trenton and pnranes a general W.
morphio limestones, slates, and quartz rook, course, pasdog the BchuylkUl S m. below Nor-
whioh separates it from the red sandstone, ristown, the Bnsqnehanna in the W. comer of
This belt contains the quarries of white mar- Lancaster co., and the state line in Adams oc.
ble that have supplied with this material the near the 8. E. corner. The tract thus inclndetl
(dty of Fliiladelphia and the towns around. To is occupied almost ezduMvelT by the red sand-
the N. and N. W . of It the gneiss a^ars again stones, red shales, and con^omerates of this
and overspreads the N. part of dhoster co., formation, and by the nnmerons dikes of trap
reaching to the red sandstone formation, along rook, many of which are of enormous dimen-
the line of which, near PhcBnlxville, are the sions, and are traced for miles in different di-
mines of lead and copper, of which some ao- rections. It is remorfcable that the dip of the
count is given in the article Lbak. On the sedimentary rooks is not disturbed by these
range of the gneiss toward the 8. W. ia the dikes from the uniform Inclination of the strata
mine in Lancaster oo. which supplies the niokel at as^ea varying from 15° to SO" toward the
to the U. 8. mint for the new cent, and more N., and thenoe to N. W. The sandstones afford
of the metal also for exportation. Along the some good bml^nc stones, of which there are
Hue of the gneiss and sandstone W. of Phcenix- quarries on the S^nylkill and the Delaware.
riUe are the 'W^arwick and other mines of mag- Nert to this belt and Oie metamorphio rocks,
netio iron ore. South from Philadelphia the which bound it on the N.wd V., lie the lower
nieiss continues round the border of tLe state, sUnrian sandstones and limestones, whloh are at
uie edge of ttiis formation N. of the Maryland the base of Qie long series of pal»ozoio formo-
stote Ime coming to a point before reaching the tions Uiat occnp? ul ijie rema^iing portion at
Susquehanna river. In this r^on, near the the state. The mvlsions of this serfes are given
Ootarara oreek, are tracts of serpenthie rooks, in the article Gsoloot, vol. viiL p. 1S7; and
forming what are called the " serpentine bar- Hhtj amount in aggregate thickness to over
rens." In these rooks beds of chrome iron ore 85,000 feet. The lower members lie along
have been worked to a considerable extent, and the N.'side of the Bonth mountain and the
at times with great profit, affording lai^e qnan- W. dda of the oontinuation of the same range
titles of the ore for the manofacture of chrome in the S. part of the state, and dipping N.
-lunts at Baltimore and for the English mar- and W. they pass beneath the " anrond " mag-
:et Traip dikes are of frequent occurrence, nesian limestones of the Eittatinny valley.
not only over the gneiss region, bnt over all These limestones, corresponding to the Ohazy,
the dis^ct of the metamorphio slat«s, lime- birdseye, and Black river limestones of New
stones, and quartz rock, and the unaltered low- York, fill the whole broad valley between Uie
er siloriau formadons Into which these pass. Eittalimiy and Bine mountains on one nde
Nearly the whole of Ohester and Lancaster cos. and the South mountain on the other. (See
are occupied by these groups, and to the N. Afpalaoblui ifoinrrAiira.) Their range ia
W. of the red sandstone tracts they are met with marked by soil of great fertility, and the finest
again In Berks and Lehigh cos., ranging with agrlooltunl region of the state is this great
Li
D,oi.zoob,Google
PKNSSyLVANlA
vaBef, oooopTliu; the chief portion
W, ia 6 wide belt of oonntry, resohing to tha
main AlleKhan/ moQutains, Angularly pictor-
uqne, and BtroB^7 marked by ita pecoUar
geological and topographical features. Long
narrow ridges paraU^ to each other, after run-
ning many miles in straight lines and then cnrr-
ing together, and Tailed bf the oooarionjd ter-
mmaUon of one of diem upon tlie plain <rf tiia
vallers that lie between tJiem, are everrvbere
enoonntered over this region of middle Penn*
SflTsnia. The rirers ana the roads follow the
long lines of the valleys, finding a passage
across from one to another by the oocasional
gaps and ends of the ridges. The great pile of
the palsBOEoie formations, raised and crumpled
in long folds, the bearing of whioh ia witii the
monntiun ranges, presents ita variona members
in r^alar snooeBson ; and each one of these
along the line of its oatcrop impresses itspe-
cnliarform of outline npon the snr&oe. When
the limestone belts, by reason of their enormons
^lioknesa or by their changing <Upa, are spread
over a wide area, thia is a valley between the
steep ridges, in which the eendstones, that have
more stoatly resisted tiie deaading action, form
bold difib and give a sharp outline tis tha
ridges. Aa these formations are oontipaally
idgea and valleys, in each of which the geo-
logical formations are instantly recognized by
the snr&ce contoor. The chief minenUa of
importsuce in this series of formations below
the coal mcaBnres are the iron ores, of which
mention has been made in the article Inox.
In ft few districts £. of the All^haniea tlie
ooal measnres ^pear sometimes only over a
Tety Umited area npon the soromits of the
higneet ridgea, and with no great depth of the
fhrmation ; and at others forming elongated
banna or trongha, as those of the anthracite
repon of N. E. Pennsylvania, in which the
stntta onrve upward on each nde, giving place
to the nnderlying formations ontidde of the
basina. Within each basin these ab'ata present
frequent changes of dip, the anccesnve anti-
clinal and synclinal axes lying nearly on the
Ceral range of the badu, and the flexures
ig often sharp. The character of the for-
mation and the annual product of the ooal to
the dose of the year 1866 are described in the
article AirrssAoiTB. Binoa that time the pro-
dnotion of the different districts haa been as
follows, the aggregate, aa ^ven in the table,
including the production of a few nnimportant
localities not particularly named. The figures
represent tons :
Bch.TrkUlEH<«.
tai.-AntJ»1>.lI.(fa..
T-.
BT<— L
BjnlbMl.
=5:
SAo^un
.>_-.
•s;.
^zr
i^
W
M
^
M
ii
J5jgj
SW>1S
HMb««wr«tocCMir»u.
L.U^B^*
T«n.
•Mi Hidn
Oiilo.
.,-.
HsS
BT— 1.
B,™fl«4
s
s
TW):«i
§
t&!^ ^SSS
iMn
SS',^
M1X8
«
0,M1
jrniS
Hie anmmit of the AU^^ianies in Femuylvania
ia Uifl E. mar^ of the great bitominons ooal
field. Thehignestp(^teareoapped^thecon-
^omerate whioh miderliea the ooal formation,
or by the lower membera of this series, and
the strata ffipinng gently toward the W., the
fcwmation puns in tfili'.Viiiw in that direction,
orerqireadiog nearly the whole western part
of the state, except the N. W. comer. No
means are horded of estimating the amount
of ood produced, as the mining operations are
not concentrated at a few points, bat are car-
ried on everywhere, and more for local pur-
poses than for transportation to marlcet over
railroads and canals. From Westmoreland co.
an omotrnt estimated at 100,000 tons per annum
b eent to Philadelphia fbr mann&ctnring gaa.
13ie vo^lKt is farther treated In the article
Odai. llie other naefol mineral beds found
intergtratified with the ooal are fire day, Umd-
stone^ iron ore, and sandstone. All these oo-
onr over the whole range of the formation, the
iron ores abounding especially in the lower
part of tiie measures, which brings them to
the surface near the margin of the ooal field.
Por the statistics ot the production of this
metal, see Ibon. Salt ia obtained by boring
throng the coal formation of the western por-
tion of the state, and this bunness is exten-
sively carried on in the valley of the Eaki-
minetas. The annool product of salt is esti-
mated at about 1,000,000 bushels. Bock dl or
petrolenm has recently been obt^ed in laige
qnandties, associated with the salt in the S.
W. part of the state, for an account of which
see PxTBOutuiL Among the mineral springs
those of Bedford are the most oelebnded. —
The sdl of the state is generally rich, that
of Lancaster co. on the limestone In the S. E.,
■nd of some of tha oounties bordering the Ohio
river and also underlaid with limestone in the
W.,bd]ig particularly noted for produotivQoey. .
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
raiNNSYLTANIA
bi the B. and E. tl>« abnndance of lime oonsU-
tntea good grain soil* geanrtHj, and there tre
nene of th« thin tMliarj Modi^ or of the weak
TaHejs of Uie interior generally oontsin lime-
stone, which Reoores ^od aoila. ia the N.
grazing scnls pr^Kmd^ate ; these are rich on
Die npper Biuqnehaiuta in the N. K, thin and
oold ^ the hjgolande of the central conn tiea of
stato i^
admtea
. borderofthe
Uke the Ohio valley generally, alike
_, to grain and grazing. — The improved
lanoB of tlie Bt«te retried m 1S60 nombered
a,63&610 acres in 187,677 &nns, or less than
me third tlie snftaoe ; the opening of new lands
in the 14. central coonties will have increased
the proportion to aboat one third in 1860, Jho
unimproved land held in farms in 1860 traa
«,2»4,7a8 aoree. Extensive -wooded tracts well
adaoted to agrionltnre yet remun nnocoapied
in tiie N. oeotral comitiea. In 1860 there were
prodooed in a» state 1O,8B?,601 boahels of
wheat, 19,886,214 cf Indian oran, 21,688,166 of
oats, 4,806,160 of rye, 8,198,6» of bnckwheat,
166,684 of barley, 66,281 of peas and beans,
0,980,783 of Irish potatoes, 62,172 ot sweet
potatoes, 178,988 <^ clover and grass seeds, and
41,m of fiaxseed; 1,842,700 tons of hay;
912,061 ibs. of tobaooo, 4,481,570 of wool, 89,-
878,416 of hotter, 2,606,034 of cheese, 2,826,-
426 of nuple sugar, 889,609 of beeswax and
honey, and G30,807 of flax. The valne of live
stock was $41,600,068 ; of slaughtered animals,
(8,219,848; of market prodnots, $688,714 : of
orchard fniits, $728,889; and ot honsehold
mann&otnres, $749,183. EstablishmentB for
mannfoctore prodnoms $600 or more in valne,
yearly, were reported in 1860 to the nmnber of
31,60S, employing $94,473,810 ci^Jtal, and pro-
dndng goods to the valne of $166,044,910.
Tlie statistics of the leading dasses of mann&o-
tares were aa follows in 1860 :
T,8S8,Blt
The prodnction of pig Iron was 286,702 tons in
1850^ t^ the n. S. oensna. The retDms of that
OMuns were known to be in «ma at least for
Phihdetohia, that dty prodixdDg mnoh more
Id msniuactairea, and having a greater ntmiber
of Mtahlishmenta^ thiD was tb«i reporind. — In
fbrdgn oommom Peonqylvania holda the fifth
idaoe ; but It imports throng the port of Kew
York, in the name frf and for its merohants
alone, larn amomits of valnablc fordgn goods,
n9t inolnaed In the (^dal figures below. The
value of Imported goods in tl>e fisoal year enA-
ing Jnne 80, 186S,was $14,C20]881 ; of exports
forthesame year, $6,876,688. forthecalendai
year 1860 the total imports were $16,100,766,
and the exports, $7,848,610. The atiipping
cm^oyed was as follows in 1860 : entrances,
44S American veesels, tonnage 184,820, and
147 foreigD, tonnage 80,808; total entered, 696
vessels, 171,128 tons; clearujces, EDO Ameri-
can veraels, tonnage 105,1S7, and 181 foreign,
tonnage 127,668 ; total cleared, 487 vessM^
282,986 tons. The total shipping owned in
the Btate in 18G9 was, of regiatered tonnage,
67,869 ; of enrolled and lioenBed, 220,884 ; totaL
284,744. The number of orrivala at the port of
Philadelphia In 1860 was, of foreign vesaela,
682; veesels from domestic porta (inolnding
boats and baives), 87,740 ; total, 88,836. Ves-
sels bnilt in the state in the year ending Jnne
80, 18C9, 108, tonnage 14,476.— The internal
trade of Pennsylvania is very groat over its rail*
roada and canala. The central railroad oondncta
the largest trade to and from the western states ;
the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore
road to and from the sonth ; the Reading and
North Pennsylvania roada carry the north-
ward trade, and the Now Jersey roada an
immense traffic to and from New York. An
extemdve canal system also exists, bnt it has
been sold by the state in diviMong to various
private companies and is less important now
than it was a few years since. The Pennsyl'
vania central railroad is 860 m. long from
Philadelphia to Pittsbo^ and has a doable
track for all but 66 m. Beyond Pittsburg, the
Pittsbu)^, Fort Wayne, and Ohicago rtwroad
haa a length of GO m. within the state, and
the Pittabnrg and Btenbenville road 80 m.
This central line has now 282 m. of canal, pur-
chased from the state, and worked in conneo-
tion with the rulroad by the same company.
The Reading railroad has alengtii of 69 m. from
Philadelphia to Beading, from which point it
connects with Eamsbnrg over the Lebanon
valley road ; with various points of the ooal-
ndni^ region ; with Ootawissa, Williamspor^
and iSnira, N. T. The Sunbary and Erie road
has a total length of 289 m., of which 80 m. are
Ci, an&uahed. The total length of railroads
operation In the state in 1860 was 2,948 m. ;
their total cost waa $151,680,000. The total
length (^ canals in use in 1860 was 1,080 m.
On the L^igh, Schuylkill, Delaware, Busqafr-
hanoa, and Monongohela rivers tbe canals and
slack water navigations convey immense qnan*
titiee of coal to market, and the rulroads in and
leading from the coal fi^ds also find their chief
freogbt m coal, both carrying, hi the year I860,
over 9,000^000 tons. Great qnantltiee of lumber
and timber are transported on the ansquehonna
and Alleghany rivers out of the state to market.
Western prodnce is carried nx>st lai^ely by the
central railroad ; next by the ch^ of roads in
the north, and by the rood from Baltim(»« at
the sonth.— On Nov. 1, 1860, there were 89
banks, tlie condition of which was as follows:
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PKNNSYLTAIIIA 116
MpUal,|S5,80B,668; loans and duooimts,$6C,- censes, (670,^00 ; fromtaxonloaiii^|180,468;
8St,4T9 ; Btooks, |B,S77,774; real est;at«, $1,- ttom interest on louia bj the state, $414,094;
VSS,366 ; otiier iuTeBtments, $I,04S,M1 ; doe from collateral iuheritanee tar, $146,847; frcnm
bj other banks, (4,S48,889 ; cash ttems, $4,- sate of pnbHo works, $100,660, &o. The chl«f
91S,2SS; ratecie, $7,816,769; circulation, $1C,- expenditures in 1860 were: for interest and
830,033; doposits, $27,033,104; dne to Other pmicipalof the pnbhc debt, $2,614,M1; forei-
banka, $4,118,625 ; otiier liabilities, $1,073,- pensea of the state government, $401,868 ; for
169. A free banking lair woe passed in Uarch, common schools, $282,939 ; for chsiitable in-
1880. "So banks are permitted to issne notes stitntiooB, $128,326; for honses of refb^ and
below the denomioatdon of %S. There are also pemtentlaries, $88,446 ■ for abatement of the
80 or 40 savings instttntions, proper to be state tax, $53,363. Balance in the state treas-
ranked aa savings banks, not inclnded in the nry, Deo. 1, 1860, $722,465. — The charitable
abore, and not reporting to the bank depart- and penal or reformatorr institutions of the
mentof the state, 16 of which ore in Fhlladel- state are to some extent blended, but a nomber
phia. — The government of Pennsylvania is of verj important obaritable institntiraia exirt,
Quder a state constitntion adopted in 1790, pre- fbnnded and snpported whoUj hj private oon-
Tionsto which the chief executive offioevas tribntions. There are two great penitentJaries,
the president of the executive oonnciL TMa one at Pittabnrg and one at Philadelphia, both
oonstitatJon was amended in 188B, IBSO, and originallj oi^snized on the syston of solitary
1867. The legislative t)od7 oondsts of a confinement, and still so msint^ed. Thishu
house of representatives of 100 members, been called the Pennsjlvonla System, which is
ohosen annn^j from single districts ; and a asserted to work well, though when tried else-
aenale of not less than one fourth or more thaq where It has in some oases been reported aa
one third this nnmber^now 88 members— too severe. The constant visits and efforto of
elected for 8 years. The execntive department the prison distapline society have here a fovor-
oon^sts of a governor elected by the people for able Inflnence on convicts, relieving the severity
8 years, whose sslary is $3,000: an auditor- of what wonld otherwise he absolutely solitary
general and a sorveyor-genoral elected by thft confinement. The eastern penitendary, on
people ; a secretary of the oommonwealth, ap- Jan. I, 1861, contained 464 convicts, and the
pointed by the governor; a state treasurer western about 400. A bouse of refoee for ju-
elsctedby the legulature^oft The legialature venUe delinquents exists in Philadelphia and
meets and the executive oeparbnente report to one in Pittsburg, supported by the state, and
it OD the first Tuesday of January of eaon year, one for adults has been authorized to be built
The judicial department consists of a supreme at Philadelphia. There is a state lunatic asy-
coort of 5 judges elected by the people for lum at Horrisburg, which has 200 patients ; a
temu of 16 years, one In every period of S hospital for the insane at Pittsburg; on asylum
years. These also have jurisdiction In courts forthedeaf and dumb, which haB216 patients;
of oyer and terminer. There are 26 courts of and an institution for the blind with 16G pa-
coDunon pleas for as many districts, hi each of Uenta. These are all supported in greater part
which a preddent judge is elected by the peo- by the state, and the last two are situated
pie for 10 years ; and one or more associate in Philadelphia. There b also an institnlion
judges are elected for each county. The supported in part by the state for the training
judges of common pleas in each county are of feeble-minded ohUdren, near Philadelphia,
also juatioea of oyer and termioer, but may not Among the many charitable institutions sup-
hold such courts when a judge of the snprema ported by private endowment, the Pennsylva-
ooort is In the oonuty. There is a district nia hospital, and its insane department, both
court for Philadelphia dty and county, and in Philadelphia, and the Gbard coil^e for or-
one for ADeghany county, which includes Pltte- phons, are the most consplonous. (See Pbjla-
borg. The jud^ of the supreme court and oelfhu.J — A liberal common school system
the prerfdant Judges of common pleas reodve was adopted In 1888, under which the ooun-
$1,600 anntuT ealaiT; the judgea of the city ties had power to establish free or partially
distriota receive $2,000 to $l!!,000 saluy.— The free schools as each should choose, sn^rt be-
valae of real and personal propoly in Penn- ins given by the state only to those counties
^Ivania was assessed in 1858 at $666,049,867, which should tax themselves for the support
on whidi a tax waa ptdd in 1660 of $1,479,877 ; of schools. The greater number of counlaes at
the number of persons taxed was 640,179. once accepted the act, and orgfmized sohoou
The public debt of the state, Dec. 1, I860, nuderit; but a few neglecting to do so, the
was $87,964,602. The total revenues reoeived legislature in 1864 directed the maintenance itf
into the treasniy for 1660 were $7,479,267, free schools in the Kitire state, and the as-
and tiie total expenditures of the sajue year sessment ot Uie reqnlnte tax in the oountlea,
$8,637,147, Induding apayment of $891,?&8 $200,000 or more being annually appropriated
oa the pntdio debt Tm prlndpol revennea by Uie state from its gennvlrevennes, Tnlssy^
at th» state are derived from a tax of S| tern is now in lucceesftd operation, and very
mills oa $1 of an real and personal estate ; eflbctively directed by state and oonntr atqnr-
• -' ' ■■ ' "" Intendents, who report annually. The ocan-
mon adioob in 1860 nnmbered 11,677, enln-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
116 PKNNSYLVAHIA
■ive of FhSadelpIiia, in whtoh tiiere were BBS Sweden imder very high ampicw, nealj at
pubUc whocds. The number of pupils who the Bame time that the Kew England oolo-
attended pnbtlo Mboola in the whole st&te niea were sent ont, and a few jeara prerions to
TU MT,414, The number of teachers was Oalverfa colonization of Ua^Iand. In 1627
14,0M, of whom, ont of Philadephia, 8jl71 a well provided body of Swedes and Blnns set-
were male and 4,^^ female teaoQera. The tied on both shores of the Delaware, making
ooat of the whole syston for 1860 was $8,61B,- th«r way nearly to the site of Philadelphia.
877, of which som $860,000 was ^tpropriated They made little progress in the occapation of
tnxa the state tzeasnry, and the remainder the country, were compelled to snbmit to the
asaened by tax in the eonntry diatriota and then flonrisbing Dutch role at TSew Amatcr-
oUiea. The average term of all echools ont of dam in 16S6, and poased withotit redstance nn-
Philade^hia WOB 0 montha and Bf daya, and the der the English Jnrisdiction generally eatablisfa-
aTOrage cost for each paplt S6 cts. In Phila- ed in 1664. In 1681 the territory weat of the
delphb the acbools are wholly iree ; and in Delaware was granted to 'WiUiani Fenn, who
tiie oonutry the state and oonnty qipropria- colonized it, ana foonded Philadelphia in 1682.
tiona in moat cases render toition free. The Under the charter granted to Penn by Charles
state and oonnty saperintendence cost $46,000 ; II. the present area of the state of Delaware
and two state nomal schools are snpported at was incladed, and called the lower conntiea ;
a ooat of $80^00, A ayatem of academies waa and they continued under the same proprie-
o^aoised and endowed some years since, one taiy until 169B, when a separate legislature
in each ooonty ; bnt many of these, with their was granted them, but not a distinct governor,
endowment, nave been merged in ooHegea or The two colonies were so connected until the
Gommtra aehools. Only 30, with 1,848 atndents, revolution of 1776. The grant to Penn was
were in operation in 1660, There are 2S col- fortenitoryreally covered by the ragne grants
legea, but one of which receives aid from the made to the New England colonies, Virginia,
state ; of these, S are literary, 7 theological, 8 and Maryland ; and though the lihea on the K.,
medical, 1 law, and 1 agricnltnral. The eg- N., and W. were adjrartedwithontdifflcnly, the
gregate nnmt>er of stndenta la about 2,SD0, of boundary between Pennsylvania and Uaryland
whom 1,860 attend the medioal schools. These was lon^ a BQb)ect of contest by the heirs of
last are tlte most celebrated and ancoesaM of the original proprietors, and it was finally set-
thdr daaa In the oonntry. The medical depart- tied by the survey of Hason and Dixon, I>^nn
ment d Penn^lvania oniversity was founded in 1768 and completed in 1767. (See Maboh
in ITSS, and Jedbrson medicd college in 1884. Aim Dixon's LraxO The original Swedish
Of the adolt population in leiH^ SI,888 ot na- colony was nnnsuolly free from tronUe with
tive birth and 94,989 of tonUga birth conid not the Indians, and after Penn's colony vrae fonnd-
raad and write. — The nmnber of ohnrohes in ed a remarkable and most saooesaM peaceftal
the state reported in the oensos (^ 1860 waa policy was inaugurated with the savage tribes
8,066, of outad^ to aoocHnmodate 1,674,878 m contact with the colony. Impressing them
persons, and valned, with otbw ebnroA prop- by acts of Justice, firmness, and ^ood ^th,
er^, at $11,686,116. . The number of Uetho- Penn seonred for his successors unmtermpted
dist ehnrohea waa 889, Prmbyterian 775, Ln- peace with the Indiana until the opening of the
theran 498, Baptist 880, German Reformed revolutionary war. The diaaatroua ei^iedition
809, Frienda' 142, Eplaoopal 186, Soman Oatho- of Broddook and the aassacre of Wyoming
lio 180, Mennonite 08, and Uoraviou 84. — proved, however, that the character of the In-
Tbe nmnber of libraries In the state in 1660 diona was the same here as elsewhere. The
was 898, oontiining altogether 868,000 vol- settlers of the lower conntiea were, after the
mam. Of these, BO were public libraries, with Swedes, originally mainly Frienda. Their high
184,606 Tolnmes ; 80 school Ubrariea, with 17,- character and steady enetgy mode tliia me of
161 ; 880 Sunday school, with 68,071 ; 21 cot- the moat flourishing oolonial eatabliahmenla, if
l«e, with 77,060 ; and 86 church libraries, with not, all things considered, qnlte the most soo-
80,409. A large increase in the nnmber both of oesaftil. It beoome the eeatwleamhtg^ wealth,
Ubrariea and volnmee has ooonrred slnoe 1860. and refinement long be&a« the revohition, and
InthBsameyearth«rewere810newBpapersand continued to en^oy a high position throughout
palodioals,ofw]ikh71wereliteraryBnanusoel- the changes incident to the founding of anew
Uneona, 11^ poUtioal, 88 rdl^ns, and 13 nen- government. Its central podtion drew to it
txtl and independent; 94 were issued daily, tiie sessions of the continental congress, and it
SOI weekly, 19 semi-mDnthly, Ac The drou- waa the aeat of the general government then
latlon of nnmbers, as tasned daily, weekly, and formed until 1800. Independence was pro-
otherwise, was 988,218; and the total number daimed here, and the whole colony took a de-
ofocq^annDally printed was 84,898,679. The cided, yet not a violent or embittered part in
present Mtoal nnmber of dally Jonrnals is 87, the war of the revolution ; Brandywine, Oer-
■nd the lane of othw ,PPB<v "'^ periodicals mantown, Yalley Forge, and other points be-
has greatly fnoreased. — The Delaware bay and coming sacred to the wimh nation 6a memo-
tiwr reoHved its first dvtliied colony tnaa rable events. The first large aooesdon to the
BwedML An eztettstre sohamfl of ouonlza- population, next to the Fnends, was from a
tjon fbr tb» new world waa projected In Qermanlmtnigrationbegnnabout 1760, which
peopled several cooittiefi o^Jaoent to Fhiladel> hoe and a generallr fertile soli. Formerly it
phis, and baa given prominence to that nation- oompriaed a very large temtorj, vhioh has been
alitj in all the snbeeqaent hietorr of the state, gnaaailj cat np to form other oonnties, and its
Next was a conmderacile inmw^ratiDn of Scotch outlines are rer; eocwntrio, being oomposed (rf
oriran, bnt coming immediate^ from the N. of 8 parallelo^ims irregnlarly disposed. Tb6 pn>-
IreUnd, wMohvaadiffoaed lai^j over all tha dnctions in 1860 were 119,634 hndula of IndiaD
state. Since theee events the Dsnal interchange corn, 810,184 of oata, 231,S46 of potatoe&^ 28,-
of popolation constantly going on in American 819 of wheat, 61,768 tons of ha7, 106,977 Hm.
states has oocnrred, and PennsjlTania has con- of wool, and 784,165 of bntter. There wen 7
tribnted verj lai^etj to tlie settlement of alt grist, 2 paper, and 180 saw mills, 2 foonderiie^
the new western states. 12 tanneries, 1 ship 7ard, 6 newsp^er offioo^
PEKNY, an English ootn of the vihie of A 86 chnrohea, and 22,910 pnpils atten^ng pnl^
of a shilling. The Saxons introdnced it and schools. Capital, Bangor.
made it of silver, weighing abont 22^ gruns, PENOBSCOT, the prinoipsl river of Haina,
or f It of the pound. It wai divided by a formed by thejunotion, near the centre of the
deeply indented cross into 4 qoarters, which state, in the K part of Penobscot oo., of two
nd^it be separated by breaking tliem apart ; chief bi-anchea. The W. and larger rises near
wbenoo the introdnctton of the A^ctional terms the Canada border, flows N. E. to Oheennoook
hal^ienny and farthings (fonr things). Its lake, ftom the 8. end of which it issnes, and
wei^t was reduced by Edward L to -^ of an after a S. E. oonrse of abont SO m. enters a
onnce, and in the reign of Elizabeth its vslne group of poods or lakes, Femadumcook, Ulli-
was fixed at that of A of an ounce, which it konet,Twm lakes, and others, iagning&om them
stiU retains. It has long been coined in cop- in two channels, which unite after a short ^s-
per, but on account of the inconvenient aie of tance. The E. branch, also called Seboola iher,
tho oopper pennies, a new bronze coinage has proceeds from a number of small lakes in the S.
been detennined on In Ei^land, and is now part of Penobscot co., and has a nearly S. direo-
(1861) esecutdng at Birmingham. Hon. The main'streiam pursues a course a lit-
PEIfNTROYAL (mentha ptilegiuin, linn,), tie W. of S., receiving among its most impor-
aEnropean species of mint, of smallerriEethan tant afflnente the Fi^taquis on the W. sod
moat of the other species, and of which the en- the Uattawamkeag and Pasaadnmkeag on the
tire plant except the root is considered medici- £., and falls into Penobscot b^- Its total
naL Its stems are prostmte ; Its leaves ellipti- length, from the sonroe of the W. branch, ii
cal obtuse, nearly entire ; its flowers home in ra- about 275 m., and from the jnncldon about 185
diatJng, vertidllate, sessile spikes ttora the axils m. The principal towns on its banks are Caa-
of the leaves ; calyx smooth at base and dosed tine, Bnoksports and Orrington on the E_ and
by a ring of hairs when in irnit ; corolla purple. Bel&st, Prospect, Fraakfbrt, Hamden, and Baa-
The plant sm^ like apeormlnt, but less fra- gor on the W., to the last of whioh, abont S
grant, and has a bitterish and aromatio taste ; m. from its month, it is navigable for vessel* oi
it yields a very volatile essential oil, whioh large size. Along its course it has nnmeroDS
rises on distillation in water. It hod mnoh re- falls, affording vslnable water power. At Ban-
pate at one time as an eminenagogue, ezpeoto- gor there is a tide of abont SO feet prodnoed by
rant, and diaphoretic, acting on the ntems, and Uie pecnliar wedge-like shape of the lower part
relieving hysteria, whooping oough, and aath- of the river.
ma. It occurs In moist places, heaths, and PENOBSCOT BAY, a body of water on tlw
downs. — The American pennyroyal {hed«oma S. coast of Maine, Into which flows ijie Penob-
pulmioidei, Fersoon) la a warm-tasted, aro- soot river. It is about SO m. in length, ai^
mabo little herb, with nearly the same flavor contains a number of small idands.
and odor as the true pennyroyal. It grows in PEN8A00LA, a city and the prinoipal set-
open barren woods, or on sonny hills among port of West Florida, o^ttal of EsGamuis co.,
stones, and in fields. Its stem is 6 to 12 inches sitoated on the N. W. mde of the bay of the
hi^ erecL branching, and hairy ; its leaves same name, about 10 m. fh>m its month, in lat,
petiokd, oblong-ovate, obscurely serrate ; its 80° 24' N., long. 87° 10' W. ; pop. abont 4,000,
whorb few-flowered ; corolla bluish pubeeoent. The oonntiy iiianediatety around Pensaoola ia
ncrtmachloagerthantbecalyi; fertile stamens barren and sandy, bat little onltivated. Hid
S, the other 2 rednced to abortive fllaments. covered for the most part with pines. The
In popular medidne it is held in much esteem town itself, although a place of considerable
OD account of its diaphoretic and oarmlnativd political and commeroial knportance during the
properties. Spanish and English oocnpation, bad until witJi-
PENl* J WKlGHT, a weight of 24 graina, in a year or two past presented rather a de-
which was that of the stiver penny in the oayed appearance, the houses being generally
rel^ of Edward I. This has ever since eon- old-ibshioned Spanish straotaree, tiie streets
stitnted one of the nnits of troj weight, being nnpaved, many of them with only woodw aide-
equal to ^ of the ounce troy. walks, and but litlJe appearanoe of bn^eei
PENOBSCOT, a oeatral 00. of Me., InterseoU aotdvity to be observed. Of late there hai
ed by the Penobscot river ; area, 2,760 sq. m. ; been a large aooeenon both to ite trade and
pop. in IBSO, 73,781. It has a divertiSed snr- popnl^on, in consequence of the approaoh to
118 PKN8A00LA PEN8I0NAEY
oompletioii of the Alabama and Florida r^- middle <tf April, when Fort Pideens was rdn-
road, oonneotuig it with Montgomery; and it forced by about 1,000 T. S. troops nnder com-
now bids fair to become one of the most im- mand of Lient. Ool. H.Brown. Col. Ohaseliad
portant points in thegnlf of Meiioo. It has prerionBlybeeaBaperaededbyQeiL. Bragg, who
a Tery admirable harbor, admitting Tesaela of now (May 15, 18S1) invests the fort wiui from
a draiwht of SI feet, and aSbrding almost on- V,000 to 10,000 men.
limitea aocommodatjon. The principal pnblio FEN8A0OLA BAY, an arm of the gulf of
btdldlags are a oostdm house, Boman Gath- Mexico, in the western part of Florida, extend-
olio, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist, ing inland about SG or 80 m. in a K. £. direc-
and Baptist chnrobea, and an academy. A tdon. At a little more than half thia distance
tri-weekly and two dally newspapers are from the sea, it separates itself into two diri-
pnhllshwL The remains of the old Spanish riona, Escambia bay on the W. and on the £.
forta, San Mignel and San Bernard, may be the bay of Santa Uaria de Galrez, East bay,
aeen in the rear of the city. The ci^ is sap- or Blaok Water bay, as it is rarionsly desig-
plied with water of esoeileat ^aality from a sated. The former receives the waters of the
number of springs. The climate is exceedingly Escambia river ; the latter, those of the 'BlvA
haslthftil, except for oooaeional and rare yiA- Water and Yellow Water. The entrance of
tations of yellow fever. The Creole element the bay, between Santa Eoaa island on the E
predominates in the resident popnlation, a and tbe munland on the W., is little more than
oorrnpt patoit of the French language is ei- 1 m. wid& bnt within it expands into a o^ia-
tenriveiy spoken, and many of the nsages and cions harbor, from 4 to 10 m. in width, and
costoms prevailing are quaint and primitive. — entirely luidlocked. There is a depth of abont
There la some snoertainty with regard to the S2 feet of water on the bar. The entrance of
original settlement of Pensaoola. It is believed Pensacola bay is defended by Fort Hckens on
that a few French colouiste established them- the E., ritnateS on the extreme point of the
selvea here abont the year 169S. There is no long, narrow Island of Banta Bosa, and Fort
donbt, however, that the plaae wasin the poB- McKea on the W., sitnated on the mainland.
session of the Bpaidarda m 1699, abont which Abont 1^ m. to the S". and immediately in
tdme a colony of 800 emigrated thither from front of tiie entrance (the W, shore making an
Yera Gnu. Their posseasion was for many abrupt tarn to the E.), stands Fort San Oarlos
years dippnted by the French, and in 1719 the de Earrancafl. Near this fort are the light-
place was attacked and taken possession of by hoase, extenrive barracks, and the naval hoa-
Bienvine^ who held it nntil 1728, when it was pital. Abont a mile above the hospital ia tite
restored to the Spaniards. In 17Q3 Pensacola, navy yard, sitnated on Tartar point, where Uie
with the rest of Florida, passed into the occn- ahore again bends to the "S. The villages of
panoy of the British. It was again besieged Warrington and Woolsey lie immediately a^ja-
and taken by the Spanish general Oalvez in cent to the wall of the navy yard. 8ix uufes
1781: and in 1783 the whole province was re- above is the town of Pensacola. Atthemon^
trooeded to Spain. In Nov. 1814, the British of Blackwater river is the village of Bagdad,
forcea, whichhad been permitted by the Span- where there are extensive saw mills, sash
iah anthorities to eetabush themselves at Pen- manufactories, dec. Milton, a thriving vil-
sacola, were driven ont by Gen. Jackson, who lage of abont 1,800 inhabitants, la 8 m. above.
assantted and took the city and a^iaoent forts. There is a large lumber trade on the shores of
In May, 1818, Gen. Jackson again took pos- Pensacola bay and its tribntaries.
•ession of Pensacola, and obliged Fort Barran- PENSIONARY, Obutd, an ofBoer of the
oaa, to which the Spanish governor had retired, Dntch repnblio, who bore the title (dw of
to capitulate. This movement was made in advocate-general, and was prime minister of
oouMqnence of the inonraions of hostile Indians the states or legislative body of the province
from Florida into United States territory, and of Holland. He was called grand pensiouaiy
the inability or nnwillingneaa of the Spanish from the pension or salary attached to bis
anthoritiea to suppress them. By a trea^ office. In the assembly of the states he ini-
oondnded OoL 24, 1820, and ratted March tiated bills, drew up reports, and collected the
99, 1821, the whole province was ceded to votes. He also conducted the diplomatic cor-
the United States. On Jan. 12, 1861, imme- ren)ondence of the province, received ambas-
diately after Florida had declared its eeceeuon sadors, and anperintended the finances. He
from the Union, a body of about 600 troops, permanently represented Uie province in the
Tolnnteera fri»n Alabama and Florida, com- states of the United Provinoes, end had great
manded by OoL W. H. Chase, took possession infloence not only in the province of Holland,
of the navy yard, Forts Barranoas and McBea, bnt in the whole republic. The term of his
the naval hospital, and military barracks, all office was 6 years with privilege of re&lec-
near the entrance of the harbor. Lient Slem- tion. The most distinguished of tne grand pen-
mer, of the U. S. army, had two days previously sionaries were John De Witt, killod in 1C72,
evacuated Fort Barrancas and transferred his Heinsius^ who was in office from 1689 to 1T30,
command to Fort Pickens, immediately oppo- and Bchimmelpenninck, who was grand pen-
site, on Santa Boaa island. The relative posi- sionary of the Batavian republic &om 1768
tdon of both ddes continued the same until the to 180S, when the offiee was abolished.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FKHTAkkrcK (Gr. imv«, Ato, and itrrpm, oal pmitj whiolt Iwtism oonfent. jhc da; ma-
meuora), ■TArMooufatingttffiflMt, ofwfaioh qdi^aeuaoeof WUtBDndBjorWhUnuitid*,
tho lat and U •noOuraaolTU or spondees, PENZA, a oentnl goTenanaiit <rf European
the 8d alvm a i^Nntdw, and Uie 4th and 6tib Bvada, ritoated betireen lat tX" and SC' N.
anapMato. KlegiaoTenee«onriBt of hexameters .and l<»g. 43° and 47° E., and boonded N. bj
and pqntameteiB need alternately. N^ni NcTgorod, E. bj Skabirsk, B. by Saratov,
FENTATEUOH (Gr. nm, five, and mwt, and W. hj Tambov ; area, 14,040 aq. m. ; pop.
book), the 6 bO(^ of UOBW, bdng the &A S tnlSSS, 1,180,980. ThesarfiueiBleTeL lliera
books <tf the Old Testament, vi£.: Qeneiis,Ex- are S small lalras, and seTeral Btreanu ; bntthe
odtis, Levitioiu^ Nnrobers, and Deateronomjr. atHj rivers of anj importanoe ere the Sura and
^BeaBrau, andBxBBXWfl.) ttte Moksba, both tribntarles of the Yolga.
P£M!ECOST (Or. nrmawnh fiftieth), one Yalaable iron mines are worked near Trol^
of the S prinoipal festivals of the Jevs, so millstones are eiteninTel;^ qoarried, and larm
ealled in Greek and modem langnagee beoanse qnantities of sulphur are fonnd. The cold In
it iras odebrated on the GOth A&j after the winter is ver^ severe, bat the sonuner is miU,
fleast of the passover, bnt oriffinaU; called and the climate general!; healthj. More than
the "ftast of weeks" (Heb. hay iaihihabtMtk; half the sorfoce la arable or meadow land, and
in the book of Tobit, Ayia hrm iffSoiu^ar, there are eztenmve forests. Great ^lenlion is
the feast of 1 veeks), because it was oele- pidd to raising horses, homed cattle, sheep,
brated T weeks after the 16th day of the 1st pigs, and bees. There are iron works, glass
month ot the Hosaio calendar (Niaan). It works, tanneries, &o. — Pxsla.. the capital, is
was md is still observed bv the Jews (now sitasted at the jnnotion of tne rivers Fenaa
gaoeially also on the di^ following the SOth) and Snra, 46fi m. B. E. from Kosoow ; pop.
as a day of pnblio r^oioing, and abo in com- abont 19,000. It stands on an eminence, and
tnemorstion of the revel^on of the law on Is bnilt prinaipail7 of wood. There are mann-
Binai, whioh hjppened on the same day. — The flwtories of woollen fabrios, linen, leather,
Aaj is also kept as a high festival in the Ohris- soap, and silk. An annual fair is hdd, which
tiu) ehoroh to oonunemorate the descent of lasts from Jnne tS to Jnly 4.
the Holy Ghost npon the apostles, 10 days af- FENZAHOE, a aeanort and the most weit-
ter Christ's ascension and the oommenoement erly town of England, on Uonnt's bavj Oom-
of tike preaoUng of the gospel to the gentiles, wsll, 94 m. 8. W. of Traro and 9 m. E. If . E
'tho ^KMtles, the women, and others, to the of Land's End; pop. in 1861, 9,314. The sit-
nnmbeor in all of abont 120, being gathered to- nation of the town Ib exceedingly pictnresqos,
gether at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, standing on a beantlAil shore finely onrved,
"sodduily there came a sound from hearen as and sarronnded by roeky eminences. It has
of a maUng n^^ty wind, and it filled all the several chnrohes wd pnblio bnildii^n the hall
honsB where they were ntting. And there and mnseom of the Cornwall gaologioalsoaiety,
qipeared nnto them cloven toi^ea like as of and a pier of oonidderable length with a U^t-
flre, and it sat upon each of them. And they boose at its extremity, lln and copper, wluoh
were all filled with the Holy OihotA, and be- abonnd in the neighborhood, are exported in
gan to speak with other tongues as the Spirit large qnantities, as well as obina clay and fU'
gave them utterance. .... Kow when this chuds. The climate is remarkably mild, and
was noised abroad, the mnltitade come to- nnmerona invalids resort thither. Sir Hnm-
gethn*, and were confbnnded, beoanse that phiy Davy was a native of Ponzanoe.
every man heard them speak in his own Ian- I^ON, a Spanish word signi^ng a day
gnage." (Acts li. 3-6.) It is farther related laborer. In Spanish America it is applied «•-
that Peter Qiereapon preached to them, and pedaUy to Inoisn laborers. By the dvil law
abont 8,000 sonls were converted. The pre- imder tiie Spanish colonial system, and bj
eise natnre of the gift of tongnuu as the pow- facial statute in soma countries, as (or lit-
er then conferred by the Holy Ghost is gen- stance by the law regnlating oontraots be*
•rally called, is very variously es^Jalned by tween masters and servants in New Mexioo,
oommantators. Some believe that the apos- peons are compelled to work for their empk^-
tles were miraonloosly enabled to speak all ers, provided they are in debt to the latter,
languages withont having learned them; others until the debt b pfdd. They receive wagesj
soppoee the speaking with tongaes to have amounting In New Uexieo to $6 a month. It
been merely a convulsive sort of utterance Is alleged that many proprietors, by entiotng
followed by intelligible and inspired words, the peons In their employment into needless
Other critics hold t&t the speakers ased either expenditures, and by wiling them soode and
their own native languages, or an eostatio advancing them money, contrive to keep thsm
tongne which by a miracle sonnded to each hopelessly in debt and in a consequent state
hearer ss if it ware his own dialect A sy- of bond^^e. The creditor, however, has no
nopsis of the different opinions is given by De power over the wife and ohildren of the peon,
Tette. The fiastival of Pentecost was in the nor can the latter be sold like a slave,
aariy ag«s one of the favorite seasons for ad- PEORIA, a central oo. of Dl., boonded 8.
ndnistcnrfaig bmtism : and as those who reoeived E. by the Illinois river and Peoria lake, and
it were elotfaed in white to qnnbollse the spirit- drained by Spoon river, Kiokapoo, Elbow, and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
120 '^'^^
Otnpeni ereeks; area, 000 sq. m.; pop. la van aninst the hostile Mbea on the hanka
1660, 17,U7; In 1860, 8fl,M6. It has a gentlf of the fihine, and espeuaUy the Fri«aiu and
nnduating tar&oe and rerj fertile soil. The the Alemanni, After repeated defeats, botli
prodnotiosa In 1800 were 1,018,289 hushela of were enbdned. Bnt the latter dajs of Pepis
Indian eom, 186,167 of wheat, 188,718 of oats, were troubled bj the rivalry between his l^t-
13,668 tone of haj, and M,236 Iba. of wool. In imate wife Pleotmda and Ma raistresB Alpaida,
I860 there were 10 grist mills, 16 saw mills, 8 the mother of Ofaarlea Uartel. Hia own son
tanneries, 6 newspaper ofiioea, 72 chnrchee, and Grimoold was murdered; and he be^neathed
7,&41 pnpils attending pablio aohoola, — Peobu, to his grandson nnder the regeno; of hia widow
thaoapitel,is sitnated on theW. bank of the U- a power which was soon seized apon bfhis
linols river, here croseed by 3 bridges, each natnral son, whom he had imprisoned,
3,600 fbet long, at the oatlet of Peoria lake, 70 FEFOf thb Sdobt (U Br^, king of the
m. N. &om Springfield, and 160 m. b? r^lroad Franks, t^e first of the Carioyiogiau d;naitj,
B. W. from Chicago ; pop. hi I860, 14,762. bom aboot 716, died in 768. On the death of
It haa regular river oommnnioadon bj st«am- his father Oharles Uartel in 741, he reoeived
boat with St. Lonis, and is conneoted with as his Bhare of the Frankisb empire Nenatria,
Ohtoago by the Elinois and Uiohigan oanaL Bargondy, and Provenoe, while his elder bro-
The Peoria and Bnrean Yalley, the Logans- ther Oarloman had Anstrasia and the oooi^iea
port and Peoria, and tbo Peoria, Oqnawka, on the right bank of the Bhine. Tostreagtheo
and Burlington rulroads, which concentrate his pews', be placed on the throne a Iferorin-
in the city, unite with the principal railroads gian prince, Ohilderio m., and contented him-
of the state. It is a city and port of entry, well self with the title of mayor of the palace. In
btdlt, r^olarly l^d ont, with wide pleasant concert with Oarloman, be forced the Bava-
slreetB lighted with gas, and contain^ beside nans, the Alemanni, and the Aquitaniana into
theoonntybnildingSiSeveralednoationalinstita- enbnussion; bnt Oarloman having in 747 ra-
tions, and 24 ohurohea. The products of man- tired to a convent, Pepin, setting the Jort
nfaotnre in 1860 amounted to f 6,717,000. The dainiB of his nephews aside^ made hima^ the
neighboring blnfb contain inexhauatdble beds ruler of the whole Frankiah dominions. He
of coal, and esoellent timber also aboundsin the now thought the time had come to add the title
vicinity, giTing rise to a very extensive trade, of king to hb authority ; in oonseqnenca of
PEPIN OF HfinisTAL, di^e of the Franks, which, avaiUng himself of a favorable decison
bom abont the middle of tlte 7th century^ died of Pope Zacbary and the consent of the lords,
in 714. He was the grandson of Fepin of he confined Ghilderio IIL in the monastery
lAnden and the founder of the Oarlovingian of Bithin, near St, Omer, and was Bolemnly
family. Inheriting part of the inflaenoe of his crowned and anointed by St. Boniface at Bois-
anceatora, who held tjie hi^^eat rank among sons In 763. In the same year he received the
the Ifudet or lords of Anstrasla, Pepin, in con- Bubmiesion of Soptimania, which for Bevertl
cert with his oondn Uartin, the mayor of the years had been held by the Saracens of Spain,
palaoe, led the rebellion against King Dagobert In 768 he forced the Saxons to reeogniu Ma
n., who was murdered in 679. The two ohieft supremacy by paying a tribute of BOO horses
then receiTed the title of "dokes of the and taking an oath to respect the Christian
Franks," and the kingly title in Anatrasia was missionaries travelling among them. Pope
aboHshed. They attempted to subdue Kens- Btephen HI. now visited France to solicit as-
tiia, which was then ruled by the mayor eietance against the perseoutione of Aetolphna,
Ebroin, bat were defeated at Lenoo&o near king of the Lombards. Pepin received the pon-
Laon in 680, when Martin was killed and Pepin tiff with great honor, had the ceremony of cor-
remained the only chief of the Anatrasiana. onation performed again by him, and started
Oocatdonsl hostilities took place during the fol- for Italy at the head of his army. He croeoed
lowing years, without any marked gnooeas ; bnt the Alps and besieged Astolphus in Paris, who
Pepin <£d not give up hie ambitions designs, sned for peace and aseented to the terms dio-
and in 687, having rooted the Qermans, he tated by his conqueror; bnt P^in had acarce-
was enabled to invade Neuslria at the head of ly left Italy, when Astolpbns broke tha treaty
a formidable army. The contest ended in the and threatened the city of Bome, Pepin haat-
batHe of Testry, when Boman France, as north- ened to the rescne (7C£), couqnered the exaroh-
em Gaul was called, eaccmnbed to Tentonio ate of Bavenna, and gave it^ with the Peuta-
Franoe ; and thenceforth the doke was the ao- polls, to the pope, thus fonnding the temporal
knowledged roler of the whole Prankish em- sovereignty of uie holy see. In 769 he invaded
plre. He nevertheless permitted Merovingian Aqnitania, which, under the heroic Waifar^had
princes to continue upon the throne ; but Thier- asserted its independence. A dreadtU war of
rrin., Olovis O., Ohildebert III., and Dagobert 8 years was waged, and the king of the Franks
In. were mere phantoms whom he kept under could only eecnre his conquest of that province
guard in some villa, bringing them forth bnt by the asaaasination of his rival (768). Pepin
onoe a year in the national meeting of Uay, died a few days after hia return from his urt
while he wielded unlimited authority, control- expedilJoQ thither, leaving his kingdom to his
ling the arietooraoy of the chiefs as he did two sons, Oarloman and Oarl, the latter of
royalty. From 087 to 713 he was engaged in whom was afterward known as Charlemagne.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
121
Notirltiiita&Siig Ub shortnen of etstim, from vWe he died booh «fter. On account of hii
vhioh Ms mrname was dativecl, Tv^ was alliance wKh the Noitiunen, he was staled
noted for extraordhuiT phTsical sbength ; and " the Apostate."
this, with oonrage and actirHj', soonred his In- FEPPKR, a name applied to a nomber of
fluenoe over the torbnleut chieftains of Ten- pungent-ihiited plants belongs to distinct
tonic France. orders. The black pepper {p^er nigrum,
F£PIK I., king of Aqnitaoia, bom about 809, Lino.) is the borr? of a climbing vine of the
died in 8Sfi. The second son of Lonis le D6- East Indies, \ety extensivelj cultivated there,
bonnaire bj his first wife, he received from It is the tjpe of the pepperworts {piperacea,
him in 817 the kingdom of Aqoitania, while Lindley), which comprise in their several
Ilia fonngest brother Lonis had Bavaria, and species ahrabs and herbs with articulated
llie eldest, Lothaire, was associated in the gov- stems, opposite verticillate leaves, which are
imunent of the empire. In 899, when the em- sometimes alternate in conseqnenoe of Qte
peror wished to change this arranrcment in abortion of one of the pairs ; etjpules none, or
order to provide for Charles, who had been in piurs or single, and opposite to the leaf;
txHD to turn hy his second wife, Jndith of Ba flowers nsnally sessilo, in spikes either terminal
Tint, Pemn Joined his brothers in a rebellion orasillarr, n&ked,havingabractonthe ontnde,
sgunit taeir &ther, whom they confined in a the stamens 3 or more, arranged on one side ;
moniatery; bat soon becoming dissatisfied with anthers with lor 2 cells; stigmas 8; ovarvum-
the overbearing manner of Lothaire, who bad pie, l-cel)ed : fruit somewhat fleshy, indehis-
seiied npoQ the imperial aTithorit;^, Pepin par- cent, 1-seeded. Some doabt exists among hot4-
ticipstea in the national assembly held in 8S0 nista whether the pepperworts are exogenons
at Mmegnen, irhioh restored Lonia to hia or endogenoos ; the venation of their leaves
thnme. His father now desiring to take and the general appearance of the wood favor
Aqnitaoia from him, he. In concert with his theformersnpposition, whileobaervationsmade
brotheiB, flew to arms again in 8SS ; and the bj Blame in regard to the spiral vessels seem
three princes marched their troops to Alsace, to indicate that they are endogenous. The
met the emperor at a place afterward known black pepper has broad-ovate, acnminate, 7-
aa Lfigetifeld, took him prisoner by means of nerved, coriaoeoos, smooth leaves, pale beneath
the trsachery of his own troops, conveyed h''^ and dotted when yonng ; the flowers are ntn-
to Oompi^e, and forced hmt to do solemn at«d npon long, pendidons, tapering aments,
Coe. Bat at the end of a few months and succeeded by round fleshy berries. These
and Louis of Bavaria, diagnst«d onoe are gathered after tiie pepper vine is at least 4
more with their elder brother's behavior, re- years old, and qniokly dried upon mate, when
leased thdr &ther from his captivity and again they turn black. In this .condition they are
leknowledged bis supremacy ^84). Pepin termed blaok pepper, and the white pepper of
nssddicted to Intemperanoe,— Pbkk XL, his the shops oonaiste of the same berries freed
eldest son, bereft of his inheritance, wltich was fh>m the bnsk or rind by maceration in water.
B«nted to Oharles the Bald, the youngest son Pepper, though nsnally employed aa a grateful
of Louis le IMhonnaire, was nevertheless ac- oondiment, is likewise prescribed aa a medi-
knovledged as king by the Aquitanians. In cine in oases of relaxed nvnla and paralysig of
UO he joined hia nnole Lothmre in his contest the tongue, and in the form of an ointment for
•giinst Charles the Bald and Lonis the Ger- scald-head. Infhsed in spirit and water, it has
nun, was defeated with him at Fontenay in been considered more speedy and milder in ita
Ml, and once more, by the treaty of Terdnn operation as a remedy agunst the return of a
in Si3, deprived of his kingdom. He still paroxysm of intermitting fever than the oin-
boireTer held hia ground, forced Oonnt Wil- ohona alkahea. Pepper is a dangerous stimn-
lisin of Tontonte into snbmission, routed the lant la excesMve doses, being fonnd hurtfbl to
■nny erf Obarlea the Bald near AngouUme in the liver and ii^urious through its impression
SU, snd finally in 846 obliged his uncle to on the nervous system. The ofBcinal onbeba
naot him the best pert of Aqmtania as a fle£ (P. oubeba, linn.) and another species (euheba
Bit his popularity among the Aquitanians van- eanino, Hiquel), both common in Java, are ex-
idiedirh«ihealIiedhimselfwiththeKorthmen, tensively need in medicine. The leaf of the
Abandoned tmth by his sutgects and his allies, betel, which b chewed with the areca nut, is
he took reftage in Qascony, but was betrayed from the P. bttU of Uiquel. The fcava plant
into the liands of Charles the Bald by the 6aa- is the mrwrcpiper methyttieum (Miqnel), whoee
oon chief Saooher in 663. Imprisoned in a rootstooks are used by the Society islanders
mooattery, he eooaped in 854, indnoed a nnm- for purposes of inebriation ; its medicinal prop-
ber of Aqmtfidans to rise in his behalf again erties are stimulating, narcotic, sudorifio, and
proonred the assistance of the Northman, and aromatic. It has a reputation, as a tincture,
in 667 obliged Oharles to grant biin lands, against rheumatism. There ore many other
But in a last attempt to take Toulouse at the species in this order which possess usefal Prop-
hesd of Uls Northmen in 884, he fell into an erties. The African pepper consists of the
■mbnah, wss sent to Pistes, where be was sen- seeds of the xylopia aromatica (Blume), grow-
tenoed to death by the lords of the kingdom, ing in Sierra Leone ; and another spaoies of
■iid was imprieoned by hia nnole at Senlis, Brazil and Guiana is employed for Uie same
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
122 PKPfKBKT^i ^EPtS
porpoM hy the negroes of thou oonntiieB. up. Thoiif^ an srdeiit roundhead in hie ;oiiih.
These planlB belong however to the anonaeta. he expressed neat ioj at the restoratitoi of
Hie importations of black pepper into the Charles II., and accompanied Montagn in the
Unit«d Statea for the year endmg June 80, capacity of secretary to tiie two generals of the
1660, amoonted to 7,091,760 lbs., valaed at fleet when be brot^^t tbe king over. In the
$401,791, of which (107,413 worth was re£z- anmrner of 1600 be was appointed clerk of the
ported. — The peppen of the kitolien garden are acts of tbe navj, an office which gare bim con-
the fruits ofthecqidcQma, of the uatoral order stant opportmiities for intercourse with the
tobmaeea. (See Oafsioch.) doke of York, who held the poet of high ad-
PEPPEBELL, Sib Willum, an j&mericaa miial, sod wiUi whom he was soon in great
general, bom at Eittery Pohit, He., in 1697, &Tor. HistalentsforboNDesswereof no corn-
died there, Jiilj 6, 17&9. He was brought np mtm order. During the plague of 1665 be bad
as a raerohant. About 1727 he was edeoted the whole monagemeDt of tbe naval affurs. He
one of his m^estj's council for the province was one of tbe ooQunisffloners on the atfturs <d
of Ifasaaohosetts, and he was regolarlj re- Tanker in 1662, and became treasurer to the
elected tat 82 years in succession. living on conmiSsaion in 1666. At tbe same time be wss
an exposed frontier, where tbe inhabitants wpointed surveyor-general of Uie victualling
were constantly engaged in warfare with the ofBoe. When tbe officers of tbe navy boaid
savages, a huve portion of bis life was spent in were called to tbe bar of the house of commons
the camp. He rose to the highest honors, and in 1668, to answer for the disaster to tbe Brit-
when the expedition against Lonishurg was ish fleet in the Dutch admiral De Rnyter'a ex-
undertaken, the governors of Ife^t. England sedition against Chatham, Pepys was chMen
gave him the command of the troops. Begin- ny bis coUea^es to conduct their defence,
ning the siege in Uay, 1746, he soon compelled which he did in a speech of 8 honrs with com-
tbe taij to sorreDder, and in reward for his plete success. His diary cootwua a corioos
services wss made a baronet. In 176B he was record of Uie compliments which were paid
appointed lieutenant-general. His grandson him on this occosioa : " Iifr. Yaugban did pro-
was created a baronet in 1774, and embraced test . . , . that he had sat 26 years in parlia-
tbe royal oause during the revolutionary war, ment, and never beard sacb a speech there be-
in consequence of which his estates were con- faro; forwhiob the Lord OodmsKemethaokfull
fiscated. The life of Qen. Fepperell has been and that I may make use of it not to pride and
written by Usher Parsons (8vo., Boston, 1S66). vain glory, but that, now I have this esteem, 1
PEFPERUINT. See Hint. may do nothing that may lessen it 1" Neverthc-
PEP8IN. See Ohyme. less, though he was many years in parliament, he
PEPUBOH, JoHAinr Ohbistoph, a Giennaii made no flgnro there. Shortly aAer the dose
composer, bom in Berlin in 1667, died in Lon- of hia diary be travelled on the continent, and
dos m 1753. For a number of years be held oolleoted a variety of information respecting
an appointment at the Prussian court as harp- tbe Prendi and Butch navies. He was not
siohora teacher, and about 1698 emigrated to without his enemies; the earl of Shaftesbuiy
England, where he passed the remainder of bis att«mpted to show that he was " a pt^iat or
life. As a composer he is chiefly known by popishly inclined," with a view to defeat him
his adaptations of popular lurs for the " Beg- in a ctrntested election case before a committee
gar's Opera," for which he also wrote an on- of the honseof commons, and some years afler-
ginal overtore. He was the author of a ward attempted to implicate him in the murder
" Treatise on Harmony" (1781), highly es- of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey. In 1678 King
teemed aa a theoretdcol work. Charles appointed him secretary for the affiurs
FEFYS, CoAXLK GamsTOFHBB. See Cot- of the na^ — ^^ ofBce which only involved
TXNHAH. bim in fresh difficulties, for during the excite-
FEFYS, Baiiusl, an English diaristj bom ment of the popish plot he was accused witJt
Feb. 28, 1638, died Uay 26, 170S. He belonged Sir Anthony Deane of sending secret partica-
to an ancient family, bnt hia father was a tailor, lars respectinic the English navy to the conrt
and his own early llfeseems to have been passed of France, and of being an enemy to the Prot-
in humble circumstances. He was educated estant religion. After 9 months' imprisonment
at St. Paul's achool, London, and at Uagdalene ho waa discharged, the oompl^nant, CoL John
college, Cambridge, where he held a scholar- Scott, a man of bad character, retracting hia
ship, bnt it does not appear that he took a de- deposition. Pepys bad now lost his office, bat
gree. Inl666 hemarried a yonn^girtwitbout in 1680 he attended the kmg at Newmarket,
fortune, and went to live with his cousin. Sir where he took down in ehort^bond hia mi^es-
Edward Montagu, afterward flrst earl of Sand- ty's narrative of his escape after the battle of
wioh, whom he acoompanied a few years later Worcester, which has often been published. In
on his expedition tj> the Sound. He waa imme- 1683 be accompanied Lord Dartmouth's eipedi-
diately afterward appointed to a small office in tion to Tangier. Aiter his return be waa a^
the exchequer. On Jan, 1, 16GB-'60, he began pointed secretary for the affura of the admi-
to keep a short-band ^ary, which ho continued ralty, a post which he continued to fill with
iminterruptcdly until Uay 81, 1669, when he remarkable ability until the accession of WiUiam
waa compelled by defective eye^it to give it of Orange, when he retired to private lifa Be
.UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
WBspresidwtof tberoyalBDoie^froinlSMto longhaira; pcvchwitii its entrance craninonlr
1686. In 1690 he vbb orreBted on s charge of directed baokvard ; mammie 8 or lees; stomaob
being too favorable to the exiled James, bnt ample, and ctBcmn moderate. The largest are
was soon released. — Cj bia will Fepja left to haidlj of tiie size of a bare ; they are fonnd in
Magdalene college, Oambri<^ his Talaable ool- Australia and Tasnania, and feed on inaeots and
lection of prints, books, and mannsonpts, now vegetable imbBtancea,— In the genua maeretii
known as the Pepjsian librar;. Among tbem (Beid) the ears are very large, the tail long snd
are mAnnscripte. naval memoirs, and a coUec- ODvered with long hair, the torsna long, the mo-
tion of English ballads in fi large folio volumes, tataisoa hairy beneath^ the innermost biiid toe
from whidi Bishop Percy partly derived hia wanting, and the opemng of the pouch directed
** Beliqnee of Ancient Sn^^isn Poetry." His di- foward. The rabbit-eared peramelea (JT. loj/^
ary, after lying onreadformore than a oentnry, tit, Reid), of W. AQstralia,iBS8inohe8 long, of
was deciphered by a yomw collegian, Mr. John which the tail is 10 ; ears about 4 inches ; fnr
Smith, and part of it published, with a aeleo- very long and soft, without admixture of amny
tion from hifl private correspondenoe. by Lord hairBj pie gray above, delicate vinous red on
Braybrooke (2 vola. 4to., London, 1826). It has the mdes, and whit« below. It is called native
rince appeared in several more complete edi- rabbit by the oolomsts of Swan river, where it
tiona, and forma 4 vols, of Bohn's " Historical abounds in the grassy districts, usaaily seen in
Library." It is nniversallf regarded as one of pairs ; it burrows in loose soU like the rabbit,
the moat amuMng books of its kind ever print- retiring to its hole wheo pursued ; the fleab is
ed, and it rives us aa insight into tbe manners eweet^like that of tiie rabbit ; its food oonaiatB
and sooial Hfb of the time of Oharlea IL which of insects, especially of the larvra of a larM
we can ohtun by no other means. Fepys pnb- httpreitu fonnd at the roots of the acacia, eqnal-
lished " Usmoirg relating to the State of the ly relished by this animal and the natdvee. It
Boyal Kavy" (Svo., London, 1S60), and a tax- Is active in the evening, sleeping by day in a
ther pnblioatioa of them is in progress, edited rittdngpoatorewith the head between the legs;
by E. "F. Kimbanlt; and hia "Jonnial of Toy- it is of a aavage disposition, even in captivity;
■ge to and Residence at Tangier" has been it wijks upon the hind legs widely aeparatod,
pabliahed from the USS. in the Bodl^an library the tail assialing in the support of the body,
(2 voIb. 8vo.^841). and probably does not leap lie the kangaroo.
PEPTS, WiLUAH Easblthkb, an English — In piramtU* (Geofflroy) the feet, t^, and
chemist, bom in London in 1T7S, died there, ears are proportionately abort; the toj has
Aog. 17, 18S6. Early manifesting a taste for coarse hairs mixed with it ; the tail is covered
the natural acienoea, he became a member of with ve^ short hair ; the pouoh opens back-
the Aakesian society, founded in 17S6, for the ward. The largest speoies is the Utick-tailed
investigation of phUosophical Holyects, and bandicoot (P. nuiotvum. Gould), 28 inches long,
coBtribated a number of papers to ita pro- of which the t^ is 7 ; fur moderately long and
ceedings. Ont of this society sprang the Lon- harsh to the touch, pencilled with black and
don institution for the advancement of litero- yellow above, more yellowisli on the ndee,
ture and the diSusion of usefol knowledge, the and yellowish white below ; tail rat-like, with
British mineralogical aociety, and the geolo^- small stiff hairs, black above and brownish
cal aociety of London, in all of which Mr. Pepys white below ; it inhabits K. Australia. Other
took an active part. The progress of chemistry qieciea are found in B. and W. Australia, many
and electro-chemistry was for 80 yeara mate- with the hair harsh, flattened, and sharp, ana
rially aided by his skill in the construction of are generally called bandicoots. — In the genua
apparatus. A voltaic battery for electro-mag- ehteroput (Ogilby) the fore feet have only 9
netic e^eriments devised by him is described imall, equal toee, with abort compressed najls;
inth« " PhSoeophioal Tranaaotiona" for 1828. Iiind feet with one well developed toe, the
FERA, a Buburb of Constantinople. See Joined ones very small and high np, and the
CoKCTANTiNOFXK, vcJ. V. p. G87. onter a mere tubercle, all with nula: muzzle
PERAMZLES, a family of smell maranptal long and pointed, eara very larse, fore legs
mammals^ popolarly oalled bandicoots. The soaxWy aa thick as a goose quul, hind legs
dentition is: mcisors y, canines {il, premo- longer and about aa slender; the pouch open-
Ian |i}, and true molars }z}; the teeth are ing backward. According to Van der Eoeven,
root«d, the premolars compremed and pointed, these are the only marsupials which have fewer
and the molars tubercnlated. The head is than B toea on the fore feet. The pig-footed
elongated, the face narrow and pointed, muffle perameles ((7. eattanotU, Oray) is about 10
naked, nostrila lateral, upper lip alightly deft, inches long to the root of the ttul, the latter
and the ears moderate or verv large ; the pos- being 4 inches more ; the fhr is long, loose, and
tfirior limbs considerably the longest ; forefeet soft, brownish gray above, sometimes tinged
6'toed, with rudimentary outer toes; hind feet with rostj, and y^towish white below; ttul
with inner toe rudimentary or absent, the 8d abort-haired, black above and brownish white
and 8d joined even to the end and with smaU below ; it inhabits S. Aoatralia, making a neat,
nails, the 4th very large, and the fith moderate like other members of the family, of leaves and
" ■ " ■' " ' ■ — .. " this fami^ have been
y, Australia.
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
or radimeatarT ; tul naually short and clothed grass. Fossil remains of this fami^ have been
with amaUhaira,'but sometunes long witit very found in Wellington valley, Australia.
124 PEBOBVAL FEBOH
PEBOGVAL, Oxcesnr DX. SeeO^reenr. mnetimesofS. In sqnsra measure 160 square
PZEOEVAL, Spmkikh, an English BtateBnun, perohee make an sore, or 40 make one rood.
bom in London, Nov. 1,1763, aaeaeaSnated In masonr; a perch is eqaal to SB onbio feet.
Is the lob^ of the house of commons, Hay PEIBOH, a name properly reetrioted to the
11, 1813. He vas the Sd son of John, earl of ferdda, a verj extensive funiiy of aeanthop-
Egmont, bj his 2d wife, the granddanghter of terons flshes, characterized by a cOToring of
Ibe 4th earl of Northampton, and vss educated ctenoid scales, tlie freedom and small size of
at Harrow and at Trinity college, Cambridge, the infra-orbital bones, large month, many of
In 1786 he was called to the bar of Lincoln's the fin rays nqjointed and inflexible spines, 7
Inn, and in a few years was in posseeaion of a branchiOBtegal rays, and the Tentrals witb 5
lucrative practice. In 1796 be entered parlia- articulated rays and placed onder or ia ad-
ment for the borongh of Northampton, which vanoe of the pectorals. There are teeth on tho
he oontinned to represent Qntjl the close of hia vomer and generally on the palate, and the
lif^ and became a warm supporter of I^tt, fins are always at least 7 and sometimes 8;
whose favorable notice he attracted by a pam- the cheeks are not cnirassed, and there are no
phlet on the force and extent of impeaalunenfa barbels on the lips; the stomach is cseoal, and
by the honse of commons. So hignH- did Mr. its pyloric opening on the side ; pancreatio
Pitt esteem his financial abUitiee, tliat when cnca few and small, and the intestmal canal
aboat to fight a dnel with Tiemey he recom- hot little folded.^ — Leaving for works on ich-
mended, in case of his own fall, the appoint- thyology the considerBtion of the sabdiviriona
mentof Perceval as his sacceeaor. In 1801 he of the perch ikmily, only the typical genera
was appointed solicitor-general in the Adding- can here be allnded to, and in the first place
ton mmistry, and in 1802 attorney-general, the genns peroa (Onv.), of which the common
in which capacity he conducted the prosecn- fresh water perch (P. fiavuesM) of America
tion in the celebrated case of Peltier, indicted and the P. JlwaiatiUt of Enrope are familiar
for a libel on Bonaparte dnring the peace of examples. The old genus perea of Arte^
Amiens. He retained his position npon tho and Iiinnceus has been subdivided into 86
return of Hr. Pitt to office, and npon the accea- genera according to the nnmlwr and shape of
sion of Ihe Fox-Orenville ministry went into Uie dorsals, the characters of the teeth, the
oppoMtion. In 1807 he was appointed ohan- serrationa of the gill covers and shonldera,
ceUor of the exchequer in the dnke of Port- size of the scales, and other characters. In
land's cabinet, and npon the death of that no- the restricted genna perea of Cnvier there are
blemau in 1809 he sncceeded him as first lord 2 dorsals (the 8d flexible), all the teeth Tilli-
of the treasury. He met with his death at the form without canines, uie opercnlar bonea
bands of John Bellinghani, an English mer- serrated, the opercnlnm spiniferons, and the
chant resident in Archangel, who, for some tongne smooth ; 14 species are described, all
all^d irnnJ7 by the Rassian government for inhabitants of fresh water. The yellow perch
which he had been nnable to procure re^eas (P. fiavttettu, Gov.) is greeniah ^llow above,
either from the British ambassador in St. Pe- andgoldenyellowonthe8idea,withTtranaverBe
tersbarg or from the British ministry, shot 1&. dark bands, widest above, and white below ;
Percevsl throngh the heart with a pistoL centre of operonimn deep green, iris golden,
Bellingham had previously resolved on the dorsals and caudal yellowish brown, pectorals
destruction of the ambassador, whom he con- yellow, and ventrals and anal scarlet. It at-
fessed he would have preferred to tail ; but no tains a length of 13 to 16 inches and a weight
rirtnnity occnrring, he determined to shoot of 3^ lbs., though most specimens are below
first member of the administration who 10 inches; it is very generally distribnted in
came in his way. He was snbseqnenUy tried the lakes, ponds, and streams of the northern
for murder, and, notwithstanding an attempt and middle states and of the British provinces;
to prove him insane, was convicted and hanged, it is easily taken by the hook or net, and is an
. Vr. Perceval's death cauaed a profound sensa- excellent fish for the table. The P. Jlwnattlit
tion, and upon the reoommendatlon of the (linn.) is very common over Europe and most
prince regent parliament settled an annuity of of the northern parts of Asia ; the body above
£3,000 upon his widow, and caused the sum of is greenish brown, passing into golden-yellow-
£60,000 to be vested in trustees for the benefit ish white below, and on the sides are from t
ofhia 13 children. He vraa a man of respecta- to 7 blackish bands ; the dorsals and peotoralB
ble abilities, but distingulEhed rather as a ekll- brownish and the other fins vermilion ; it is
M lawyer and politician than as a great states- a bold biter, and ita flesh is excellent ; it is
man. He was at one time the 1^^ adviser of voracious, omnivorous, and tenacious of lifb
the princess of Wales, and was intimately oon- out of water ; the female is very prolific, de-
nec^ with the preparation of the documents podtli^ an immense number of eggs united by
referring to the "delicate investigation," which' a viscid sobstanoe into lengthened strings. In
were pnhlished in " The Book." some allied species the ahigle dorsal is deeply
PEROH, PoLZ, or Ron (Lat pertiea, a long notohed, and the villiform teeth are inter-
staff), a measure of length used in surveying spersed with canines. — There are some sea
land, equal to 6i yards or 164 feet Surveyors' perches belonging to the genusMrranwi (Onv.),
chains are oomAionly of 4 perches in length, with a ^n^ dotBol, canines, preoperoulmn
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FIB0I7AL 12&
nxmdad it th« Mgl« tad smooth, 3 or mor« This waa « ptamhlet of «bfrat 100 pagee, oon-
^n«a on operoaloin, and the Jaws not soal^ ; risting prindpnllr of Teree with a few proae
^ere an M apedea, manj of them handsome eawTa added, and was soon followed bj &
fishes, ftbnndant in the warmer seas, and som« Mwnd part, onnpoMd entirelj of rerse. In '
of them known to the anoientsnnder the name 1824, t^ng^ the inflnoioe of l£r. Oalhoun,
of jwrso. The aUied genua ontMai (Blooh), he waa appointed aaaiBtant snrgeon in the U.
smaller, with brilliant oolors and soalf Jaws, S. anaj, mA. ms detailed to Weet Point as
was iamons in ancient tbnBa, and, aooordlng profbaaorof cbemlstrjin lfaemilitai7aoadan7.
to Ariatotle, waa called sacred b; the sponge Aa the dntiee were too laboriouB for him to
&herB, beoanse no Torodons fishes oame to the find Idsnre ibr the parsnit of his stadiea, he
places it freqnented to anno^ tLe ^vera. Li soon rengned, and was mode siuieon in oon-
other genera the d<Hrail is migle and oanlnea nection with the reondting service in Boston,
are absent, as in M»tivpri*ti* (Odt.). whidi There he oontribnted freqaentlj to the " Unit-
includes the fish often caQed Uaok peron ; thia, ed States literary Gazette," and edited sev-
with other fishes of the genera ladrax (Onv), eral works, raie of wMdi was a repnblioati(»
Iftytte* (Cdv.), and others called white, raddy, of Tioeaimng Knox's " Elegant Xbtlnota." In
and sea penmea, have been deecribed under 1827 he removed to New Haven, and the aame
BAaa. The bream (pomotU mdgant. Oat.) year published the third part of " Olio," and
is otuext called pond peroh ; the white perch began a revised translation of Halte-Bmn's
of the Ohio is uie corvina o$oula (Leeoear). — geogrsphj, which was not finished nnUl 1S8&.
The salt water peroli, oonner, or ohogse^ so Ho waa also during the fears ISST-'S engaged
oommon aromid uie roci7 shores of New £^ig- In assisting in the prepEiration for the press of
land Odd the British provinces, is a cyololabrou Webster's " Dictionarj," a post for which hie
fidi of the genns ettaolcArv (Gov . and Ysl.). philologiosi attainments admirably fitted him.
In this fish {O. etrraltut, De Ka;) the body is ms taste for nstcral historj in general and for
ehHigated and soalj, the preoperonlnm finely exploration had led him to take op Om stn^
daibonlated, Hps uddk and fleshy, a row M of geology, and in 1884 be hod made on his
conical teeth in each jaw and a baai of villi- own aoooont an examination of the ranges of
form onea behind these, the scales cydoid, and trap rook in OonnecticDt Li the followW
the ansi fin with 8 apinoos rays. It varies ex- year he was appointed, in oonneotion with
ceedinAly in mze and colors, being &oin 6 to Professor Oharles Shepoid, to make a geolfwt-
IS inohes long ; it is generally of a blaish cal and mineralogioal survey of the state. To
colw, bat preeents vanona tints of brown, tMa work Percival bent all his eneigies. He
mstr, ooppery, reddish, or green, often with made a plan of the snrvey, and In ue execn-
blotw dots, and irregoUr bloiah lines on the tlon of it traversed the stt^ so thoronghly that
head ; the front teeth are larger than the there was scarcely s spot in it which he had
oUiera, and the npper jaw is very projectile ; not visited ; and at the dme appointed for the
there is & single dorsal, with 18 sbxing spinous re^rt to be made the work was &r frtKn bdng
i^s, with whose pierciog power every school finished. After oondderable dissatia&etlon on-
boj on the coast la f^nuiar. It is on excel- other appropriation waa ordered; and when at
lent fish for tiie table, and ia generally fried; the expiration of ttie qipointed period no re-
from Jnne to October great qnantitieB are port waa forthcoming, inrinnataonat^ainat Par-
taken in neta and by hook from boata, whaifa, oival become cnrreut. The idea of a fldl re-
and bridges, and always meet with a reedy port was now abandoned, and atxt oondder*
s^ ; l^ey are kept olive in large floating oars able diffloolty, reeolting partW from Uie enor-
through wbioh Uie water constantly flows, mons aocmnnladon ot moterulo, a oond»aed
whence the market is sapplied ; a string of report of 600 ntterly nnreadable pages waa
theoe fish, of an average length of 8 inches pnblished in 18^ Abont this time Perdvol
each, cleaned and Adnned, con be obtained for ocoasionolly otmtiSbnted to the New Haven
abont a oent apiece. Journals metrical rernona of Oennan, Kavio,
PEBOIVAL, Javxs Gatbs, an American and other lyrics, and in 18U published " The
poet, bom in Berlhi. Conn., Sept. 16, 17SS, died Dream of a Day." The next 10 years, spent In
in Bozel Gre^ Wis., Uaj 2, 1857. He early retirement were employed In his favorite stud-
monibated a great fondness for titerstnre, and les, with debts constantly increasing, so that
at the age of 14 wrote a borlesi^e poem on the he waa at one lime forced in order to save his
times. ^B» waa gradoated at Yale college in library fn»n ettaehmeot to apply to his friends
181S, and sAer teaching for a short time in for old; and abont |2,000 then fredy presented
Philadelphia began the study of medicine, with to him waa sobsequenUy repstd, botili prindpol
which he also Joined botany. Inl820hepnb- and interest In 1868 aa offer was made 1dm
li^ed a volume of poetry, which contained Qu bythe Ajnerieon mining ccnonany to survey
firat part of " Promeduns" and a few mints thdr lead mining repon in msoratsin, and in
poenuk Admitted to pradioe In die same year, die following year he was qipolnted geologtat
ne mode two nnanooasaftil attemple toeaUbKah of that state. The first r^ort was pnbliued
himael^ the first in his native town, the seoond lnJan.l8S6j and while ha was engaged in the
in Ohaileat(Hi, B. C, in which latter place ha preparation of the seoond hia healfca nve vaj,
iwiod In Un the first mnnber of die " dio." oaa after a geatle deeUne he dleid.— ^Fardval's
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
. ._ nanr I^AudiM of knowledge lUTiiig taken <«dera received in 1VG6 Ibe rec-
wen of as atnfaiBjurj olutncter. He wu tor; ^ Wilbj and Tioarage of EasW-liftudnit, '
ft difigent stndent of the priuo^al modem Ikq- KorUuunptonahiTe. Eia first literary prodno- '
ffnagee of Xiu«iie, besde pftring mnoh atten- Idon was the tronBlaiJon firom the Portti|iie8e '
tion to Oaello, Welsh, the Norse and Blavio of a Ohineu novel entitled Mm Siov Chwm '
tongnes ; and at one time he made an elaborate (1761), which was soon foUoved by " Hiac«U»- '
report on the grammai' of the Basqne. He neons Pieces relating to the Ohjneae ;" a traneU- '
was one ctf the first of American scholars to tion fhnn the Icelandic into Latin andEogliBhof '
welcome the reeeaiohee of Bopp and Qrimm, 6 piecea of runic pcetr; (1763J ; a new reraion '
and othra Qerman philologists. 'With geog- of " Bolomon's Bong," with notes and a com- '
raphy he waa thorooghly acquainted, and waa mentary (1764) ; and a " Key to the New Tea-
no mean i»«fl(nent in botany, ohenuntry, and tameut'' (1766). He was now intimate with '
natural hlatory. It ia by his poetry, however, most of the literary men of hia time, and in
that he will be chiefly remembered. It haa 1764 Dr. Johnson passed 8 monthB at his vicar-
been oolleoted and pnblished (S vola., New age, where he fonnd him eagerly engaged in ■■
York, 1834; Bosttoi, 1860). In hia private ohar- preparing the collection of old songs and bal-
acter he waa ringnlarly modest and reserved, lada to which he owes all his present celebrity. '-
and tronhled by a oonatitntional melancholy, Ihe " Rcliqaea of Ancient English Poetry" ap- :
whicdi hia expwienoe in Ufa t«nded rather to peared in 176S. The greater part of the col- -
deewn Afut to remove. lection was taken &om an old manoecript in
FEIBOIVAL, TaoiuB, an English physician the editor's possession, and many other pieces i
and moraliat, bom in WarrioKton, Lancashire, were obt^ed from the Pepysian library. The :
in Sept 1740, died in Kanoneater, Ang. SO, reception of the book waa not at first enthnsi- i
1804. He was ednoated at the Warrington astio, but it procnred for Percy the wpoint- '
Boadeniy,andinl761 went to Edinbnrgh, where ment of domestic chuil^ to the duke and :
he studied medicine. Afterward he visited ducheas of Northomberland in 17SS, and chap- j
London, Paris, Hambni^, and Leyden, at which lain in ordinary to the king in 1769. In 1778 \
last place he received the degree of M.D. in he waa made dean of Carlisle, and in 1783 biEh-
1766. In 1767 he settled at Manchester in the op of Dromore in the county Down, where he
practice of his profeemon. He devoted much passed the rest of his life engaged chiefly in the j
of his time to the investigation of aalgeats con- dnties of hia diocese. In bis latter days he he- i
nected with medidne, and to his inatrnmental- came totally blind. Dr. Percy was himself a
ity the Hanoheater philoeophieal sodety owed poet of ooniiderable merit His " Nancv, wilt ,
its oripn. In the latt«r yean of his lUb he thonoomewithme!"and"TheHermitofWark-
tomed his attention to mOTal philoaophy, and worth," a poem connected with the history of ,
several of his works on that subject became the noble family of Percy to which he was re-
very popular. In religion he waa a dissenter. i>uted to belong, are wellknown; and the beau-
He wrote a large number of worka, most of the tiful ballad of "The Friar of Orders Gray," ,
earher of which speared ori^pnally in the which appears in the " Eeliqnes," ia mostly his ,
"Philosophical Tranaactions" of London or own composition. He also published in 1770 ,
Manchester, and were republished In 1767 nn- the " Northumberland Household Book," and a
der the titie of " Essays, Medical and £xf«ri- transl&tian of Mallet's " Northern Antiquities." ;
mental." Of his other works may be mention- PERCZEL,M6eicz, a Hungarian general, bom ,
ed "Observations and Experiments on Water" in the county of Toloa in 1814. He stndied '.
(8vo., London, 1768) ; " Observations on the at Pesth, served for some time in a corps of j
Poison of Lead" (8vOyl774); and "Medical military engmeere, subseqnentiy representei hia
Ethics, or a Code of Institutes and Precepts native county at the diets of 1889-'40, ]848-'4,
adapted to the Profesmonal Gondoct of Pbysi- and 1847-6, and after the revolution of March,
dana and Burgeons" (8to., Manchester, 180S>. 1818, waa elected by the city of Buda a mem-
Of his works on morals may be mentioned her of the new national assembly. Belonging
"Moral md Literary Diaeratations" (8vo., to the extreme liberal or radical party, he be-
Warrington, 1784), and "A Father's Instmo- came a favorite with the jonth of the capital.
tions, constating of Moral Tales, Fables, and On the approach of Ban Jellachich in 6ep-
Eefleotiona, designed to promote the Love of tember he formed a body of volunteers, and
Yirtne" (8vo., London, 1788). After his death assisted by the militia of various south-eastern
hia oolleoted worka, with a memoir and selec- countiea, aa well aa by GCrgcy, he compelled an
tions from his corresprndenoe, were published isolated Croatian corps to surrender at Ozora
by hia aon (4 vols. 8vo., London, 180^. (Oct 7). This achievement rused Mm to the
PEROUSSION, In medidne. Bee AnsanL- rank oif general, and he sabaequently acted
TATioK, with Buooess on the Mnr and Drava, and cross-
PEKODBSION CAP. Sea FoucorATBa. ing the frontier made a short incursion into
PEROY, Tnoiua, D.D., an Eni^ish prelate Btyria. The advance of WindiaohgrAti in De-
and sdiolar, bom In Bridgenorth, Shropshire, cember caused the recall of hia corps ; but be-
April 18, 1728, died in Dromore, Irdan^ Sept fore he ooold join the retreating army of GOr-
80, ISll. He waa the aon of a grocer, waa gev, be was suddenly attacked at Moor by
edaoat«d at Ohristohoroh oollege, Oxford, and Jduduoh and hia force entirely scattered (Dea
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FEBDIOOAS PEBEIBA 127
S9). He Boon collected tiie remans of his oorp^ hia goremmeDt lad to hostilities. AatlgtMias
and tmdertook, in Jon. 1949, the defence of Uie fled to Macedonia, and Antipater, Oraternsj and
leftbsnk of the middle Theise; bat after well Ptolemy formed a leagne and declared va
BxecDted attacks on the Aostrians at BEolock against Perdicoas. He determioed to attack
and Ozed6d, he was sopereeded hj the Polish Ptolemy, and, leaving Emneaes behind in oom-
general Dembinski. In March he waa sent to mand m Asia Minor, set ont for EgTpt, and
the eosth, relieved Peterwardein, stormed the marched as far as the Nile witbont opposition,
ramparts of Bzent-Xam&s, the principal atrone- In attempting to cross that river he was ropeat-
hold of the enemy, entered the Banat, and aa- ediy repnlsed, and in the last effort lost so monj
-vanoed as far aa Pancsora (Haj 10). Alter men that the discontent in his army, vhioh for
nnmeroos qaarrels with other generala and the a long time had existed in secret, broke oat in
raamlxav of Kossath's new adminiatration, he open mutiny. A nnmber of officers, headed by
was deprived of bis oommand at the end of fiolencns and Antigenes, went to his tent and
Jmie. He collected a new body of volonteers. there despatched him. Perdiooaa was repnt«d
Joined Wysocki at OzeglM in July, retreated a man of great military talents and peraonil
with him toward Szegedin, and, again deposed, conrage ; but his disposition was cr^ty and
fbnght with Dembinski in the &tal battle of oi^el, his ambition grasping and tmscmpnlons.
TemesTfirfAug-fl), after which ho withdrew to PERDIDO, a amall river and bay, whioh
Torkey, where he was for some time acknowl- fbrm the W. honsdary of Florida, separating
edged aa the head of a radical fraction of the Escambia co. in that state, from Baldwin oo.,
Hnngaristt refugees. He repaired to England Ala. Perdido bay is more properly a l^e, Into
in ISCl, and settled in the island of Jersey, which the river expands near its month. It is
where he still re^des. landlocked, and its outlet into the gnlf of Mez-
PEBDUXIAS, a general of Alexander the ioo Is so small, and enters at so aonte an angle
Great, and regent of the Uaoedonian empire, with the line of coast, as to be almost tindia-
aaaasainated near Memphis In 831 B. 0. He tingnisfaahle from sea. from which oirenmatanoe
was descended probably from the royal hoose the river probably derived ita Spanish name
of Oreetis, a Macedonian provinc^aod early Perdido, or "lost." There are generally but
attached himself to the conrt of Philip, and 4 or 6 feet of water on the bar at its month,
at the time of the assaaunation of thatmon- The Perdido was noted from a very early period
arch was one of the officers of hla body guard, as the bomidary between the French and Span-
In the earlier campaigns of Alexander he iah colonies ofLonisiana and Florida.
commanded one of the diviaiona of the pha- P&RE DVOHESNB. Bee HAbbbt.
Unx at the battles of the GraniouH, laraa, and PEREGRINE FALOOK See Famjcit.
Arbela, was sabseqneatly transferred to the PEREIB A, Jaoobo BoDBiaTTSz. a Bpaniah in-
oommand of a diviaion of the horse gnar^ and atrnctor of deaf mates, of Jewisn family, bom
was freqnently employed in separate com- In Berlanga, EstremadnrfL in 1716, died in
mftnda,not only in connection with others, but Paris in 1T80. He opened a school for deaf
aa aole generaL When Alexander made a dis- mntea at Oadiz, bnt was not able to maintain
trilration of hoDOra at Snaa, Ferdiccas received it, and about 1742 removed with his family to
fbr his servioea a crown of gold^ and a daughter Bordeaax. In 174B he tangbtamnte in So-
cjthe satrap of Media in mamage. After the obelle to pronounce some words. This coming
death of the king, he bore a prominent part in to the knowledge of D'Aj^ d'£tavigny, the
the troubles wtuch followed between the car- comptroller of that city, he bemed him to on-
alry and the iof^try, and after the settlement dertake the edncation of hia aeof-mnte aon.
of the qoarrel he was made regent under the Fereira consented, and the next year addreased
title of ohiUaroh of the horse guarda. In tbia the academy of aoienoes in Oaen on the resiilta
portion he succeeded in cmabin^ Meleager, hia of his instmotioo. After some yeara he ap-
oo-regent, with alt of his prinotpal partiaana. peared before the academy of aoiencea in Paria
Althoiighfeared and hated by the other leading with yonng B'fitavigny, whose proBciency ex-
generala, be managed for a time to retain his cited their admiration. A few months later he
power in aeourity. A revolt of the Greek bo1~ appeared with his pnpil before Lonis XV, The
i&en in tiie npper provinces of Asia was put kmg examined the youth very thoroughly, and
down by I^thon, one of hia officera. In 822 waa eo much pleased with hia profloiency, that
B. O. he invaded Oappadooia, defeated its sa- he bestowed on Pereira a pension of BOO fhmcs.
trap Aiiarthes in two battles, and having re- In 17M he presented one of hia pnpila before
duoed tiie ooontry intmated ita government to King Stanislas of Poland. Several of his por
Emnaaea. Afterward he maroned into Piai- plls were distingniahed in the subsequent his-
dia, and captured I^randa and laanra He tory of EVance. One of them, Saboreuz de
proposed to marry Nictea, daughter of Anti- Fontenid, wrote an account of hia teacher's
pater, and pat to death Oynane, the half manner, and the thoroughneaa of his instruo-
siBt«r of Alexander ; but this aroused so much tion. (Bee Dxav un> Dumb.)
indignation among the soldicre, that he waa I'JUtiSlKA, JoirATnui, an ^^lish phyaieiaii
fbroed to inorry her daughter to the king At- and pharmaoolc^ist, bom in London, May 2^
rbidtana. An attempt to bring Antigonns to 1804, died there, Jan. 30, 1658. At the age of
account for his conduct in the management of 14 he waa apprenticed to a aurgeon and a^afba-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
iL28 PEKEIRA. DE BOUZA TKBSZ
carj, in IBSl attotded tbs Ald«r«ato rtrMt jMn to Ohurlea V. and lUUp n., tm Ic^it-
^peiuary, in 18S2 became apnpil of 6t. Bar- mated in his in&noT, and eancated at Jjoa-
tholomew's hospital, and in MareTi, ISMt, re- Tain, Venice, and Uachii]. On hie &aier'B death
oeiTsd a lioenw to practiM from the ao^dety of he became one of the tno chief Moretarte« of
Xthecaries. On his appointment not long state. Adroit, indnBtrions, and a Bidlftal and
r as apothecary of ue Alderagate street TmsorapoloaB poBtioian, he soon became the
lUepensaiy, he became a piivaM tntor, and depoeitaryofPhilip'emostintimateconfideDfiee.
pnblished a nnmber of voTka, chiefly for the When the king wished to put out of the way
aae oi students abont to be examined. He JnandefisooTedo, the secretary and advker (tf
tranriated tiia Latin pharmaoopcda of the Lon- 3<A3i of Anstria, whom he suspected of derigns
don coUege of phyrioians, and nnbliahed a upon the crown, Peres was employed to have
nnmber of Latin preaoriptioni onaer the title him aaaaarinatad (ISTSn, Eaeoredo was stabbed
of Sdxta e Pratoriptit. Turning his attention in the street by Ured bniTOS, but it Is now be-
to chemistry, he compiled " A Qoieral Table of Uered that Fmz had apersonal motive in cans-
Atomic Nnmbeis," and in 16S6 was appointed ing his death, becanse E&coredo was aeqnunted
lecturer in chemistry In the Alderagate street with the minister's inbigne with the princea
school of medicine. The lectures which he of Eboli, the king's nd^rees. However this
snbeeqnentJf delivered on materia medioa may be, Perez and the princess were arrested 2
were originally published in the " Medical months afterward, ostennbly to Mtiatj the de-
6aEetl«," and in 18S9 were revised and re- mands of Escovedo'a relatives, and the former
published under the title of " Elements of was condemned to 2 years' imprisonment, 8
Materia Uedioa and Then^wutios." To this years' exile from court, and a heavy fine. At
work he owed his reputation. la ISM he first Philip appeared anxious to make his pun-
received the degree of K.D. trom the nniver- ishment as light aa possible, and assigned hi^
sity of Erlangen, became the asme year assist- own hoose as the place of confinement ; but af-
ant physician to the Loudon hospital, waa l«r he had obttuned all the papers which mi^t
subsequently admitted aa a London licentiate prove his own share in the murder, he sent
of the college of physicianB, and in 1840 was the ex-minister to the fortress of Turregnano,
elected fellow of t^e college. In 1B43 he pub- and extorted from him on the rack a confesdon
lished a work on " Food and Diet." In 1S61 that he hod killed Eseovedo, coupled however
he was nmde full physician of the London hoe- with tlie declaration that he did it by the royal
pltal. Beside the works already mentioned, command. Perez would probably have lost his
whidi were chiefiy oompilirflonB, he published head but for the devotion of his wife, who h)
several original treatises in various medical July, IfiSO, procnred him the means of escape
and pharmacentical Joumala, and wrote a to Soragosea, where he placed himself nnder
seriee of " Leoturee on Polarized Ught." At the protection of the /■a«ro§ or independent
the time of his dealh he was examiner at the Jurisdiction of Aragon. The king, in violatioD
London university. of these constitutional privileges, ordered him
PEREIRA DE SOTTZA. Bee OunaB PuB- to be seized, bnt the peoi>le forcibly released
B4. DB SouzA. him. Philip then oansed him to be transferred
PEREIBE, tatOM and Isaao, French finan- to the prison of the inquisition on a charge of
ders of Jewish orig^ bom in Bordeaux, the heresy. The populace again restored hiin to
former in 1800, the latter in 1806. The^ are liberty, and uie conseqaenca was sn armed
brothers, and grandsons of Jaoobo Kodngnes revolt whioh gave Philip a long desired oppor-
Pereira. Having removed to Paris and entered tunitytoeztingnish the,^<«rMforeTer. In the
into bnsinees, they became ardent votaries of mean time he escaped to France, and waa sent
Saint-Simonism. Theywrote for various jonr- by Henry IV. on a secret mission toEn^knd,
nals,inolndingtheProdve<«t(r,tbe(?l06e,theJra- during which he published a narrative of the
KoDM^the Ttmpi, the Journal df» wnTiaitianett occurrences in which he had been concerned ;
wUIm, and the Journal det dibati, in the Isst but such was his dread of Philip, who indeed
of which Issoc originated a daily rmort of the attempted several times to have him assassin-
bourse. Under ttiegoaranty of toe ttothsobilds ated, that he expressed himself in a guarded
they obtuned the contract for building the and enigmatical way. which has contritaled to
St. Qermain rulroad, of which Smile was the render the whole afiair one of the most mjs-
ori^nator ; and afterward nnder the Bame an- terious romances of history. Becalled to
spices they constructed the more important France in ICSS, he received a house for hu
northern rulroad. They built the cAtnttn dtt residence and a guard to protect Mm, and in
mfdjand tbeeanallaUmlontheirownrespon- the aome year was again sent to EngloM. Af-
nl>ility. The orSdit mobiUtr was foonded in tor the accession of Phihp HI. his wife and
1869, chlefiy through their agency, and they children, who had been kept in prison, were
have dnoe been prominently concerned in its liberated (169S), but all his efforts to be rocall-
management. (See Oninrr Uobujbr.) ed to Spain were In vain. He undertook a
PXXEZ, Ahtobio, ft Spaniah statesman and thirdmissiontoEnglandishehalf of Ids native
author, bcnn at Monreal de Ariza, Axagon, in oonntry in 1601, but miserably fkiled, and »•
IHl, died in Fari^ Kov. 8, 1011. Ha was « tnmiag to Franoepassed his Met d^in pen-
natural son of Gonaalo Pereij minlBtw tat 40 nry. Bedde hie S^aeuma already mentitmed,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBTUME 1S9
lie VTOte Cartat famiUan$, leTond politiaal the olabsstw boz of prfioiou oiiitm«kt Other
works, and a life of Philip TT, which h" never m^Hjum of anttaoitj, as the PhcBHioiana, Aaay r-
been printed. A ooIleotioQ of his vorks ap- iaua, and Peraians, are known to have made
peared at Genera in 1654. His stjle, partiQu- great nse of perfiimeB ; and T;re was a &inoiu!
hi\j in hia letters, ia often fault; and over- mart whence they were exported b; sea, as
atrwned, bnt abounds in paaBsgce of eloquence Babjloa wae for the Bapply of the interior
and pauioa, and in pointed sajines, many of (Ez^zxriL). — Theart oiperfttmerywaeprao-
vhica bave become proverbial. He wrote in tised to an ^traordinarjeitent bj the andent
remarkablr idiomatio Castilian. Uncb light Greeks and Bomana. The odor of perfHunes
has been thrown upon his career by U. Uignet was an offering to the gods, and the ^parition
in hia Anltmw Pern et Thilipp« II. (Paris, of these was always represented as acoom-
1845 ; translated into English in 1846). panied by an ambrosial fragrance. Oila, po-
FEBFUME, a term applied to the scent aris- matmns, and other perftunes were made in
lug from odoriferona bodies, and also to these great provision and most lavishly used. After
bodies themselvra when they are prepared e^- bathing and in their athletic exerdsea Uie
pedally for the sake of their agreeable odor. Greeks applied them liberally to their persons ;
The art of preparing them is called pei^miery, and, as Seneca atatee, it was their oostcan to
and by the French is made to include the oom- anoint themselves twice or even thrice a di^
ponacUog of a great variety of articlee for toilet in order that the delicious fragrance might
use, as pomades, hair powders, oiks depila- never cease. To such an extent was this oar-
tones, cosmetics, dentifrices, soaps, &c., all of lied, that Solon enact«d a law forbidding the
which are scented by the introdoctioQ of va- Athenians to use them. Their winea were
rions perftunes. from the most ancient times perAuned by infusing in them roses, violeta,
perfiinies of varioos sorts have been held in and hyacinths — the nrst step, perhaps, in Uie
high estimation. They exert a pleasant infiu- preparation of alcoholic perfomes. O^ua was
ence upon luost persons, though to a few they especially celebrated lor its perfiimes. One of
are oflfenaive. Solomon (Prov. xxvij,) remarkii its piiucipal streela, called the Seplasia, it is
that "ointmentandperftimer^oice the heart." stated, was made np entirely of shops devoted
They were prescribed as medicines by Hippo- to this trade: and it was also largely oanied on
crates, Criton, and other ancient phymciana. In several other towns of Greece and souQiem
It is affirmed that after the destrootion of the Italy. Pliny in his " Nator^ History" has
clovatreesbytheDntohintheisIaiidofTemate, given a very foil account of the extraordinary
the 04dony sofiered from epidemioa nnknowa varieties of perAunes in use by the Bomans
before; and in times when tne oholefa has pre- under the emperors. The perfiimera (itngtiea-
vaiied in London and Paris, thoae employed in Urii} were mostly Greelu, and occupied a
theperlomery&tdorieBhaveeacapeditsravages. special quarter of the oity. Their shops were
The f^gyptiana prepared them for different pur- supplied with aiomatics from sU parts of the
poses, as for embuming the dead, as offennga known world, and were a favorite resort fbr
to the gods, and for dtmiestio uses. They fashionable loungers. Their productioos were
anointed their bodies with oil, and it was the qoite as numerous as the pernunes of the pres-
cQstom to poor sweet-scented oils apon the ent day, and muoh more profttsely used. The
heads of newly arrived guests. In their tombs same taste continoed under the Greek em-
are found boies of alabaster, onyx, glass, ivo* perors ; and in the oriental ohuroh the con-
Ac, in which the ointments were kept, smuption of oromatics was bo great, that at
e now in Alnwick castle contt^ one Idme a tract of land of 10 square miles in
an ointanmt of which the scent is still retuned. Syria was espeolaUy devoted to the prodoetion
The perfumes employed in embalmlzig are also of incense trees. The Arabs Introduoed th^
preserved in Uie mommies. (See EKBAuiraa.) use into Spain with many oariona reoe^iis,
The Egyptians obttuned the materials of their some of which are still preserved and are enp-
perAuoes, such as bitter almonds and orig^ poeed to have been handed down tram the
nmn, from th^ own soil, and also imported Egyptians. In Uie middle agea France and
perfames from Arabia and India. In the Old Iwy were most conspicuous for the manutao-
Testament fr^aent reference is made to the ture and use of perfumes. Incense and fragrant
use of perfumes by the Hebrews. The sweet t^Mis were oonsomed In the Oatholio chutes
iuceiue bomed upon the altar was a peifbme ; even as far back as the bq>tism of Olovis, the
and "the art of the wothecary," or as soma first OhiistJan king rf France, in 486. Oharle-
read it "perfiuner," is distinctly namad in magna made nee of peiflmtes, and Philip Aa-
Exod. xzz., where Slosea is directed to pre* gnrtnaimllSOgrantedacharter to the master
pare the oQ of holy ointment from the [nmot paiftimera. A&oholio perfumes are supposed
pal splG«^ myrrh, tweet dnttsroon, sweet oak' to have b«ea first made in the Uth oentoiy ;
moB, cassia, and olive oil ; aad also to prepar» Andthefiretof Oieeeof whlohwebavean ao-
a perftame of other qdoes named near the closa count is Hniusry water, distilled from rosemary
of tha ame chapter. See also Psalm xlv. & ia 1870 by Elizabeth, queen oi Hungary, who
Prov. Til. 17, Oant. L and iv., Jer. vi 20, and reeeived ue receipt firom a hemut. and by the
various other places; and in the New Xeatfr use of it is said to have preserved her beanty
auaa (Mark xir.}, the story of the woman villi to old age. Oatharine de' Uedici, when she
TOL. xiu. — 9
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
189 PEBFDXE
came to Kvnoe to marrr Henrrll., bronght fbrent mefliodB of treatment [H^naea oQa not
with her a fsmona Florentine perfiamer named to be distiiigQished from those of varioos fruits ;
RenS, and from that time the French made great the noisome oils of gas tar are made to yield the
progress in the art ; bat from the reoeipte that nitro-benzole known as the oil of bitter almonds
have been preaerred it appears that their pro- or esaenee of mirbane, which is now extensively
eeasea were Tery rnde and nnscientiflo. In Eng- nsed for pertoning soap, and is even preferable
land a taste for perftmies appears to have be^ for ooofectiouerj and calinaiy oses to the gen-
proTftlent In the time of Snakespeare ; and in nine artiole (nnlees this is ^sdllod over pot-
that 6t Dean Swift the shops of the perflmiers ash), as it contains no pmesic acid; and from the
were the resorts of lonngers, as they were in drunsge of cow houses is extracted an essential
ancient Borne: ingredient in the famous «au(^«miZ&,^0ur>. A
nnt lma<d frora perflimtn' ibops new and [mlimit«d field is thus opened for the
A cRnrd cf bihioubie fop*. artiflcial production of perftiniea; andit iabe-
Bnt their nee most afterward have declined, lieved that by the employment of a few com-
for in Ouunbere's " Oyclopsdia," pabliahed in mon essential oils and the organic radicals, all
1740, it is stated that perfames were disnaed the odors in the regetablc, animal, and min-
there. but were A la nwde in Italy and 8pwn. eral kiiwdom may be sncceBsftillj reprodnced,
At the present time the mannfacture of per- The pernmieB derived from animal sonroes are
fames is chiefly earned on in Paris and London, mask, dvet, ambergria, hartshorn, Ao. Theam-
and in Tarions towns nearthe Hediterranean, bergnB.thonghhayiDglittlesoentitself^imparts
eapecially in the sonth of France. The frnits a most ethereal and dehcate odor to other per-
and flowers of those annny regions afford the fmnes. In an elaborate paper upon perfinnery
great«st rariety of fragrant odors, and certain flimiahed by Hr. Engene Rimmel to the soci-
dislricts are famona for theb pocnliar prodno- etyofartsof London,and published inNo. 391
tiona; as Cannes for its perfoiues of the rose, of their " Jonmal" (Uay IS, 1860), scents in
taberose, cassia. Jasmine, and the neroli, ex- general ase are clasofied in 18 gronps, and the
tracted from the leaves of the bitter orange ; vegetable products nsed in this art are arranged
Khnes for thyme, rosemary, aspic, and laven- in 10 divisions, as followa: 1, the floral series,
der; Nice for the violet and reeeda; and Sicily viz., jaamine, rose, orange flower, cassia, tnbe-
for the lemon, bergamot, and orange. In Eng- rose, violet, jonquil, and naroissns; the attar
land some of the essential oils are prepared or otto of roses (see Attab of Bobzs) is the
from native herbs upon a large scale, as at most valuable product of this division ; 2, the
Kitcfaam in Surrey, wnere a ton of peppermint herbal series; 8, the an^ropojron aeries, agenna
and of lavender is sometimes distilled at once, of plants of thb name in Ceylon, which famish
In the northern United States man^ of the the lemon grass, ottronella, and ginger grass
essences and essential oils are also largely pre- oil ; 4, the citrine series, comprising the berga-
pared, the wooda Aimishing the wintergreen, mot, orange, lemon, cedrat, and l)jnett«, from
sassafras, and other sweet-scented plants, and whose rinds an essential oil is obtained by ez-
the ^dens the peppermint, rose, dto. In Lon- pression or distillation ; 6, the spice series, in-
don, it is stated, there are about 40 mannfac- eluding cassia, cinnamon, cinnamon leaf^ dovea,
taring perfumers, employing each from 20 to mace, nutmeg, and pimento ; 8, the wood so-
100 hands ; and the total annaal value of their ries, consisting of sandal wood, rose wood,
prodnctionB is believed to be fully £1,000,000, rhodium, cedar, and sassafras; 7, the root se-
A large portion of this consists of fancy soaps, ries, comprising orris root and vetivert, of
which are exported in sreat quanties to the which the latter, called by the Hindoos t^u-hva.
United States. In Paris there are about 80 per> the root of 'Hx^ anatkenim muHeatwn, is made
fomers, employing from 2,000 to 8,000 hands ; in India into mats and blinds, which being
and the export trade averages annually from often watered and exposed to tiie sun shed a
18,000,000 to 18,000,000 francs, having donUed most agreeable and lasting perfume; 8, the
in the last 26 years. The home oonsomption seed series, composed of aniseed, dill, and ear-
probably eqnals in value the foreign exports, away ; 9, the bobn and gam series, including
— Periiunea are derived from a great variety Uie balsuns, camphor, myrrh, and other gams ;
of flowers, fruits, seeds, woods, and other vege- 10, the fi^nt series, including bitter almonds,
table prodnots ; and by the skilAil combining Tonquin beans, and vanilla. The artificial
of diff^ent scents, some are obtained that imi- preparations, above referred to, and the ani-
tate the odor of flowers which are not them- nal perfrmtes make two mora series. The
selves nsed In perfrmiery. But it is not from greatest number of the materials, amoantins
plants alone that perfumes are obtained. At to SB, is obtained from the sonth of France and
the dose of the article Esskrtui. Otu allusiott Italy, which is the chief centre of manofac-
is made to the strange sonroes which by the aid tnre for perfumery materials. The East ladies
of recent oheanioal duooveries have been made and Obina furnish about 21, Turkey 2, Africa
to Aimish some of the ohoioest perfumes. The 2. North America 8, Sonth America 6, and
delicate scent of flowers has been traced to cer- iWland 4. The only artides named from the
t^ oils and ethers, which can be elaborated United States are peppermint, sassafras, and
from sabstances associated only with the most wintergreen. — The mannfaotore of perfbnies in
disgusting odors. The feUd nisei oil by dif- the sonth of France is ezt«naiTe1y earned on in
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PERFUME 181
the Unna of Qraeee, Oiumea, and Nice. In wire bottom upon wUoliootton cloths soaked in
Grane aboot TO estAblishmenta are engaged in the oil are laid, and the boxes or fHmea are piled
tUs boaineBs and In il'«lilli"g essential ou, and upon each other to keep them close. When a
in the other two towns about SO honses more, number of cIoUib are charged with the perfome,
The qnantitiet of materials annasUf oonsnined the^ are sn^eoted to the action of a press for
and their valnea are thus approzimateljr esti- reoovering tLe oil. Spirits are scented bj ma-
mated: oeradon or hj digesting them with essential
o™i««B«B» *.T«i!!!"^'™^**I?°**'!S'SSS oils in a water bath and agitating them at
ISSi»™V.i".".:::::; iSlSSS- - - S^mS times for several days. Tha^sa^domOUjUuiw
Tiaicts s^ooa UK" n,oao is prepared ontiusplanin Paris with the fbl-
.JS^J^- S^ » " " mow lowing ingredients and proportions: alcohol, e
.... .....^... „„„„-^ „- litres: orange flower water, 4 litres; balsam
The mannfectnrea articles oonaiBt of ^ Pern, flO grsmmes; essence of bergamot,
""Sirio'Sr^.'r wwooi!*, worth riKnrtil^SBft,™ 130 grammea; OMence Of doTOB, BO grammes:
Huh w«i*r,*boDC.... 171,000 ■•>'>' »,ooo essence of neroll, 16 grammes; essence of
°^«3Sr.b^' 1.110.M0 " " - - KSCOOO ^^'>' l^JFT^^' *T^ of mnSk, 180
Orbcs flmr wMar, sranunes. The last named essence lb prepared
Mifaiuj MS^OSO " " - IH^OOD bj digesting In Hie heat of Qie Sim foT 2 months
Theee do not inotnde the eeaential oils, some of IS grammes of dvet and 15 grammee of music
which are Terr valaable, the neroll, for in- in 9 litres of aloohol perftamed with ambergris.
■tanc«, being worth abont $60 per lb. The Scented vtoegar is prepared in a similar waj,
mppl J of theee articles is insofflcient fbr the vinegar bring subatitntea for alcohol. Another
demand, and as the crop of some one of the method of preparing perfames has recently
flowers oecaaionallj fuls, the manof^ctorera been discovered and introduced b; M. Milloo,
are pnt to serious inconTenience. It is henoe a French ohemisL He fonnd that the aromatic
reoommended to foster the extension of the principle of vegetshle matters might be ex-
trade into otiier conntries, where the flowers traoted together with some fatt^ or waxy mat-
might be sacceeaflilly cnltivated; as in Spain, ters by treating them with parified ether or
Portonl, and varioos tropical conntries in snlphnret of carbon ; and that by evaporating
both hemiqiherea. — Beveral methods are in the volatile scdvent at a temperature below
nee for eztraoting "the odoriferous properties that of the smronnding atmosphere, the per-
of plmtB, and impartiDg these to iplnts or fame is retained and fixed in the residnnm
gre«B7 bodies. QmM of the prooeasea are no- without nndergoing any change. The snb-
tioed in the artides Ei.c m Ooioata, Ebbkh- stance deposited by the treatment of different
TTAL Ons, and X^muna. In the preparation plants Is variously colored ; it is sometimes
of pomadee the beet fiit employed is the mi- solid, or oily or eemi-flnid, becoming solid after
TQW ot the ox; bnt adieqier fat is often sab- some time. The solvent maybe collected as it
stitnted for It, or a mixtnre of beef or veal &t oondenses in the distillation, and the same may
and lard. Theaa are beatoi in a mortar, malted be nsed several times over; bnt it shonld sJ-
in a water bath, and then strained. Btfore ways be fbr the same fiower, and with the same
the mixture cools the essential oil selected for apparatns. The choicest parte of the plants or
the perfiime is added and stirred in; or the flowers are carefally selected in this process,
flowers thenuelTes are thrown in and left to and nsed exdnnvely, by which mode maoh
digeet for several honrs, when they are taken more delicate resnlts are attained than by the
ont, ttie &t is again heated and straiaed under ordinary mode of distillation. A remarkable
preasore, uid fiWt ones ore pnt into it ; and peooliarity of the perfames thns prepared is
this te continned for several days till the grease that they may be kept open to the air withoat
has anffldently imbibed the odor. It is then being dissipated and lost They may he sejia-
strained in cloth bags. This process is called rated from the waxy matter by alcohol, which
maoeration. Inodorons oils, each as the oil of dissolves them together with a little of the
behn, deeoribed by Piesse in his work on per- oily and coloring matters; and in this state
fiuneiy, are well adapted for taldng op the they may be conveniently mixed with fate and
pctAmies of flowers by this process. Pore wis.— Pastilles are ortides of perfomery made
oHve <ril is largely ased for this purpose in the when set on fire to oonsame slowly and frfve
aonth of Enrope. Bat fbr detioate plants, snoh out the odor with which they are charged,
aa the jasmine, tat>eroBe, and cassia, the odor- They are composed of charcoal finely pulver-
iferoos principle of which would be ii^ured by Ized, saltpetre, and the odoriferous substanoea,
the heat, the process in nse is that of absMplicHi chimy gum resins, the whole moulded into lit-
or etifituraju, Sqnare wooden boxes arej)ro- tie cones, which are made to adhere together
Tided havuig bottoms of glass plate. Upon by the addition of mucilage. Tha pattulet da
these isqvead a lafer of purified lard and net leraU ooosist of S4 grammes of ohbanmn, 34
mixtnre^ and upon this freahly gathered flowers of etorax, 16 of nitre, and 134 of pnlveriied
are mread eTOTmoming, aa long as the flower oharooaL Por rose pastiUes there are added
is la bkxnn. The boxee are kept dint, and the to the above 83 granmies of rose leaTes and 2
grease flnallT aequirea a very strong odor. To of essence of rose ; for orsnge flower pastilles
" m the some way, the boxes have a fl4 grammes of galbannm, 83 of dried palver-
183 PERGAlfUS PEELAJTOER
ized orange peel, and S of easenoe of neroU ; flnaUf bequeathed his wbde kingdom to U>e
for T&nills, 24 grammes oS galbanmn, 16 of Bomaiu, who after a ooDteet witb Aristonl-
olovea, 82 of vaiiula, 1 of eesenco of cloves, and cqs, a natural son of Emnenes II., erected it
id of eeBence of Tanllla. Odoriferous spirits into the proTince of Asia, of whioh Perga-
fbr burning are prepared in a tdmilar waj, the mns became the splendid capital. It a^r-
vanilla being generallj replaced by gnm ben- ward decayed, howeyer, being deprived of its
zoin. — The powdered almond paste used in treasores of literature by Antony, who at-
perflnnery is prepared from the residne of the taohed them to the library of Alexandria, and
hmised kernels of aprioota or almondB, sweet sabeequently also of ita dignity as capital of
or bitter, after the oil is pressed ont This is the prorince under the Byzantine rule. It
gronnd and rifted. The paste is Tarionsly was one of the principal Asian seats of Chri»-
prepared from tbe powder. One process is to tianity in its earliest period. It was finally
roil t<^ether 260 Knomnes each of the powder daHtroyed dnring the l^rkish wars, but its ex-
and of honey, witb 600 grammes of the oil of tensiTe ruins, including remsins of temples, a
bitter almonda and the yolks of 4 eg^ Per- theatre, and an amphitheatre, are stiD visible,
fnmed aoaps are prnwred by aobetttnting po- PERGOLEBI, Giovashi Battibta, an Italian
made for aiegrease in mirtore with soda lees, composer, bom at Jesi, in Ancona, in 1710,
PERGAHTI8, or PnBsuiuif. I. The name died at Torre del Greeo, near Naples, in ITST.
of the citadel of Troy, frvqoently nsed by poets He wss educated at the Neapolitan conserra-
for that dty itself. IL An ancient d^ of Asia iatj dei powri jn Qe»t Crttto; bnt disoover-
Minor, in the Myslan dlstriict of Tenthrania, ing tiiat in Uiis institutioa taste and melody
and capital of a Mnsdom of the same name: were sacrifioed to pedantry, he loft It at the
It was bnUt in (he delij^tfbl'vlBUeyof the Oal- age of 14, and received lessons inrocal com-
CUB, at the fbot of two hilla near the N. bank position from Vinci and Hasae. At SO years
of that river, and at Its oonfinenoe vith the of age he procnred an engagement at the
Oetius and Seliuns, the latter of which flowed teatre nuoea, Napiee, for which he wrote
throngh the city. The aon^lls was bollt on eomio intermoEsos, Inclndii^ the Sena pa-
one of the bills. Fergamna was fbnnded W » divna, sabMi^iently produced with neat en-
oolony of Arcadians, or, aocording to other thnnann at Paris. In 1T8C he broaKbt ont at
traditions, by Efddaariana tmder JuoolMtlos, Borne hia opera of Olympiads, which was,
who was worshipped as th« patn»i of the ooldly received, notwithstanding it was highly
place. Ita name is derived by some ftom that oommended by oontemporary mnriciana. His
of Pergamns, the son of Pyrrbos and Andro- sacred oompositioas were better appreciated,
mache, who ia eeid to have alain a Tauthranian and few works of their dan have been more
king in single oombat and taken possession of admired than his mass in D, containing the
his territory. Having belonged snooessively odebrated Qlaria in Eeeeltu, and bis Dixit
to the Persians, the empire of Alexander the Domimu and Zavdate, Two years before
Otreat, and the Thradan kingdom of Lysima- his death his health be^ to £ul rapidly, and
ofaus, )t was betrayed by PhiletsBrua, the oom- by tiie ftdvice of his mends he removed to
msnder of the strong dtadel, where Lyaiinachaa Torre del Gieco, near the fiiot of lit Veeaviiti.
had deposited his treasures, tnto the hands of Here dnring his last iOnMS he composed his
Selencna L of Syria. When Selenona died. Phi- cantata ot Otfvo td Suridiet, bis SblM £egina,
lettBToa made himself Independent ^80 a. 0.). and his celebrated iStdbat Mater.
His nephew and BncaeBBorBmnenesl.(26&-&41) PEBIANBEB, tyrant of Oorinth, sacoeeded
extended his dominion ot» parts of uie n^h- hia &ther Oypselns probably abont 6S5 B. C,
boring provinces, having vanqnisbedAntioehna died abont 685 B. 0. At first his reign was
Soter in a battle near Sardis. Attains I. (Ml- ndld, but afterward became exceedingly In-
197), a coQirin of £nmenes,ront«d the invading boman and oppreaaive. Eerodotna says that
Ctaols, assomed the royal title, and assisted tho Feriander sent a herald to Thrasybolos, tyrant
Romans in thedr ware agtdnst the AchEsana and of IJiiletna, to ask him what mode of govern-
FhUipofUaoedon. ffls eon Emnenes II. (197- ment it was safest to adopt in order to rule
109) eiq>ported the Bomans against Antioohns with aeonrity. Thrasybnlua, making no direct
the Qre^ and after their viotory at M«gnaiil» reply. t«ok the messenger Into a com field, and
(190) was rewarded by the annexation to hii walklDg throngh it broke oB and threw away
dominions of the whole of l^ria, Lydia, Phry all tiie ears that overtopped the rest Perian*
gla, and other nd^boring provmces. Fova- dsr nnderstood tbic meaning of the acticn, and
nms now became one df Qie most iplenoid tiienoeforth oonstsntly de[>reeMd the power of
dtjes of Ada, rivalling by its Ubrary, a re- the higjier ordera by pntung to death or bsn-
nowned school of Uteratnre, and the invention Udng promineot dHsens. Altbongb the par-
of parchment, the princbsl glories of the ca0- tieolar Inddents of his reign are ul or nestiy
tal of the Ftolen^es. Attalas H. (lOS-lSln, all of donbtfiil authenticity, It seems t« be a
the brother of Eomenes II., nudntained bis &at that his administraticm, snpported by ^
alliance with Borne, and like bis priedeoeesors powerfld bodr (puvd, was czoerainKly rigor-
was a promoter of sdenoe and Uterstnre. Wb otia, that he sopprened common tablee, daba
nspbew, Attains IIT. (188-188), ntled like a and pnblio ednoation, shed much blood, and
mru^nnti, destroying his own relatives, and made exorbitant exaotitms. On One eoosiion
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBiOABDmS FEBIOLES 188
it if sud that the wotnea of Oorinth, whom CSmoa and tha aristocrsoj, Ferioles oansed ft
he had invited to a relMoos fasliTB], were tnoasot'e to be oamed in the popular assemblT,
stripped bjlils order of t£eir lich attire and by which the court of the areopagiiBwasnearly
ornaments. Later writara depiet him a* the shorn of its political power. This was a fatal
foe of Inxnry and dissolnte habits, preventing blow to the ariatooraoy, and oonstitnted, widi
the great aocamalatJOQ of wealth bv individn- other ohanges, a political revolntion. Among
als, punishing also tttose who aqnandered their theea changes were the InstitatioD of dicaa-
properlj, and onoe ordering the procaresees of terieeor jaryoonrts, In which Jurors were paid
Gcvuith to be thrown into the sea. Bj Aris- for their attendanoa, and Qie ahnost com-
totle be is t^ken of aa the first who broneht plet« abrogation of the jodidal power of the
to a Bjatem the art of ruling despotically. His senate of DOO. The tablets containing the lawa
foreign policy was Tigorona and sacceMfiiL Ac- of Solon were transferred fh)m the acropolis to
oorduig to H^odotns, deoared hj a scandaloos ihe neighbc«hoad of the market place, as if to
report, he had put to death hia wife Uflliaea, the eignifV that the gnardianahip of the laws had
daoghter of Prodea, tyrant of Epidaoma, though pMsed into the hands of the people. The aa-
he was warmly attaiuied to h^; and when in oendencyofPerioles and the popolarparty thus
after yean his two sons TiaitAd the ooort of establiabed cost many a violent atm^^ The
the latter, tiieir grandfather told Uiem the man- poet .^schylns cnli^^d all hia powers, in the
nor of their mother'a death. The younger son, drama of the " Enmenidea," against these inno-
Lycophron, on his retom reftised to have any vations; bat his opporition reenlted only in hia
interooorsa with hia latbor; whereupon Peri- own flight &om the city, while Oimon himafllf,
imder aent him away to Ooroyra, invaded Epi- who, in the stmgglo between the aristocratio
daoms, reduced it, and took Frocles prisoner, and demo«ratio paoliee, had before nsTrovly
Afterward ho endeavored to peranado L^co- escaped banishment, was soon after driren
phron to retom and take ohai^ of the kmg- into exile by ostracism (abont 4C9). On the
dom ; and finaUy the latter consented on eon- other hand, Ephialtea, a leader, with Pbriolea,
dttioa that hia father should abdicate and live of tiie pminlar party, a man of ri^d Integrity,
in Coroyra. Bat Hie inhabitants of that dty, who had been most oonspionoos in the passage
wishing to keep Periander away, put his son to of the obnozioas meaeare astungt the areopagns,
death. Periander Is said to have died of grief^ was, abont the time of Oimon's recall from
after having lived about 60 years. He was aa baMahment (468), assassinated by a Boeotian
enconrager of poetry and mueio, and was nsn- emissary of the aristocracy. Tlie humbled
ally recktmed among the seven sages of Gireece^ aristocracy afterward united themselves nnder
olthoo^ some pia^ in his st««d Myeon of the party lead of Thnoydides, the son of Uele>
CfaensB in lAconia. Axion and Anachareia were sias. In the popolar assembly they were drill-
patronised by him, and by Dic«enee lAbtjos ed into a compact party organiaition, occupy-
ke is Bud to have written a di&otic poem of ing seats together instead of being mixed up
3,000 vetMa. He was succeeded by a relative, with the general mass of oitizeas. Thus thefr
Psainmetiohnfl, son of Gordias. applause or dissent could be made more effec-
PBBIOAKDms. Bee Hubt, vol. iz. p. 13, tive, and in debate they oonld concert their
PERICLES, an Athenian atatesnum, bwTi at measuru and use their strength to the best ad-
Adi^ia abont 4Q6B.O., died there of the plague vantage. But thlsoonoertedaction soon brought
in 489. He was of an anoieut and noble family; euspi^oa apon them, which passed, on account
his father was Xanthippns, who, with the Bpar- of me fewness of tii^ number, into contempt
tan general LeotjohidM, drsfeated the Perdana They complained cJ the administration of Pm-
at Mycale ; hia mother was Agniste, niece of des, that the ftind derived from the oonfeder-
Cliathuiea, who expelled tiie nrastratid* from aoy <^ Delos, intended for porposes of general
Athens. On the father's side he was connect- defenoe against the Persians, had been mis^
ed with the family of Pisistratos, and on the pUed in uie adornment and stTangthening of
mother'seidehewaBdesoendedfromthepriiioes Athena. Pericles olaimed the rightto use in
of Sicjaa and the AlomteooidEe. When the this way so mnoh of the pTiblio treasure ss was
iWiwrnninnn rose sgainrt Sparta in 464 B. 0., not needed for the common defence. He was
and fortified themselves on Kt. Ithome, the soatuned, and Thocydides driven into banisb-
Spartans invoked the aid of the Athenians to ment. Thb annihilated the aristocratic party^
reduce the pJaoe. Oimon, the leader of the and left to Pericles the nndisputed conduct of
aristocraey at Athens, and the greatest com- sffiurs. He had succeeded to the poUtical priur
mander of hia time, was sent with a large foroe dplea of Themistodes, and he labored first to
in answer to tlie ^ipeaL Bnt he fidled to re- make Atiiens the capital of Greece, the centre
dnee the fortress, was slated by the Spartans, of pditical power and infiaenoe, and tiie seat
and returned home in disgraee. The popular of art ai^ r^nement : and secondly to derate
party waa tliai led by Penclea, between whom the public spirit'of his countrymen. He gave
and OimtMi there exiMed a hereditary food ; for respectabUity and ^oe to the dective franohlse
it waa Xanthippoa, the fadier itf Pwide^ who by setting close guards agdnst a ftandulent
had impeached IGltiades, the fiUher of Oimon. abuse offt, and thus made even the humblest
Taking advantage of tiie nnpopnlarity which citizrafecdsranetbingofthedignitjof AAenian
the ill fortone at Ut. Ithome brought upon cltiaenship. He trained the pec^ to naval
U,9,-„zoobyGOO^le
1S4
afiUn br sending out everj year & aqnadron Aitangoru, the phUoMplter, was indicted fo
of 60 tnremeB to cruise for 6 moaths in the imjaetj and banished. Aq)aeia was includei
.^IgteaD. He planned great arohitectnral works in the tame charge, bot the psthetio eloquenci
to embellish and strengthen the city. He boilt of Feriolea moved the dioastery to acqai
the Odeon for theatrical exhibitionB, and the her. Boandais were propagated with iDt«n'
Parthenon with its eidendid approMh called to eollj hie character in connection vritli Ihi:
the propyltea. To render aeonre the oommuni- remarkable woman of .genins. (See Abpasia-I
cation of Athens with the sea, ohieflf tbroagh But the machinations of his enemies wen
his advice, the long walls had been bailt which Mile. The?' had Fbidiaa indicted for cm
stretched to the Pirfens and Fhalerom ; and hezzlement, hnt here ag^ they were foiled,
to increase this secnritj he afterward added A charge of impiety followed ; and ia tfai^
a thbd wall, and improved and beautified the thej were too sncoMsfnl. The great eoulptoi
I^neoB. He further provided for the poorer was fonnd to have iutrodnced in his statue of
olasBes and strengthened the state h; an en- Athena the portraits of himself and of Pericles
lightened system of colonization. For the en- among the figures on the ahield of the goddess,
tertainment of the people he added to the pomp But against Pericles himself at whom in real-
uid magnificence of popular spectacles, estah- ity all these shafts seem to have been aimed,
lisbed new ones, ana made the theatres and the malice of his enemies failed, and he con-
pnblie festivals accesnble to the poorer classes, tinned, with one brief intermption, the idol of
He democratized the legislative and Judicial Athens down to the day of his death. He was
fimotiong of government by paying Jurors and bitterly denonnced for his defensive policy
l^idators. Kor even were the higher classes in the first campaign of the Pelopcnseeian
sacrificed that the democratic element might war ; bat his power and influence were too
be fostered. Ijtorature, architecture, painting, solidly established to be quickly overthrown,
and Bculptnre rose under him to the highest When in the second canipaign uie Peloponne-
perfecUon. In his foreign policy he aimed at sians reappeared in Attica, the pl^e began
the aggrandizement of Athens and the eiten- to rage at Athens. The people saw their lands
sion and consolidation of her sway. Beginning laid waste by an enemy uid thedr crowded city
as an ally, he in a few years reduced a portion desolated by pestilenoe. Bage and despair
of the confederate states to the condidon of seized them, and now at length they turned
tributaries, and bound the rest to military ser- npon Pericles. BtiU Pericles stood firm. He
vice and a conformity of foreign policy. Upon songht to divert the pnblio mind by a foreign
each of the subject states he imposed a demo- naval expedition ; and he himself took com-
cratio form of government, and transferred im- mand of a fieet and devastated the coast of
portant trials (Kim the local coorts to the tri- Peloponnesus. Betnming, he found the pnb-
bnnals of the capital. The annual tribute or Uc mind yet more incensed against him. He
oontribution to the confederate fond, the cos- was chaned with pecnlotion, the otnect of his
tody of which had already been transferred enemies being to make him ineligible for the
fh)m Deloa to Athens, he raised from 460 tal- office of generaL The char^ was mainlined,
ents (|500,O00) to 600 talents, although the and he was fined. But a reaction soon fol-
object of its establishment, namely, to resist a lowed, and he was reelected general, bis ene-
Persian invasion, no longer occupied the public mies were foiled, and he regained all his popn-
mind. During his administration, 1,000 Athe- larity. Uore t^rible calamities awaited him,
nians were settled in the Thracian GhersonescL the pestUence stripping him of many of his
600 in the island of Naxos, and 260 in the island personal and pcditical Mends, and finally of
ofAndros. He appropriated the Greek city of nis sister and his two legitimate sons, San-
Sinope, on the shores of the Euzine, for the thus and Paralos. Bnt tiie Athenians loved
maint^iance of 600 Athenian citizens. The him as a father; and to alleviate his woe.
islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, togeth- they legitimized a son named Pericles whom
er with a large troot in Eubcea, were oovered Aspasia had borne him, thongh it was th^
with Athenian proprietors. Oolonles were great leader himself who baa proposed the
pltmted at Thnrii in Italy, near the site of the Jaw which excluded from dtizenahip all who
ancient Bybarls, and at Amphipolis in Thrace, were not Athenians on both the father's and
To the former, foreigners were mvited from all the mother's side. Pericles fell a victim ts
parta of Greece. — The overshadowing influence the prevailing epidemic about a year after-
of Periolea made him an object of envy, Jeal- ward. When dymg, he reminded those who
onsy, and hatred. His pubbo and private life stood around his bed, recounting his deeds, of
werehothintarnass^ed. When the Pelopon- one circumstance they had failed to notice,
nesion war impended, the hostile faction sue- bnt which he considered more glorious than
oeeded in exciting the public mind against him any service they had ennmer^ed, namely,
to a dangerous pitch. But his influence eon- " diat not a citizen of Athens bad been obliged
tinned predominant. An attempt, instigated by to put on monming on his account"— Periclet
tiie Lacedmmonians, was made to sacrifice him was reserved, ^peoriug in public but little,
on acoonnt of a taint of sacriiege in his family and yet he contmued the idol of the people
(see Aloilxon) ; but the attempt fuled. His for 40 years of public administration, 26 years
eoemiss tried to wound him through bis friends, with others, and 16 alone. !E^ab> extols bit
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FSIOEB PEBIOBIOAL LITERATURE 135
"m^«stio inteUigenoe." Thnojrdidea, tiis oon- vu erected in his honor bjpublio sabaoription
tvmporarj, bb^ of ^in ; " PerioleH, powerfiil in the cemetery of P^e la Cnalse.
team dignity M eharaoter bb well as from vie- PERIGEE (Qr. mpi, abont, and yq, earth),
dom, and oonroionooBlj abOTO the least tingo the opposite of apogee, and, Ba oommonlj nn-
of ooTTDption, held back the people with a fno deretood, that pout of the orbit of the moon
hand, and waa their real leader instead of be- where ahe ia nearest the earth. The term is
ing led by them. Far, not being a seeker of also sometimes ased to denote that point of
power from unworthy Boarce& be did not the orbit of the earth where it is nearest the .
speak with any view to present favor, but had son ; the snn is then said to be in perigee. It
BTiffident sense of dignity to contradict them also ugniflea the least distance of a planetary
en oooasion, e^n braving their displeaanre." body from the earth.
Snpolis, the eomiopoetj declares that "persna- PEElHElJON (Or. tti/m, abont, and ^Kios,
sion itself sat upon hia lips." Aristophanes enn), that point of the orbit of a planet or a
describee his eloquence as prodaoing on the so- oomet where it is nearest the snn. The dis-
dal eliaments the same effects that Sunder and tanoa of this point from the son is called the
lightnii^^wodtioe on the atmosphere. perihelion distonoe of the body. It is opposed
P&Buik, Oisntis, a Frenoh banker and to aphelion.
cUtesnau, boruiuOrenoble, Oct. IS, 1777, PEBIM, or Ukeith, an island in the strait
died in Parle, Ma;f 16, 1883. He was study- of Bab-d-Mandeb, in lat. 13° 88' N., long. 48°
ing at a college of the Oratorians in I^ons at 33' £. It is S} m. long and 2i m. broad, and
the outbreak of the revolution, when he re- divides the entrauoe of the Bed sea into two
Jtnoed his fainily at Paris. Having been draft- channels called respectively the Oreat and Lit-
ed into the army, he served in tne corps of tie struts. The former, between Perim and
earineers during Qie campugn of 179S-180O the coast of Africa, is IS m. broad; and the
ia Italy. In 1601, on the death of his father, latter, formed by the island and Cape Bab-el-
regent of the bank of France,^ he returned to Handeb, onthe coast of Arabia, ia 1) m. Both
Fsm, and in. partnership with his brother straits are free from hidden dangers, but the
Sd{non eatabliahed a banking house. He waa little one is generally used by vessels passing
elected to the chamber of depnties, where he to or from the Bed sea. The ialand is a bare
acted wiUi ttte oppodtion, but saw witii dis- black rock, almost destitute of vegetetion, and
pleawire the revolution of July, 1880. He waa without water. On the 8. W, side there is an
the last minister appointed by Charles X., who excellent harbor about 1^ m. long and nearly
hoped to retrieve tus fortunes through his old } m. broad, with a depth of 7 fathoms. As Pe-
opponent'a popularity ; but it was too late, and rim commands the entrance to the Bed sea, it
' P«ier was inade one of a provisional com- has been twice occn[aed by the British. The
nultee of goremment The reyolution being first time was In 179S, when the French army
completed, he was elected (Ang. 8) president was in Egypt, but the island was abandoned
of ihe chamber of deputdes, which post be In 1801. latterly the projected Suez canal
left to enter the cabinet as minister without a has ag^n alarmed the En^iah for the safety
special department, but reaumed it when of their Indian possessions, and they have
LiSitte was made premier. Ee succeeded the once more estsbliabed themaelves on Perim.
latter, March 13, 1881, taking the department b Feb. 1867. it was formally taken poaseaaion
of the interior. He secnred the independenoe of, and fortjflcations which command the little
of Balgimn by sending a French army there paaaage have been erected,
in 1881 to oppose the mvaaion of the Dntch; FKRIODIOAL LITERATURE, as the term
otdered a French fleet to the mouth of the ia usnally applied, comprises those serial pub-
Tagos to assiat in the overthrow of Dom licatjous the principal object of which is not
Ugael ; and oocnpied Ancona to obecic the tbe oonveyauoe of news, but the circulation of
progress of the Austriana in Italy. But at interesting eaaays, talea, poems, and neefol in-
Loma the inaurreotionaiy attempts of the 1»- formation of a literary, scientiflc, or artistic
^timista or tbe repnblioans, lie formidable character. Periodicals are, forthormore, gen-
revolt of the silk workers at Lyons, the indig- erally distinguished from newspapers by the
nant feeling of the people on hearing of the fall greater care and reflection commonly bestowed
of Tartaw, and the growing spirit of liberal- upon their articles, and by their shape, which
ism, were difficulties with wnioh he found is always snob that the nnmbers may be easily
hinuelf unable to cope. Nevertheless, he de- and conveniently bound and preserved in the
voted himself to his task to tbe last In form of books. Periodical literature embraces
March, ]S32, when the cholera broke out in two classes of pnblications, tbe first devoted to
Paris, he devised excellent measures to oheok literature or criticism, and the second to the
1^ pK^raas. He himself, in company with scienoet the arts, or to special' branches of
the duke of Orleans, visited tbe patients in knowledge. A few, however, present charac-
the Hitd Dieu, April 1. Five days later ha teristies which would place them in both of
was attacked by tne disease, which at first these divisions. — The extension of knowledge
aj^eared of a mild form, but soon lesnlted and the multiplication of books rendered it im-
lataUy. Hia funeral was attended by au im- possible for the scholar to inform himself of tiie
wam oonooorse (^ people, and a monument progress of learning In various countries, or to
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
186 FEBIODIOAL LITERATUBE
pnTO&ase and perase more tiian a BmaJl portion the Sewie amtemporaine (18SS), irith vliicb
of the vorkf isBned from the prem ; hence the haa been tmited the Athintun lYanfou, is
neoeidity for oritioal jonmals. This Kteran' ahly condneted by Calonne, The Setnu Bri-
wantiraa first Inet Is France. In Jan. 1660, ConnuTve (1886), edited by Sanlnier and I^choL
Denis do Sallo, aeannung the name of the eienr and filled vith traudotiona itoia the periodical
de rodonville, isBned at Paris the first nnmber jonmala of Great Britain and tie United
ot Oto Joantat de» lavantt. He retired from the Btates; tlie Betme 6ertit<mv[«e, deroted to
editorship in March, when IS weekly niunbers Qennan Uteratnre ; ttie Setw det raea Latina
had been printed, in oonseqnetice of complaints (1867), appropriated to the arts and letters of
made by uie paptJ nuncio of the Gallican spirit those nations having a Latin frigln ; and the
displsred in some of the articles, and waa sao- Bewt Europitnne (16G9), are the other exbtiiiff
cee^ed by the abbfi Jean Gallois, nnder whose French reTOwa of note. To the admiaaon d"
snpiervision the Jonrnal was pnbUshed at irr«g- poetry and tales into the reYiews, and to the
alar intervals nntil 1S7S. Its pnbUcntiou was pnbHcatiou by almost every newspaper of ■
resomed by the abb6 J. F. de la Boqne In mereryyettilletcn, mnat be escribed the almost
16Y6, who was followed by L. Coniin in 1687. total want in France of serials exactly GorTe-
In 1701 it was placed nnder the protection of sponding to the Fn^sh nmg&rines. A fbv
the chancellor of France, and a conunissioa of only of tiie most popmar kind, uke the Magati»
learned men appointed to condnct it. It was piftM-M^e (1882), exist. — England jteeme, with
intermpted by the revolntion at the close of the eweption of Italy, to lave been Ao firrt
17S2, and an effort to reTive it in 1797 was conntiyto imitate the example of France. Siit
only BO far succeaafiil that a volume of 8S4 the " Weekly Memorials for the Ingenlons,"
pages was published: it was, however, perma- the earliest issae of which is dated fat Jan.
nentlyretetahlishedmlSie, and still continues, 1681^'S, lasted bntayear, and some of itsar-
and is conspicnons for its learning and candor, tides were translations fbom the Jovrnal dt*
As the Journal da latanli did not pay mnch socanlt. The " Universal Historical Biblio-
regard to polite or amusing Uteratore, J, Do- thiqne" began in Jan. 1688, and expired in
nean de Yis6 fonnded In 1672 the second liter- March. The "History of Leanung" (1691,
aiy periodical in Prance, the Mereure galant, and again 18941, and the " Memoirs for the In-
vbioh gave reviews of poetry and the drama, genious" (IBM), were also of brief duration;
Its titje was changed in 1717 to ttie Mereure de hot the "Hlatory of the Works of the Learned"
France, and it was conducted with ability by (1899-1711} was more auocessftil, though the
Marmontel and others until 1818. It has since worka reviewed are chiefly continental A
been revived fbr brief periods as the MiTiertt learned French Frotestant refugee, Michel de
Fnmsaite (1818-'20) and the Mtreure du XIS' la Roche, edited in London the " Memoirs of
giielt. In 1701 a society of Jesuits at Tr6voax Literature" (I70d-'14), and afterward in Hoi-
began the Mtmoirei pour tenir A Vhittoirt det land the Sibliothique Angloim (1717-'27) and
«;ien«e«a(iJa&eaU0-arti, more commonly known the Mimoiret litUrairet de la Qrande-BretagM
as the Mimoiret de TrSnoua. It was charac- (1720-'24); bnt his "Memoirs of Literature"
terized by the excellence of its critical jndg- was reconmienoed in En^and in 1726. In
menta, and by the zeal with which it combated 1726 the title was changed to the " Present
anti-Jesnitic^ opinions; it lasted nntil 1767. State of the Eepnblick of Letters," and An-
The other noteworthy literary journals of drew Reid assnmed the editorship. It nn-
Fraace iu the last century were the Annie tit- derweot another transformation in 1787, be-
tiraire (17R4-'B1) of Fr6ron; theDieade (af- comfaig the "History of the Works of the
terward Seme) pMleumMque (I794-I807), by Learned," which was continued nntil 1743.
Qlngnenfi; and the Magatin eneyelopidigve Its place was then to some extent stqiplied
(179B), by JDllin, the second series of which by the "literary Journal" (Dublin, 1744^'91,
was styled Annalet eruyyelopedifuet, and the the earliest publication of the kind in Ireland.
third Eetiue eneyolopidiqve. It was suspended Since the middle of the 18th centniy it has
in 1883, when it was succeeded by the Sewe been generally customary in English l!l«ra-
J^fl;atMeti(ran^^byJn]llen,ofwMchonly tnre to apply the word review to tJiose serial
a few Totumea were issaed ; and a second at- publications whose province is criticism, ma^-
tempt by Didot to reestablish it in 184S as the zhie to those whose pa^es are filled with mia-
NoueeiU revve eTioyehpidique woe equally nn- cellaneone and entertaining reading, andjonmal
snccessftil. In the present oentnry the Eetrua to periodicals of the saientiflo kind. The ear-
j^atifaite (1828-'80 and 18S7-'9), by Guizot, liest of the first nameddass was the "Monthly
the Reoie de Parit (182B-'4a), the Reave indi- Eeview" (1749-18*4), established by Griffiths,
ptTidanU, txA many more have appeared and whocontlnaed toconductitformorethanhalf
tieen discontinned. Bnt the Sewe det devx a oentury. It wasfoHowed within the next 60
KkjftdM, commenced in 1839, among whose most years by the "Critical Heview" (1789-1817),
frequent contributors have been Ste. Benve, fonnded by A. Hamilton and sopported by the
Flanohe, Ohasles, IWmnsat, and De Bro^e, oontributiona of Smollett, J. Roberteon, and
has been marked by an ability which has made other writers ; the "London Review'' (1776-
it permanent and placed it at the bead of '80), succeeded by the "New Review" p781-
Fr^cb critical seriala. A rival publication, '96) ofMaty, and incorporated in 1797 with thv
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PEBIODIOAL LTTEBATDBX UT
"Analytioal Berttw" (1788-'M), which was oals, and whose ohltfderirewueiitdrtdniiimit,
diiven from the field hj the " Anti-Jacobin or inrtmction in &ie garb of entertainment.
Review and Magarine" (1798-1831), and the Ont of the want fait hj this new pablio vrew
■' British Critio" (17SS-184S), edited at firat the EngUsh msgazinee, the earliest of whiah
bf Nsres and Beloe, who advocated the prin- was the " OentlexoBn'e Uagarine," commenoed
ciplee of thoEngliah high ohorch partr. At iu LondonbjOaveinlTSI, andcontinned after
the h^jinning of the lOui centiuy the " Edin- his death by Hemy end Hichols, the editors
burgh Seview" (ISOS), by the stfle and crit- asanming the pMndonjmona appellatiim of
ical ability of its articles, at once eleTsted Sylvanna Urban. Johnson and oUier eminent
the standud of this class of serisl literatore. writers <rf the 18th omtmy contributed to it ;
^ee KDiirBDBoa Ksvikw.) It was a vioonras beside eketohes and easiQ^ it pnblished for b
defender of whig policy, and soon had a timatheivoceedinffsof parliament; and it con-
fomaidahle rival in the torj " Qoarterly Be- tains obitnaries snd mnoh other historical mat-
riew" (1809) of London, raooeedTe^ e^ted t«r, which has been made easily aocesmble to
hy <Hm>rd, J. T. Ocderidge, and Lookhart, the Investi^tor by the pnblicatton of G index
and nnmberins among fta omtaribntors Soott, rolmnes. It is still continued, bat for many
Sooihey, and Oroker. The "Weotanineter Be- years its pages have been almost wholly de-
Tiew" (1SS4), styled fbr a period the " London voted to history and sroheology. Oave bad a
and Westminster Review," was started by Ben- host of followers. Ihe "London Magacine"
tham and other ntilitarians, and as tite organ (1783-'84], the " Royal Magazine" (lYGQ-Tl),
of tlia radicals In politics has nwnti^ed a hl^h the "Oxford Magazine" ('1768-'S£), ti)c"Enro-
positjon under the direotjon of Bowrii^, UiU, pean Uagazine" (1763-1836), tbe " Soots Maga-
and Hiekson. The " Edeotio Review" (ISOfi), dne" (1789-1817), the earliest in Scotland, and
in which piu>ers b J Adsm Olarka, Robert Hall, the "Monthly Ha^ziae"(l 796-1 829), sapported
and John Foster appeared, was evenfelioai la by the efforts of Priestley, Oodwin, and others,
religion and liberal in poUtica ; the " Ohristian were among the chief ones which originated
Obflttirer" (180S), e^ted by Z. Uaoanlay, 0. in the 18th oentmr. " Blackwood's Edinburgh
WUks, and others, is the oi^ian irf themoder- Magaane" (1817) is of a higher order than any
ate chnroh party; and th6"I>nblin Review" of itspredeoessors, and has never been exoelled
ClSSe) was bronght into exlatenoe by O'Oon- (see Bliokvood's Maoakimk) ; bnt the "New
nell and his friends as the representative of Montlily Magadne" (1814), edited in tnm by
GotJiolio literatnre. Usny able reviews have Oampbell,Hood,Balwer-Lytton,andAinsworth,
within a few years ceased to exist Bnch are " Fraser's Magacine" (1880), and the " Dublin
the "Foreign Qnarteriy Review" (1827-'46), UniTerdty Magazfaie" (1882), have approached
which occntded itself nnder the editorship of it in ezoellenoe. " Tait's Edinbnign l^ga-
Qilli^ and Frsser, with foreign literatnre ; the dne," " Sharpe's London Ifamdne," " Bent-
" British Review" a811-'25); the "Rotro- ley's IDsoellany," and the "United Service
specljve Beriew" (18aO-'30, and again 1B08), Journal," which is partly devoted to the mill-
which gave reviews of old books; and the tarysdencesiareof a li{^t«rcbaraoter. Anew
" Irish Beview" (1867). Thdr|Jaoe6 have been eraintJiissortofliteretarehasbeenintrodQoed
filled by tite" British QoarterlyKeview" (1845), by the shilling magazfaies, of which "UaomU>
snocesBor to the "BriOBh and Foreign Review" tui'sHagodne" (1809), the "OomhiUMagszine"
(1881! -'4£), the "ITtatii British Review" a8fi9), e^ted by Thackeray, and "Temple
QB44), the " New Qnartwly Review" (laiii), Bar" (LBW), by Bala, are the best, tiie last two
the "Seottisb Review" (ISSSJ, ^e "London Re- having attained an emxmona (urcnlatJon. The
■' ■ ■" ■■ "St. James's Magarine" is the newest of this
class, having been established In April, 1861.
printed qnarteriy, bnt the "Sotorday Review" The weekly magadnee began in 18S2 with the
(186S), which combines p<^tical articles with "Pemiy Magazhie" (]e8S-'4fi) of Enigbt, and
critical notices of new publications, is a sno- "Chambers's JoamtU." The former was not
oe«fbl weekly; while the "literary Gazette" only veiy snooeBsfol, owing to its iUuHtrations
(1817), "Athenienm" (18SB), "Oritio" (1861), and its dieapness, but it led to a crowd of imi-
and "London Review" (1860) are also beb- tations both in Europe snd America. This
domadal journals of oritidsm, giving a portion popular class of Journals, including tbe " Sot-
<tf their ecaoa to literary intelligence. — The uroayM^^zine" and "FaniUy Herald," has of
" Tatler" (1709-'10) and " Spectator" (1711- Iste been greatly improved, and far better ei-
' 13 and '14) tzooed ont a new path iu litera- amples of the kind are " Howttt's Journal "
tnre, in which many imitators, not only in (1847-'9\ "Household Words" (18SO-'G9), oon>
En^and, bnt all over the continent, hastened ducted oy Dickens, "All the Tear Round"
to follow. Of the mnltitude of similar Eng- (1869), by the same editor, "Onoe a Week"
lish pnblioations, the "Rambler" (179Q-'B1) (1869), the "Leisure Hour" (1801), and many
of Jonnson was the moat fiunons. The pleas- others. A peculiar department in periodical lit>-
ing snd popolar pliers of Addiscm and Steele erature has been marked out and filled ^ee
created a litrge cuss of readers who were oon- 1849 by "Notes and Queries," which forms a
tent with a less amount of erudition than was medium of interoommnnioation fbr men of let-
displayed in the pages of the oritiosl periodi- ters, and a repository for brief notes on cnriona
" (18C8), tbe "National Review" (186{6,
a few others. The reviews are generally
ted ODBTterlT. bnt the " flatnrdnv RavIaw''
D,o,.^oob,GOOglc
188 FERIODIOAL LITEBATUBE
topics m the TsrionB branches of liUiratiire. BsTsrian ncaAnaj, and the above n
— In Qennanj a tranalstion of the Journal det GCttingen periodical of tlie same name. Of a
XKonU appeared at aa earljr day, bat in 16S3 lighter ana morepoimlAr tone are the BUUter
an original work, the Acta Imiditorvm, waa fUTliterariiehe VntirltaUnnp(\SB&\'ptvAmA.j
foanded by two private learned aodetiea at editedb^EotzebneaatheXieeFaf-iieM IToeAcn-
Iieipaio. It was lees brilliant, although bjno ilaU; Via DeaiMtha llvuvm (18GS), byPrntz;
means leaB entdite, than its French proto^pe ; the (7renfhit«n(1841),bjr Schmidt andFreTtag;
bat being written in the Latin langaage, stenil j WtittmnannCt Mot»atM^fU (ISCC), and many
orihodoz in ita Lutheran opinion^ and govern- more of Uie maoazine kind. The lUatVHria
ed by no systematio code of critioiam or philos- HuniUai^oumai of Leipalo ie of the " Pennj
oph7, it Mled to exerii the iuflaence or attain Uagaxine" school, and ergoya a Tory large cir-
tbe snoceBe of the Paris periodical. Stippori«d cnlation. — In 1638, three years after the m>-
by the contribntions of men like Leibnitz, pearanoe of Sallo's jonraal, the GuvtmU A'
Seokendorf, and Cellarins, it ooatinaed ontil letlerati waa commenced at Borne by Naziari,
1776. The first literary aerials in the Oerman and published tmtil 1676. Under the aame ti-
langnage were written in the form of dialt^aea; de literary periodicals were afterward ismed
they were the MiraatMgetpf&die (ia88-'9) of at Parma ridSft-'SO) by Koberti and Baoohini,
Tbomaains, and the Monatlitht Uhterredungen at Venice (17I0-'S8) by the brothers Zeno, at
(1B89-'SS} of Tenzel, who sabeeqnenUy edited Florence (1742), and finally at Pisa m 1771,
the CuritvM BSiliotheh {1704-'7). The No- which last has been continned, with the ezcep-
veUen oui d«r geUhrteti wid curievten Welt tion of abrief period (17S7-1801),dowii toonr
Q69S) had bat a brief existenoe, and the own tune. The JSiblwUea volajiU (I67S-1718,
l}0ttt»e/i^ Aeta Eruditomm (I712-'6S), an imi- and 17S8-'47), commenced by OineUi and con-
tation of the Latin work, was the flret really tinaed by Sancaasani, waa of a leaa aolid charac-
aacoessfnl nndertakin^ (^ the kind. Under ter: batthei^MwBBbtttfntHsipnbiiahedforsev-
the titleof QtUhrta Ze*tung, almost STery large era! years anbaeqnentto 1740, and edited in pari
town had at some period during the 16th oen- by lAini, was marked by machera^lion. Dis-
tury its literary jonmal. Such, for inatanoe, tingnished at a later period have been the £i-
were established at Franlcfort (178a''8e), Halle hlwt«ea ItaUaTut (1816-'40} of Milan, conducted
fl766-'93), Kiel (1771-'e'ri, Gotha (1774-1804), at first by Aoerbi : the Antologia (1821-'8a) of
Erfort (1t81~'96), and Erlangen (17S0-'97). Florence, under the direction of a society of
But moreimportant were the jftw&idMi? con achotars; the(?tDrjiaiiijirca<ii«t(I8l9)of Eome.
gelehrten Saeheu (171G-'9?), edited by Beok hegaahj OAexeichi ; the Qwrnale eneielvpediee
and others, and whose clodng volnmes are en- 1806) of Kaplea, which waa followed in that
titleildterarueh^Deahwurdigheitm; the OCt- city by the Proffre»»0 delU tdaae (1888-'48),
tinyer geUhrte Ajteetgen, began in 1739 as the and ahioe by the Mvteo di teieiut t letteratura ;
Zeitungan txm geUkrtcn SatMn, whose editors, and seTeral minor ones, like the PoUgn^ft
among others, have been Holler, Heyne, and (IBII), and Magaaina pittoreteo, and the popu-
Eichhorn, and which is still published; the \stAUvm (1824) of Rome. The chief critical
AUgemeine Deutteha BMioihek (1766-1806), aerials at present are the-&Hrwtar0nt«mp0ranAi
founded by Nicolai; the .£ri«/e,clMn«UMt«Z*f«- (1863) of Tarin, resembling in style and ap-
ratuT betr^ttid (1750-^65), in which ILeasiiiK, pearance the SVench Servt det deux tnondei,
Mendelsaohn, and Abbt took part ; the so call- and the Foliteenieo (1889) of Milin, which
ed Bremer BeitrSge, through whose pages Qie- was suppressed in 1844 and revived in 1869. —
aeke, Zacharifi, QeUert, Gilrtner, and other Spain was represented in periodical literature
critics exercised a poweml infinenoe upon the during the 18th century by the Liario de lot
German literary world; the Allgemeine lAte- UUraUit (1787-47); the PfiMo^or (1702), one
ratuT-Zeitung, established by Bertnch at Jena of the " Spectator" school, and chiefiy written
in 1785, but removed by Schlltz to Halle in by Olavyo; the Seminaru) erudito (1775-'Q1),
1804, and continned until 1848 ; and the Je- by Balladeree, noted for its pahlicatioo of rare
naiteAe aUgemeine Literatar-Zewaitg, foanded and important literary manuacripts ; the Memo-
by Eichstiidt at Jena upon the removal of the rial lUerario (1784^1807) ; and tiie Varitdadet.
last named, and also suspended in 1848. In which acquired a conmderable repotation under
the last half century the Leiptiger LiteraUir- the management of Quintana. The Oronica
Zeibmg (ie00-'84}, tiie Witmer JahTbileh4ff der eimtijiea y Utwima (1824), by Mora, enbse-
Idteratur (l8I&-'48), Hermet (1816-'81), dis- qnently became apolitical sheet. The Ceneor
tingaished for its erudition, and the</aAr&fleA«r (1820), by Liata, Hermosilla, and Minano, was
,/6r KusenaehafilKhe Critik (ia27-'47) have for some years the best periodical which Spain
oeaaed to appear. The leading existing crit- had seen ; this waa finally enperaeded by the
ioalauthoritiesarethe.fi'<n&I&nv«'/aArMteA«r JEmifa E^aaliola (1881), ^hich successively
d«r Littratur (1608); the Jitpertorivm der chaiiKed its title to AocMta .FuropMt and £«rt«fa
BmteBhen vnd Auetdnditehen LiUratvr of d» Madrid. Later are the Cartat EipalloUi*
Oeradorf, a continuation of the B^pertoriian der (1681), the Antologia E^taiiola (1846), the Se-
pMommfm Zifanjrfur (18S4-'48); the DeuU^te tiwtaMi})iHM>-Jm«rt(sana(I848),edited^Hora
VierUljiiknKhir{fl (18S8), modelled upon the for a brief period only, the Seeitta de &paHa,
£kigliah review ; the QelehrU Anieigen of the the Seminario pintonteo, and the Benela d*
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FEBIODIOAL LITZBATUBfi 189
iiwtafiiimiai. — Tha Jottmalda OMn^rainthe litenrj Jcmnul of Dttunark was tiie Ltfrde
Mriier part of this oentuy was tbe first, aai Jidsndt (lT4»-'66). Tbea came &e Minena
for A long time the onlf, literuy o^an of (1?S6) of Rahbek, oontinoed with a alight
which FcKrtngal ooold boost. In 1387, how- ohangeof title until 1S19; the Daiuike T^Ukutr
ever, the Panorama waa fbiuded, and still tor- (17B1-1808) ; the Skandinamk Miutum (1768-
onUtea largely both in Spain and Brazil ; and 1808), revived aa the Idtteratw Seltkabt Shrtf-
\a l&U the reiT ezoeOent £mita wtktnal ter (1805-'83>; and the Lairde ^fUrre^inger
IMmmte was Mtabliahed b/ Oaatilho, bat ia (17»d-lS10), hj Ualler, Mj otmtinned hj the
now edited by Kbeiro de S&. Other pnblioa* same editor under the name of LUleratnr-Ti-
tioBB of the literarr olus are the (TournoJ da d«nde (1811- S&). Uolbeoh published the .^tA«ne
aodeJade doi amiffotdat lett^it* and the ^bUo- (1818-'1T) and other periooicala, one of which,
pliiio. — ^In HollfULd two oelebrated men, emi- the Sittoritk Tidihr\fl (1840), has Borvived
nenUj qualified for the pnraoit, entered npon him, and is now edited b; Westergaard. The
the career of literary jonraaliam in the latter taoremodernjoornalaarethelfdife^/orZi^
Mit of the 17th oantmT'. The Menurt aoeont teratur og SnUk (188ft-'42^, now traDsfonned
(1484) of Deabordea at Amsterdam was a feeble into the qnarterlr For lAtterattir og Kritit
prodnetiiMi; but Bayle In the same year began (1842); Maanedarift /or Litteratur (1829-
biaJfov9dladelarip\aiiq[utdeiletfre»,widcii '88); the Sorditt Litteratvr-Tidmde (1816);
was eontlnned with great saooeas nntll 1718. JTonJ og 3yd (1848-'S}, b^ Goldachuuilt, re-
He npcfdilj fonnd a rival in Le Clero, who vived In 1866, and now changed to the ^tm-
nndertook m 1688 the first of the three famoos tiM eg Ud» ; and the I>anth Maantd*br\ft, by
seriesofreviewstowhiohhelaiitdebtediiDrBO Steenatrnp, oonunenoed in 1&G8. InlBG4the
mnefa of his repntstion. These were the .Sf- Jfordiik DnieartitaU Tidibr-ift, a well managed
MMUgw vnttWMlb et M»loriqw« (1686-'98), quarterly review, of whioh the nnmbera are al-
tfae BuUothigve cAoHfa (1708-'18}, aikd the £i- temately pablished In Bwedieh and Danish by
htiolUqiumuimti»etmed«rn«(in4r-'3T);tbef the four Boandinavian nniveraities of Oopen-
are diarsoterized by fblness, variety, and jndi- hagen, Ohriatiania, Upsal, and Lnnd, origmat-
oiona analyins and selet^on. The first peri- ed in the Danish capital. — The Sveruka Aiym
odioal in Uie vemaonlar was the Boektai vaii (1783-'4}, written byDalin, a warm admirer
Svropa (1093-1708, and 1716-'46), by Rabos of Addison, waa the earliest notable addition
and BeweL which wax excelled by the E^Vi- made by Sweden to learned periodioal litera-
hUfli dtr Galterd^ (1710-'48). J. van Effen, tore. In 1742 Oeldns foonded the TidniTigar
imitating the English essayist, prodnoed his iToI- om dm lirdat Arbaten, which waa afterword
lantUahe S^Mtator {1781-'5) with marked ano- edited by Salvias and GJOrwell as the Zdrda
ceas; bntanewerainoritioiamwaB introdaoed Tidningar; but the first comprehensive critical
in 1781 by tlie Vadarkmdtehe iMtere^fiungm, journal was the Snemka Mereuriut (1765-'6fi)
whioh still ooniinDes. Tbo AUgmume Sontt- by QjOrwell The Fii:f«r^t(-Jbwnaf (1777''8),
«KZ«a«r(od«n78S) maintained for many yean byRndin and Biatell, scarcely deserves meo-
a high rank, but now exerts little inflnenoe. tion. The Pho*phoro» (1810-'1S), by Atterbom
The SeeaMSKt (1808), lately superseded by the and Fahnblad, carried on by the latter as the
JVimtaa £wmMa<^ has proved itaelf a powerful Smnth JAteratw-Tidning (181S-'24), and its
rival to the £ettero^/MnmA. Other existing adversary the Idana n8n-'S4), edited by a
perio^oals are the Jfiatrltmdteha Mvtmim sooiety styled Qothiita Mrhindet, both wieUed
(1885), the J^udatrom (I8SS), and the Ifanor- a powwM influence in the literary oirclee of
■eksr OD the plan of the London " Notes and Sweden, and originated two different schools
Qoeriea." — The J3n>ri£ det jownaut (177B- of poetry and oritioiam. Among other periodi-
18IB) is a Bel^an literary miscellany of con- cals may be mentioned Polyfem (1810-'12) ;
Hdmble valne ; but it was not nntil the sepa- Snea (I818-'82), notioeabte for ite elevated
ration from Holland that the periodioals of Bel- tone uid clever reviews of foreign books ; ■Tbur-
gimn began to be of much interest. The JTes- noZ Jvr Littratarm (180d-'18), aubaeqnently
migw dm tetenem, edited for many years by BL known as the ^ii^mdnna Jottmalen ^18]S-'2S);
Qenois, Is fraqotnitly quoted, while the imief Siandia (1838-'T) ; lAteratuT^Foreningeni Ttd-
issnea in the fletolah tongue have been the ning (1838-'6) ; and the LiUratufilad (1B88-
Sed^rd^ulteit L»tt»o^^m (18S4>, by Blom- '40). The best of a later date are the Tidahr^
maert; tha.fi9^rt£HAifti«nM»(188e-'40),bythe fdr LtUrtituT (18(0), by Malmatrdm, and the
weQ known acholar WUlenM; the Euntt- en Norduk lidtkrift, by Solman (1862).— JVw
JsWstMb J (184Q-'4a) ; iiiitVbtmtht Bsderyler (1840-'4e),ooiidacted bymembersof theOhris-
(1844), and one or two more popolar mlsoel- tianla university, and the North Tid*kr\ft J3r
uiaM^^ta%itibt«tiaxA\b»BiJiiwwiqfuBritai^ Tidatukah og Litwatur, established in 1847,
nigme (17H-181SJ, and its more original sno- and since edited by Lange, are the only eape-
oeasor the BibUotMqve unituttlU (1816), which oiolly prominent literary organs which have yet
'- -pabUihed in two paralld series,, one scienlifio arisen in Norway. The penodioala published in
1 the other litarary, are widely oironlated the Icelandio language are not numerous. They
both at home and abroad. The £miu Suitie comprise the SagtiailSd (1617-'S6), edited by
has been oondnoted with muoh suooeM at Nenf- Finn ICagnusson, and now isgiied under the
ehAtel ainoe 1887.— The earliest noteworthy name of Siimir (1827); Ijdhtir (1885-'4C);
ispabt
and th
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
140 FERIODIOAL LITSKATtJBE
S^ S^agirtt (18il), a review edited oUaSy by Ontcov, Fown, and Lemberg.— The prindpal
Jon Sigtirdsaon ; e^ Hordur/ari (lQi8-''i% hy literarv perio^cal of Bohemia, the GatmiM
Oisli Brynjnl&ioii. In FinlaDd tae sole Uter- Cttknuia Mmevm (" Jonrnal of the Bohemian
«ry jonraal deserriiig of notice ia the Sitomi, Muaenm"), was be^mi in 1827 b7 the patriotio
which hag been iasned in the Swedish langna^ Falackr, edited from 1837 to 1843 bj Scfaa-
elnoe 1840. — The exialiDg periodicals of BnsBia fiirik, and since that time b; Wocel. It has
are more noted tot tli^ size tlmn their nam- done mnoh toward boilding up a Temaonlar
ber, a Bis^e iwne eometdmes ooataJning 600 literature. — ^In the sonth-Siavio lands, the 2)a-
pagee. Periodica) literstnre in that connby be- waJUriyika (" Dlyriou Uorning Star"), fonnd-
gan with the Yethemyeif/aUhniya tetekineniya ed in 1S8S by 6f^, lasted until the Hnnga-
("Uontlilj Ees^s"), edited by Mtlller from riaa etrng^e; and lately the 6la»n.ih mo-
175S to 1704. Soon afterward oonunenced een«ib*("Blavio Herald'^ has made its appear-
Bomarakoff's "Indostrioas Bee" (17CB), and anoe ^ Klagen&irt. — Foremost in point of
E]ieraakoff'B"Lei8areHoiirs"(1769). Superior tisie amnvg the serial isenes of t£e Htm-
to these, however, was the Vyettnii Seropi garian press was the Jfofryar muttvm (178B),
("European Intelligeooer"), foonded in 1802 vlarted by Kaonczy, Szab6j sod Bacsfioyi;
by the historian Kararoain, and eubBoquently bot it Boon expired, and Eaianozy for a wUle
(1808) edited brZhokovaky. To tMs succeed- condaoted the Orphtnu. The Tudomdnyoa
ed the £utt:w Vy«fritt, oondneted ftom 1608 gySjteniiny, or "Literary Uagazine," held
to 1830 by S. S. QUnka, then by Oret«h and from 1817 to 1B4I, mider the editorship of
Poleroy, and which, after having been suspend- YArAsniarty and others, the 6r8t place among
ed for some yesn, wae revived at Moscow in Eongarian periodicals, but it had for a time a
IBCfl byKatkoff. One of the ablest pnblioa- rivsl in the-^fef^ ^if^ratum ("Lifeandliter-
tions wss the ^n otetoheiUa ("Bon of the atiire")) originated in 18SS by Eolceey and
FaOierland"), founded in 1813, with which was P. Bzemere. The FiffyelmetS^ ot "Obeerver"
united in 18S5 the Seeernoy Arihiv (1838X or (1637-'48), was an inflnentisl litenur serial
" NorUieni Archives," at which time Bnlpiria under the chante of B^ca, who in conjunction
andOretoh became joint editors -, the latter re- with Bchedel also condnoted the "Athenicnm,"
rigned it in 1880 Into the hands of Ifaasalsky, an Imitatton of the London periodical of the
and a few years afterward it ceased to ap- same name, which enjoyed for a considerable
pear. The "Telegraph" of Moscow {1626-'85), time a deterred success. The-Erdelj/imtaeum
by Folevoy, began a new era in Buseian critar (" Transylvanian Museum") of DObrentei had
oism ; it was suppressed by the government only a brief existence, but the Uj Magyar
and its successor, Nadeahdin'a "Telescope,'' tmueaum, or "New Hungarian Musenm," has
speedily met with a similar fate. They were during the last decenninm been the principal
fbllowed in the old capital of Bnssia by the oriticid ionmal of Hungary. — 'O Aoyioc 'Spms
Mothiitafiin (1B40), the organ of the Panslavio ("The Learned Mercnry"), the aarliest pen-
theories. The Biblioteia diya feitmiya (" Li- odioal of modem Qreece, was maintained by
brary for Beading") owed its origin (1834) to the contributions of Asopios and other promi-
Greteh, who was followed in the oltair of edi- nent men. To it has sncoeeded the Evpa-
torship by Benkovsky; under the direction of jrauot Bpananit, or "European Contribnter,"
Smirdm it b stiU one of the foremost periodi- esteblished by Rangab^ and others at AUiens
oals of the oonntry, although a portion of its in 1840. — In India the issnes of the periodical
contents oonMsts of translations, chiefly from press are of course formed npion English modds.
Engliah works. The Sovremmnii (" Oontem- The earliest one of a literary character was the
porary"), founded by Pnehkin in 1886, was "Calcutta Monthly Register" (1790), nhidh
afterward oondneted by Pletneff : while the lasted for some months. Of tie snccessors the
OMoUitostmya mitJti ("National Journal") best known are the " Oriental Magarineand In-
waBeditedatflrBt(1840)ln-ByedinBky,andthen dianHurkam,"whioh began atMadrasinlSlS;
by Kr^evsky, dicdnKdalung itself under both the "Madras Misoellray;" the "Calcutta Be-
by the zeal with which it opposed Fanslarism. view" (1844), avalnabie existing quarter^; and
Ontside of the country itself the Arehh JSir die the " Bombay Quarterly Review,'' which dates
vUietuehqftlieke K'undewm Siualand, eiit^ ttt from 1865. At Singapore the "Journal of
BerUu by Erman since 1841, gives a valuable the Indian Archipelago" has been published
ritumi ot the labors of the Busman men of unce 1847, while the " Cliinese Bepository,"
science and letters. — The JMennih Wamatetti begun by Morrison at Canton, was from 1882
I ("Varsaw Jonrnal"), fonnded by Moohnacki to 1861 filled with valuable articles relating
and Podozaszynaki tn 1828, has oontuned many chiefly to the literature and histoiy of the ex-
excellent essays by such men of learning as treme East. — ^The periodicals of Spanish and
Lelewel, Miokiewicz, and Brodadnski. An im- Portnguese America have as yet hardly at-
portant periodical wss edited by Lsoh Szyrma tained even a local snocess. Brazil did not
und^the title of PamJsfntiFomatMitt ("War- possess a critical Jonrnal of the first class until
saw Memoirs"). The''Athenfflnm"wasissoed Oliveira began in 1869 the Eeauta BnuiUira
at the same place by Eraszewski, but ezjdred at at Bio Janeiro. Peru has nothing better or of
Uieendof Soriyeara; and a number of Po- a later date to show than the old Merwrio
lish literary senids have tq)peaMd at "mina, iVruatw (l7Bl-'6), The Itemtrio ChiUno,
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PEEIODIOAL LITERATUEE 141
edited hj Vont daring the period of his eziJa nie, the first AmeriOftn periodioal vfaich w«
from Bpaon, was a creditable prodnction, and forttmate enonglt to re»sh An age of over 10
haa be«i followed hj one or two unsoocessfiil jitorB ; the " Literary Magacine" (Phfladdphlft,
Attempts to establijh a permanent magazine in 180S-'8), by 0. B. Brown ; Uie " Monthly An-
Chili. In Uexico the Oaieta de Uieratvra of thotogj" (Boatoa, 1803-'ll), oontaining artioles
Bsmirez (1788-'S5) has aoaroel? been equalled by Tudor, Bnokmineter, J. Q. Adams, and Q.
since the eatablishment of the republic. — Be- l^ckitor;the"Iiiberar7!HiBc«llBiij" Cambridge,
Ternng the rule which had prevailed in the 1804-'CJ; the" General EepoBitory''(18ia-'J8),
old world, the United States, ae was natnral at the same plaee ; the "Muror of Taste" (Phi]-'
in B new oonnlTT' where scholars and instita- •delphia, 1610-'ll), br Carpenter, who paid
tions of learning were as yet few, had its jonr- mn^ intention to dramatie matters ; th4
lutls of entertainment long before its Jonmala "Uonajj- Register" (Charleston, 1806), the
(rf emditlon appeared, llie date of the first first sonthem periodical; "Iiitarai7 Uiaoel-
lit«rar7 periodical is IHl. In that year Frank- lany" (New Tork, 1811), by Baldwin; the
lin iasaM the "Oeneral MMarine and ffistori- "AnaleotioU4EaeLne"(Philadelphia,1818-'S0)i
cal Ohronicle" at Philadelphia, on the plan of designed eapecullyf<H' ofSeere Jn the navy, and
the " Gentleman's Uagazme ;" bnt it existed edited in 181S-'14 by Irving; the " New York
only half a year, while the " American Maga- Weekly Unseam" (1814-'lT); the"Portico"
raive," b^nn tn the same year and oity by Baltimore, 181S-'19) ; BnokinKham's " Kew
Webbe, was still less snocessful, two nnmbers England M^adne" (1881-'S) ; the "American
oolvbein^pnblished. The other iaenes of the Uonthl^ Uagazine" (New York, 18l7''18)|
kind prior to the revolntion were mostly short- the " Literary and Boientiflo Bepostory" (New
lived. They were tlie "American Magarina York, 1620-'S1); " Atkbison's Casket" (Phila-
and Historical Ohronide" (Boston, Got. ITU, delphia, 18Sl-'as), dinilaoed at laat by " Gr»-
to I>eo. 1746); the " Boston Weekly Unseam" ham'a Uagarine," whleh from 1S40 to 1660
(4 nos., 1743); the "Independent Befleotor" was the beet of itsolaes tn America; the"Ab'
(New York, i7Sa-'4], which nambered among lantio Jd^arine" (Now York, 1844-'B), hr
its contribntors Gov. livingeton and the BeVi Sands, contJaaed ttotil 1827 as the " New York
A. Bnrr ; the " New England Uagaeine" (Bos- Beview ;" the " Southern literary Gaxette"
ton, 1768), which ceased after the appearance (1888) ; the " New York Mirror" (1833), be-
of ft few parts; the "American Hagacine" gan by Uorris imd Wood worth, tbe latter being
(Philadelphia, Oct. 1767, to Oct 17fi8), pub- sncoeeded by Fay, who gave place to Willis,
llshed by Bradford ■ the " North American friHu whicli time ontil 1643 llorris and Willis
Uaguine" rWoodbndge, N. J., l768-'6e), by saooessfUly oondnoted It) th6"IUiiioislfoath-
S. Nenl; Oie "American Hagorine" (Phila- ly Uagaaae" (Vatidalia, 18S0-'8a), the earliest
delpfaia, 1769), by Nieob ; the " Royal Ameri- pnblioation of a literary oharaoter in the WaliL
by Carey, who abandoned it to undertake the "I>ial"(Boaton,lMO--'44),editeddarliigitsfirat
"American Uaseom" (1787-'97), a compilft- two ywe by Msigaret Fidler, and mnvraii
tioa from the newq>^»erB and other Jonniala by K. Wi Emerson, Uie organ of lite s<jiool c^
of the time, of mnch historical valoe; the ]4ew England Irusoesdentall^; "Arotonu'*
" Kaasadtowtts H^aztne" (Boston, 178»-'B6) \ (Netr York, 1840-'^), by 0. Mathevs and X.
the "Ifew York Haga^ne" (I79a''S7)i the A. Dnycddnok : the " Msgnolia" (18ti->8) ; the
"Farmer's Itnsenm" fWelpole, H. H., 1708)^ "International Magulne*' (SeW York, 1880-
edited from 1796 nnol near the dose of the 'fiS), under the editorial ofalrKe of B. W. Qria-
oentnry by Dennie ; the " United Btates Uaga- wold j " Pobiam'l Uonttdy" (New York, I8BS
zbe" ^>luladelphis, lim, br Braokenrldoet -'7), of a hl^er eharaeter, botli in plan and
the " American Univeraal Magadne" (Phlla- Bxeontion, than eny tiurt had nreoedea it ; anl
delpbia, 1797]; and the "Uonthly Itagarine "RaB8eU'aMagadne"(Oharkeion,lB67-'e). All
and American Review" (New York, 1709- the early magadnea drew largely from Engjidi
1800), founded by the norellst Brown, bnt sonroea, bnt in 1811-'1S appeared at PhUadel-
carried on afterward as tli6"AmeTioan Review phia the "6eleotVieW8 ot Utentnre," K^flT
and LHerary Journal " (ISOl-'S). It would devoted to reprtnta froffl tbe ftreigh periodku
hardly be possible to give a complete list of prees j It has been followed by the "Satard^
t^e numerous literary misoellanles which hare Magazine" (Fhilade^^ila, 18B1), the ■' UuMuai
been nndertaken sinoe 1800 in the principal of Foreign Literature" (I^Uadelphia, 183S-
ffltiee <a tlie Union. A large minority of them '89), the " Select Journal at Foreign Peiiodioal
never aaoeaeded in obtai^ng anv thing like XJleratnre," edited by A. Nortcn and C. Fot
mcceos or permanence. Among tnem was the som (Boston, 1888-'4), and by two existing
"Portfolio^ (Philadelphia, lB01-'26), by Den- publkatioDfl, "littell'a Uving Age" (Boetoi^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
142 PEBIODIOAL LTTEBATnitE
1844) and tbe "Eeleotio Magazine" (Nev (Cinciiuuiti, 182&-'80), b; Fltait; the "Kew
York, 18*41. A imjtitnde of mamudnes York Review" (ISST-'W), ertablished by
filled "with u^t rea^ng, and designed more Hawks, and Bnbsecnieiitly edited hj J. Q. Oogs-
particQlarly for circnlation among the women well and O. 8. Henry ; and the " Southern
of America, have been pnbliahed, the ear- Qnarterly Review" {Charleston, 1842-'52),
Ueet of which were the "I*die»' Maga- were well eondncted, bnt have been dlecon-
rine" (Philodelplita, 1790) and the "Ladj's tinned. The same fate has befallen the" I>em-
Weekly MiaoeUany" (New York, 180r-'8) ; ocratio Review" (New York, IBB^-'Ba), after-
lat«r onea are the " Lowell Offering" (1841), ward the " TJnited Statea Review" (1868~'e).
chiefly written by female operativeB in the and sabsequently revived by Florence and
New England faotoriea ; the " Ladiea' Com- Lawrence as the " National I^ocratie Qnar-
panion" Qfew York, 1820-'44) ; the " Colnm- terly Review ;" the " American Whig Re-
bian lUgarine" (New York, 1844-'8) ; the view" (New York, 1846-'62), by Oolton and
" Union Magazine" (New York, 1847), by Ura. Whelpley ; the " Maasachnaetta Qnarterly Re-
:^klsnd, ^«rward pnblished at Ffailadelphb view" CBoston, lS47-'60), by T. Parker; and
as "Bartain's Magaiine;" "Arthnr'a Uaga- the "New York Qnarteriy Review" (186S-
dne" Philadelphia); "Hias Leslie's Maga- 'S). The "New Englander" began at New
rine" (Philadelphia) ; and the still iasaed " Go- Haven in 1S4S, and the " National Qnarterly
dey'fl Lady's Book" and " Fet«nion'B Magazine" Review" at New York in 1B60. A large nom-
of Philadelpbia. Magazines for children appear ber of reviews, organs of the Tarions religiooB
to have onj^uted with the " Young Miasea' bodies, are to be regarded partly as critical
Magazine" (BrooUyn, 160S), and have been and partly as theolo^oal Jonmala. 8nch are
fkvqnently pnblished since nnder snch titles the "Chnatian Eiaminer" (Boston, 1834), a
■a '' YonQi'a Magazine," " Youth's Cabinet," supporter of MasBachnaetta Unitorianism, edit-
" Parley's Magazme," and " Merry's Mnsenm." ed at viiriouB times by Palfrey, Jenka, Walker,
Theejiattogmagadneaofahtgher order are the Greenwood, W. "Ware, Mta, Putnam, Hedge,
"Eniokerbooker,"finuidedbyO. F. Hoffinauat and Hale, and which grew out of the "Ohris-
Nev York in 1S8S, and edited rise* 1884 by tian IMaciple" (lB18-*24), conducted chiefly
Louis Oaylord OlartE ; the " Sonthem literary in the first instance by Noah Worcester;
UeM«iger"(Kchinond,18SS), edited for a bri«f the "Biblical Repository and Bibliotheca Ba-
period by Poe; " Harper's Hew Monthly Mag- era," pnbliahed under that name since 18B1,
azine" (New York, 1860), combining seleotJons fonned by the onion of the " Biblical Repod-
from foreign pQblioations with a large amount tory" (which originated In 1881, and with
of original matter, ably eondncted from the which was Joined the "American Quarterly
outset, and having a circnlation for beyond Obserrer," 1883-'6) of Edwards with the
that ever attained by any similar pnblioation ; "BibliothecaSaera"^ of Robinson; the"Metli-
and the "Atlantic Monthly" (Boston, 1857), odist Qnarteriy Review," commenced as the
edited by J. R. Lowell, snpported by original "Methodist Magazine" (1818); the "Biblical
contribntionafromeomeof tneforemoetAmeri- Repertory and Princeton Review," began
can ai^ ^iglkli novelists, eosayiets, and poeta. by Hodge in 18S6 as the organ of the Weat-
Balher historical than literary have been the minster Oalvinista : the " Ouletian Review"
"American Bedster" (Philadelphia, 1806- (1886),advocBtdnginre]igiouBmatterBthepriii-
'10), and periodcala of the same name by ciples of the Baptista; the"PratestantEpiaco-
Walah (Philadelphia, 1817) and by Stryker palQaarterlyReview"(18H),andthe"Ameri-
(Philadelphla aid New York, 1846-'61), as can Ohnroh R«view" (New Haven, 1848) ; the
well ae the "American Quarterly Register" "XJniTeraalistQnarterly" (Boeton,lB48), by 6-
(Andcver, 18S9-'48), by Edwards. The " New H. Emerson ; the " Preabyterian Qnarterly Re-
England Historical and Genealogical Regis- view" (Philaddphla, 1852), by Wallace; the
ter" (Beaton, 1S6S), by Drake, and "Histori- "Evangebcal Review" (GhetlTabai^, Penu.),
oal Magazine" (New York, 18S7), by Fol- by Sjanth and others; the "T^veraalisl
■om, are also filled with American historical Quarterly Review" (Boston^ 1844) ; and
and biographical matter. — The review liters- "Brownson'a Quarterly Review," begnn as
tore of the TJnited States begins vrith the the " Boston Quarterly Review" (18S8), and
" American Review of Histon* and Politics" since 1844 malntuning Roman Oatholic opin-
(Philadelpbia, 1811-'1S), by Walsh; bnt the ions. Many of the colleges have individoally
ablest amd most permanKit pnblicatdon of this pnblished literary Jouraals, of which the
Bcrt baa been the " North American Review" "Yale Literary Magaone" (1886) ia the best
(Boston, 1616), which haa been snccesdTd^ known; but In 1860 several of the higher in-
effited or Tndor, E. T. Ohanning and R, H. stitationa of education in conjunction eslab-
Dano, Edward Everett, Sparke, A. H, Everett^ lisbed the " University Qnarterly Review,"
FaUny, Bowen, and Peabody, and haa con- Minor critical Jonmels have been the "Ut-
Btantly maint^ed a high character both fbr erary Review" QTew York, 1822-'4}, followed
style and critical ability. The "American by Bryant's "New York Review and Athe-
Qnorterly Review" (Philadelphia, 18a7-'S7) ; nieum Magazine" (18SB>, and tts snccessor, the
the " Southern Review" (Oharleston, 1B2&-'8S), " United Statea Review and Literary Gazette"
by Elliott and Legar6 ; the " Weatem Review" (lffl6-'7); and two or three periodic^ in
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FEBIODIOAL LTTEBATUBE
lis
imitatioii of tbe London literaij weeUiea have
been attempted, saoh u the " New York lit-
enrt Ooxette" a884-'B and 188S), the "Lit-
ararr World" fNew York, lM7-'68), edited
br Hofflnan and tiio Dafokiaoks, " Norton*!
Uterarr Gazette" (Neir York, 18G4-'6>, and
the "Criterion" (New York, 18B{S-'8).— Jonr-
nala devoted to the Bcienoua and the arts, or
to paiticQlar departments of human knowl-
edge, began to be published in the latter yean
of the 17th oentaiy, bnt were not nomeronB
until the beginning of the 19th, since which
tbe^ have mnltipliod with wonderful rapiditj-,
until there is now Bcaroelf any subject of in-
terest, or which con be made an object of In-
TfiBtigation, which has not ita periodical or-
Kans. The "Philosophical Transactions" (Lon-
don, IBHS) and the Muetlkmea Ouriota (1670)
of Germanj maj be regarded as the first se-
rials devoted to the natural and philosophioal
soienoes; and, indeed, a liberal deflnitdon of
the lenn scienUflc periodical would embrace
the whole of those works issued, sometimes
irregularlj, sometimes at stated intervals, hj
the leamed societies ot Europe and America,
and generally known as " Transactiona." The
first theological Journal was stjled Dot AlU
und ifau» aut dtm SAat* theoloffitcher Winm-
McA^fUn, founded in Qermany by Lcsoher in
1701 ; in America the earliest publioations of
the kind were the " Ohristjan History" Bos-
ton, 1748-'H) and the "Royal Spiritual Haga-
TJne" (1771). The first serial in connection
with iarisprudence was the Jownal da paiait,
eetabUshed by Qn^ret and Blondeau at Paris
in 1B92. At the same place in 168S, the abb6
de la Eoque had already b^nn the earliest
roedmenof a medical periodical, the Jownavx
de mideeiM. Philology was early represented
by the Aeerra Philologiea of Boysen (Halle,
171SX and Qermany boa conldnned to be, above
all other countries, the seat of journals de-
voted to lingnistics. Journals of mechanical
sdenoe seem to have ori^oted in En^and,
and the British publications of that citaa
greatly excelled until within a few years those
of the continent; but Germany within the
last quarter of a century, has poBeeesed seri^
devoted to the interests of almost every trade
and profession, SyBtematio periodicals, em-
bracing the mathematical, natural, and phys-
ical sciences, sprang into existence about the
close of the laat century almost Bimultaneoosly
in France and Germany, and have in general
been both better oonducted and more success-
ful than those of a corresponding class in Eng-
land. Agricultural periodicals nave been es-
pecially oyeotB of attention in France and
America, whUe those of England and Ger-
many ore in general of less value and interest
Every civilized country now has ila journals of
theology, Jnriepmdenoe, medicine, Uie natural
sciences, the mechanical sciences, and agricul-
ture, while in some many other spedalities are
represented. Few, however, except those in
French, German, and English, are of general
interest beyond the confines of the langoagea
in which they are written. The following 1^
therefore, is limited to those tongues ; it ^vea
the titles, place of pnblicatiou, and date ca ea-
tablishment of the more prominent scienlifio
and special periodicals now (1861) published ;
i^if**? d* FAgitcniltim Fnutcalte.
PukkllM.
Annul doiB
1 d'AplciiKarg pnUqiH. Bt
BnnL PumBST.
Jmfsil do Cnltlvitean. Purli, ISGS,
WtHhrlR fOi Dntaoha Iaiidawlitli&
BrBUeUunlL LdFriiilStf.
" — 'jndiwlrtwJuftUai* Zdlnnt By
rton. Easbnish
OnnmrHlit. OldcMl,
Jamiul of t^imai*
Jonnal of Oh AgrleoltDnl B<
CotUntBT. KswTnfc,lM^
■WoMim FniMr. B; Hum. S'aw
Aamlcaa Aarioiltaiilit. Htw Tort:,
18t&
StnUnrt, ISC8.
, &t^Uili*dbrl
lsR,B»**«t*dbrtCwd. H*vT«ck,
KMMa,
Ba*iia Tg—i— — M-r— Bt K
' piitor. Faii,UH.
^ttHbrin ni HOni-, I
Wftpp«Dtauid«, Bftmn,
otoglouuBtltaU. LoDOon,
EIoirI- nsd
Pull,
AsulM 4m 'Aknaz pnUlgno d« Bd-
flqiw. firuwli,l«t.
ZAaduUt lb du Bnnnnii. Con-
tlaiutlaa ot Cnlla'i JgoiMl ftr dia
Brakiut DOTr ooDdnctsd bj Erb-
—- B«Ua, IBW.
Ksobliooh. ButiL,
Cl*ll-lDfM)Iew. BfBoniBuim. Fr»l-
CLiFllEBclnMr ■ndAttMtacTi JonruL
LoudiHi, 18ST.
Bolldtr. LcmdaD, ISO.
Antalte«t> ud HMhudsl JonnuL
Kow Twk, IBM.
L-ArlMa. Ful^lBtL
Ouatt* da* Betni-ArtL BrLaBluCi
Puk,ieOI:
DlkneMotfarEawtlar-ARKim. BrK^-
idawliitsr. DtUMldortien.
Art^DiuuL Bt Hall. LondDiL IBSa
d^on. Brl>anuid. How York, ISU,
AidoiomlHtia M>iib4BbtaD. Foimdsd
Aton. AIUnm,'
CntartultoEgan,
ileal JonniL Bj QonJd.
AriniL
OmMda*. ibM, lera.
Bn>Ua«u>Idad«UFnii(». FarlB,l»8.
BnllalindDBIbllopblla. Bt Taebanai;
P*d«,lSBl.
BnllaUadoBlbllophllaBalg*. Fonndsd
SaiwawB. Bj BannuDS. Lalpal^
Auelnr tSr BIbUogiwUa. Br Pat»
boldL Halls, 1840.
Utrauii^sa OentivlbUtt. BrSSankik
Lelpdo, IBm
Pobllabara- Clnnlar. London, 1S8S.
Tha BoakHller. Lanlon. lUS.
American PubUdura' ClnnUi. Srm
Toik,lBBS.
Annala* ds Chlmla at da PbTritna.
Formerly aditud br OaT-LyMMand
Arago. now bj diarnial, Pilouii,
LaTolslar, and othan. Paila,lT».
Annilen dar Plinlk nod ChamlB. Br
Poasndoia Xaipali^ IStA
Jonma] itti praktudia CbamkL Br
£>dmuuk and Warthar. Ulptf^
CbamlMhoi CantnlUatL Bt Sim,
Lalpda,ia)a
QowMriy Jonnial of the CbamlMl
Sodetj. Ltindon, IM,
Cbomloil NaiFi. Loodoii, IBGO.
BrJounwnd. PuU,18afc
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
OMnKcntUr. Be* Tack, IHI.
Jonnut dM Buiqalm. B7 Ls Eb.
JonraiS d«j AMnnoecs. Ful^ISM.
UoBd* OnmnismltL Puli,U«;
moalskca HaadslunihlT. BrS4liit-
PkTnwtUaMr. Berlin, IMT.
- - t^U^ufaui. LaiidaD,lSll
mWrXradiHi, IMS.
~ aa UuuliK. Landau, IS&l.
iV IlMulna. EatalUihedb
FEBIODIOAl LTTSS^TDBE
PcHUail KMbulo'i Jotaati. eiu-
AiUuo. LcndoiiiiaA.
'onniil of tba FnuUla IiiUtata.
PUIideliJiIm, lEBl.
SduitUloAmeiiou. BawTuri^lSM
jOMuldrnPaU*. PntLlTM.
EkovII K*u«nl dM Loi) at AnSt*.
J<n«2dn£ndt olndML Pub,18H.
Jonrul de PtooMdi*. FuhlSSt.
SeTD« erlUqiis d« LteldiUoD. Br
Tnmlon.iadTol'nnia. P«Tta,l»L
EiltlAolM ZelMulft ni BaoUiwUMB-
~ Bjt llut«iiul«r and oUun.
^onrnildtrSdneatloDpiipiikln. Pub,
BaTu'del'Iiinnutloniiabliqiu. FiiiM,
^vS&tt fflM^UolOEle nnd Fids-
eoclk. FoiiBdadbjJiKn, edited nmr
G« OUtaoh ud flaokatun, Loliuls,
KepertoiiDm der pIdagogiKlum Jodt-
DilUtlk. B7 HdndL UnDkb, 1MB.
£a(lt*liJoiinulDr£diu«tk>n. Idndiai,
Amoiicu Joanul of Xdnoatias. B;
fiirurd. Hntfivd, ISM
LMttatmr dS Avh^ob. Bv Orudat.
Fa(ia,ieMl
Fne UiBODg' QuaitarlrBei
don,iag4.
FnaHatoia'HaitbtTHaaHlD*. Boa-
ton, isa
IToiiTatlH Anulu it ToTWsa. Bt
IblU-Bnm. (pubUgbederthealdsr
XI fcom ISO8 to ISIO Pull. ISU.
Un d« 1i EaeUt6 da eiagmpUB.
Bt Uani7 and Hiita^Braa, Puis,
.., n. eaUia,18S«.
alofUia So]r*l eaofn^doal Bo-
detr. Landm, 188L
.„„ — itbaWoM. Brir.F.AIna-
, Fwla,l
TMnakclrta. Pirii,lUff.
Bana dai SaianaM, (Foimattr the
Htlddb
6l»P-.
BeHluasdolhsn. TttMnRan, IBtl
JshibBchor del DonlHdien BaehHwft-
Miuohall l^BoUatUr. Eriugen,
Lair Joonul. London, ISS.
Iav Mwadno. tondon, ISn,
LmlOEwvar. London, ISSL
Juriit London, ISST.
CilcultoLegnlOhierTar. IMO.
La« Baportai. Br Bingar. Boaton,
FatlLlBM
BflTiiUr, FaRen,indolhaii. Lon
HaUiuntlia] fonnul. Br Bnnkle
ArcMTaaitBfailaadalttdwbia. Puis,
issa _
Bulletin J^>inl da TUnpootlqna.
Joninid
BanwdaThtenaBtlviB. Fails, 1884.
AbeUlamMlaOa. PaiIa,lSU.
Jonnil * ■ "" -' -■
AnIilT' nr ,.
Br Tlrobow. _«— .
ZaltaohrUt Hi TTudlnU. Br Halm
aodotban. fltnt^it, 180.
AngeiiH<nainadliilidI^Z<dtDi« Bf
Foanar. Batlln, lEBO.
Xdlnbnnti Kedlsal JonrnaL
HadlocHCUniiEMl Bavler.
Batroipaot of KaUdBa.
InUa. Loildon,lBU.
Madloal Oiltlflind Farslu__^
oaL Br Wlnilo*. Landon, IBn.
Amaiioan Jonnialof Uia Uadlaal Sd-
ledlcal and Bnnltal JoimaL ]
Allnmrina homSonthliflha ^■^■""f
ByUeyer. Lalpalii, ISSl.
BomOopa^iJaoba VlartaUalindillt Br
~ HUlai. LalialclHIL
■cbrilt (Di bimiAopathlBelia Oalk.
BrBlnohaL I>nadni,lBU
Honli Ameilsan Jmmal of HasHi-
opathj. Bav Tink, IBSl.
AnfsTleao HonHaopatue XoTtaw. H«r
Tork, law.
AivlilTtOr OphUulmolB^ B7 AiU
■ndotbers. B*r11n,lRlK.
iRenfrennd. Br Koatar. Fadatbon,
ISW.
iLSMTion Jannul of Inmdty. mca.
ISU.
Art Dantatn. Br Pntanv. Park.
ISST.
BrlUihJomnalalDantilBclence. Lo>-
doiLiatir
HawTorl
tOB. N(„ .
Jonmal da f
PariiLir-
Tlutajshi
, NaT York, IBSa
aelUdMlnaTJUilDalre. Partt.
ZrltnbiUt fb PUlaotiUa nWI nm-
latlra Tbaslogla. ^L B. naUfc
Boim,lBSr.
Jonmil daa Bcdaaeea mliltnlrK B)
CoiTted. PartiilM.
AUgamalBa MlUttr-Zilnuig. Bum-
aSidt,18U.
MUltall-'LltaiatDT-Zattnng. BjBlaMn,
Berlin, IBML
United Mrrlee JonmaL Londas, ISK
Annalea daa Hloaa. (CanUnnaHoa «f
Uia Joornal d« mnea.) Fada,IIM.
Berv- luid battainnlnDlKba Zattang.
BrHirtmann. QaedUnbins, ISB
OaetainleUadw ZalBohillt lb Barf-
nnd HdtleiimfaiBar. Br Hlniacaa.
TfaUM^lal8.
Uhdng JonmaL London, ISU
HlDliivHacBilDS. Saw Totk, leat.
franca Uaskak. ^EbobOm. PhU.
Zrlucbrift nr UiBik. B7 BraidaL
Lrl]«ic, 19S1I.
DeutscliD Unilk-Zaltaiig. I^ BaCfa.
Vienna, leSO.
tnrligit'B Jonnul tf Undo. Boaton.
Haalaal Oasatla and Xarla*. Saw
Tarkiisn.
Annalaa daa Bdanaaa natMnBic Br
Bronnlart asd IDlna-Zdirarift, Fa-
I;^W Faiis,iea.
Ooamoa. Fonnded br Hoinirt aoe-
tinned hi UOgBot. Ftrim UK
AroUTnrllatnnnaoUokta. BrBdeb-
aen. Baclln. l&B.
Nator. Br Ul* sod WUler. Halle,
ia»- —
Kaamoa. BrBaetam. Ldpale. ISTT.
j^nbiuia}! Adloao^ilcal JomniL Boil-
ed ftnuarij br Tms^^kir, and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEEITONITIS
mUpi^BOwby Bnwiter ind Jisu-
Annli IBd ^tr^^" of Batnnl Hb-
twry. Br jH^tne. Londaa, ISOT.
Hatnnl HflUnT Berlair. Xoadoii,
New Hbth^
Estub It Uuula da Koologl*. ]
Godila-JUUTlU*. PulLlKtr.
Eeltoekrtft tti wlM&HhAudi« liiv
oloKl*. B* Stobold iBd KUUksr.
ZoolwbL LodImlISU.
Aaaalai da l» BodlfU ulvnioloclqgat
Parte, 18%
BrtdiiHtoitadia&JUBhrttt BrKraH^
Barila.l»^
BnllettadaUSodiUbobuilqDa. Futi,
IStM.
n«K. Br FBnrohT. Sittibon, 1S&
»-. .—I- W.I, D. Kgjj ,„J
tA lb UDMiliHlak flaonMBia,
Br iMHilkinr aud Broon.
Statbort, ISM.
JooHrlJ tka Owdisloal Boda^.
LoDda^UU.
Jonmal da Coni^IloloBleL By Tlicher
andBermdL F»Ia.lB9a.
W.1.W— 1— i-j^ m iH^ BrFlfalfler.
Caaaat,iaA
Jonnul flkr Oialtliolaela. Br (
nd BaUusiu. Baflln^lSU.
IT Dcntai^n Mo^atillii-
ilogiB. BrU
-idBltieliL TnnEtHt, 19ST.
ZaltMbillt fOr raralataluiidfl Spnoh-
Fonabnnc. Br Knha BarUo, lew.
FUlotflgiu. Br Leatich. GSukgeii,
Fula-lSU.
^-, ^mL Br H
LatpMa,18l».
FhotdnvUeJouuL Ii<»doB.]U.
HnintuiiaT^ Joomilof the Daciiern
^paaadFtar •■■-■— "-
Taik,18"
EMn. Stott^Tt, .
HatwatWi Bainn^ Jouii^ Londan,
Amarleni BaDroad JmuiiaL Br Poor.
Haw Tork, Vai.
LaM:
■anohift. TUbliinli, 1841.
lanrBuloftlwBUUatlialBDclatr. Lon-
dDD, IBSt.
leruB ds Thtelofla.
BtiMbonrs, 1»S.
a iBd UmbrsIL Oolha,
Zaituhilft lb dla
BjN
liabiWT ud othan. OotWieW
MtKlulft lb wlwana^JMCli* Tm-
Olivia. BTEUfanbU. Jena, ISM.
EniuaUcal llagiiliia. Londan, 1T>&
}bilmaB Obaarrat. Londan, 1888.
Tha Litanrr Chnrclunu. Loodon,
Uananlnnr Barlav. Br Oarluit and
BohalL tSU.
ThMlorioa] ud LltaTBiT JonruL B/
Lord. Nair Tork, im
AiiMTlMBn«ila(<slBaTleT. Br^
KBrnim. Kaw Turk, 1SI».
OMeUA.
BItale. Full, 1831.
Bama OatboUqia. PoIl IBST.
BansThModqaa. Fuk,18B&
Thaoloalaoba QotrtalHluUt BrKnlin
and olhen. Tablllgoa,18l9.
Halut^udU
-pnUtldacbfl QiurtiliahrUt
La^alc, ISBt:
AtcUtm bninta. Full, 1840.
UoutwIliriA mi eaaeUehtfl nnd Vb-
MMohaft daa JudanthODU. Br I'm-
kaL L«lDda,lB!U.
Intalleotiul Bapoattoir (SwedsBboi-
gliD). London, 18W.
BsTiie BpM buUata. BrFlintt. Paili,
HualdofLl^L NevTorblSH.
Joorotl daa Wnlou iraiuiUqnaa.
Farli,lSH,
Qoipgl HIiiloDuy. London. ISSl.
Mlaalonnr Hanld. Bagnn u tlw Fan-
oiAUL S«aton,lBO«.
Bplril or UlMlona. NaT Tort, 1888.
FEEI, tba naote of a class of imaginarj beings
in tbe Persian mjthoiogj, snppo^ to be de-
scended from the fallen angels, and to be oom-
pellad to do penance fbr their sina before thej
can enter paradise. Thejare aUiedtotheelveB
and &iriei of tbe northern aatioos.
PKEIPATETIO PHILOSOPHY. SeeAaw-
roTtx.
PEEIPKEDMONT. Bee PsjnrMOKi*.
PEBITONEtJK (Or. mpt, aronnd, and tmiw,
to stretohX the thin, transparent serons mem-
braiM whuh lines ibe abdominal oavitj of man
aai vertebrates, reflected npon most of its oon-
Uined organa and more or lea* oompletaljr qd-
re]o[dng them, and Iceeping them in place b^
it* foUa and prolongationa. Li^e other Beraos
manibranea, it is a oloBed aao, ooveting but not
oontwiiiDg the oi^ana in ita oaTitr ; its internal
aar£aee, in eontaet with itself^ is snooth and
ahining, mmsteoed bj a eerona fluid wMoh per-
nute the oatnral movranents of the organs npoQ
aftob other, lite folds 'whiohanrromid the small
intofftintfij with their Tcnnoln, nwes, and gl*.n'i«,
Booatttiite the mewnterf \ this ia attaooed to
the vertebral dAanm, retaining the oanal in ita
proper plaoe, and at the same time allowing
the neoMBary motions of eaoh portion; the
fold* whlob embrace the eoloa and reotam ore
VOL. Jan. — 10
called respectively the niMfooZon and metoree-
ttaa. The donble membranoos fold, prolonged
like an apron from the convezitj of the stom-
ach and colon, and floating free over and In
front of the intestines, is the ommitiim or epi-
ploon; it is sopplied with ncmerons vesBels,
and is more or lesa charged viCh lat; it servM
to keep the intestines in place, and to protect
them and the vessels from external iqjnrf. In
the male fcetna it senda a jtrolocgation which
accompanies the testis in its descent and be*
oomes the tunica vaginaliM, which in most oasef
is shut off from the peritoneal oavit; and is the
Dsnal seat of hydrocele : in the female a small
prooesB enters the craral oanol ; the broad liga*
ments of the nterns are also peritoneal ezpaa-
riona. The kidneys and portions of other or-
gana are outside of the peritoneam ; it forma
the ligaments of the liver and covers the lower
Burface of the diaphragm ; ita course upon the
organs isvery oompllo^xd. It is liable to com-
mon aonte inflammation, eioeedin^y ptdnM,
and dangerone from its extent and oonneotloa
with important oreana ; the poarperal state ia
soUect to a speedur &tal form of peritoniUs.
FEBirONITIS, bflammation of the serons
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
ed in it Aonte idioMtUo Mritonitis 1b an a etrong and marked ebUl, vUch oftm lasta
affeodon bo rare, that acrabta nave hwa raised several nonTs. The pun at first is oonfined to
as to its ooonrrencs, the oasos tiiat have been the lover portion of the bowels, but as the peri-
desoribad bj authors being attribnted to the tonitis ^eads it extends over the abdomen,
mptnre of au anenrigm, or some minnte per- T^mpamtiaiBaniBiked sfrnptom, and from the
ioratJon which has been oTerlooked in the luitf of the wallsof tbeabdomen,theBwellinz
conrea of the eiomtnation. But though peri- is often enormous ; the pulse is very small and
tonidsis one of therarestformsof inflammation, frequent, beating from 120 to 160 in a minute.
there is not soffident gronnd for this opinion, Th^ patient oommonl? lias on her back with
Dr. Bimpson of Ediabargh has collected a nam- the legs drawn up. Vomitiu^isapttobeearlj
her of instances in which peritonitiB oocmred present, and the matters vomited, resembling a
daring intra-nterine life ; other obserrers have mixture of verdigris and water, are character-
fonnd it in new-born infants. Prolonged ex- istio of the disease. The secretion of milk
posore to cold appears to be the onlj causa oeasee, and the loohial disoharge is generally
to which Bpont^ieons peritonitis has been sappressed. The disease is the sconrge of lf<
ascribed. The disease comjnonlj ooimnenoes ing-ia hospitals and asylnms, and sometimes
with a obill more or less prolonged, and fol- oconra. epidemioallj. Similar in its character
lowed by best of skin, frequency of poise, and to pnerfieral peritonitis is that form of the dis-
pain in the abdomen greatl; inoreasea by prea- ease whioh sometimes, bnt rarely, comes on in
Hore. Sometimes the pain is constant, some- meoBtniatJDgwomen;herotoo, as in the former
times it is ag^avated in paroxysms ; at others cam, the disease appears to spread from the
it b increased by motion, and ite patient oom- nterns to the peritoneom. — Kext to pnerperal
monly lies on the back with the knees drawn peritonitis, that from perforation of the intes-
up, to relax the abdominal mnscles and keep tine is the commonest form of the disease. It
off the weight of the bedclothes. The respira- may arise from perforating nicer of thestomaob,
tion is hnrried and is entirely thoracic, the abdo- from the nlceration of Peyer's glands in typhoid
men being kept as still as possible; oongbing, fever, from ihsb of phthi^ or of dysentery,
sneeiing, &o., are extremely painfm, and con- from the nlceration that somelimeB supervenes
seqnentJy suppressed ; this is likewise the case in the appendix vermiformia, &o. ; and occar
with the effort to evacnate the bladder, and in sionally it is caused by the mature of a cyst
the progress of the disesse it is often necessary an abscess, or an aneurism. It is characterized
to have reconrse to the catheter. In the oom- by the sndden occnrrenoe of acnte pain in some
moncement, in a few cases, particnlarly in nms- part of the abdomen, which soon extends over
cular snbjeeta, the abdomen is retracted ; bnt its whole snrface, is increased by pressure, and
very generally swelling of the bowels occnrs. accompanied by a marked alteration of the
In the progress of the complaint effiuion takes poise and the featnres. The disease is rapid in
place into the cavity of the abdomen ; bnt this its oonrse, the patient generally dying within
IS small in amount, and frequently cannot be 72 honrs, though life in some cases has beeD
detected during life. The bowels are generally prolonged beyond a week. Peritonitis is apt to
very moch constipated, though diarrhcea may arise in cases of ovarian cysts, of cancer and
be present. Eiccongh and vomiting are apt to abscess of the lirer, &o. ; but the disease in
come on, the matters vomit«d bemg at £rst these oases is commonly partial, and results
the contents of the stomach, and afterward a only in the exudation of lymph and the glaing
thin liquid in which a green!^ substance is dif- together of tha adjaoent snrfaces of the mem-
fused. This last is ofren brought up in large brane. — When general peritonitis occnrs in
c^aantities, and when vomiting once takes place a robust, healthy, young adult, the treatiaenb
itnsnallypersistB tothelast. The disease when may be commenced by a ibU general bleeding;
fatal is apt to fae rapid in its progreaa, and death in most cases the application of leeches to the
commonly occurs at tiie end of a few days, abdomen, followed by the nse of warm fomen-
though it may be delayed mnch longer; its ap- tations, will be all that is allowable. Main
proadt is heralded by extreme frequency and reliance in the treatment Is ofren placed upon
smallness of the pnlse, and coldness of the opium; tlus should be nven at intervals of
extremities. Delirium is rarely present, the in- from half an hour to an hour, in such doses as
telleot being commonly clear to the last On will completely quiet the pain, and Its use
post-mortem examination more or less floeoulent should be steady persevered in nntil the ter-
semm is fonnd in the oavity of the pelvis or of mination of the disesse. In this way a few
the abdomen ; the intestines are gluad together patients have been cured whose cases seemed
byooagDlable lymph, and the |)eritonetd snr- perfbotly hopeless. Mercury, aconite, and «e«-a-
f^islbimd to have lost its polish and become frumvtru!^ nave also been used sucoessfblly. —
sticky. Where the patient recovers, the intea- In some instances, and almost exclnsirely in ta-
tines are left matted or glned together, by bercnlona subjects, peritonitis puts on a chronic
which the j)eristaltio action may be materially form. According to Louis, who has studied
interfered with, or fibrinous bands are formed this sayeot with his customary BoonraciT'.
which may canse strangulation of the gut. — chronic peritonitis may be regarded as existing
Puerperal peritonitis, the most frequent form, wherever: "1, the patient has suffered ft-ois
ooonrs during ohild-bed. and oommenoes with general pain in the abdomen, not aoat«, bu'
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBIWINKLE FEBJDBT 147
troablsBome and withoat diarrlioea; S, ri^ in- Begmente, ulveT-Bhi^ed eorolla with its tnbe
craase tabes pl&oe in the volume and eonoritf longer than the oaljic, throat bearded, seg-
of the bellf, early aooom[>aaied hj ma 'Ifest meuta of the limb flat, obliinie, tnmcBte at
floctnation, vithont the existence of organic spex ; stamens 5, iiuertM in the throat ; stig-
^sease of the abdominal viscera, partioQlarlf ma bearded, seated on a flat orbionlar diaS,
of the liver, or of the heart or kldnsjB ; S,the which is grooved roond the oiromnference;
more or less r^id sabaideDoe of the effiision, glands 2, aJtematins with the ovaries ; fruit
leavingthe belly sUghHy and generalljewollen, oonidBting of 2 foIlioIeB and few-seeded, dehis-
peimits the oonvolnCions of the intestines to be oing lengthwise ; seeds oylindrical, naked, witii
seen distended inconseqaeneeoftliediffloiiltj fieehy albamen. The greater periwinkle {V.
with which their eontenta are passed onward; major, Xinn.) has rather erect stems ; ovate,
the whole attended by a weaniess which can aoat& dilated leaves ; fine porplish bloe flow-
neither be aooomited for by the oondititm of era, the calyx with linear, Bnbolate, cili^ed dl-
the liuw nor by the amonnt of the exore- visions, the oorolla with 6 broad obovate parts;
tiona." To the eTinptoma givot by LoniB we Uie flowers iqtpear upon short erect Btema,
loay add the dry orepitation on pressiire no- while the long trailing ones are barren. There
tieed by Dr. Bright. The disease is generally ia a variety which is mach esteemed for Ita
&tal, though Ita oonrse is a ohronio one, and ia variegated, yeUowish^white striped and mar-
very liMeii^aenoed by b«atment. g^ned leaves. As a trailing evergreen tliia
PERIWINELS, in sootogy, a pectiqibran- q>e(ueB is admirably odi^ted for covering the
chiate gasteropod shell, of tiie genoa littcrma ground onder hedges, ornamental trees, and
(F^mssac). Xbe shell ia nnlvalve, with a few umibbeiy that has tall and bare sterna. It
Sirs] whorls, the homy operonlnm made np flowers all smnmer. In the northern state* it is
to of a few spiral toms ; the tentacles are 2, commonly cultivated in large pots, whioh,plaoed
the 3 eyes being at the base on the oii*nde ; npon pedestals, allow the long ^dnlons stems
the month is at the end of a proboscis, tJ" e nils to huig graceftilly down. It is easily propa-
cmnb-shaped, and the foot moderate, with a gated by the spontaneons rooting of ito branch-
groove on the lower sorftoe. The common es, chiefly at the Um or points, or by the di-
periwinkle of the English and rrench coasts vision of its roots. If the seeds are needed, the
(L. littoralit, Linn.) is ronnd, brown, longitn- plant should be kept in a sbaOow pot with veiy
dinally streaked wiUi blackish ; the shell is little earth and the lateral shoots out sway,
thick, and withont peaily Uidng; it is ovlpa- The lesser periwinkle (^V. minor, linn.) has
rona, snd lives in the lowest sone of sea weed proonmbent stems ; elUptio-lanceolate, glabrous
between low and high water marks ; immeoae leaves ; segments of the oalyx linear-lanceolate,
qnantidea are broo^ to the London market, blontiab ; segments c^ the corolla broadlih at
and fonn a eonsidemile arlaole of food for the top; flowering stems nsnally erect; flowers
poorer classes. llMroagh periwinkle (Z.n(^ bloe with a white throat, varying to purple
Mat), from the ooean washing th« shores of and white, and of mneh smaller size than those
Enrope, frequents a higlier cone of sea weed; of the preceding. Both are foond mowing
this ia oTo-vlviparons, and the yonng acquire a ^ontaneonsly in varioos parts of Enrope.
calcareous shell before they are excluded, for There are several beantiftu varieties of the
which reason the species is not eaten. There common or lesser periwinkle, each as a dooUe
are many other species, all marine, inhabiting blue-flowered, a doable red-flowered, a single
abnoet ^1 parts of the globe, living on the white-flowered of great delicacy of blossom, a
ro(^ between the tide marts; three species yellow variegated-leaved, and a wlute vsiie-
sre very common on the coast of New Eng^ gated-leaved. The extreme hardiness of this
land, of small size, and probably never eaten, speoiea renders it acceptable for planting in
PERIWINEI^ (Ang. Sax-ptntwineU; Lat shady places, where it covers the groaod and
pervinea ; Fr. mtmiwA*), in botany, the com- produces a pleasing efi^t, increa^ig ra|nd]y
monnameofplantsof thegenusetttaidinn.), by ita rooting stems.. The herbaceons pert
of the natnral order t^oeynaeect. The plants winkle ( K horbaeea, WUld.) ia an d^ant plant
of thia order are perlgynons ezogena with of Hnngary, with berbaoeons prostrate stems,
stipnleo, opposite and sometimes whorled oblong-Ianceolste, smooth leaves, stalked flov-
leavee, and a somewhat corymbose inflores- era, and a oiliate oalyx : t3ie oorolla ia of a pale
oence, with a free, 0-parted, persistent calyx; bine color. Tlie UadaRasoaf periwinkle (F.
monopetalons, 6-lobed, deoidaons oorolla, with rotea, Tiaa.) has an erect Dranohmg stem, ovate-
a contorted estivation ; iS stamens arising fi^nn oblong leaves, and twin sessile flowers of much
the ooroBa alternating with its sccmenta ; ova- elegance. T^ere are two varieties, a pnte
ries 1 or 2 celled and many-seeded ; styles 1 or white-flowered, and another with the aame
" ^ — 1 1 ; frnlt a folhole, oapeole, drupe, oolor set off by an eye or colored spot in the
prindpaliy tropical, a few representatives being open border during tiie
cnownian ' . .-. . . ..■.-. ,™-.,^w .,
or bony double or single; seeds with a fleuiy throat. Thwa are nne pot plwits, requiring
or csrtilaginons albumen. The genera are mnoh heat in winter, bat doing well in a sumy
of false swearing. He
nder oath lawftuly ad-
Tooeeding or coursed
Lown in nortkem latitndes. Among the 1st- PEBJURT, the crime of false swearing. He
IT ia the vinea, the distinctive characters of commits peijury, who. under oath lawftuly ad-
bioh sre: a S-oleft oalyz with linear acute mioistereainaJndioialprooeedingorconrM^
148 FSRJUKT FEBEIKB
taatlo& wtUbllr giTM &1m teatimonr matorial tnitli. The oath, as we bave alreadj' implied,
to the isiDe or point in qoeaUoiL The ofienoe oan be well Bdministered onlj by competent
ia tbns deSsed at oommon law. In manj of anthorU?, and before a ooort or maj^atrste hav-
tJw TTtdted Statea It la portic&larlj defined bj ins I^al right to proceed in the cause. It
bnt thwedoDotTairmBteriallTfrom aiimoes in the indiotment to all^ this compe-
on law definition. It is to be obeeir- tent power and antbority wittiont aetdng fyrib
ed, flrat, that a Jndidal prooedm* or cootb© of the feota which congtitnte ^nriadiction.— _
Jofitiee le essential to the commission of it. It proof of tbe faimtj of the testunonT', which is
m&y be atated generallr that wherever, under alao an eeaentlal element of tlie offence, it ia
the ocHnmon law of the land, an oath is required not reqnisite to redte the exact words uttered,
in the regdlar admlDlstration of justice, there whh the sane nioetj aa in the case of ftnvery
the crime ia poadble. The offence cannot be or liliel. It is anfBcie&t to allege anbstannally
fbtinded<»itheviolationof a mere oatb of office, what the defendant eud aa to the matter in
For example, an officer, pnblio or private, who qneetion, and that he knew it to be fidse. As
neglects to ezecnte hia office in porsaanoe of we have alreadj seen, the nntmth maj lie not
Ms oath, or acta oontrar; to the tenor of it, is tmly in evidence given in a oonrt of law, but
net indictable for peijnrj. Nor can peijnrj It may lie in a &lse affidavit to & bill in eanltj
eonirist of tlie violation of an oath taken In anf which prayn for an injnnetion, or to a petition
pnrelf extra-jndicial proceeding; as a folie for the writ of A<i2«« eorjna. The peijorj
affidavit to an acconnt to be rendered hj an maj also ooniiBt in a false oath made nnder an
adndoiBtrator, or fiilee Gwearing before a justice insolvent debtor's act, ia false evidence given
of the peace, before whom no canse m «nj before a grand jnij, or in the &]ae and mall-
stage is pending. Bo, though false tcatlmonj, dooH exhibition of articles of the peace. It ia
given before a commiaaioner appointed by a also well settled tliat the &lBe teatimonT' most
eoart under tbe common mle, is peijnrj, yet it be given wilfUIv. It has sometimea beui held
is not BO irtien ^ven in d^Hnitions taken by that the allegation of wilftil and corrupt &lse-
Cooaent before nnanthorized persons. It mat- hood ia well snpported by evidence that the ac-
tera not whether the nntrne evidence were onaed swore rashly to that which he did not
given in tbe principal investigation of the mat- know, aod, though be believed tt, yet had no
ter In iasne^ or wbetber it were in some pre- probable canse for Iwlieving. But tiie better
Bminajy or intudental proceeding. If the mat> opinion seems to be, that peijnry ia not eom-
ter sworn to in these prooeedings is material, mitted if the party esve his testimony in a&>
thongh only remotely bo, the crime of peijnry oordance with his belief, no matter how care-
Is poasible. Not only, therefore, may it be leaaly or rashly that belief may have been
committed by a witness who is giving oral formed. In other words, a distinct cormpt
teetimony in a trial in open conrt, ont It may intent is essential to the crime. — Finally, the
be as well in the preliminary infbnnation or &lse testimony must be material to the point
complaint before a madstrste, or in statements tn controversy. The degree of materiality
made before the grand jnry, or In a deporicion is of no importance, nor is It neoessary that
made before a oommiBaionn' doly anthoriKed to tlie fUae declaration immediately and directlT'
take it. Bo the examination of a poor debtor tonc^ the issne ; it Boffices If it remoteljr
before a magistrate la a conrae c^^stlee, and or collaterally affiict it. Peijnir then may be
ftbe ewearing fliere is pe^nij. The hearing committed, if tlie teetimony tend to increase or
of a canse mt»t flirQiermore be reaUy, not dtmlninh the damagea or punishment, or if it
apparently only, a judicial proceeding. For, ccmcem the credibmty of tlie witness himad^
If a jadge who seemed to have authority, or of any other witneaa in the case. A blse
yet had none in fact, administered the oatli, answer to a question put by wt^ ot eneb
or if • suit, thongh properly broi^t, had examination may tberefore lay the fonndAtion
yet In ftet abated by tbe death of a party, of an indictment ; and it haa been held to be
and tJins passed out of the court's jnrisdio- peijnry where a party, after bdng poitlanlariy
Hon, Mm swearing In either ease is not indict- cautioned aa to hta reply, answered Maely to ftn
able. But peijnry is not exenaed ]f the plead- iuterri^toTy, put merely widi the des^ of
inge were mere^ informal and amendable, impairing bis credit as to that part of the evi-
OT If the prooeedings were voidable bnt not dence which was immediately materisL
TOld. It is fteiher essential that an oath was FERKISfl, Eubha, an American physidan,
lawftaQy administered. The indictment there- the inventor of tbe metaUio tractors, bom in
fore UKi^ly reoites tfaot the party was in due Korwioh, Oonn., in Jan. 1740, died In Hew
manner sworn and took his corporal oath to -York in 8ept. 1T90. He was educated by
epeak the tn&. It is enough, however, to his &ther for the profession of medidne, and
avow that the party woa duly sworn, witlxnit began Uta [OMtiea of U In I^ainfield, where
anegfaig tlie mode In which the oath was od- he was T«y anooeeaftiL About 1790 he io'
nbuflterad, Tet, If the allegadon be of a spe- Tented the metoUio tractor^ MHudBting of
dfiomode,aTariMioe1n the proof wQlbefttal; two InatninMBts, one reeenAtting braaa and tbe
and perhaps the Indictment would &il if it other steeL but pn^leese^ of a peontiar corn-
charged that the party waa aworn, when in podlion or metvla, 8 inches in length and
fbot ne only made aolemn affirmation ot the pointed at the ends. Th^ were oaea dUefiy
U.gmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FKBEIKS U»
In ]oeal htfUmmattopg, meh u p^u in tb« It is ondcntood tbat ho is ^^ming « toxb
head, &oe, toeth, and sdo, in rbenroatiiBn sad book on astronomy.
disMsee of ft similar diaraoter, tha points be- PEREINB, Jaoob, an Amerioaa inventor,
ing ^pUed to tlie afitoted part, and then bom in Newbnryport, Mass^ in 1766, died in
draini over it in a downwai4 direction for London, July SO, 18i9. He wm tqiproitioed to
gboat 90 minntee. For a time this method a goldsmitli, and earlj distingaiBhed himielf bj
of core eaiojed great npntation, not ontj- in the invention of a new method of plating ahoe
Amariea bat in Eorope. In the United Stat«B bnckles, in the maoofaatnra of which he engaged
the fuol^ of S institntdons recommended it. with oon^der^le snooees. Wlien he was abont
hi OopennageD IS phjaidiaui and aorgeons, 21 jears of age he was emplojed hy the oom-
moet of them instrootors in the roTsl Freder- monweslth of lfa«aohxisetts to make diea for
io'a hoapttal, began a oonree of ex^erimenta, copper ooinige. Boon afterward he invented *
an acooont of whioh was pnbHshed m an 8vo. machine for ontting and heading naila at one
Tolmne, and gave their opinion in fiivor of operation, but he lost the fruits of this valnable
the new Bjatem, vbioh the j called Perkiniam. improvement throogh the mismanagemuit of
In London, where the tractors were introdnoed his partners, and was involved in great peonni-
b7 Dr. Perkins's son, a Perkinian institntion, ary diatreu. In bank nota engraving he next
under the preaideney of Lord Bivers, was ea- made most important improvements, snbsti-
taUished, chiefly for the benefit cf ttie poor, tnting Bteel for copper pl^es, and, having ob-
The cases of cores pablished nnmt>ered 5,000, tuned an elaborate and costly bnprsiwinn
and were certlfled to by 8 profesaora, 40 phy- transferring this by preasnre to other atael
ildaiig and snrgeons, and 80 clergymen. The plates, which could De afterward liardenad
lift of persons claimed to have been cured by and osed for printing &om. (See EiiasiLvim,
this remedy amonnted to an almoet &balona vd. vii. pp. 311, 31S, 214.) About 1614 be
number; bat the tractors fell intone^eotid- went to Philadelphia and became asaouated
most as speedily as they had beooma cela- with the firm of Murray, Draper, andF^rman^
brated. I^. Perkins Invented alao an antlaep- bank note engravers, and in 1818 went to £ng-
tin medicine, and, ansioiu to test Ua efficacy land, aocompuiied b^ Mr. Fiunnan and a nnm-
aiainit the yellow fever, he repaired to New ber of workmen, with the expectation of ob>
York in llH during the prevalence of that tuning a contract for aapplymg the bank of
dUeaae ; but after 4 weeks of unremitting toil, Engttmd with plates. In tlus he was diaq[>-
ha himself died of the fever, pointed, bnt he obtained a similar ptivileM
FEBKINB, GnoBOB Rosbbts, LL.D., an from the bank of Ireland, and in parbMarsl^
American mathematician and astronamer, born with Mr, Heath carried on hia bnaineas in Lon-
ia OtMgo CO., N. Y., May 8, 1612. He waa al- don for a number of years. He also became
most irlioUy self-edooatod, and at the age of intoreated in the aabject of steam artillery, ia
IS va* employed as assistant engineer in the which Watt and others after him had already
alackwater sorvey of the Sosqa^ianna river j made experiments with more or less niooes&
bnt his labora were interrnptied by a severe Having oonsbncted a gan in which steam, nn^
lameneni which afficted him for several years, erated at an enormoas pressare, was naad aa
ittheageof 19 he waaemployedasateaotier the prmielling power instead ta gnnpowder,
Df Dkathematioa in the "liberal Institote" at he inst&nted a series of experiments in tb»
(Sinton, N, T., where he remaned till 1838, pre»encoof the dnke of Wellington and a nam*
when he became prindpal of the TItica acad- ber of artillery offioera, which demonstrated
amy. In 1844, at the opening of the atato the fessibiUty of hia plan, thoogh it baa been
Bormal school, he was dhoeen professor of generally condemned as inj^qtliutble to modem
mathematics, and 4 years later was eleoted warfare. An iron target, at a distance of SB
PtrnidpaL In 18S2 be was compelled by ill yards, waa shattered to atoms. Balls passed
htalth to recdgn, and soon after anperintonded through 11 planka of tJie hardest deal, each 1
the erection of the Dndley observatory. In inch thick, placed some distance apart, and
ISGt he was eleoted prot^saor of mathematias with a pressore of only 65 atmospheres pen»-
in the nniversltv of the stato of Iowa, bnt never trated an iron plate i inch thick. To demon-
otleied apon his duties there, la 1608 he was strate the rapidity with which the halla mi^t
^pointed depnty stato engineer and snrveyor be thrown, he screwed to a gun barrel a tnbe
01 ttie atate of New York, an office which he filled with halls, which falling into the barr^
■till holds. He received from Hamilton col- by their own weight were discharged at tha
'--atbehonorarydegreesof A.M, in 1889, and rate of nearly 1,000 per minute, Amovabla
.D. lnl8G2. Haiatheanthorofaserieeof ioint being attAohed to the gun barrel and a
1 text books for colleges, aeade- lateral direction given to it, a
, - -1 pubUo soho<^ jjonmrisfaig " Pri- holes wss perforated in a plank nearly IS feet
nury,'"'El8]]ieDtary,''"Praotioa]^"and"EQgh- long. The expense of working snoh a gun was
er" arithmetias, pnUiahed b^ween 1840 and oalcolated at about ^ part of the cost of the
1861 ; "IVeatise on Algebra" (1841) ; "Ele- powder required to disoharge an eqnal number
meats trf Algebra" (184^ ; " Elements of Ge- of balls by the nsoal method. The greatest
onet[7"(l847); "Trigonomet^andSnrv^ring" objeotioDS to the wplioation of steam to artil-
0851) ; » Fltaa and Solid OacmietTy" (180^. lo^ are, the hnpoadbiUty of ^ving it the forot
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
of gODpowddT, and tho complex nudilDeiy re- Ingnptulf thereqniredstmi. Inl8S8h«gav9
quired, which in sctaal battle conld seldom be his muudou boiue and grotmda in Pearl street,
praperlr managed. Ur. Perldns also invented vorth over (fiOjOOO, for a blind aBylnm (now
u iDstrnmeat called the bathometer, to meas- the Perkiiu fautitntiOQ and Haaeachosetts as;-
nre the depth ot water, and the pleometer, to Inm for the blind), on oondilaon that $60,000
mark with preciBion the speed at which a vea- should be ruaed as a flmd for its eopport.
sel mores tbrongh the water; and be was the When, in t^e last fear of his life, an effort was
firat to demonstrate that water is compressible, made for a ftarther endowment of the Athe-
FEREINB, Tboius Hahdastd, an American naom, he subscribed $8,000 ; and when it was
merchant, bom in Boston, Hasa., Deo. 15, 1764, feared that the sabsoriptioa of $120,000 was in
diedinBrookline, Jan. II, 18S4. HiB&therwas danger of fiulinz from the apparent imposrabil-
a merchant. His earlj edncation was obtained itf of rairing uie last $40,000, he offered to
at Ifiddleborongh, Barnstable, and Boston, and gnarantee the amotmt.
he was fitted tbr college at Hingham ; but his PEEM, a govemment of Bnssia, Ijing partlr
lore of a mercantile llfo was so strong that he in Europe and partl7 in Asia, bonnded S. b;
was finally permitted to enter the oountmghonae Vologda and Tobolek, E. hj Tobolsk. 8. b7
of the Messrs. Bhattuok in Boston, with whom Orenbnif;, and "W. by Viatka. It eztenas from
he remained nntil attaining bis m^loritj^. He lat. 56° 18' to 61° 66' N., and from long, fiS°
then spent some tinte witia his elder brother 80' to 64° E. ; extreme length SOO m., breadth
Jamea, and became associated with him in a 460 m. ; area, 180,000 eq. m, ; pop. in 1866,
mercantile house is Bt. Domingo. The cUmate 2,019,806. The TJral moontuns, whioh form
proving pr^ndicial to his health, he retnm- the bonndarj' line between Enrope and Asia,
ed to Boston, and attended to the interests of traTerw it in a N. and S. direction, dividing
the honae there, while a joimger brother took the government into two naeqoal parte, that
bis place at Bt Domingo. In 1789 he went aa in Europe being the larger. Favdinskoi Ea-
■QpercarEO of the ship Aatnea, commanded hf men, the loitiest sommit in the government, is
his relative Capt. Uagee, to Batavia and Oan- more than 6,000 feet above the sea; and the
ton, and there laid the foundation of his sub- principal paas afvoss the Ural leads b^ Enu-
sequent extraordinary mercantile success, bj gnr, between Perm and Tobolsk. From the
fonning a thorough acquaintance with the principal chun the surface descends in a series
oriental trade. After his rctom he made, in of terraces, and a great part of it is moautain-
oonneetlon with Oapt Magee, several success- oue. The European portion belonvs princi-
ftil ventures in the Pacific, on the north-west pally to the basin of the Caspian, and the Asi-
ooast, and In China. In 1792 the insurrection alic to that of the Arctic ocean. The £aina,
in St Domingo destroyed most of the proper^ an affluent of the Volga, enters the government
of his brother's house there, and, minmg their from the N. W., and leaves it at the S. W., re-
debtors, also brought them to the verge of oeiving many tribntariee, the most important
bankruptcy. On thdr return to Boston, Mr. of which are Qie 'Vitohera, Eosa, Eosva, Obva,
Perkins formed a partnership with his brother and Tchusovaya. The E. part has severed lakes,
James, whioh for the next SO years was re- and is drained by numerous tributaries of the
markable for the extent, foresight, and snooess Obi, the largest of wbicb are the Sosva, Losva,
of ite enterprises. In 1795 he visited France Tura, Neiva, Irbit, Pialuna, Iset, and Myas.
and Holland on bnaiuess, and was detained in The climate of the elevated regions and of Uie
the former country some months, while the S. is cold and bleak. Gold, silver, platinum,
later scenes of the revolution were in progress, iron, copper, lead, diamonds and other precious
Here he had the opportonity of rendering im- stones, loadstone, salt, and marble are all
portant services to the wife and son of Iji&y- found. The S. W. part is generally fertile, but
ette, as well as to tome of his own country- elsewhere the soil is better suited for pasture
men. In 1800 he was elected to the Hassa- than agriculture, and much of it is uncultivated.
dhusette senate, and fbr 18 or SO years subse- Bye, barley, oats, potatoes, flax, and different
qnently he was mo«t of the tdme a member of v^etables are grown. Oak, elm, cedar, pine,
one or the other branch of the l^pslatnre. He and larch are the chief trees. The mines are
was repeatedly offered a seat in congress or the extensively worked. In 1655 the 8 principal
cabinet, but he had no taste for political honors, mines belonging to the crown yielded 8,106
In the promotion of all objects which ooidd lbs. of gold, 11,498 cwt. of copper, 8 lbs, 9 oz.
improve the physical, social, and moral condi- of platinum, and 59,811 cwt. of iron. Clotb,
tionofthecommunity,Mr.PerkInEtookalively leather, soap, glass, and candles are made,
interest. In 1816 the effort was made to en- About \ of the inhabitants are Russians, and
dow the Uassachusetts general hospital, and the remiunder are composed of various Tartar
$100,000 was required within a limited time, tribes, Uie descendants of the aborigines of the
Mr, Perkins's name was placed at the head of country. By fer the greater part belong to
the firstlist of trustees, and he andhis brother the Greek cburob, but there are some of other
oontribnted $6,000 each toward the fond. In Christian sects, and about 4 per cent are Mo-
1836 additions were to be made to the Boston hammedans. — The capital, Pum, is situated on
Athennum. and Mr. Perkins and hu nephew the leftbankof the Kama, inlat. 66° I'N., long.
each oontnbuted $8,000 toward it, thns mak- 66" 26' £.; fop. in 1661, 18,262. The bouses
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEBXUTA'ttOB F£BPETUAL MOHON 161
are ehleflj oonstrnotod ot wood. Than an 0 aaXhiry, Htlka, wine, floor, salt flah, and idne
choTohM, MTenI imbBo btdldings, a oonTent, board*. The chief importa from the United
hospitals, a gTmnaaiiim, a theolo^oalMininatT, States in 1358 were 00,B66 banrels of fioor and
eztennve iron fonnderiea, and ooppemfineriea. S^SOOdnune of codfish.— Beoife wasfoouded
PEBMUTATIOK. 8«e OouBiKAXioir. by the Fortognese earlj in tlie leth centory,
PESiSAXBVOO, an E. proTince of BrasO, was aaoked t?^ the Engliah onder Cwt Lancas-
boaoded H. bj^ iLe provinoea of Oeara and Fara- t«r in 16G5, and was m tlie poeaeaaion of the
hibBjE. br the Atlantio, S. hj Alagoaa and Ba- Dntoh from 1680 to 1654.
hia, and W. by I%nhi ; extreme length 700 dl, PlXOK, FsANQoia, a French traveller and
br^dth 2S0 m. ; area, according to tha lateet naturalist, bom in O^rilly, department of Allier,
anthoritj-, about 63^000 aq. m,; pop. in 1866, Aug. 23, 177H, died there, Dec 14, 1610. Ho
900,000. Theooastislowajidfrontedfajnniner- anliated as a volanteer in ITS2 was wounded
DOS coral ree& which render naTigatioo danger- at the uege of Landan, and made a priaoner at
Qos. The oonntiT is flat with a sandj soU for the batQa of EwBerskntem, and taken to the
about 16 m. from the sea, bat it afterward be- dtadelofKagdebnrg. Ho devoted hiacaptivitj
comes hilljj and gradoallr rises into monnt^us to reading travels and histories, and was re-
and extensive table-lands. The moat impor- leased in 17S4. In 1800, through the inflnenco
tant river is the Ban Franoiaco, which forms a of Jnasien and LacSodde, he waa attached, in
part ol Oia boundary on the B., and receives the the oapaoity of coologist, to the expedition
dr^nsge of the greater pert of the orovinoe sent bj the French government tmder Oapt.
bj several tribntariee. In the N. £. m& Oapi- Bandin to explore Australia. He made corious
Iniribe, Ipojuca, and aome smaller atreama flow experimenta ahowing that the coldness of the
directiT to the ooean. Ifarbla ia ahondant, sea water increases with the depth, and euc-
acd gold is fomid in small quantitiea. The soil ceeded in bringing home an invaluable zoolo-
ia in many plaoes rich and fertile, and produoea ^csl oolleotton, comprising more than 2,600
sogar cane, cotton, maiz^ mandioo, fnuta and Bpeoiesprevioualy unsown. The results of his
T^etablee, and many kinda of medicinal herba. doaervations have been embodied in his interest-
A great ^art ot the moontainonB oonntrj is log narrative of the Voyage d^ diowiertet aux
ooveredwith forests, which jialdexoellenttim- ttrrtt autbnde* pendant le» anniet 1800-1804(3
ber, dye woods, lulaamB, and gums. The man- vola. 4to., with an atlaa, Paris, 1607-'16). The
nfactorea are trifling, but there ore nmnerons Sd volnme was prepared after bia death by
sogar works and ^tiEeries where many ^vea U. de FreycineL He had previously publiahea
are employed. Gtreat improvements have been OiienxitioTU ivr VanthropologU (Paris, 179EIJ.
lately made in the roads of the province ; and PEROUBE, IiA, 8ee La P£HOtigE.
a raUwt? ia in course of oonstruction which ia PEB^mTAL ilOIlOK, a term the primary
U> open the interior for about SOO m. — The oapi- meaning of wUcb ia obvious onougb, and which
tal, FXBBAHBDOo, or Bboifc, is aituated at mo ia in euoh amae ^tplioable to actn^ phenomena,
month of the Oapiboribe, in lat. 8° 4' 8., long, aathei^anetaryniorements; but which haa been
84° 63' W. ; pop. abont 80,000. It oonaiata wrested from tlus, its proper nae, to name aoy
of 8 dis^ct parta^ Beoifbt B<wvista, and 8L imaginary mechaniam, each tiiat, within ita^
Antcono, and of the tows of Olinda, which is the power required to give it motion shall be
aboid 8 tn. distant. Becdfe stands on a penin- continually restored or renewed, without aid
snia, Boavista on tlia mainland, and St Antonio from an extenor source or cause. Of course,
on an Island or sand bank formed by the river, anoh a machine, onoe in motion, mnst move for
Becifb ia the prinnpal seat of commero& The ever, or mitil destroyed by the wear of its
streets are narrow, and the houses generally parta. The idea neoessitates a circle or circuit
built (rf brick fivm 8 to 6 storiea high. St. An- of parta, returning in some way upon itself; it
tonioisconnected with Becifebya long bridge, implies the uniatermpted transfer of a certain
Boavista ia the most modem quarter. The 8 quantity of motion from piece to piece tlirough
divisions contain many chnrchea, monasteries, the drouit, or such accumulation at one point
ohantable hutitatioas, and other pnblic build- as ahall overcome the resistance at another, so
ingB. The town is extremely dirty, and drink- that an nudiminiehed force returns always upon
ing water has to be brought in casks from Uie first piece (prime mover), the macliiue
Biberibe near Ollnda. The harbor is formed heiog thus required to impel itself; and if pos-
by a reef which acts oa a kind of breakwater, nble perform over and above this some useful
bnt in stormy weather the swell passes over work. This problem, wrought upon through
and through difibrent tmeningi In it. The 2,000 years, and never more faithfhlly than
depth varies from 16 to 80 ftet, but the best witiiin a oentoiy past, yet without one instance
sheltered part has only about 10 feet. It has a of poeilivcjy attested anocess, has, adde from
good lighthouse and is defended by several fbrta. its demonstrated impossibility, deservedly at-
The trade of Pemambnco is very important, t^ed to a "bad eminence" in the histoir of
and has been steadily increasing for some years meobanios. Interminable have been the plans,
past In 1868, 70 American vessels entered devices, wheels, combinations, mid engines to
the port. The exports oonaist chiefly of aogar, which these attempts, always in Uie na-
cotton, mm, hides, and dye woods : and the ture of things absurd, have ipven birth. Two
imports of cotlon and wocdlen doth, hardware, among the moat distinguliAed of tbeae at
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
16Q I^XPETtTAL UOHON
tenvta an thst of the maraids of Tonwater, light, Hioto mv bat B euea snppoMble : 1. As
1069, and that of Jean Ototto^ or Orifynaa, exterior moTisK poirer; but ttdj is of oohtm
a Ennohman, 1719; both these w«« wbeeb, exdnded. 8. Totel annUiiUtioii of fHetion, re-
moving b7 weights, their diameters 14 and 12 sistance of air, rigidity, or softness when ii^n-
feet ; bnt proof of their Bnocessfid worUng re- rious, adhedon of parta to each other and of
m^ns insbfflcient. — !E^rBt, what movements air to them all ; bat these co&ditioiia existing
oazinot be claimed as flirmBhiug or solving &e in tiie Terj natore and circnmstancea of bodies,
BO called perpetaal motion? The ^arth and to escape than is impossible. Their resnlta are
other plan^ incessantly rotate and advasoe vear, and converaion of some of the force into
in thw orbits ; bnt the resistances the^ meet heat ; in either case, a definite and large anb-
belng 0, or Inflniteslniallj small, no percep- traction from the total pover. S. Can the
tible retardation reeolta. Bj the first lair of force generated or transmitted through an^
motion, they can never stop, save owing to jdece or comteotion be greater than that im-
Bome extraneoos opposing force; and so, the pressed upon orimpart&a to it bytlie pieces
ur and gravitj being removed, every ball pro- preceding it in the oircnit? This mignt be
polled troia a school boj's olnb mnst move fbr- aupposed, if any ordinarr machine had ever
ward with its first epeed, in a right line eoA been f6and to yield a total work greater than
for ever. In tmth, observation as yet reveals the total power pnt npon it. In fact, the work
to na no body or particlo of m^l«r that Is not eqnals the power ; and part even of uie former
in incessant motion thronsfa space. Thus, the is waste work, expended on redstancea. Pon-
real difScnlty ia not to find in^iances of perpet- tively, then, no part or connection of a ma-
nal motion, bnt to find any power adequate to diine can do what no entire ordinary maohine
arrest sntdi motions. What the imf^Inative can do — augment the total power. The nrg-
mechanist seeks la in no case a ma(£ine ex- in^ body or piece always loses what the urged
pected to go fbr ever; it Is one that in time gams. H, De la Hire demonatratea that the
mnst wear out by the mb and grating of its problem of a perpetual motion In this aspect
parta; yet inconriatently, becanse ignorantlj, smonnts to tlua: to find a body both heavier
be hopes to devise a machine that ahaU feed and lighter at the same moment; or to find
itaelf with neediU power, and then yield a a body heavier than itself; or to find a force
nrplos with which to grind, saw, pluie, &c greater than ttsetf. 4. Is it possible, by any
The continual movement of the tides; tbense artM diaporition and combmation of cos-
of a large tide wheel to fill a reservoir and trivanoes, multiplied to any desired extent, to
feed constantly a smaUer wheel ; the tnming secure the end aoaght by anocessive accnmula-
of light wheel-work continoally and rapidly by tlona of momentum within the parta t Thia
means of contrivanoes for reversing mrection ^peara more plausible, but onlj because the
and multiplying velocity of movement of a pis- oaae !a more complicated, and the law is here
ton rod reetlng on a body of oil in a tube, or of not so easily traced. In thia direction the
alongmetallic barfixed at oneend, and dneto larger number of specolatora have been led
small expansions and contractions of the oil or astray. The lawqiplyiiig herelsthatof virtnal
the bar ; the oacillationa of a pendulum aided velocities : what ia gained in the magnitude of
by a spring ; the incessant pulsation of the effect of a Power, ia always loat in time j and
heart through 80 or more years — none of these viee vena. The very fact of a necessary circuit
afford the perpetnal motion aonght, becaoae of parts forbids the gain that otherwise might
they are due to moving force from without, as occur by resolving the acting forces, or in anj
ton«vil7,momentam, heat, elasticity, or finaUy way restoring or adding momentum in some
to Kiod. While oceans continne to evaporate, of the parts; in other pieces, if not at once,
T^na to fall, and rivera to return to the sea, bj the equal reaction must have its efi'ect 6. Can
renewing our water wheels we secure perpet- a sorptne of moving power be obtained by some
nal power and work. But the over-ingenions anccession of mechanical or electro-magnetio
busy themselves with projecting a waterwheel with magneto-electric apparatnst The recent
that shall pump back to the top of the fell all diaoovery that the various other fimns of force
thewater required to run it, and meanwhile do have es«h ita exact equivalent in mechanical
some nseftd work be^e. Now, any machin- unite (see Hkat), and that the conversion of
ery ia only a ommected series of inert and in- forces either way is by equivalents, sets this
active pieces, interposed between the pcant on question at rest, and showa that the law of
which a motor acts and tiie material on which eouality of action and reaction ia to be extend-
its work is to be done (see MioHAinos) ; and ea from rimjJe mechanics to all moving agen-
this being true, the supposition that the whole ciee in nature. Thus U becomes a sure axiom
work of a machine shall far exceed, or in the of adence, Qiat there can be no self-impelled
leaat exceed, the whole power it can receive, ia meohaniam of human prodaction. A knowledge
■Imply imposnble and abaurd. If it were pos- of thia truth would even now save the wasted
elble, the only admissible cases mnst be those time, talents, means, and peace of mln^ if not
in which momentum dne to inertia or to gravity, even the sanity of thouaanda. In New York, in
or attraotions and repulslans, as of magnetio 1860, a mechanist having devised a modifiea-
polea, can be made within the meohanlam to do tlon of the fly-wheel, by which a ^gle person
tlie work of propelling it. Viewed in any oould aooumnlate power enough, on coupling
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FERBT 168
InBtaiitlj>, to moTQ a hasvj load, proposed to Mminarjr, a higb aohool, a botanical garden, a
pr<q>«l ui»rewitli by the poorer of one man t gOTemment sheepfold for merinoes, two hos-
railvayoar. Mintaking a momentary tor a per- pitals, mannbctorles of irooUen cloth, laoe,
manent reeolt, he believed tliat be bftd acliieyed leather, soap, and soda, and a cousiderBhIe oom-
the perpetual motion; and a gentleman more meroe in r«d nine*, liqaenre, brandy, cdl, silk,
learned in dTil than in meohanioal law, before Tool, iron, and oork. — Perpignan U upon or
being warned of itaneoesearyAulnre, expended near the. dte of the audent EoBdno, a oity of
on uiia eontriTanoe nearly (9,000. Hie type the Sordones. It was in rains abont A. I>.
of s vast nomber of these att«apti, howevw, 830, and near it sprang np an insignifioant
b a wheel, cylinder, or endleea belt vortieai hamlet called then Ooreob, which became the
over pnileys, so oontiived that valuta shall present city of Perpignan. It belonged, with
bll or roll ont from the axis of motaon, and the province, to the kingdom of Arsgon, bat
press more, on the descending «de, and then was taken by the French in 147G, after having
&U or ndl in toward the Bzia, presdng kee, on been rednced by flunine. Restored to Spain in
the asoeudlnK side; the aim b^iKthos to get 1M2, it was indnded in the ae«don to Franoe
an eioeatofoownwardjH-eesnre. BntoalonU- ofBa{isrillonlnl669. The Spaniards were de-
ticHi from a to^ie drawu^ will always show a ftated by the French under the walla of the
soffieiently greato- pn^rtion of the irti^ts mtj tn 1794.
St any instant to be on the aeoen^ng dd« ; and PERQUIMANS, a N. £. co. of K. 0., bor>
with inertia, ooncossion, and friction, the bal- d^ed B. by Albemarle sonnd, and drained by
ance is always on the side ot the resistaiioes. Perquimans river ; area abont 200 sq. m. ; pop.
One wonld let IS f^t of an endless oh^n glide in 1860, 7,848, of whom SfiC9 were slaves. It
down a vertioal ^aft tnming on fine pivots has a nearly level sorftce, and the soil is gen-
OD one mde, while bnt 10 feet of atraif^ chain erally fertile. The prodacHong in 1650 were
rose on the other ; while another would oansa 4S,948 boshels of wheat, 41B,E5S of Indian
heavy balls to drop into pockets tn the periph- eom, and 1,666 tons of hay. There were 8
ery of a wheel on the deeoending side, the balls saw mills, S frrist mills, 1 tannery, IS ehncohes,
to be discharged below, and then, by the ez- and 876 pnpllB attending pnUio schools. Oap-
oeaa of power gained, to be fbd iloag and ele- Ual, Hertford.
vat«d in an Archimedra screw. In these, as in PEIRRENOT, Ahtoinb. See Gkahtxujc.
like devices, the actual and neoessary resolt is PERRON, AsQurrtL nti. See Ahqukth.-
a perpetoal reet. At a leading patent (%encj Dctkbbok.
in New York, it is stated that probahly IS per> PESRT, the name of oonnties in 10 of the
sons aptir yearly for patents for professed ITnited States. I. A S. oo. of Penn., bonnded
perpetnd moti<au ; oonstdering the nnmber of E. bythe Bneqnehanna, and intereected toward
agaioiee, and the oertunty that many prtrfecta Uta S. by the Jnniata river and S. by Bher-
of thektodarekeptw^tungfor the"wonlDg man's creek; ares, 040 sq. m.- pop. ia 1800,
model," withont which they teH to be patent- 22,B40. Its sorfaoe Is moontainoos, Oxe Toe-
able, it is safe to conclude tnat the nnmber of oarora range forming its N. W. boundary and
these oontrivuicea at any time being plannedor the Blue monntalns the 8. E., bnt much of the
constmoted must be, in the Umted States alone, land ia very fertile. The prodnotions in 1B60
maayhmtdredi. — Foranacoountofeomeof the were 190,007 bushels of wheat, 1G6,S71 of In-
remarkable attempts made in this direction dian com, 144,143 of oats, 16,690 tons of hay,
dniing die present and two preoedingoentnries, 94,409 lbs. of wool, and 803,189 of butter,
see "Perpetanm Mobile, or Search fi>r Self- There were 48 grist mills, 46 saw mills, S
Uotive Power," by H. Dircks (London, 1801). woollen bctories, 36 tanneries, 4 foucdertee, 3
PERPIQNAN, a dwindle 8. of France, oap- newspaper offices, 49 ohnrcbes, and 0,S78 pn-
ital of the department of Pyrfo6e»-0rientalea, pUs attending public schools. It is intersected
situated upon the li^t bank of the Tet, at its by the Pennsylvania railroad. Capital, Bloom-
oonflnenee with the Basse, 84 tn. 8. ftvm Nar- field. II. A central co. of Ala., Intersected by
bonne ; pop, in 1860, 10,644. It commands the the Oahawba river ; area, 960 sq. m. ; pop. ia
8. E. enhance to Fivnoe from Spain bythe Py- 18S0, 87,737, of whom 18,208 were slaves. It
rinses, and is strongly fortified with a wall and has an nndulating surface and fertile soil. The
fosse, and commanded by a citadd with a productions in 1860 were 984,116 bushels of
donblelineof defences, and a tall square tower Indian com, 184,616 of sweet potatoes, and
or donjon. In character the city is Spanish. 24,634 bales of cotton. There were 6 grist
Its streets are narrow and dirty, and mostly mills, S saw mills, 8 tanneries, 20 churches,
shaded by awnings. The honses are semi- and 714 pupils attending public ecbools. Oapi-
Horesque in style, fbrnished with wooden bal- tsl, Uarion. m. A S. E. oo. of Miss., inter-
conies and inner conrta. Over the Basse there sected by Leaf river and Black creek, tribn-
19 a bridge of a single arch, and one of 7 arches tariee of the Pascagonla, and dr»Ded by their
over the Tet. The public buildings date from branches ; area, 1,044 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860,
the Spanish period, and are built of brick or 3,S06, of whom 788 were slaves. It has a
roUed pebbles. In the remains of the sndent broken snrfaoe and a not very fbrtile b(AI, cov*
unirer^ty is Uie public Bbrarj, which contains ered wiOi forests of pine. The prodnotions In
20,000 volumes. The dty has a theolo^noal 1860 were 68,860 bnabels of Indian oom, 44,-
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
IM PEBBT
980 of Bveet pobttow, BS,000 tbs. of rice, and interseotod bj the Blinois oentrtl imlnwd.
S8S balee of ootton. Tb«re were 6 cborcheB. Capitol, PincloiejTille. X A B.E. co.of lEo.,
Oapital, Au^Bta. lY. A central co. of Ark., eeparated from lilinois hj &e Uiraumppi rirtt',
bonnded N. E. bj the Arkanaaa river, and in- and drained b7 several Gnudl Eitr«ama; area,
teraected b; the Fonrche la Fdve, one of its 480 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 9,1^ of whom VS9
brani^ee ; area, aboat 600 gq. va. ; pop. in were slaves. It has a divernfled niifiue and
1960, 2,466, of whom 803 were slaves. It has fertile soil. The p^odQotdollsinl8S0were849,-
a divernfled snrfaoe, and the soil is geaerallj 280 boshela of Isdian com, 66,895 of wheat,
fertile, pariiciilarl; near the etreame. The 48 Qie of oats, 11,781 Iba. of wool, and 78,840
prodaotjotie in 18U were 88,620 boshela of In- of butter. There were 7 grist mills, 4 saw niills,
^an com, 263 of wheat, and 1,766 of oat«. 8 tanneries, 14 diarchea, and 860 pupils attend-
Tb»re were 2 saw mills and a grist miU. Cw- inx public schools. Capital, PerrTnlle.
ital, PerrTTille. Y. A W. co. of Tenn., bound- FERRY, Uaithew Calbbaith, an officer of
ed W. \if the Tennessee river, and interseoted the TJ. S. navy, bom in South Kingston, R. I.,
br Boff^o river, a branch of Duok river ; area, in 17S6, died in New York, Karoh 4, 1868.
^nt 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 6,042, of whom He was a eon (tf C^t. Obristopher R. Fer^,
S48 were slaves. Its snrGaoe is divenified, and IT. S. N., and a brother of Capt. Oliver H.
the ecdl is generallj fertile. The produotions Perry. Heenteredthenavyaaamidshipnumiii
in 1860 were 896,680 bushels of Indian com, 1600, and served wider Commodores Bodgers
28,484 of oats, 16,061 of sweet potatoes, 940 and Decatur. In July, 1818, he was promoted
lbs. of tobacco, and 41,686 of bntter. There to the rank of lieutenant, in which ^adeheper~
were 10 grist mills, a saw mill, a furnace, 2 formed mnchardaous service, partacnlorlynpoD
tanneries, 21 churches, and 686 pupils attend- the coast of Africa, and in protection of eom-
ins pablio scboole. Capital, HmnphreyHville. merce &om pirates in the West Indies in the
YI. A 8. £. CO. of Sj., dramed by the North years 1821 and 1622. In Ifarch, 1826, he was
and Middle forks of the Kentucky river ; area, promoted to be oommander, and in 1637 to be
about 700 »q. m. ; pop. in 1860, 8,960, of whom c^itun. Beside serving a great deal on for-
78 were slaves. It has a mountdnous and mg- eign stations, ho took an important part in the
god surface, the valleys being arable and fertile, organization of the steam naval service, and
and the higher lands adapted to wool growing, conductedaseriesof ordnanceexperimenta. In
The productions in 1850 were 124,206 bushels 18S8 he was ordered to Enrope on roecdal ser-
of com, 4,768 of oats, 2,669 lbs. of tobacco, and vice connected with dock yarns and lighthoose
ll,868ofwooL Therewerel0griBtmilla,2Baw administration. Ho subseqaeutly commanded
nulls, and 7 chnrohes. Capital, Hazard. YIL the navy yard at Brooklyn, and (he squadron
A S. E, CO. of Ohio, drained by a number of on the coast of Airica, the frigate Macedonian
small streams; area, 400 eq. m,; pop. in 1860, bearing hisflag. In 1646 he was appointed sec-
19,676. It has on undolatdng sariace and fer- ond in command of the eqnadron in the gulf of
tile solL The prodactionB in 1360 were 429,- Uexicowithorderstohoist aredbroadpennant
908 bnshelsof Indian com, 160,048 of wheat, in the steamer MiBsisoippi; and in Wardi,
101,691 of oats, 9,887 tons of hay, 104,626 lbs. 1647, succeeded Commodore David Conner in
of wool, and 261,806 of butter. There were the command of that squadron, which be held
S grist mills, 7 saw mills, 2 woollen factories, until the close of the Mexican war, accompliah-
2 newspaper offices, 61 chnrches, and 0,808 ing the reduction of the whole gulf coast of
pupils attending publio schools. It b inter- Mexico, and occnpying every point through
seoted by the Cincinnati, Wilmington, and which supplies oonld be sent into the enemy's
Zanesville railroad. Oapital, Somerset YIII. conntry. All the operations of this important
A B. 00. of Ind., bonnded S. and E. by the command were conducted by Commodore Perry
Ohio river, which separates it from Kentuoty, with skill, and the most indomitable energy
and druned by Anderson's and other creeks ; and perseverance. In March, 1662, he was ftp-
^ aboat 400 eq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 11,867. pointed to the command of the Japan expe£-
It has a very hilly snrfaoe and a soil ibrtile tion, and negotiated a treaty with that exclu-
along the streams. The productions in 16S0 sive government, which opened the way to the
were 282,836 bushels of Indian com, 88,476 of intercoorse which now sabuste between Japan
oats, 8,848 of wheat, 999 tons of bay, and 10,- and the United Btates. The intereating and
681 lbs. of wool. There were 0 grist mills, 9 important results of this expedition have been
saw mills, 8 tanneries, 1 newspaper ofBce, 8 pnblished in S vols. 4to. (Washington, 1666),
churches, and 476 pupils attending public and in two abridgments. He returned to the
•chools. Capital, Borne. IX. A S. co. of HI., United 5tateBinl866,anddiedwhilaonspeoial
intersected by Beanconp oreek; area, abont service growing out of the eipediljon.
480 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 9,602. It has a di- P£RBY,Ouveb Haz&xd, an American naval
versified aurface, and mnch of the soil is fertile, officer, bom in Newport, R. L, in Aug. 1786,
The prodnotions in 16S0 were 868,300 badiels died at Fort Spain, island of Trinidad, Aug. 23,
of Indian oom, 66,863 of oats, 16,988 lbs, of 1619. He entered the navy as a midahipman,
wool, and Ue,079 of bntter. There were 8 April 7, 1799, and was first in active service
grist mills, a saw mill, a tannery, 6 churches, under the command of his father, Capt. C. B.
and 840 pnpila attending publio schools. It is Ferry, in the frigate General Greene, 28, which
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEEET PEEfiEPOIiS 166
perfoimad aa utire and importaut ornlM on 7 of that year In the John Aduns, 24, vMdh
tha Wwt India station dnring 1799 and Iwra his flag. In Jalj he asoended the river
1800. In 1802 he serred in the UeditemnBan Orinoco in the sohooner Noneooh (one of the
in the frigate John Adama, Oapt OampbeU, Tenela of his sqoadron) to Angoatnra, the c4>>
and ag^ on the same station m 1804-'S in ital of Yenezaela, where he was en^ged sev-
theOtntstellationfHgate and ^Nanlilns sohooner. era! di^in tha transaction of biu£t«saTith
In Jul. 1807, he waa promoted to the rank of the goremment. On leaving the rivw he was
liantenant, and in 1809 was in command of seised with ydlow fbrer, which tenninated
the schooner Berenge, 11, and amised aotively btaU^ tlw day the Nonsaoh arrived at Port
upon tiie coast of me United States nndl Jan. Spidn. A few ^eara later his remains «
upon tiie coast of me United States nndl Jan. Spidn. A few ^ears later his remains were
1811, when the Revenge was wrecked upon transferred in a ehip of war to his native place.
Watoh Hill reef near Stonington, Oonn. A On Sept. 18, 1660, a marble statue b; Waloatt
ooort of ioqnirr ascribed the accident to was erected, wiUi imposing ceremonies, at
tides and fhii^ waatlier, aoqoitting Lieot. Perr^ Olereland, Ohio, to the memar;' of Commodoro
of all blame. At the opening of the war of Perrr, near tlie scene of his great battle, hj
1813, Peny was in oommand of a diviraon of tlie dtiiens of that plaoe.
gan. boats at Newport, R. L, and in Feb. 1818, PEBBEPHONE. Bee Fbobebtibx.
ho was transferred, at hie own request, with a PEESEPOLIB (Gr., "city of the Persians;"
portion of his officers and men, to the com- Pera. Ittaiiar), one of the ancieut oaj^tala of
mai^ of Commodore Isaac Ohanncej on the Persia. It stood S6 m. N. £. of Bhiraz, on a
lakeflL In the following Maroh he waa ordered spaolons ]^aln now called Merdosht, near the
bj- Oonunodore Ohannoef to sapeiintend the oonflnsnce of tha Uedns and tlte Arazee (now
eqaipment of a naval force on lake Erie, and Falwan and Bendemir). The plain is natonl-
wbile fhns amploTed at the port of Preaqna I7 one of the richest and most Desntiftal In the
Isle <now Kie), he waa oaDed awaj for the world, and is snmranded on all sides hy \ottj
uomsat to aid in an attadt npcm Fort Geom. mountains rising from the verdant level like
He cooperated gallantlr and ably with the ialanda from the ooean. At the foot of one of
army in that affitir, at the head of a body of these momttains, which pri^eots somewhat be*
seamen. Li Ang. 1818, Perr^, taking advsn- vond tha Hne of the range into the plain, is a
toge of the mom«attxj absence of the British high terrace of the most massive Ofclopean
•qiudron which had been watching him, sue- maaonrj', extending S. and S. about 1,600 feet,
eeeded in getting the force which he bad eqnip- and from E. to W. aboat BOO feet. The whole
ped ont ot the port bv lifting the larger vessels however is not one level platform, but is divid-
on oamels, and, though verj de&cient in offlcers ed into three great terraces, of which tliat to
and men, and imperfaotly equipped, breast the S. ia the smalleet and lowest, rising only
the Britim eqnadron to an engagement on S^t SO or 28 feet from the plain, with a breadth of
10, which rMuIted in the complBte saccess of 160 feet The great centre platform is nearly
the American anas, (See Earn, Bxttli or 800 feet square, and rises 4S feet above the
Lazb, voL viL p. 970.) After this biiliiant and level of the plain. N. of this is the third plat-
important action, which rtused Peny to the form, aboat G50 feet in length and 86 feet in
highest naval renown, he cooperated with (he height. On the northern and central platforms
■rmy of Gen. Earrison by assisting in regaining are grouped varioos mined edifices, which 141-
poneauon of Detroit, in transporting troops, pear to have been palaces or temples, and are
and serving at the battle of the Moravian all that reauun <rf Feraepolis. llie principal
Towiu. At the close of the operations of 1818, featnrea they present are talL slender, msnlated
he gave op hia command. Oongreas bestowed oolnmna, stately portals, and rained walls oot-
a gold medal upon bim for bis aervice^ and he ered by imndreds of sonlptored flgnres of men
was promoted to the rank of oaptain, his 00m- and animals. The ohiaf mins are those of the
mianoo beingdated Sept. 10, 1818, the day of great hall of 100 oolnmns, the Ohebil Ulnar or
the battle, ^gh oirio honors were p^d him great hall of Xenes, the palace of Xerxes, and
wherever he went, and mora than 40 ooontieB, the palaoe of Darins. The stairs which lead to
towns, and villages have been named alter him these edifices are among the most remarkable
in diffiarent parts of the Union. In Ang. 1614, of the arohitectiiral features of Persepolis, and
tie iraa appointed to the Java, 44, a new frig- are peonUar to the place. The finest of these
ate nnder equipment at Baltimore ; but as the is that which leads from the plmn to the north-
Cb«eapeake was closely blockaded, it was impos- em terraoe. It oonsists of two donble flights,
nbletogetbertoBea,andFer^, withhisoffii- each 22 feet wide, the steps rising only aboat
oera and moL was actively onployed in annoy- &i inches, while they are nearly 15 inches deep,
ing ib» British sqoadron in th^ descent of the tha ascent being so easy that persons on horse-
Potomac frmn Alexandria, and in the d«ibnca back go np and down without difBoulty. Its
ofBaltimore. After peace was proclaimed he wh(de style is ooloaeal, as many as S steps bemg
cruised in the Java upon the coast of the Unit- cut in one blook <tf marble, and the stones of
ed States, and in the Mediterranean until Jan. the panMndicalar walls being also of immense
1816. In Hsrch, 1619, he waa appointed to rize. There are several stairs leading to the
the connnand of a squadron for tne coast of summit of tiie terraces, most of which are or-
Cotonthia, and sailed from Annapolis on Jone namented with sonlptnres, representing oolos-
U,9,-„Z0QbyGOO^Ie
tribute. There are also man j inscriptiotu oo island of Seriphos, where Fersens \ras brought
th« Btttin aad the boildingB, in three di^rent ap bj King Polydectes ; bat the latter, uudons
olaasea of omteifom writitig, of which the at last to get him out of the wa^th^ he might
Z^ ohrsTS oocnpiea the prominent place, gra&ff his paeEdon for DanaS, sent him to ^eh
Thaw insoiiptionB liave bMn read bj Lassen the head ti the gorgon Uedosa. Having oV
and BavHoton, who have thna ascertained tuned from the nymphs willed sandaL to
that all the moat important works were con- bear him throogb the air, a ma^o wallet^ and
strooted bj Darins Rjetasgie and Xerxes (621- the helmet of Pinto which rendered him in-
4AS B. 0.)- Of the latest of these atrao- Tiaihle, from Kerooiy a uoble, and &om Mi-
tnres, the great hall of Xerzee, or the Ohehil nerva a mirror in which he conM see the re-
Minar as it is called bj the modem PeraianB, fieotioa of If ednso, dnce a sight of the monster
Fergnason, the emiuoit writer on architeotiir& herself would change him to stone, he aocom-
si^b: " It was not only one of the lai^eat bat plished his errand while the gorgons were
one of the most splendid bnildiogi of antiqni- asleep. On hia way back he saved ijidromeda
tj. In plan it was a rectangle of abont 800 trota. being devoored hf a sea monster, and
net b7 SBO, and oonseqnenllj oorering 106,000 married her. (See Asdboiixda.) Arrinng at
aqnare fbet (H acrea) ; it was tiitia lai^ uiaa Beriphos, he found hia mother pnraoed bf the
the hrpostfle hall at Kamat, or any of the violence of Pol^ectea, whom he metamor-
largest tcmplea of Qreeoe or Rome. It is phosed with all his meeta into stone by meaoa
la^er, too, Uian buj mediaval cathedral ez- of the gorgon's head. He then returned witli
oeptthatcufHllan; and although it has neither his wife and mother to Argos, and Acriainfir
the stone roof of a cathedral, nor the maaBire- remembering the orade, fied to Larissa. Per-
nees of an Egyptian bulling, atill its ase and seas, following him in order to persuade him
proportiong, combined with lightness, and the to return, is said to have aceidentallj killed
beauty of its decorations, must have made it him with a discus in the course of the eamea
one of the most betntifnl buildings ever erect- which the Hog of I.aris8a was celebratug in
ed, and both in derfgn and proportion far snr- Acriidns'a honor. TTnwilling to return to Ar-
panting tliose of AssTTia, thongh possessing gos, be exchanged that kingdom with He^-
mnoh of detail or ornament so amilar as to be penthes for the government of Tiryns. He
almost identical in stj^le." — At the diatanoe of preaented the gonjon'a head to lliuerva, who
1^ miles from the mina of Fetscpolis a Taller placed it on her i£ield.
about S miles in width opens into the pl^ of FEBBEUS, or FKBaca, the last king of Mac&-
Uerdusht; and in thegorgeof thiavalley, Jost don, rdgned from 178 to ISS B. 0. He was
where it opens on the plain, stood the city of the son of Philip 11., or aa others call him T.,
Istakhar, so fbmoua in oriental story, and ac- and b^re coming to the throne served with
oording to the Pernans the oldest oity in the some dist&ciion in the army. He persuaded
world. Darius, soon after he ascended the hia fiither to put to. death a younger aon,
throne, seems to have removed the seat of gov- Demetrin^ whom he suspected irf entertaiu-
emment from Pasargadsi, the old oapit^ of ing ambitJons designs. Immediately upon his
Persia, to Istakhar, and to have oommenoed in accession he confinned the treaty concluded
the southern suburb of that dty the building by his &ther with the Romans, but began
of the palaces and conrt quarter to which the secretly to prepare for war, and endeavored
Greeks gave the name of Persepolis. After to form aUiances with the states of Greece,
the destruction of the Persian monarchy by Hostiiitiea were hastened by an attempt of
Alexander (who is reported by some of the Perseus to assaarinate Eumenea, king of Per-
Greek historians to have set fire to the palaces gamus, who had reported to the eenat« the
of Persepolie at the instigatiou of Thala the warlike preparations of the Macedonians. The
eonrtesan, a statement not oorroborated by the senators pronounced Perseus an enemy of the
Spearance of the ruins, which show no traces republic (172 B. 0.), and the consul P. Licinina
fire), the oity shrank back to its original di- Orassus was sent with an army to invade
mensions, and under its native name of Istai- his dominions. He met the Macedonians in
khar became celebrated in the subsequent hie- Theasaly, where two alight engagements were
tory of Per^ and remained an important fbnght (171)^erseQs winning one and Crassna
^aoe to a comparatively recent period. — Bee the other. The war Iad«d 4 yeara, with dis-
FerfTOBson's "Palaces of Nineveh and Persep- advantage on. the whole to the Romans; but
olis Restored" (London, 18S1). at last the avarioe of Peraens alienated his
PERSEUS, a Gredan legendary hero, the allies, and on June S9, 1S8, he was signally
eon of Jnpiter and Danae. Acrisins of Argos, defeated near Pydna by the consul L. .i£iai-
the father of Danae, iiaving been warned by an liua Paulus. He took rei^ige in Samothrace,
oracle that the son of his daoght^r wonld where he soon afterward surrendered, and in,
cause ids death, shut her up in a strong room ; the following year was carried to Rome to
bnt Jnpiter came down through the roof in the adorn the triumph of the victor. j£milius
form of a shower of gold, and l>ecame by her however treated him kindly, and, when he
the father of Pfflseus, Acrisins oansed the wan afterward oast Into a dungeon by ordor
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
FBSSIA IfiT
of th« MBBte, procured Ua remoTsl to a looUng boEaar, or pcritspa among huipa ot
plsea of honorable oaptivitr at Alba, where rabbiaE as flHhr aiu oonfiued as thow ont-
he paned a fcw years and died, either of aide. " Any tttbig Tn<H« dumal oan hardlj be
TtdnntarT Btftrratioii. or, aooording to a leaa oonoeiTed," aarB Ladj Sheil, desoritdog her
probable aooonnt, of euiorced want of aleep. entranee into Tabriz in 1819. " The imaKee
HelefttwoTOongohQdrera, Alexander, who IS of youth are not easily effiued; and tiie
nid to lam beoome a a^bo to the monidpal- ' Arabian Nl^ta' and ' Xialla Rookh' will hold
itj (tf Alba, and a dang^ter. Hia rotinger bro- their place in the memory whether it vill or
ther and adopted heir, FhUlp, died In oaptavi^. noL Bnt onoe imdde the gate of a Feraian
PERSIA (the natiTe name of which ia Iran), city, the oharm ia diasolTod, the raomoian's
1 onmtry of Ada, Ixmnded N. by Boidan Ar- wfuid is broken, and reality takes the place of
laeoia, the Gaai^aii eea, and Toorkistan, E. tiy romanoe, which ia destroyed for ever. Half
Al^hjmiatan and Belooohistan, 8. by the In- the city aeemed depopnlated ; there were
dim ocean, S. and B. W. by the Peraian gnl( large spaces wholly Taoant, with deep exoeva-
aad W. by tiie Tarkieh empire. It lies bo- tions on edther hand, from wtuoh the earth
tween 1st. 25° and 40° N. and long. 44° and 93° had been dog to bdld honaee. Dead dogs,
SO* £. ; greatest length from N. W. to 6. K and here and there a dead horse half eat^
■boot 1,000 m., average breadth abont 600 m. ; ofitoded more than one aenae. The honaee
area, abont 600,000 sq. m. ; pop. Tsrionaly ea- were (HghtfiiL Oooitnioted of brown nnbnrat
timated at from S,000,D00 to 10,000,000. It la bricks, looking exactly like mod, and wltfaoot
dirided into S6 provinoes. In the N. are CHii- a aingle window to the atreets, they preeented
Un, Ibanderan, and Aatrabad ; in the W., a moat gloomy aspect. This ia a general [do-
Axerba^fan, Ardalan or Eoordiabm, Loriatan, tnre of a Perdan town, and be it rem«nbwad
and EhoodstsQ ; in the S., Fare, Lariatan, and that Tabriz is one of the beat and rioheet dties
Eennan;intheK,Y6zd,TabsBorTnbna,&ha7n in the whole kingdtsn." The wretched k^
and ffiijoon, TocrtMa, lleehed, Damghan, uid pearanee <^ the ontaide of a, P^idan house,
Bemnoon and the Oreat Salt desert. Thew oowerer, ia not a Jnat indication of the state
eastern provinees oollectivelr oonatttnte £ho- Ot the Interior. The dwellings are generally
nsaan. Oentnd Per^ or Lvk-AJemee oom- comfortable, and those id the ridier ela»es
priaes the prOTincee of Sihamsab, Eaabin, T»- are often of great idze and contafai -reiy hand-
Wan, Haniadan, Eoom, and Miahan. The aome and eommodlona »artmeDt8.~-The prin-
prindp^ddeaan Teheran, theo^ta), Ispahan, dpalportaof PeraiaareBalftooahontheOaa-
llie former capital and adll the Ui^est city of plan aea and Bndtire on the Peraian gnlf. The
the kingdom, Tabriz, Ooroomeeyali, Hun»- other mnrta are of Uttleoonseqnence. There is
dan, Bhosto', "ir<"hnn, Beehd, Balf^>0Bh, Aatra- a marked deficiency of good harbors on both
bad, ICeahed, Nishapoor, Tezd, Boahires Shlnu^ the TS. and S. ooasts. Tbe deficiency of Tivers
Lar, and Kerman. Several <s these cujea are in so Tast a oonntry is etill more remarkable;
mnig the moat femons of the Bast (br wealth thwe ia aoaroely a navigable stream in tlie
nd magnifioMice, bnt the vidtor from Emrme vhole kingdom. The largest rlveia are the
or Amttica ia always greatly ffisappdnted by Earoon, which flows into the 8hat-el-Arab
&eir ^pearanee, whidi at the present time or United Tigria and Etiphratee, the Aras
offen iittte to the eye of the beholder hot or Araxes, and the Safld End or White river,
ndna, filth, and misery. The view of a Per- which flow into the Oaapian. While the greater
lian d^ fhnn the exterior la nsoal^ monoto- part of Persia soflbra ftom want of water, the
DonsandnniDtererting. The low ^d irregular norUiem provinoea bco^ering npon the Oas-
bonsM, built moeUy of mad, resanble faenia plan sea are as remarkaMe lor the moltitnde
of dirt more than human habitationB. The of thdr streams as Ota rest (NT the coostey is
hrellinga of even the rich and powerfiil eel- fbr its aridi^ ; bnt they are for &e moat part
dim exeeed a dn^e etoiy, and are ahronded mere torrents, fbll in winter and nearly dry-
from awht by high bl&u walls. The only ingnpinsmmner. A striking oharacteiistlo of
poblio boildinga an mosqnea, colleges, and the topographyofPeraiaia the frequent oeonr-
oaraTanasriea, most of which are as mean as renoe of ult lakea, of which that of Ooroomee-
die dweUinga. There are not many minarets rah is the largest. Itlsintheprovinoeof Aeer-
«- domes of magnitDde, and few of these ex- ba(jao, between lat. 87° 5' and 88° 16' K., at
inbit eitiiw elef^nee or Brandenr, The only the height of 4,800 £aet above the sea, and ia
relief to the mtmotcoy m the view ia afibrded 80 m. in length and SO in breadth, with an
by tbe nvdcoBj whidi are planted with foreat average depth of 12 feet. It Is fhst drying np,
tnd fkint trees, and to a greater or lesa extent and is boidered by largo tracts covered with
are aeeo near aQ the towns of Persia. The edt, with which its waves are intensely im-
trar(dIer)»]aIlyain>Toaohestheee dties throng^ pregnated.-~Penda haa been called a oonntry
a narrow and dlr^lane bounded by decided of momtaina, but U is for the moot part rather
mud woDa, and must pick his vsj among a hi^ table-land, ridng 8,000 or 4,000 fbet
bu^ts md fadlow^ tne fivgments of old above the aea, bonnded on all ddes except the
bnMings, and the pUa whfdi hsve enpplled E. by lofty ranges, preSminent among which
the day for oew onesi Entering the djlapl- is the mighty chain of the Elbroox. This
dated gateway, he finds himself in a mean- great range, abiking off from the Oanoasna,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
I§8 FEB8IA
«ntan tie Ungdoin at tiie N. frontier, irhidk try is arid and drearr, Uie nurantaliiB being
it ooTws with • fdooiD^ man of block peaka, imtoIj maaBee of bare gray rook, riungftbrnptr .
and from Ardebil mns parallel iritb tho 8. It froin the pl^ and onreliflved b^ trees or ',
ahoraoftheOasiuanHftto Astrabad. Tbenoe ■hrabB. Tbe pbuna, even vbere th^ are not ,
it pata«s in aa eaaterlj direction to the N. of abaolatel; desert, are chiefly of barren gravd i
Ifethed into A%h&niatan and Toorkigtan. A or olar, and fbr 10 montl^ of tha year are |
branch of the Elbrooz called the Bahnnd moon- parehed with heat. The only trees to be seen <
tains Btrikes off from Lake Ooroomeeyah in a are in the gardens of Tillages or on the banks '
H, E. direction, and spreads in Tariona oIn»- of the few streams where they have been ,
ters throngh Azerbalian. Another branch is planted for timber. The provinces on the Oaa- .
the ZagroB ran^, which diTidee ancient A»- plan sea, howsTer, are exceptions to the gen- '
Syria from Uedia, and, splitting into a confiuad era! dreariness, and are aa beuitifiil bb wood, ,
maaa of ridges and vdleys in Koordistan, con- water, and grand and varied monnbun scenery ;
tinnea eonthward nnder the app^tion of the can make them.— 0<nnpara1iTdy little is known ;
Lnrfsbm and Bnohtiaree monntaina along the of the geology of Persia. The Elbrooz monn-
weatem borders of the taUe-land, and after tains are sapposed to poeaeas a primitiTe char- :
trsvereSag Fars stretches along the Fendan soter, Poipnyty, colored with chlorite, and
RTilf at rariona distanoes from the sea as for as oompaot felds;^ with green earth, are foimd
GMntooon near the 8. £. comer of the kin^- in abundance in the torrent beds, with occa-
dom, North of the Eltirooi and between it sionally granite and monntain limestone. The
and the Caspian are the proTinces of Gbilan, branches of the Elbrooz, however, lose this
Uazanderan, and Astrabad, which are low, primitive character, and may be generally de-
lerel, well watered, and fertile. The region BCribedaafollows:calcareoQBsnbs^ceeetretch
between the B. boundary of the platean and along their eastern aldrts ; on their Bonthera
the Persian golf and the Indian ocean is called acclivitieB schistose rocks appear ; clay inter- '
the Bnshtistan or " level country," and, with mingled with quarts occnpies the middUng and '
a breadth varying fWim 60 to IBO m., ezhibita higher regions ; while granite composes the '
a sacoession of sandy wastes, ocoaaonally re- lower tracts of their oortbern aepecta. Traces '
lieved by a plantatioa of date trees and a few of voloanio action are to be found in aeveral {
Satohes of cnltivation in snob places as are parts of the Elbroor range; the pe^ of Demtt-
leswd with a rivolet or a oopiona weH. vend, the highest of its smnmita, which, aocord-
From the prindpal ranges we have mentioned ing to the l^est measarementa, rises 21,(>00 feet
nm a mnltitnde of branehea that cover the aor- above the sea, is nndonbtedly an extmct vol-
&oe of Perriawiths netwoi^ of rocky linea. cono; andthefreqnenteartbqQakeaiuthevioiii-
Among them are to bo fonud plains and valleys ity of the moontains indioate the existenca of
which wherever moistare abonnds are fertile, sobterraiiean fires over a wide-spread lesioii.
bnt where water is absent aie deaerta of sand The most interesting geolopoal feature of tlie
or aalt. The valleys at tha sonthem foot of Elbrooi mountains is toe turquoise mines, mtn-
the Elbrooz are rich with verdure throughout ated abont 40 m. W. of Nishapoor. The base
the year, and on the dope of the mountains N. of the ridge where they lie is composed of
of Teheran is a tract 30 m. In length covered vtute, gray, yellow, red, or brown porphyritic
with gardens and grovee and bearing the name earth, interspersed with veins of brilliant red,
of 8ham'a-i-Iran, or "light of Persia." In disposed in hillocks, on the top of wluch rest
the centra] provinoes the valleys are generally beds of limestone or porphyritic oonglomeratea,
level. In Azerba^an they lie between a snc- The mines are opened m beds of porphyritio
cession of eminences. Koordistan in theN. earth or rock, deeply tinged with iron, throng
ia little more than a olnster of mountains with which the turquoise is disseminated in veioa,
an almost Alpine olimate. — Salt deserts oconpy nodules, and irregular masses. B^g Ml of
a great part ot the suribce of Pemia, and are flaws, it possesses no great mercantile valae.
many of them covered by a saline efflorescence The Sahund mountains exhibit great maases
which f^Utera vividly in the annehine. The of calcareous oonglomerate resting on a base
Q?eat Salt desert, the most extensive of these of granite. Their summits are composed of
tracts, lies in the centre of the conntry, and is porphyry, sometimee oontaining cryBtala of
400 m. in length and SSO m, in breadth. The glossy feldspar and hornblende. Some of
nature ofthisdeaertvarieB in different plaoes, the lower hills intervening between theee
In some the surface is dry and produces a few mountains and Tabriz are covered with blodcs
planta, such as prefer a eslt soil ; in others it and pebbles of a dark blue rook contuning cal-
ls marshy, and in others the earth is covered oareoos matter. Iron is abundant in Perd&,
with a crust of eslt. Over considerable tracts tliough it is little manufactured. Copper, lead,
sand predominates, which in some plaoes is and antimony also abound, and salt, sulijhar,
so light and impalpable aa to be cactremely and niqihtha are produced in great qnantatiea.
dangerous to ttavellere, who are sontMhnea Eicellentcoal is found in the ElbrooK, and aJso
overwbehned and buried in the dr^ raised by valuable varieties of marble. — The olimate of
the wind. Here and there this desert is broken Peraa is so much modified by the elevation of
by inhaUted oaaea, Uiou^ by none (tf very the surface that, according to the traveller
great axtent The genemaspeot of the oonn- Kinneir, one may paas in a few boors from tlxe
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
ir «f Kmtoellier to Che oolfl rfrotJC^Po- mring
laraidtitdtlteoQMVhlghtrtpedciM^'EI- Soaotiftali
cooz are cotqiM wWh snoir tkrOag^oiil ttM aoimolB al
160
great hanrianoe, and there are manr
1 species native to the conntrj. Wild
„ aboand in the desert, among uiem liu)
ttjiaLMn u Itmf Hob, tiger, wolf, Jooka), hjsoa, fox, wild boar,
■no eerOTm— aiw ij wofwwiow mMDi- irfid ass, wild sheep, and antelopea and deer in
mon at tU* MMor~ "Hia biit «f mmaaa ii ^at variety. The wild eheep is strong and
iitteii9& Th« ^^i"* tikTe&er Morier states conragoons, and has large, crooked, aad twisted
that at Shiras. amr 0W mMle of Jnoe the horns. The wild ass is shyand very fleet, ont-
thennometer jffm aemify *(rtr under 100* in Btrfpping the beBt horses. Among the dome^
tbeabade, andfrmaotlxniaeVillO'. Intho tip minialB, the most common are the camd,
low lands on the nniaii cntf the lleat of stun- cow, sheep, goat, ass, horse, and mole. The
mer ia inereaaed brtlMinBda from the sandy native horses are large and strong, and the
deaerta with which VUm ngio' aboaads,bDt breed has been mnch improved bvintennixtiira
ttie winter and spring an da!. ' ill. Bat not- with the Arab. The^are remarkabieforth^
«%^mdmg the great extre.u of ttw Anate powers of endorance, and some of them will
ef FBflnBfttka auddm trarsidona froaakeat carry their riders for a week t<^ether at tha
w eMBTft to Tar; haaltky, wit4i<to exeaptbn rate of 100 miles a day. Those <tf the beat
gf Snav ooaato of Oa Oaa^^wkere from oMMr freqo™*'?' wH for $1,000, and ar« used
' ' VB of ngata- nr {Midering expeditions. From the prera-
r the grMter lenoe it hot and and deserte, oamds are prdto^
, „ I ^plla, utd' die Tedaabeasteof tnirden,thoiigfaiimlesaremndi
air tr fl^ flM tjw attiMM>pb#ii «o Near titat Baed among the moont^ons redone. From
p(&hed metal may be expo^a to it withont ft»aeBroity of trees in Feraiab&ds are rare.
Woming mated. — ^NotwiUi^^kw ttie gen- Hieaaants are found (Mi the eoasta of the Oaa-
(nlly barren appearaMCt of ^Htfoi ^^ f"^ pian, and pelicans and bnstarda on the diorea
tinted BoQ whera^r tt is Bom^mnk miAtk- «t the golf. Among the song birds are blaid:-
are Sa ^raa4tti|^ fcrtfla. nBwll itnaBS birds, Crashes, and the bnlbnl or nightin«l&
and qj^Jp <W TMM at h^ 7^ Mad pro- The rivers contain few fieh, bnt ralnable ilah-
dnee'^^RMMwr)' resta. rtmac mentions a eiies are carried on npon the shores of tiba
canal ^fi^iV«d to irrlgata a fruit garden of golf and the Oaspian.— The population of Per-
irtdchVlinCvnBtwaa nearly $10,000. The eia oonsista of two very distinct classes, the aet-
prinmpil pwodiwta of Perdan agricidtore are tied inhabitants and the tribes who are called
rbeat, Wriey, and other gruns, the wheat Eels, a Turkish word signiiyiag olana. Some
b«inR as fce as any in the world. The vine of theee tribes have become stationary, and
flotmdieB in several provinces, and the ^pes have devoted themselves to agriooltore, Uioo^
and the wine of SMraz are oelebi-ated m the still preserving their nidon as tribe mea ; bnt
portry of the East. The rich provinces on the the rest of them are wanderers who with their
Ciepian prodnce the mulberry in great abnn- families and flooks change their qnarten eacdi
dance, amd inolnde silk and eogar among their summer and winter in search of pasture to
chief staples. Cotton is prodnced in sufficient grounds more or leas distant belongmg to the
raanlj^ to supply the wants of the people ; and tribe, and which oaanot be enorofwhed on by
m Feb. 1861, uie Persian ambassador at Lon- other clans. A clan or eel is ruled by its ixj^iw
don stated in a published letterthat sufficient orchief and by the heads of the different tMnfta
eottm oonid be grown in the sonthem prov- or branches of the tribe. To theee chieft the
iDMa to supply the wants of Europe. Among whole tribe is devoted with a patriarahsl loy-
tfie other nsefol products of the soil are gum alty like that of the highlandera of Scotland to
tr^acanth, asKtotida, ssffiron, henna, madder, the heads of the clans. The tribes oominiM
ajnum, indigo, and tobaooo. Fruits are grown 4 races, viz., Toorks, Eoords, Leks, and Araba.
is great perfection and abondanee. Datea are The first are invaders from Toorkistan, who
tsgety Tised as food, and those of Dalald tn the from IJme immemorial have estabUshed them-
provinee of Fars are paitioolarly celebrated for eelves in Per^a, and who still preserve their
ridinasB and flavor. Pomegranates, shaddocks, language. The Koorda are not numerons In
iiiiKs, apples, pears, apricots, and walnuts grow Ferna, the greater part of the nation living
in perfei^OQ everywhere, and oranges on the in Turkey. They are sopposed to be of FeraiaD
low lands. The melons are the largest and descent, and speak a dialeot of the Pertdaa
fioest in the world. Though trees are very language. The Leks are of genuine Pereiaa
Karee in the greater part of Persia, the monn- blood, and are snppoaed to be descendants of
tiins of the Oaspian provinces are covered with the ancient inhabitants of the conntry. Tha
forests of valuable timber, including oak, elm, Arab Eels are descended chiefly from the Ho-
beedi, walntit, and boxwood. The Ucorioe hammedana who conquered Persia in the Stli
DlsDt is finutd in provision on the plain of century, bnt they have lost thnr original lan-
Merdndit tmd near ffliiraz. A plant resem- guage and become Perrians both in speech and
bhng heoiloek, with a rich dark ^«eu verdnre appearance. The Eels genenUly live in tenti^
aad from 8 to S ftet high, yields the gnm am- uid are distingnisfaed far ooorage, manliness,
tnontac Amongthevegetables, carrots, turnips, and indq>endtfice. Theyarehowever taveter-
cabb^ea, and b«ets are common. Flowers ate robbers, and th^ torbulenoe has for eey
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
eraloentoriefl been idiiefoanM of the troubled ths (lfl| who ntfbr mort frojn the t^prtwlon
condition of tiis kingdom and of its freqiunt of the. .rnlers ; ;«t their houses are oomfort-
rerolntiona. Their number is aotapnted at able ftod aeet, and thej &nd thsLr funilies are
^000,000. The BhaheeMTflD, the Sheaghee, generallj well fed and clothed. Wages are
the Hikiee, the y(t«>iifi'i| the Bejtit, the Za- high and food is chei^ ; and in spite of the
faranloo, the ^elhor, the Zengen^ And one soms oooamonalljextoctAd .from them b^rapa-
of the flooka and herds. Black bread, sonr are often exceedingly fair and beautiful, the
milk, and oooasionallj a little meet form th^ frequent miztore of Georgiaa Hd Oircasnau
food. The nmnber who more in a bodj depends hlood baring greatly improved Hi* appwKtmco
on &» extent of pastnre they can ctumtand. of the native Persian race. Tbvj are Uvely
They enoan^ asoally in form of a sqnare or and clever, and often acquire a great iafiiunoe
street, thetentoftfaeohiefintheoentxe. When over their husbands, vhoM budaMa aftirs
the pastures are bare they shift to some other they eometiniw direct and man^e. TImt* are
epoL The women do not, like other Mobam- two kinds of marriageB : thoaa vbkb are per-
medans, veil their faces, but ahue the fatigaea manent and leq^ectable, and In vUdi the hos-
amd the dangers of the men. They are bold hand is reetxioted to 4 wives ; and aaetiwr kind
and sldlftil riders, and can nee the gnn or the called teegAa, in. which a coBtiact of marriage
spear on an emergency. Their character for ia made for a limited period, nevar STowrling
oUiBtity ia higher than that of most Adatio SO years. The latter speciaa of marrian noay
women. Among the settled inhabitanta of be contracted with an indafaite miuer of
Fersia, the chief distdnction of classes is into women, who are generally boweTer of an in-
the oonrtierB, or the dvil and military o9- ferior rank and perfonnm«ialacrvioea lor tbe
oers of the govainment ; the oiUzena, oompria- proper wives. The childMo, e( Ix^ alasses
ing merohonta, shopkeepers, artiaana, men of are regarded as perfectly •qnal in atatJon and
learning, and of the rel^ooaorden; and last- legitimaoy. Among the e^Mtmaaattftfae peo-
jy tiia peasanta or onltivatora of the gromid. pte a man has rarely morf than oaa wife, and
The FerstaiiB connected with the govemmeDt the condition of the women aeaaa te fte ea^
are generally well infomed, aoote, polished and oomfortable. The ladies of the npperdaas
in manner, lively, good-natived, and exceed- lead an idle, Immriona, and monotonous life,
ingly aelf-posBMsed ; but th^ are acoosed of Contrary to the common opinion in CQuisten-
bMng,with a few exoeplionB, deoeitfbl, treach- dom, they enjoy abmidant liher^, more per-
eroQs. and venal, and, where they can be so baps than the same class in Europe. The
with imptmity, am^ant and overbearing. The complete envelopment of the tkoa osd person
inhabitants of the towns are a mixed race disgiiises them enectually from the nearest rel-
of Turks, Tartars, Arabians, Armemans, and atives, and, destroying when convenient all
Georgians, engrafted on the stock of the an- distinolion of rank, gives unrestrained freedom.
dent Penians. They ore in general indnstri- Hnoh of their time Is spent in the public hath
ou% obeerfal, pohte, Booiahle, and quick of bonse and in visits to theb Mends. Women of
aptoehenrion, with better morals and more the higher cloasfre^neatly acquire a knowledge
[Hinolple tjian the higher daseea. The mer- of reading and writing, and become famibar
ebauta are numeross, and many of them are with the works of the chief Peraan poets,
wealthy, though from fear of spoliattou they do These, however, are the best aspects of female
not often dlsplsy their riches. Some of them life in Persia. On the other htmd, it is certain
are among the most cultivated men intheoooa- that in the emderooTu or harems of the rich
try. The eoclesiastical body, which includes there is often mnoh cmelty and suffering, and
the ezponndera of the written law, ia very nn- the greatest crimes are perpetrated wim im-
merooB, rich, and powerful, and oonsista of pnni^. There is nothing to che<^ the severity
many orders, the hi^est of whom are called of an ill-tempered or ridons husband, tbon^
fHMtUmhedt, and are seldom more thaa 8 or 4 Bometimes an ill-treated slave or wife redrwaes
in number. They rise to office by superior and terminateB her wrongs by administering a
learning and sanctity, and their duties have dose of poison. The owners of land in Perma
chiefly in riew the protection of the P^'e seldom ooltdvate it themselrea, but let it to
^^nst the oppressiona of their rulers. The toiants, who divide the produoe with the Isnd-
mollahs or common priests, who swarm in lords. The tenants are oonuuonly well treated,
every city, have a very low reputation. Tbmr and have nothing to complain of ezoept the
livegenerallybytbeir wita,andpraatiseBfitro£- occasional extortions practised bythegovem-
ogy, write letters and oontraets, and thos eke ment officers, who when travdlinK demand
out a half atarved existenoe. Their faypooi^, food and soppHes £» thfonselvea and their at-
profligacr, and want of prindple areproverbid, tend«itB in the name of the govenoment.— The
■ndto"liatelikeamouah"and to "lie like a foreign otonmerce ot Peroa ia oonqiaratiT^
moUeh"are sqrlngi Ten frequent in Ibemonlli amalL Silk is the great at^de, tboqdi boroes,
* ~ The anltiTators of fhe soil are dried friut, and dniga are aent to Ind^; abeqi,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
161
aottMi, ud wooUoD nmvAebam to Ibrkej; AmongthesdenoesioOBtoQltivtted tisaitroa-
and grain sad oottOD goods to Ramii The 0107, astrolo^, metBph7ucfl, logic, malLeinat-
silk 1b of infoior qiulitr, end ia therefore not ioa, and ph^rsioe. AatroDomj is in a veij im-
ad^ipted to the markets of Franoe, Knglmil, or perfect state, bring jot taught according to the
Itol^. A larae [nvportdon of it is sent to Tor- Ptoletnaio sjBtem. Their metaphy^ and
kej and to Bnsaia. The ralae of the annnal logic, though ingenioue, are puerile and dm-
prodaot at the proTinoe of Ghilan b estimated leas. Obemistry is unknown, and geogr^hy
at (3,000,000. The people have aoqoired great very imperfeotlyimdeiBtood. Alchemy is still
dexterity in ite mannbotDre, and satins, saroe- stndied, and astrology is a popular pursuit, no
net, brocades, Telveta, and 6*»iy kind of striped Persian undertaking any important afl^ vith-
■ilk are made exeee^iudy strong and dnruikt oat first consulting an astrologer, and endeav-
wtth briUunt ocdore. OUier arUcIea of export orbtg to ascertain a laoky day or honr for his
«ra carpets and tUta, made ohiefly in Ehoraa- enterprise. In knowledge of medicine the Pen-
san; Arabian cloaks and Toollanstuffl, made in sians are verj deficient. They are totally igno-
Khoozistan; shawls made of the fine hair of rant of anatomy and nnacqudnted with the
^ha goats d! Kennan; firearms, aworda, dag- dronlationof the blood, sudtheirpractjceo
. and variooB Uiras of ouUery, made at sisteof little more than the exhibition of a few
. Juui. The internal trade is earned on br simple drugs, whose qnalitiee they have leam<
caravans, which bring from the oonntdes E. ed by experience. Among their peculiar metb-
gen. and
Ispahan.
of Persia modin, leather, lamb skins, nimkecti, ods of cure may be mentioned that of a chief
china, glassware and hardware, predons stones, who, when any of hie vassals was afflicted with
ss&otii, indigo, and ^ioes. Tiie trade on the ague, combated the disease b^ tying his patiei^
OaflpianaeaismonopolizedbytheBusBians,and up by the heelewhea the periodical fit was ap-
is carried on throogh theporta of Enaelli, fiat- pro^hing and applying the bastjnado severely,
frooah, and Astrsbad. Inat on the Feraisn abuMng him bitterly all the time, a prooess
golf ia Utrongh the ports of Bassoroh, Gom- which he maintained produced heat ana terror
Dr(Kn,aitd&nsliire,bymeans(tfveaseleowned instead of a cold fit. Theflnearts are little
chi^y t^ Armenian, Arab, and Indian traders, cnltivated, the Uohsmmedsn futh prohibiting
Throng these porta Eoropean prodnotiona in repreeentations of the human form, though of
the eo^te of broaddoths,- eotton goods, jewel- late years the prohibition ia not vary strictly
ry, arms, onHerr, watches, earthen, glaM, and regarded, and the royal palaces at Ispahan
metal wares are introdnced, hi exchange for contain some tolerable attempts at punting
silk, gall nnta, madder, and other ijM. — The battles and hunting pieces. — Persia, having
Pernana are Uohamuedana of the sect of the been from the remotest ages the seat of oivlli-
Sheeahs or adherente of Ali, who deny the xation, and the scene of great politiosl vicism-
ri^t of the first three caliphs to the pontifi- todes and revolution^ abounds in ruins, of
cate, aikd honor Hassan and Hossein, the sons which the oldest and most remarkable are
of All, as the proper heirs of the oahphate. those of Persepolis and latakhar. (See Pbbsi-
They observe as solemn fiiats the dan on which pous.) There are other remarkable remains
the children of Ali were mnrdere^ and curse of the same remote period intheplainsofUur-
on these oooadons with tears and bitter widl- ghab, 49 m. If. N. £. of Persepolis, supposed
ings the memories of the asmiiiHina Uoawylah to be those of the andent city of Pasargadffi.
and Tezid. The belief in the establiahed rell- The most interesting of theee remains is the
gion is however greats on the deolina a «p&- straotare called the tomb of Oyms. bi the
oes of tesnsoendental mysticism called Soone- mountains which form the N, bomidory of the
bdng veiT prevalent. The doctrinee of pldn of Kermanshah is the preclpltoos rook of
sect are obsenre and little understood ex- Beaittoon or Behistnn, with sculptures and in-
cept by the Boofees themsalvea. but they may acript^ona which have attracted much alten-
be brlefiy and dmpl^ described as a contra- tion fhmi the learned, and have been recenV
plattre form of religion, which, i^eoting dcg- ly deciphra«d by Bir Henry Rawlinson. Ths
mas and aztemal fimna^ ehoa to look i^ the inscriptions were made by order of Darios in
depths of eonscionsness and diaoover there the C16 B. G., and record the events of his ret^
presence and workmgs of the divine Ail-soul, At Sbabpoor, IS m. N. of Kazeroon, and in
with Thich every thiiu; is nllomately identical ; many other parts of Poraa, there are intereat-
whiob leoognizes individaality as an illodon, log rUna of the era of the Sassanian kings
and oonfeaes the fundamental cmenese avea (A. D, 326-651).— The government of Perstais
of what seems most diverse, as of good and a deQiotism. The king, or ihah aa he is called
bod, of Hfe and death. These doc^inea are in Persian, is uncontrolled by any constitutional
oftra pnfbaed by thorough infidels. The nnm- or legal checks, and con pat to death at pleas-
ber of professed Soofees is estimated at 800,000, nre any of his subjects. The governors of
bnt a still sreatn number are sapposed to ba provinoes sod high offldals of all kinds exer-
sBcretljincaiied to their doctrines. Edooatlon, dse hi their re^eotivejnrisdbitionsncsrly ab-
so &ras the aUlity to read and write isoon- solnte power, and it btl:'~ ' — "^ " '^'"
jtiis
iarga towns oonbdn cdlegea in which in- retwds the advancement of the oilimt^ in
stmotloa, snoh aa it is, is ^ven gratuitously, spite of the intelligence and enterprise of the
VOL. ira. — 11
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
nie. EmrnwtAig&sdialilioldaapiib- Ktpeor&lKnrevw, OuitlietnieUabnTtfPeN
MM, at irtiioh oom^ainta are Iwwd and ^ bo or as it is anthtiitieaUj known, iaas
jQgtioe admiiiisteTed in the form of reward or follows. At a verf remote period a great
pmushment. Hie prindpal miiiiiter or grand Arjan migration from be^mid the Indu en-
viiier laaperKmageof greatpoverandinflii- tered Perria and Medijt, and oontfamed fi»>
e&oe, and reorirea a ealarr o* 4i,000 tomans, eome omtmies. At length, in the 9th oen-
alirarB expoaed like ^e meaneat anbjeot to oa- ^torward tbrmed the chief element of the H^ .
pridooB ptmishmenta, and holds bis life at the dian nation enoonntered the Aasyrians, vh^
mer<7<tfthemoaaroh. Bedde ttie chief minis- were then a great power on the Tigris^ and
ter there are secretuiee who preride over va- after a long strode were mbdned br the As-
riona depvtmoits of state and finance. The yrian king Sargon in 110 B. 0. About 08S
law, as in allHoIuunnwdsn eonntries, is fonnd- uie Uedes led hy Oraxares revolted, and, bar-
ed np<ai the Koran and partlj on traditions. Ing taken NlneVw in 026, laid the fonnoatim
Hie dvll law is adndnistoed hj the moUaba of the ICe^an emigre. OTazares is the Eai
or priesta. whose deddons aregowralljr cfbot- Eabad of the native poets. To him sneoeeded
ed Dj bribes or personal o<HUMeratlons. Orinn As^agee, after whom reigned another Oyax-
inal oases are rrfbrred to oonrts i^pt^ted arcs, aooording to some the Darias of tiw book
by the state. The ordinarT' ptmiahmenta are ot Daidel, and the Kai Eans of the Persians,
fines and flc^lglngB. Oapitu oStaieea are mm- Hissnooeaeor, EaiEhii8ran,isthe07Tnsofthe
ished bf strangling, deoQ>it«tion, or Rtabmng^ Greds, aooordins to whom be was the t^ef of
and great ofi^ders are Bometimee toitored to the tribe of Fernans who inhabited Perais, the
death. The reveone of Qte shah amotmta gen- modem Fars, and were subjects of the Hedes.
erallr to $S,000,000 or $9,000 000, and Is prinr Abont 669 Ottos was acknowledged as sover-
oipaUy dcolred from a tax on land. There are eignofthennitednatjoaof MedesandPerrians,
also taxes on gudens,Tin^arda, shops, hoiaee, in which henoeforth the Peruana had the pre-
animals, and Tarions kinu ot goods, and in dominanoe. HeoonqnM«dBab7lon,andfoimd-
eomeproTincea a poll tax on all males above 14 ed a great empire. At bis deaUt In 6S{> he was
Siarsofage. BnudlastbererenaeiSiConrfder- snooeeded b^ his son Oambjses, who added
g the rize of the kingdom, snch is the che^ ^gSV^ ^^ ^ P^^ ^"^ ^'^ nortliem Africa to
nees of ererT' thing in Penia that it is gen- toe empire. Oniing a tTrannioal rdgn of 7
erallr sofficient to meet the mqmiditvres. A jears he 0)»nmitted great ontrsges, not only on
lane army is maintained, part of it dlso^tUned tlie Egyptians, but on the prmdpal men of
and (dSeered by European adventorera. The Perda. Among others, be put to death on
regnlar infkntry is n<mtinally rated at 100,000 snspioion of treason his brother Bardea, whom
men, bntdoesnotinrealityexoeed 70,000. The the Greek writers erroneonsly call Smerdis.
beet tr^ed portion of the fbroe is the artillery, At length in 622, while he was yet absent in
which nombera 6,000 men. This arm of the Egypt the tnagiana or priestly aristocrat
service was fonnd to be very effldent in 1880, brought forward one of their own number
in several severe oonfiicta with the nomadic named Gomatea, whom they imposed npon the
tribes whose power has been broken bythe peopleaethemiirderedBardeB,towhomhQbore
present shah. The cavalry nnmber from 80,- some personal resemblance. The people, dia-
000 to 60,000, and are veil armed and monnt- gnsted with the tyranny of Oambysee, readily
ed. They are said to be able to enconnter aooepted the nsnrper as king ; and OambTse^
in tJie field the Biiaaiau Gossaoks, and to on learning the news trf the revolt, oommitted
be superior to the TnrkJBh irregnlar horse. — snioide, aoooiding to the Behlsttm inscription,
The earliest history of Ferna, as it is related or acoordins to the Qreek writers died from
by Che poet Elrdnii, the only native historian a womid which he accidentally gave himaelf.
1^ andent times, is a mass of l^ends, mostly After a reign of 6 months the nsnrper w&a de-
Erelj faboloDs, though some doabtlees have a tectod and pnt to death by a oonsidnM^ of Per-
ns of reality, in which figure the dynasties don chiefe, one of whom, Darayavndi, the
of Mohabad, of the Juonlans, of Shah Kaliv, DariosEystaspeeof theOreeks,wa8raadekii)g.
and of Yessan, which seem to have been alto- Sarina reigned 88 years, and oondderaMj en-
gether mythical. Kext succeeded the Pishdad- larged the empire, making extensive oonqnesta
yan dynasty, founded by £aimiiis, of whioh in the east in the regions bordering on the
the most oelebrated Ungs were Tobmnras, the Indus, and in the west carrying his arms into
reputed fbunder of Iqishan ; Jsmahid, the Europe and overmnning Tbraee and Uaoedo-
founder of Istakhar, a monarch mnoh renown- uia. In an attempt to subdue the Greeks his
edinorientsl story ;Afradab Land AfrasiabH., foroee were completely routed at Usrathon
the latter of whom was defeated and dethroned in 460, and 4 years aft^rwud he died, and "was
by the national hero Bnstam, who placed on the euooeeded by his son Xerxes, who renewred
throne EalEnbad, the founder of a djmasl^ of the invodon of Greece InpeniMi, and at first
which theencceedingmonarohawereEai^us, with a certain degree of aneoea^ bnt flnaUy
Km Shneran, Lnhrasp, Gashtai^ Bahman or lost both his immense fleet and army at Sala-
ATdashlTDinudaat,DaraI.,andDaraII. From mis, Flatffio, and Myctde, and waa aasassi-
the researdies of reoent European scholars it nated In 466. Six sovereigns bearing the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBSU 168
names of Aiiszerzes, Xences, and Darius mo- forhiaBnceenftilrepQlieof aTartar loTadon;
'c«ed«d, with the last of whom, Dorios Oodo- and Obosroes or Khoara Knahirran, who i>
mamu^ the Ban II. of the Feruan hiitoriaa^ oonsidered ij tho PeralaQS a model of jnstioo,
terminatddthadTnBstrofOrnu. FBrda,whioh geiierorit7,audsonndpoIio7,aiidvho waa both
for two oentaries had been Uielea^ng power of agreatrnler and grrat oonqaeror, compelling
the wwH, witli a dominion extending over an tna emperor Jnstanian to a oiagraoMlkil peaoe^
areaafS,000,000or4,000,000BqiuirQmilefl,aikl and adTandng the Pentan anna to tkeltedi-
a popnlation probablr of serem hmidrad mil- terranean on the west, berond the Oxna and the
]u»ia,aalnniHedtoAlexandntheOreat,whoin- Indoa on the east, and li^ Arabia on tiiasonOi.
raded it in 8M with an armrof8S,000 Greeks, ma reign of 48 yeara, from A.D. 681 to 619,
and, after ds&adng Hit Fendans in Um great was the golden age of modem Fer»a,aoooidiiiE
batueaof the Oraniaaa,lKQS, and Arbek,be- to the native poets and lustoriana. ffisgrand-
oameontbe death of DannB(wDowasmardered aon,£hoBnt Farria or Ghosroea II„ who aoo-
in his fl^ht from Arbda] the nndiapnted master oeeaedbimafteraninterraloftwouiOTtrdgni,
of the em^re. After the death of the Uaoe- ia also &mODs fi>r liis oonqneets, which Qzwtd-
daiiianoonqneror,]>isgNieralsfbr several yean edthronj^STria and PalaMdne into EgTpt, and
dinxrted b; foree of anna the pomnarion of his even to Tripoli and Carthage, wltile at the
Arialso domiidonB; bat about 807 Selenooa aame time iai. anbeeqnentljldsvifitoiiomi ar-
Keator beoame mastw of PeraEa, which he mies wwe fyr 19 jears encamped near Oon-
transmitted to his aooceaiors Antloohiia Sotar atantinotde. He is atill more celebrated in the
BodAntloahiuTbeQS. Litherdgnofttaelatter, East for Ilia Inzorr and magnlfioeooe^ and ori-
sboatSM, the Parthians, a tribe Inhabiting the ental historr abounds in tales of his palaces,
north of Persia, who from remote times had bis amerb throneti, his immense treaama, his
^ -•■■■■'" * '■ ' ' s,hiBW,00OArab
liorsea, and his 8,000 beautiflil woman, the
the ArsaoidtB of the olasaio writers, the Aah- most lovely of whom was Sbirin or Irene,
..a snt^feot to fliePeraian& rerolted nnder nnriTalled poets and mnslolans,h! ,.
Arsaoes and founded the thirdPerdandynaatr, horses, ana bis 8,000 beautiflil won
theArsaoidn of the olasaio writers, theAah- most lovely of whom was Sbirin <
ktniana of the Persiaus, bj whom Aisaceswas a Qreek and a Christian, whose beautir ana
called Ashk. This d;nBst7 lasted tiil A. D. wbose love form the sal^Jeot of a thonsand
SSfL nnder 8i monarehis, of whom little is poems. His &Torite reeidmioe was Dastagerd,
anthentioaUf known, this period ot nearl* S E.oftheTigris,andaboat60m.fr<>mOtei^KaL
ceidnries being the most obsonre in the bis- The latter jears of his reign wwe unforbmate
torr of Perdo. Their oqtltala were SeleneU and in^orteus. The en^ror Hencl]n& snd-
and Otedidioii, and the moat oelebrated erenti dexdyrondngftomthealothuidBelf-indiiligenoa
of their annaJs were their wars with the Bo- whi^ had nitlierto marked his lifb, invaded
msni, beeinning abottt 68 B. 0. witii tie Inva- Persia with a powerM armj, azA in 8 reaia
^Q of tiieir empire b^ Crassns, whose armjr Ohosroee was stripped of all bis foreign eon-
was ont to pieces and he himself slain. Several quests, his &mous pslaoe at Dastagerd was
long contests ensued, tn which the Parthlana plondered and burned, and final^ he himself
vere sometiniea vlebnions and stonetimes d» was dethroned and murdered hj his eldeat son
fitted, tin in the bwinning of the Sd oeirtnrr ffiroea or Sherooeh in ASS. From thb time till
the rtctoriea of the Soman generals threw Par- the acoeadon of Yeidec^ HI. in Q83, Persia
tltia Into anch conftidon &at Artazerzes, or was ^ven up to anarohy. The Udhammedaa
Ardishir as he la called by the native histori- Arabs were already attatMng the empire, and
ana, rialming to be a deso^dant of the andent Tezdegird In vain attempted to stem the tide
nrfil &mily of Oyma, revolted and overthrew of armed &natios that poored ftom the adjacent
and put to deatii Artabanas T^ the last of the deserts. On theplahiB of NahavaDd in 641 a
AtMoida, and proclaimed himself sovereign of great battle, in wUoh 100,000 men are reported
Puria with tbe title of Shahanshah or ''^king to have Men, decided the &te of Persia. The
of Ungs," whieh la itiU aaatuned by the Per- defeated monarch, flying from the fleld, took
liin monareha. He also restored the ancient refbge in bis eastern provinces, where for eev-
t^ipaa of Zomaatw and the autborllT' of the eral years he wandered a fOf^tive till hi 861 he
ma^ which had iUlen Into discredit. The vae murdered by a miller, and with him ended
ijTutij whicli he foimded, under die name of the line of the Sassanian kings and the reli^on
the Bsssanldsa, consisted of S8 or 28 monarcha, of the magi. After horrible msasaeree the
and continued upward <tf 400 years. Among people, pennaded by the awoid, embraced
^e TQost &monB of theae kings were Sipor or Honaminedaniam, only a small, obsonre, and
ohahpnr, the son of Artaxerxee, who carried persecuted remnant ^ring to adhere to the
on smeoeasfhl war with the Bwnans, In which andent ftiOi of Persia. (See GuraBas.) For
he defiNted and took priaoner the emperor the next two OMttariee TtsaAs was subject to
Taleiian;Saporn.,whosereignbeganwithhis the oalipha. But in 888 an adventurer named
birui, lasted 71 years In the ^ oentnry, and Snfflu-, who had been a pewterer and afterward
▼as lairked by bloody wars with the Bomaa a bandit, gathered a native force and expelled
Binperors Constantius and Julian, the tatter of the viceroys of the oalipb. He founded a dy-
vbom was defMted andsUn In the contest! nasty known ss the Sn&rides, of which three
ysranesV, or Bshrum Qour, who was oele- more prhiceam^tained a precarious antlioritT,
brated for hia mnntfleenoe and geoeroai^, aud tiU in tiie be^nning of the lOlli century Perna
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
161 FEBSIA PERSIA. (LAJiatiAai ahd Litbutdsi)
VAB divided between the fomilies of Barnard elB of James Morier, " n^I Baba," " Zohrab,*'
and DUaml, the flnt of which reigned over "A7esha,theMaidof Eara,"and "TbelGrza,^^
eagtom Persia and A^haniHUut, and tiie second are excellent illnstrations of Persian society,
orrer the rest of the conntry. Under these dy- character, and scenerj.
nasties Persia fell beneath the joke c^ the Bel' PERSIA, Laitodaox asd I^itzbatitbb op.
JookB,andwaam]edb;TognilBc^AlpAi«htn, In treating the Persian laHKoagewa have to
and Kalik Shsh, all of whom were conqnerora considor not onlj the modem Persian, tbe
giBatlj celebrated in oriental historj-. Their Bpoken and written dialect of the Persian peo-
dynasty deolined and perished in the 12tli oen- pie dnring the past B centnries, bnt also those
taij, uid after a long period of anarchy Persia more ancient idioms once prevailing in or near
Was OTeiTon and ocmqoered by the Tartars led the same territory, which are most intimately-
bjEolakaEhangthegrandaon ofGenghis, wl ' ^ "' "'
eetabli^ed the seat of his empire at Aurosba
AMrba^an. The nert important event hi the dialects, viz. : 1, the Achamenian Peraan, or
history of Persia was Qie conqoestanddevasta- Old Persian, the language of the conraform in-
tion 1^ Tameilane toward the end of the 14th scHptions ; 2, the Avestan, Zend, or Old Bac-
Mntnry. tTnder his successors civil war almost trian, the langoage of the Zendaveeta, tiie Bible
ooatinoally prevailed, until in tbe beginning of of the Zoroastrian religion ; 6, the Eazvareah
the 16th oentoiT Ismael, a descendant of a &- orPehlevl; 4, tlieFarsee; fi, the modem Per-
mOQs s^t, Sheik Snffee, succeeded in making nan itaell lliese form togeOier a well marked
himself master of the kingdom and founded the nom> of olosely related duilects, clasdfable as
'8n%vesn dynasty. He died in 1S28, and was "UM Iranian branchof the Aryan division of the
Boooeeded by bis son Tamosp, whose reign d Indo-Knropean family. The name Aryan is
K3 years was eminently prosperons. Abbas, sometimw ^plied to the whole family, bnt ie
the sncoessor of Tamasp, was a still greater mnch more properly restricted to that princi-
•OTereJgn, thongh to his own fiimily he proved pal division of it which indndesthe Indian and
a sangidnary tyrant. After his death in 1028 the Persian langnages, or the Sanscrit and its
the Snfiavean dynasty gradually declined, and dialects and derivatives on the one dde, and
was at length overthrown by the Afghans, who those langnages which we have mentioned
oonqoered Perda in 1Y89, and mlM it for 1 above on tbe other. The word is one which
years with horrible tyranny, till they were ex- both peoples have applied to themselves as their
railed by the celebrated Nadir Shab, who In distinctive title (Sansc. drjru, Avestan airya),
VIM himself ascended the throne. Hia r«ign and the most ancient forms of their respective
was memoraUe tor sncoess ovw forragn ene- languages, as we shall see below, are hardly
miss and for bloodv craelty to his family and more than dialects of a ungie tongue. Iran
people. AA»r his death a series of revolntions is a Airther derivative from tbe same word
oocnrred from oonfficting ol^ma to the throne, (At, atryona), and is nsoally and properly em-
«nd order was not fblly restored till the close ployed in a wider sense than Persia (which
of the 18th oentnry, when Agha Mnhammad fairly belongs only to the B. W. province of the
Sihan became shah, and partly by policy and Per^an kingdom, containing Bhiraz and the
partly by omelty sncceeded in qnelling the mins of ancient Persepolis), to designate tbe
spirit of rebellion. His snccessors were Fsth' whole territory extending from the highlands
Ali Bbah, who died in 1884, Mnhammad Shah, that overlook the Tigris to those that border
who died in 1848, and Nasoreddin, the present the bidos, and to the Bolor Tagh, or from the
shah. The prlnoipal events in th^ reigns P^-^an and Arabian gnlfs northward to the
have been wars wiOt Rnssia, the first of winch Oanoasns, the Oac^dan and Aral seas, and the
tarminatedinlSlSand tlie8eoondinl828,botb river Jaxartes: a territory which has been
MT tbem disastronsly to Perua, whidh lost sno- midnly oconpted from the earliest times by a
cesdvely the provinces of -Georgia, Hingrelia. homogeneons people, of kindred language, re-
EUvan, Nakkshinn, and the greater part of liglon, and institutions. The Perdan or Ira-
Talldi, the Bnsdan frontier being advanced to niangroupof languages is one of very high in-
Ararat, and the left bank of the Aras ; and a terest to tne phUologiEt and the historian, from
war with England, wbtoh began in 1866 by a the variety of the dialects and the long historj-
qnarrel with the English minister at Teheran of lingnistio development which they illustrate,
tf>oiit a woman with whom be was accused of fttnn the marked value of the literary and his-
Uving In adultery, and terminated March 4, torioal monuments wbidh they contain, ftom
186Y, after repeated victories of the ti^gliah the importance of their modem representative,
troops in the eoutii of Persia under tbe com- Its wide extension and refined cultare, and
mand of G^erals Outram and Eavelock. — See ftom the prominence of the Perrian race dur^
Sir J. Malcolm's " History of Perma" (2 vols., Ing 2,000 years of the world's bistoiy. There
London, 181G); "Historical and Deeoriptive are several other langnages beside those men-
Aooonnt of Persia," by James B. Fraser (Edin- tioned above which stand in a near relation to
burgh, 1884 ; New York, 1886} ; " Glimpses of tbe Iranian group, and are by some authorities
Life and Manners in Persia," by Lady Shell Inoludedinit; they are the Soordiah, the Af-
n.ondon, IStSfl) ; " Outram and Eavelook's (diaa or Pnshtn, the Belooohee, tbe Ossetic in
Persian Campaign" (London, 1SS8). The nor- the Ooncaaas, and the Armenian. But their
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
'PSBSJA. (LAaaoAai un> LinuTDXt)
thero be any prtmrie^ in treating tiiem tinder equality of the rate at which different desoen-
the head of Perdkn. I. The AehvnenianPeF- diutta of the same original tongue, onder dif-
tian, or OH Fenian. Thia appears to nave ferent oonditjona, are foimd to develop then>*
been the language of the 8. W. part of the selres and become oompted and altered, that
Iranian territory, or of Persia proper, daring no definite ooncloaion can be drawn from the
tbe period of widest extent and greatest comparison. We can only sa^ tliat the Avee-
power and gliny of the Persian emmre, nnder tan is an andeat Iranian dialect, doubtless
Darins the Auuemenian, son of Hystaspes, older, and perhaps mnoh older, than the Chris-
and his sncceasors (GSO to 880 B. 0.). Its tdan era. As regards its locality the ease is
only remaining monmnents, beside the proper more clear j the intwnal evidence of the Aves-
namna handed down to ns by the olassfoal ta is aneqmrocally in favor of placing it in the
writers, are the inscriptions of the Aohteme- N. E. poriion of Iran, in Bactria, on tbe head
nian princee, written in the oharaoters called waters of the Ozns, or In ne^hborlng prOT-
coneiibrm or arrow-headed. These inscrip- Inoes ; and other teromony points to tbe same
tions are pretty folly treated of in the artdde oonolndon. It is the ancient Persian of the
OrrsimFowt LtaampnoN^ and speoimens with north-east, as the Achiemeiiian ie of the BonUi-.
transIatioDS of the inscribed texts have there west, ibe knowledge of this language was
l>e«n given ; so that little need here be aaid in brought to Europe just a centiuy a^, by An-
addition rejecting their language, and that ^etu-Dnperron, who went to India on pnr-
littls will find its most qipropriate place pose to recover the Zoroastrian soriptares and
in oonneotion with what we shall s^ of the tbe means of their comprehension. Of its
next language, tbe Avestan, which is far more ra^mmatioal strnotnre he obtained no valnable
comp^tely preserved and better understood, knowledge, snd bis translation of the texts
IL The Aneftan, or Old Baetrian, This Ian- was extremely inaocnrate ; his Parsee teachers,
gaage is ordinarily known as the Zend, bat the in the decay of traditdonal learning among
title is so nnfortnnote s misnomer that itsnseia them, having been able to give him but im-
alt<^ether to be diaconntenaaced and avoided, perfect information from the traoslations and
The name Zend (of disputed etymology) prop- comments in their hands. The possession and
erlj belongs, not to the langtiage in whicu the study of these anxiliarieB themselves, and more
Avesta is written, hut to a translation of the especially the comparison of the AvestMi with
Aveeta into Hnzvaresh or Pehlevi. The ap- the so nearly related Sansorit^ have enabled
pellation Old Baotrtan, which is favored by modem scholars to gain a far better nnder-
some of the later German scholars, as Spiegel standing of this ancient idiom, wid of the
and Hang, is open to two olHedions, viz. : that works composed in it The Dane Eask (about
it contains a theory respecting the locality of 1826) was one of the first to lead the move-
the dialect, which, though highly probable, is ment ; it was continued by Bopp, in his " Com-
not octoally eatabliahed as true; and that it paTa1iTeOrammar"(Berlin,18S8-'G3>,aQdmore
seems to imjtly a modem Baetrian, not known espemally by Bomouf of Paris (lB29-'fi2], who
to philologists. Aveetan Is tbe simplest and was for manv vears the chief representative of
most cbaracteristio title which can be given it Avestan philology ; Olgbausen, Lassen, Roth,
denoting it as the tongue in which is composed Benfey, Nockbaus, Holtnnann, and Hang have
the Avesta. This work, the sacred ecrlptnres done mnoh in the same canse ; bnt &e chief
of Uie religion of Zoroaster, formerly professed laborers in its behalf at present are Bpiegel
by all Iran, and still bold by the Farseea of In- of Erlangen and Wcstei^eard of Oopenhagen,
dia, as well as by a few scattered oommonitieR both of wboin have begun to publish complete
of Qaebres left behind in Persia, is its sole editions of all the monoments of tbe language,
monument. The question of its age depends with translations and other needed helps to
upon that of tbe period of Zoroaster himself, their oomprehenaon. No grammar or diction-
and of the bistoiy of the Zoroastrian scriptures, ary of tiie Avestan has, however, as yet been
only a small portion of which, if any put, can made public, and the facilities for its stndy are
be as andent as tbe founder of Uie religion; very limited. — The Avestan is written in sn
and both these questions are as yet entirely alphabet which, unlike most of those of the
undetermined, in spite of the many attempted Indo-European languages, reads from right to
gotationa which th^ have received. (8eeZxi)i>- lefb. It came nltimatdy from a Sendtio source,
ATEBTA, snd ZoBoisTBB.) In the character bnt is proximately an expanded form of that in
of tbe language, as compared with Its next which the Hnzvaresb is written, and of an a^e
neighbors and nearest congeners on either considerably posterior to the Christian era; it
hand, the Achfemenian Persian and the Vedio baa nothing whatever to do with any of the
Sanscrit, there b nothing which should lead conform modes of writing. How the Avesta
OS to any well grounded opinion as to Its ab- was recorded prior to its transcription into tiiia
solute period. £ the scale of lingnistic devel- oharaoterwe can only coi^ectnre. It is a com-
opmeut, in remoteness of descent from the plete alphabet, retaining no trace of a sytlabie
common aooeetor. It occnpies nearly the same oharaoter, hut giving a separate sign for every
place wttb the Acnsmei^an, while both are less analyzable sound, vocal or consonantal, Kud
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
166 PEB81A. (Laksuaos un» LmsuoBi)
emit, tn a few oases, difibrent dgns fbr soimdi fbr one who wonld af^nmsh the bneeHgaiion
between vhich It is not easj to establish a of ^ <MeBt Iranian dialecte. In order to
phooetlo distinction. It has 18 characters for lUnetraio the close oonneotion of the three
Towels, and 88 for oonsonanto, as follows ; Idioms, and to show the prominent part which
Towels— 11, d, i, L V, il, e, i, i, e, 6, i nasal a, the Sanscrit baa plajed in the interpretation
and a diphtliongB] So ; oonsonants—^ttnral, 1, of the other two, we pve below a brief sen-
I^ 7i 7i ff^ *Vi "C V palatal, eh, j ; dental, t, tenoe from the ATcata (the ^Mn TeAt), with
t (almost solely final), tA, J, itt, n, fl; labial, tlia oorresponding Sonserit below, and alao
p,/,h,m; sendTowels, y (three characters, re- the Aohnmenian forms, bo fkr as thej are
garded as eqmTsIent ; two initial onlj), r, e fbmid to ooonr. Of coarse, the psralletimi is
(two eaolTalent characters ; one initial onlj), "^oi by snj means ererywhere so dose ; we
« ; sibilanto, ;, «, lA, s, aA ; aspiration, h. "Hie hare porposelj selected a passage In which
words are written apart from one another, eTer7 word admitted of comparison ; Tet, if a
with a dot or point between them, and exhibit &Torable, it is also a trathful and teUing ez-
noneoflliatinterfiuion of adjacent ending and hibition of the exceedinglj near accordance,
beghudng whiclk is charaoteristia of Sanscrit both in granunBr and in vocabnlarj, of the
ea^oaj. The principal distinctions of this most andent representatiTes of the Iranian and
al^iabet from the Banecrit are ; the abeenoe of Indian branches of the Aryan form of speech :
the lingnal series (a apodal Indian develop- a,. 4«rf( ,^™.„uM(*w*...^fl»«o«»n™«»
Inent) and of the eemiTOWel l, the addition Ca Bui. d*U nw nan (aTUnha ^^. ■1>*™ ninnum
"' e intermediate towcIs « and e, and of the '"'' "'" ~*~-
bmationsof vowels, of diphthongs and trifdl- AcL UUIialivntfiaetlnit]tUaiiimdairuitdm
thongs, is also vei; expanded ttid intricate ; At. BuuivaiiM u ytotaam. .
more so, it has been ooiOectnred, than the Ian- ?^ SVfe^ S jitoatm.
Straining after the designation of vowel distino- MUin ttu ehiir hkiuiiIij ant in o^ntrics, d>T^ mort^
tions. Among the ohief phonetic pecnliarities udjotnu.''
of the langnago are ; the general aspiration of In the Avestan nouns, snbstantive and a^jec-
amnt«bdbreasemivow^nasal,ordbilant,as tive, we find the 8 nnmbers of the Sanscrit,
jai/ktMiMA>TJagmiiAi,jfaforpra, ihthathra and its 8 cases ^nstnunental and locative, be-
toi Jciiatra ; the epenthtms of t when preceded aide the 6 of the Latin) ; bnt in the texts the
b7adental,alat^, orr, eepedsUvthelstter, as oases are not a little oonfbnnded together as
airya ^si aryOffaiti foT pati; akoof uwben regards their usage. The dnsl number, and
preceded bf r, as oureat for areat; and the some of the cases, are not to be traced in the
converdon, as in Greek, of a primitive * into A, Aduemenlan dialect, probably owing to the
as Aapta for lapta, Greek itrra, Lat, teptam ; scantiness of its monninents. He genders are
hawva for sorea, Greek JXoi, LaL taievM. The 8, as in all the other earl]' langnagee of tLe
alphabet of the Achnmecisn Ferdaa differs family. The whole wparatoe of derivative
tnra this leas in phonetic character than in its anfflxesandt^formsofdeclendon is nearly the
sosnty and imperfect provision for the repre- same in both tike Persian dialects as in the In-
tention of sonnds ; its vowel system, espe- dian, allowing fbr phonetic tranamntations and
dally, ia written with Semitic nlggardlinesB ; some anomalies and irregnlarities. The same
it has a partially sj^bio character, possessing nay be s^ npon the whole, of the prononna
in certain oases dlfi&rent dgns for a consonant and nnmerals. The verbsl roots are nnifonnly
according as it is followed by a, i, or v. It monoeyll^io ; but those of eecondu? or de-
laoks all the sonant aspirates of the Avestai^ rived formation are notably more nomeroiiB
and agrees with it in behig destitute of an I. than in Saniicrit Ve find again, also, Uie S
It has a apedal weakness in tolerating no final voices, active and middle, the i nnmbers, and
f orn, wnldi has caosed it the loss of many the 8 peracms of the bidian language. The
characteristic infleotions. In general, it agreeB tenaea are 5 : present, imperfect, aorirt, per-
fn phonetic charaoter with the ATestan where bet and fliture. The first B eihibit spedal
the latter diffiwvfitnn the Sanscrit, The gram- modifications of the root oorreap<»iding with
matical forma of both the ancient Iranian di- the ooojngational chanuMeriatios of the San-
aleeta correspond rery dosely with those of sorit, bnt these modiflcaticms are more apt
the SaasoiL It is only by the hdp of the here than there to extend themselves irregn-
latter langnage that a dear nndsrstanding of larly to the other tenses also. The future la
the Avestan grammar, and throngji it of the almost lost from ase, and itsplace is suppUed by
Aclueraenian, could posdbly haTe been at- the preaent saignsctive. The perfect and fa-
tained. The scantiness of the materials, and tnre have only an indicative mood ; tiie other
the cOTTDptions of the recorded tazts, wotdd tenses poesess, in more or less ootnpletenesa,
have frustrated any attempt to constmct the an c^t^ve, a aubJunotlTe, and an imperative,
etymological part of the andent Feraion Ocosdonal instancea of peripiusstioaUy formed
grammar fitnn a study of the Persian monn- tenses oocur. Of derivative forms of the verb,
ments alone. An aognaintanoe with the San- we meet with passives, cansativ«e, deddera-
acrit is the first and indispensable requisite tives, and intrainvea, as also denominatives.
FEB8IA (LtaaVMa axb Lnxunnu) 187
Ibew ttxpbaMaaM applj tmtMOr to th« «anwA-£^>RuA&_^Vleiiiia, 1856), in the border
Avtotui; th« Manlaneas <f the Aohsmoitiaa lands alooRUie Tigris, sndia referred to the fith
monmnratsifltheeanMthatoftJieTsrbaletnio- omtmr after Ohnst, and later. It has a pe-
tnre th^ laogni^ ea^ubits vaily fragments. odUaj alphabet, and one of extrwue dlffionUT,
Tetirtiatireharasaidoftbeeaitemisdoabt- owiageepedallrtotbedafiMtiTedistinatioiiof
leaa tma in dl main-parttoolan <tf the weatem its atgna; Uliu, «, e, and n are written with
diileot^ tba reoorda nuke known no diaocffd- preidM^the same oharaoter; also a and U;
aneea between the two <tf snfBtdent aeoonnt to also i, y, ;,>, and d; these lait, however,
be notioed here. A portion irf the Aveeta, the httog in some 1C8S. dietanpnahad from one
M called ffiMi, or metrical asotipti<niB of anottiw bj diaoiilioal points. There are alao
pnlse, somewhat akin to the hynina of the In- nmnerone eomponnd letters, dignwhsand Iri-
man Veda, is eomposed in a dialeot ditforlna {p«pbs,<rfanotleeBambignoDaandp«pleziiig
■tightly from that of the rest of the work, and ohuaeter. This alphabet, and the neoeassrilj
ipparentJr of frei^ andqidty. So Ukewiee resnWng nnoertain^trf reading of ^moetarerr
aomegraramatioaldiSbreneeehaTe been pointed word written with it, is tho roost formidable
oat between tfao inscriptions of the earlier and ^ffloal^ in the war ot a oomprehention of the
thme of the later Aeh»m«niaQ princes.— The lanxnage. ItiBofSeniltioorigin,readsfromright
two dialects of wbioh we have tJinsbrtraated to left, and, »o&raa it Koee, is mainly oolnoi-
fonn a lub^roi^ that of Hm andent Iranian dent with the Avestan ^phabet ; whiob, as al-
dialects; the renuining three abo stand in a read^ noticed, is looked np<m as an expanded
K«dil relation totwe anothv, as the modem andcompleted form of it, or of its proximate ori-
PeniinidJoma. UL TktStma/rtA. Thislan- gioal. Aaboth the Hnzrareah si:d the Parsee
gnage li also called bf the name of PehleTi, doselr aoeord with the modem Persian, being
vhichiitobe d]eearded,aBatermofdonl>tAil but ^htly more antiqne dialects of it, and as
etjm(dog7ai^ meanhift and as Tsrionslr and amainp&rt of t^cdrlingnistio value Ilea in the
BonMwhat indsfiolteir ^tpdied bj the Fersians. li^t whioh ther oast upon the UatotT of the
It ii r^traeenled \f t> compete Tendon of the Fersl^ we shall, in woer to greater dearaass
Avegta (to whieh belongs the name Zend), and as well as to eoonomj of space, meak of thdr
b; a few indq>«nd«>t tezis in addition, bnt ^ phonetic and ^rammatioal form in connection
crauHtaHng a part of the Zwosstrian scrip- withonr descn^lon of that of tjie modem dia-
tans; cMef amtmg these additional texts ia loot 17. ZA« Pome. The name Farseeis ap-
the BmddMh, a oosmogonloo-philosophloal j^ied, for ctorenienoe' sake, to a pore Iranian
vork. Some rather sean^ and as j^ bat hn- dialen, dight^ nx«e modem in its forms than
puftetlj dedphered inscriptions and legotda t^ Huxrarean, and wprozlmatlng nearly to
on coins, memcMials of the Sasssnian kings of the Persian, from whidi it is distingniBhed bj
Ferris, are also regarded as representing the itaretentionofafbwandentfonnsofinfleotion,
nmedialeaL or a s^ttjf different fbtmMT the and many andent words and phrases, which
■ame. Its AmdmMntal diaracter is that of a the later idicm has lost The scanty literatare
Pendan idiora. oociqTing -verj nearif the same whioh represents it belongs to tbe bodj of
■taie U deTOlo>i»nent with the Vantt and the' Zoroastrian soriptnre, and is tKlieved to be
maaem Perslaii, bnt especially and widdy dif< oomposed vhdly of translationa from Enzra-
fering from tlMm in i^im\ttin^ an almost nn- reah originals. Its almost entire freedom from
limited Intermixture of Bonilis (Aramdo) Bandtio elements shows it to bdong rather to
worda ; theae, howere^ l^e the AraUo in- s(Rne oentrd or eastern portion oS the Iranian
tndneed into the modem Persian, are ftdly territory than to the west: its period is snp-
nibotdinalad to tlie Iranian olemmt irf the posed to be that of the later Bassauianmonarclis
liBgaage, bein« Perdanized in inflection and and tlie early times of Uodem sopremaoy. It
coBdrwIaon. It is as i( for Ferdan terms, of is written sometimes in the diaracter of the
enty part of speeeh, not ezeepting pronoona Areata, and sometlmea in the Arabic alphabet,
and partldeB, it were pwrnitted to snbstltata as adopted by the modem Pernan. The chief
itwlll qmotmnona Aranudo worda^ Theaa- soopoeofonrknowledgeof itisSpi^d'sgram-
pect of be idiom is not BO mndt that of an mar {Pani-QTammalib nAtt Spad^pn^ea,
orgiaieennUiiationof twodivenetongnesto Leiprio, 1661). Y, Tht Modlenrwwm. By
prodiue a new language, like the Enf^Jah, as this we mean the language whioh has bera
ot 10 srtifldal or niechsnicsl miztora, like daring SOO years past tna onltirated language
Hoe i*jin of the modem Pendan. Snoh a of Persia. In distinctionfrom thepopnlar dia-
idztva most appareut^ have besn ratlier a leots of the country, it is called Deri, " court
coiLTntioaal mooe <tf eompodtimi than a true language." How ftr it diff^ from uiem wa
popnlirtideet, and it can nare arisen only on are not snfSdently informed, nor have we satis-
tbe bordgrs utiie Semltiosnd Iranian torri- fiwtory knowledge respecting the oondilion of
toiy, wbne tJiepcmnlation of the tworaoee was the idioms of the Tirioas porta of the country.
tboroa^dyinterDUnried, and each was fimiiliar Aooording to native anthcrities, each conaidcr-
*^ the ^eedkctfue other. It is aoeortUndy aUe prormce has a dialect of its own, and that
located fay H[dml, whose labors npon it atethe which is ^M^en in and dwat 6hiraz and Ispa-
eniaf medlmn by wMch It is known ta the ban approximates most nearly to the cnlti-
vorld (see espedally bis gnmwigtiifc d&r Hv^ vated tongne. Ferdan is still qtoken, not only
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
168 FEBSIA (LAaeoAam ass LrnauTDu)
Utronghont tbe preaent Mngdom (rfFerdft, but domnentoftheaiioieiit BTBtemofftirmsfmclIii-
all OTBT th« In^on tetTttoi7, and even Iteyond flections, and the Bubstitntion of independent
ita borders ; but its Tn^ralenoe ie different in form-irordB and connecdves, it stanaa quite
different reglone. About the Caspian it is In upon a level with the Engllah ; its grammar, in
rt mesBure crowded ont by the dialects of striking contrast with the complexity of that
almost excImrlTely Torkiah popniatior). of the two andent dialeeta. Is of the baldest
Throngboat a great part of Ehorassan the Per- simplicity. It is always written with the Arabic
aian is the tangnage of the cities, while the alphabet, to which, however, it has added 4
nomadio tribes who oocapy the amronndlng aigns, to expreas the sounds p,cA,ih, and jr /
wastea are of Tartar descent and idiom. In on the other hand, 8 or 9 of the Ara^blo char-
otiierpartttbiarelation is in amancer reversed J acters aretiseleBa to It, occurring, save in very
thna, hi Aighaniatan and Beloochisten the ml- .rare cases, only in Arabic words, and being
ing raoe is of another, though ultimately kin- prononnced, like other letters in the alphabet,
di«d lineage, while the mass of the Agricoltnrol without the distinctive Arabic utterance. The
population la made np of Persian-speaking spoken alphabet la nearly es fbllowa; vowels,
Tajika. Kearly the same ia the case in the (i,«,f0,w (as to the vowel pronnndKtIon, even.
Bonthem portions of Toorkistan or Indepen- of the cultivated dialect, there appears to exist
dent Tartuy, an ancient aeat, as we have seen mnoh diverrity in different regions; thevowelB
abov^ of Iranian religion and civilization ; are written, of course, in the very imperfect
and the Iranian population even ext«nds be- Bemitio fashion, aharing among them only 8
yond the Bolor Tagb into some of the provinces characters, and generally omitted when short) ;
of Ohiaese Tartary, Oonqnests, commerco, consonants — gnttnral, ifc,iA,f,fr pA; palatal, eft,
and cnltnre have combined to carry the Per- j ; dental, t,d,n; labial, Pij,o,m ; semivow-
sian lan^oage beyond its ancient hmtta; the els, v, r, l,v; sibilants, t, tA,t,eh; aaplration,
anbingation of India by Persian monarchs in- b. Tlie Farsee alphabet is almost precisely tbe-
trodncedit as the court language of Delhi, and aame witii this, nor does that of the EnzvareEh
made Hindoetan long a cen&e of Persian liter- present any difference worthy of notice. All
ary cnltnre ; it is bat recently that Persian has show a near relation^Ip with the systems of
c^sed to be the rectwniEed official langnage aoonds of the ancient dialects, differing from
(^British India. The Tnrks have carried it, m them chiefly by the loss of oertafai aspirates
a certain way, as far in the opposite direction ; (the dentd), and by the possession of on I. — ^Tn
the onltivated Onnanli is fnll of Persian words treating of declension, we have 'first to note
and phrases, and its literatare is in great part the fact tliat t^e Persian, like the English, has
founded npon Persian models. — The appear- lost all saffiies and termmations distingaiabing
ancd of the modem Per«jan langnage, and gender, and that it accordingly a^eee with oar
the rise of its literature, are contemporaneous langaage In possesstng no artificial or gram-
with the disintegration of the caliphate of matical gender. It ia yet poorer than the
Bagdad, and the resarreetion of Persian nation- Sngllah is lacking the distinction of gender in
oli^ nnder native and virtnaUy independent the pronoun; tt cannot even say "he, she, it;''
sovereigns in the lOtfa century. Daring the 8 where a distinction has to be mode between
centuries that Persia hod l^n nnder the heel mascnline and feminine, it employs separate
of its Mohammedan conquerors, ita national in- words meaning male and female. The some is
dependence destroyed, (ts religion and sodel the case In the Parsee and Huzvaresh. There
institntions swept away, it hod exercised in ore two endinpis for the plural, dn and M,
virtae of its superior cnltnre a powerful infln- the former a relio of the ancient genitive plu-
ence npon its oppressors, and ita scholars had ral (atp-dtt, horses, Av. afpandm, of horses),
borne a promineiit part in starting into life the the latter of the dative and ablative {aip-id,
Moslem literatnre, philosophy, and science ; but At. appattbt/ap, to or from horses ; a few Par-
not until afl«r the lapse of that interval did see words nave the fhller fbrm hyS) ; in Is
there take place a revivification of elements now Temlarly resbicted to animate ot^eets,
distinctly Persian. With the latter port of the but in ttie Forsee is applied to both animate
10th oentory, then, berina the career of the and inanimate, and in the Huzvaresh ia the
modem Persian, of which we shall now pro- only plural termination. The syllable rd is
ceed to give a concise description. The Persian nsed as a sign of the accusative (aip^S) ; it is
is hardly to be considered as the direct lineal oririnally an independent word, meaning way,
desoendantofeithftrof thetwoanotentdlalects, and in the two elder dialects is not an sccnsa-
the Aohomenian or fb% Avestao, but it is more tive temiination, bnt odds to the nonn the ide&,
nearly related to the former than to the latter, "by way of, by reason of;" if an adjective fbl-
os is shown by ancb evidences as the infinitive lows the nonn, the syllable is am>ended to it
ending ton, Ach. ianaiy, Av. U4; dttt, bond, instead of to the nonn (lup-t-^ottrd, the b&d
Aob.ai*ta,Av.e(iaea,Aw. As already remarked, horse). Between a genitive and the nonn
it is closely oonneoted with the Parsee, and which governs It ia inserted the so called Mfet,
with ^e IrnUan portion of the Hnswesh, be- or the vowel t, as am-i-merd, the horse of the
ing bat a ali^tly modernised tana of the same man ; the same is also interposed between tlie
tongne. As an analytical language, exhiUting snbstantlve and the adjective which agrees
an almost complete breaking down and aban- with it, aa atp-i-murdiS, dead horse. The
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
in the Ai
FXBSIA. (Lutaun ahd LinuTun) 189
<^tUa OMge to to be tnoed •tbd ^mcopstedlnfinitiTe tlie present of the verb to
.'estan; the tnterted trflUble is a will, to wish, vtiAeni ibanf. The imperative of
relic of the ralfwre pronoun ya, which hu this verb Is ban; the Irregular verbs, ivhich
coaa to aasame the office of indloatiitK alone are nnmerons, and as nsnal the oldest and the
a rdation originaUr erpreswd also % the most used of all, present alwajs a discordance
tenninatioa of the following word. Thus, between the forms of the root as the; appear
the former azpreasioD would have been in in ths infinitive and Imperative rospectiTel;,
Avestm ofpo yo mafyAU the horse which and in this consists their irregnlsritj ; these
(ii that) of the man ; the Utter, amo yo mere- two forms being ^ven, the rest of the verb
to, tha hone wbkih Gb} dead, bi the Far- follows as a matter of oonrse. Sometimes the
see and HnzTsreah, tide I also itanda in other one, aometimes the other, shows the root in a
oonnecdons, ae an ordinarj relatiTe pronomi. jmrer and more ori^ual form ; in jhcnwe have
Some philologiBta, without raffident reason, it as afi^tod hj the oonjngatdonal pecnliarity
hive enoeen to me in the nse of the iidfft &n of the ancient present and imperfect ; ootmiare
imitation ot &e oonstraet state of the Semitio Aoh. o-fam-tuA ^p.). Av. htrm-a6imi, Sana,
nann, and w a proof of Semitio inflnenoe. bm-omi. Bv adding to the Imperatiye the
Sngnlarity or indlvidnalitj is indicated by an personal endings, we obtain the only ori^nal
appended j^ aa atp4, a abwe horse ; this t is and simple tense of the Persian verb, oorre-
a remnant of the older mmi, ona and bj the eponding to the andent present and imperfect,
tiro next earlier idioms is naed also as an In- and having the valae of both present and
dapraident niuneraL The language posseases aorist ; it is made distinotiveir the former by
neithM definite nor indefinite tutlole. Tho pre&dng ml or Jtemt, alreadj spoken of. Of
soffiiei of oixaparison of adjectives are for for the ancient snbjonctive we have a single trace,
the oompantjve, ll»r1n for toe enperiative ; the in an optative 8d person singnlar : bundd,
latter is a pecnliar Perrfsn development ; the taay he do I The passive is formed by the
two elder dlaleots have tt«i», eorresponding to anxiliary sAAdtTi, meaning originalty to go. —
Av. lema ^ana. fomo, IaL timai). The Per- The focilitj of composition in the Persian Is
dan and Panee prooonns are pure Iranian, voir great ; epithets formed of a nonn and a
mndemrepresentt^veathron^ontofthosepre- verbal, of an adjective and a nonn, and of two
Koted bf the anoient dialects ; the Hnzvareeh noons, are of the most frequent oocnrrenoe. A
empkjs as oftea, or yet oftener, Semitio forma, verr <jiaracteristio feature of Persian etjle, too,
Tbe tliree latei idioms have a complete aet of Is the ibrmation of a compound or derivative
mffii pronouns, which are, for the three per- verb by combining an a^ective or nonn with
sons, lingnlar «n, et, mA, plnral emdn, etdn, wme one of a large olaaa of half aniiliariee, of
aUn ; in the Persian thev are attached es- which the most freqnent are to do, to make,
pedallj to noniu and rerba, to express the to bring, to have, to show, to come, to become,
genitive, dative, or aoonaative relation, as a*p- to take, and to find. It ia partly by tho favoring
na, my horse, fp^tem-t^ I spoke to him; infloenoe of sach prooeeses of comporition that
m the elder idiouu they are appended only to the Persian haa become in later times so fm-
lot^ans&mB, prepoeUions, and other pronoona pregnated with Arabic. The earliest Persian
u »ft, tnta tnee. They are a perlbctly writers, as Fh-dnri and the translator of Taba-
orpnio growth of llie Iranian langnage, and ^'a Arabic history, wrote in a nearly pure
ira not to be attribnted, anymore than the banian dialect, with no greater infuion of
^fi^ to Bemitio Infinenoe. — ^The Pernan verb Arabic words than was natural and miavoida-
hu preserved hardly more of Ue original Etmo- ble, con^dering the position and infinenoe in
mra than the noon. It haa indeed a complete Iran of the Arab religion and oaltnre. But
snd invariable set of personal endings, viz ; a less legitimate mixtnre soon began to pre-
tn,i,ni,M,AI,«n(I; Nt Its tensee are siostly vail: every highly cultivated Persian was as
twavii periphrastically. The infinitive ends fivnillftr with Arabic as with his own mother
in tsi or iM (Parsee nsnally, Hozvaresh al- tongne, and a depraved and servile taste intro-
W^ *on), which corresponds to the Aohto- daoed the practice of drawing npon the Arabic
meman taiutg ; the past participle in foA or lexicon not only to fill ont t^lt deficiencies of
dfh (Aeh., At., and Sans. to). I^om Qds par- the^Persian vooabnlary, bnt, from afi'ectation
tidple ia formed a preterite, by atriking off the and pedantry, to snch an extent as to half
eh, and mModing the fbrma of the present convert the langnage into Arabic. Often the
t^^ ef the anxiUary to be, which, except In merest necessary cement of a sentence or para-
the third penon, ett, agree prerisely with the graph is Persian, all the materials of which it
personal ending Jnet ^ven ; thna, from ier- ^ composed l>elng Arabic ; and occasionaUy
dm, to do, part, htrdih, pret kerdmt. This snch a monstrosity is met with aa a sentence
benHaes in nnpeifect by prefixing iirf or heml, or phrase which ia pnre Arabic, even to ita
which hi Pfisee and Hnevaresb u an indepen- constraction. Hence, no one can now make
dent word, meaning alw^a,oont3naftUy. Irom himself a thorough Persian scholar, or gain a '
the miabbteviated participle, wiQi the present fomiliarity with the Persian literature, who has
•M pret^te of tne same auxiliary, come a not first mastered the Arabic. In the present
.,. .^ „j. _i — .. . , ' f^ g^ gjij JterdA low condition of Persian nationality, any re-
y prefixing to the action against this abase ia hardly to be looked
U,9,-„zoobyGOO^Ie
170 FKBSIA (LurauAsi aid Ijxebjltdsi)
for; itia tii* nnkeii liiJoiUMon thepaitof TTndv tiib prinoe, and Kt Us bUfing, Ptrdnii
the Feraiin toinvd bii mother tongue, wMoh MaghiaimraoiUlo^tiM^ahlfamuA. Thia
ti ooe of the moit oo^ow and flezible, ihe eameitoftbePerdenpoetoremdnsBuxodled
most sonorooi and mndioal, the moat onltinhle, hi geoioa and digni^ fy anr of his ■nooeaMwi.
blghljT onltiTBted, and elegant of modem Ian- Bia woA nmmed tqi the wnole mass of natiTe
roBgea. It may not be naeleea to add here tradltfona reqwoting flw national hJafawy ; Him
that the theory of a ^Moially intimate oon- a tm natiraial e^ a ftud rdatton, aeoepted
neoUon between the Perrian and the Ten- Ij a whole people, ofita own popular Ic^eooda.
tonio (Oennan) langnages, and ao betveoL the Ko odierPenian poem ei^oya the wide lepnta
races also who speak them (a tiaoij at one <tf thla; nme atbat has the aame U^ interest
' 9&mons tons<tftheVeeL Of epie-romantie poets, the
ledream moat fiunona is mzsml, who died 60 yean aftor
_ . „., la entire- firdnsi, in UOO. ma"QDinqniad,"ore(rileo>
deatitnte at real fbnndaiion. — LmBATunn tion d biaS bert romanoea, became ttie model
The Boantr literatnree of the tiiree earlier {tfman^alikeoolleeticatinlater timcii from
Peraian diaUota, the Aveatan, the Hncraresb, among the innmnerable orowd of those who
and tiie Pane^ beiug oompriaed within the have diattngniahed thoaselres eqtedallj b^
limits of a ainf^ work, or oMmeoted bodf of their paneirrrioal writinga, we need mention
writinga, whk£ together make np the eacred bot two: Imveri, the acmovledged prinee of
Bo^itarea of the modem Parseea, will be beat nmegTriats, who died at Balkh in llfi2, and
oonridcred togethor In the arttcle Zbtoatzs- '"■■fc*"*, who lived a genantion Istv. Both
TA. We ahau aooordinelr speak here onlf are remeitoble for learning, as weU as iOr tUt-
<rf the modem Peralsa llteratDre. The date tilitr of tmt^ and eteganoe <tf s^le. An im-
and mode of the otigUa at tide titeratnre bare portent branch of Pendan Uter^nre^ ai^ one
already been briefij stated above, in tpeaUng wMoh iMgan to develop Itself -nrj ear^, is
of the Isngnage in which it is oompoood. A that whimi rejoeaentB the dotdrines of the
national feel^, and an active litenuy spirit, Boo&eo, or religions mTstioe. DonbtleBa we
mnst have been slreadj for stmie time stirring are to reoognixe a cert^ rsristanee on the
amonR the maaaee of the Peraian popolation, part ctf the Peiaiaiu to the alaveij Into which
to lead to ao Immediate and hear^ a reoogni- t^ were foreed to Arab ftith and doctrine,
tion of the claims of song <m the put of all the In tltelr gennfal adoption, on the one hand,
npatart dynasties of esstem Iran, whioh sue- of the nnorthodoz and detested tenets of the
and 10th oentiiTie& Each oomt had Its bards, med, bnt deny the right of the first three oa-
vhoaepaiMnrrica, and the admiration of whose lipha; and, im the other band, in the preva-
powera, shea Inatre npon the throne. Bojal l«ioe of myatleiam among than. Perma, if
patronage boa borae an impcntai^ part in the not the hfxne of SoofMtm, as baa beoi both
whole lustory of Perrianliteratnre; one of ita maintained and denied ia at least the groond
ohief branohea ia panegpio, and few of ita where it has most Ail^ developed itself and
great namea were not attached to the personal held longest snd moat ezelnrive sway. The
enite, or reoinients of the apeoia] bonntf, of oldest Soofee poet of great celeMty is ZenaTi,
some monanui. £veu the wild Tartar teibee who died in HBO; his works were snperseded
whioh bnrat one after another into Iran, and b; the vet more highly esteemed prodnotioni
Bobjngated it to their sway, were at onoe soft- of Feria-«d-An Attor,who, bom in 1216, lived
ened and oharmed by the etraina of Persian more than 100 yeara, and was aUn at last in the
aiHiR, and their barbarian dynasties became, Mongcd storm and aack of the city where he
without exception, its lovers and protectors, dwelt, Hia works are QnintelHgible in thrir in-
Had not the feeling been gennine, the genioa terltv meaning without apedu ecauuentaries.
etnmg, the national i^predation nniverMl and Among them, ttie most esteemed are the "Book
hearty, snoh patronage must soon have oor- of Oomiad " (Pend Jftmuky, " Language of tha
mpted the Tiring literatnre, converting it Into Krda" (Manak-vttair), and "Easimeeaof Bnb-
mere servile adiuation. Of s^mli^ (uid ado- 8tanoe"(>reMJUriVaiMdi): the two former have
lation there was indeed won^; bnt along been pnblidwdandtnmriatedinBnrope. Even
with it a trae, healthy, growing, and prodno- Attar was excelled, however, by his yoimgw
tive liteniry life, dnring more than 6 oentories, contemporary Jelal-ed-dln Kmni (died 1W8),
We can give here, of conrae, bat an ontltne the finmder of the moat widely extended of
sketch of its development, and can mentioD der of Moslem monks, the Uevlevi, and an-
only the most prominent and highly condder- thor of the JfMiaoi^ the chief onde of Soirf^
ed of the hondreda of authors of note, whoae iam, md, next to the B/iak Jf^ameh, the most
works or whose rapntation have come down generally known and b^ily eate«med (in the
to later tunes. Although names and franuents OrienAofaQ Steprodnotiona of oriental litert-
of poetrr of an earlier date have escaped obli- tnre; its prtrftandi^, its anbUml^, and ita i^
vion,itisnnderMahmondof 6hnxnee,thefirBt ai^red wisd<Kn are regarded as nnapproacbed
Ibslemconqneroroflndia, and on the extreme and onapproachable. It oonld not fairly heex-
eastern vene of Iran, tliat the national litera- peoted, however, that the leaa imaginative ana
tnre was airly lonnohed on its new oaieer. more practical occidental taste alKKild tfV^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBSIA (LuravAtti im laxEBUun) FEBSIAK GULF 171
outonndtUU^lQ&eMbiinitaoflhfttrtnaow- hig^ merit have aboMHoe from Us pen, indiid-
dantal enUniriaam of tbe OiienL Apoetmore iiigaliisttnrof theSoo(bea,aiidaeolleotioncd^
iirind, and who has done mora tikaa any lettenaaiiiodelsofe^stolarTSt7l«,abniiKihof
.._.>., ^ .T, — . . — i_.i. w,_. -1 . !..„., u^jjj onmraf ' • ■> "
otherfbrthe&nMfrfFttiianpofltrrintlMWMt, elej^t literatora nmciti oomTated b^thePer-
isSaadL Ho belongs to tbe aama period wlUi fdaoa in later timee, and in whioh Jand is unez-
tlie aothraa last nvned, tutrlng died in 1S9I, at celled. WiQi thelCtboentniroloseBttieiatqker
the adraaoed age ot lOS jests. He is a^d to hIatoi7 of Fendsu poetir ; dnoe tlkst time, sl-
hxn apent tJiia seoond W jeais (tf lus lifb is ttumga mnoli inereaaed meztoit, it has grown
burdmig, and the fUrd in meditating np«Mi little in valne.— Te hare Idtherto q>oken onjj
and ilipwHng his aoqniidtions and ezpatenoes, of the poetry of Petsin, beoanae that is l^ mr
ind<uJTth«lastl2 jestsintheaotDalooinpo- tin moat faqtortant aim valnabld depaitmuit
siti(m(tfld8imm<»l^woifa. Ifaoeptiattlasto of the national Utetatore. Next to it in oon-
theUttrdtmOiirfthiaaTBteDUtiadivlsionofhiB -eeqnenoe is the d^artmaut of historr- For
life, we need not qneBliim that he travelled and the older traditlimal historr of Perda itself
saw mnoh, and wrote his moat esteemed pro- E^i'dnsi haaoontinoed the duef and dmoet sole
duotifHia at an advanoed ags. We know that anthori^; later vtiten have added little to
he lar fbr sooie time in Christian oaptiri^, what is recorded in the ShfOk UTaneh, But a
taken ptisoDer In battle with the cmaaoera, In host of later histtHiana, bef^nning from ratiier
both uieae drcnmstanoee has been sooght an a recent period, abont the middle of the 18th
en^anationofthe cooler &noy, the pnier taste, eentory, have treated of the later Pernanhie-
tho mtve pracUoal morali^, whioh oiatingaish- tarj, espea^oUj of that of G«ighis Ehan and
ed 6aa£ among oriratal anthora. He ie most his dcaeendanta and saooeasora, and of the re-
eminent as a mOTal and didaotio poet; his two maikable vrerturaings of Ariatle power (UT
beat wc^a, the" Fmit Garden" (ZSrMm) and which Iran has been a prindpai scene; and t&eir
"Flower Garden" (fftdiiiton), are coll^otionB woAs are important sonrces of die world's
of brief tales and apoiogMe, inter^tned with knowledge reneoting the erentsitf the period.
aphorienuandleascHisMmanli^LUiiffoseand Among tneohief names here are Beahid-ed-din
apoonems ana lessons otmorau^Lmiffose ana Among ine omei names nere are ±(eania-ea-am
verse; boUi have been tnnsUed intonearlr (bom IMT^Wassaf (of the ssme epoch), wlioae
all tha languages of Europe. By his oonntry- elaborate and ezoessively ornate stjla makes
meoi Baadl is eqnalh^ esteemed as a ^ilo poet, him one of the mcstdifflatilt of Persian suthora,
But the graatest of Persian lyrists is Hafls, and Sheref-ed-din, the historian of Tamerlane,
of SUrni, vho lived a eentozy later Qia died Of later anthu^ ICiUiond (diad i^T), & writer
in 1S01) ; in him Persian poetry is regarded of nniveraal histoty, and his son Ehondemir,
as havntg attained its vary hlglMSt flight, see meet distdngniahed. An important branch
Thon^ a dervish, deriving Us nsme (Ex&i, of Pendan history, too, has India for its native
retainw) fhxnijis Knowing Dy heart (3m wlirfe place and ita theme. In entertaining or amns-
Koran, and tJkonc^ living alwqs in contempt Ing Uteratore, sooh as tables, tales, aneodotes,
of wealth and ndendor, be was a tfaoroogli legendary and sapernatoral stories, and the
free-tliinlar and mdlflbrNitist in matters of re- like, Penia is very rich, and it is soppoeed to
li^cm, and 1^ lns[4ratlon is solely Uiat of the be the sonroe whence mooh of the Bnrapean
moat eDdrndasUo and intoxicated sensnal en- Uteratnre of this class, dating ih>m the middle
joynmnt; the nnvarying themes of his song are ages, was derived. In Ifoslem theolcny and
fore and wine, the rose and tite nigbtbi^e. jariqtmdenoe. as was to be e]q>eeted, toe Per-
Amyatieal ezidanation has been ^ven to the rians are ohiefly dependent nponArabio satbor-
ootbnrsta of lus psseion, and the same poems ides, and have prodnoed no fiterstnre requiring
which are song as erotic and drinkuig odes by menttcm here. In philosophy and the exact
the young debantAe^ are pored over by the sdenoes neariy the same is the esse, yet rather
aged devotee as contauting tne essence of holy in appearance than in reality, and beoaoae the
eceta^ ; bnt the interpretalion is forced and Persian savants have chosen to write In the
fidse, aod msinly a denoe to save the pride of Arabio language rather than in their own ; a
Perrian literatora from oondemnatiim as an in- large proportion t^ the most highly considered
fid«l and sensnalist. Fwsian poetir has bnt sdoitlflc worb in the Arabic uteratore an by
one other great name to boast afta Haflz: itla Ferriananthors.—Helpsfortbestady of Pendan
titat of Jami, who Hved a oentnry later, dying abound in England. Thebestgrsmmanaretboee
in 1498, at an advanced age. He is a poet of the of ^William Jonee,by'Wllkina(1809)i ^^-mns-
most varied genhn^ and, thoogh not acoouit- den(3vok.fi:>l.,Oaloatta,I610),Prof.Lee(I828),
as the vary first in taj deparbnent, he ts and Dmican Forbes (1844). The mqst remarkable
exceeded (mly by the very first in eaoh; tbos, monument<tf Persianlezicogrwhyis.flil/tiruI-
in panegyrie be is esteemed as second only turn, "TheBevenSeas,"a£obonaiyin7volB.
to £nveri, In rmnanoe to Kizsmi, in myiuc foLf by the Ung of Oode Oprlnted at the royal
poetry to Jelal-ed-din, in moral and dldac. Ness, Lnoknow, 1828) ; and the most nsaftil,
tic to Sa«di,in lyrio to Hafis; these 6, with lOidiardson's" Persian, Arabic, and English Dic-
Rrdii^ and himself bring admired as the 7 tionsry " by Wilkins and Johnson (4to., 1SS9).
moatbrilHantstaratnthelrmamentorPecBian PEBSIAN GULF, an arm of the Indian
poetry. The &me of Jami stands hi^eat, per- ooesn wliloh lies between Persia and ArsUa,
tu4M,asanaaantlopoet,thoughproBeworKeof extending from lat. 24° to80* }T.,aud bom
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
172 FE^ONT FBBSIDBFLAOODB
long. 48° to BT** R ; extreme length 000 dl, QTi tod lie Tinted Arenenbe^, with & letter
breidfh &om 40 to BOO m. ; area estimated at of iutrodtiotdoii to Louis Napoleon, who was
80,000 Bq. m. Its entxanoa from tbe Indian then stj^Ied Prince Looia. A close intimacy
ocean is through the Arabian eea, tbe gulf of between the two yoting men was tbe conse-
Oman, and the strut of Onnnz, the last of qnenoe of this visit; and Persignj at once set
which is abont 86 m. wide. The shores are to work to organize the Boo^iartist party,
mnch indented along both eoaste; but the only The resnlt of his exertions was the attempt
harbors of importance are Bnehire on the Per- npon Strasbonrgin 1886. More fortnnat« than
eian side, and Bassorah near tbe N. end, on the hU oompantona, he eec^)ed and r^tured to
weBternmost month of the Shat-el-Arab, the England, where be pnblished an u>cu«^tic ac-
rlver formed by the junotioa of tbe Tigris and ooont of the expedilion, S^tion eu Ventrtpritt
Eaphrates. The ooostsof the gnlf are low,ex- da prmcs NapoUon Zouit ^ondon, 188^
oept near the entrance, where tbe monntwns - which waa reprinted in Hew York. In July,
on Ixttb sides rise to a considerable height and 1840, he partdcipated in the landing at Bou-
come olose to the sea. On the B. or Arabian logne, and was taken prisoner, arraigned be-
side there are mimerons shoals and reefe, which fore the court of peeii, and sentenced to 80
render the coast exceedingly diificult of ap- yeara' imprisonment. From DouUena, where
proaoh in large vessels. There are several isl- he was first Incarcerated, he was allowed to
anda in the neighborhood of the Arabian dioro remove on aoconnt of ill health to Versailles, '
and the strait of Ormnz, the most important where he enjoyed comparative liberty. Eere
of which are Kjshen, Onnnz, and Aval or Bah- he wrote an essay entitled L'utilUi det pyra-
rein islands. The only river of any oonmder- mida eCSgypU (1844), which he presented
able size that falls into the golf is the Bhat-el- to the academy of sciences, and m which
Arab. At the straits of Ormnz the tide rises IS be asserts that those gigantic coustmctionB
feet, and aboct the K. end of the gulf 6 fbet. were merely buUt to protect the valley of the
There are pearl fisheries in the neighborhood Nile ag^nst the enoroaehmenta of the sand of
of the W. and S. shores, the value of which is the desert. On tbe revolution of lSi8 he re-
estimated at {1,500,000 per sunnm. — The tnmed to active life, and exerted himself to se-
wbole of the shores of the Persian gulf are in- cure the election of Louis Napoleon to the pres-
habited almost exclusively by Arabs. For idenoy. On the latter's accession to power,
msny years the golf was infested by pirates, Perslgny was chosen his ^de-de-camp, and t^
who when pursued found safety among the pointed to a high rank in the staff of the na-
shoab and islands on the coast of Arabia. In tional guard. In 184B, being elected by the
1809, and ag^ in 181Q, the British sent expo- de^artmentsof the Nord and Loire to the letps-
ditioDS agunst them from Bombay, which, in lative assembly, he sat for the latter, and
coi^imation with the imam of Muscat's forces, proved an uncompromising supporter of the
completely destroyed their vessels, and they presidential policy. He was meanwhile sent
have been since held in subjection by the con- on a temporary mission to Berlin. On the
stant presence of cmisers. The Persian gulf eonp d'itat of Deo. 9, 18C1, in the preparation
is the ancient sea of Babylon, and the earheet of which he was concerned, he appeared at
profane record which we have of its navigation the bead of the 42d regiment of uie line and
IS that of the voyage of Nearcbus in SS5 B. 0. took possesion of the nail of tbe assembly,
PERSIQKY, Jeak Gilbbbt Yiotob, count and was appointed a member of the consolta-
de, a French statesman, bom at St. Martin tive oomnuttee. As a reward for his services,
d'Estr^aux, department of the Loire, Jan. 11, he recMved, May 27, 18C3, the hand of EgM
1B06. His family being in reduced circum- Napo16one Albine, the granddaughter of Uar-
stances, he enlisted in Uie army as a private shcj Ney, the title of count, and a gratuity of
irhen 17 years old, was afterward admitted to 500,000 francs. In Jan. 18S2, he was M)pobt-
the military school of Sanmnr, and rejoined the ed minister of the interior in ]place of M. de
army as a non-commissioned officer of hnssars. Momy, who had reAised to sign the decree
After the revolution of 1880, being suspected confiscating the Orleans proper^-; he contin-
of entertaining seditious designs, he was dis- ued to hold this office nntil April, 1854, when
missed. He became a contributor to tbe news- he resigned on account of ill health. The fol-
paper Le tempi, and a fsithfo] adherent of the lowing year he waa appointed ambassador to
Samt Simomon doctrines, so much so that in England: he resigned in April, 1868, was re-
18S3 he followed Father Enfantin to Menil- appointed in May, 1859, and still holds the
Montant. He visited La Vendue at the time office. In 18G7 he was promoted to the rank
when the duchess of Berry was concealed of grand cross of the lewon of honor, of which
there; returned to Paris to as^t in the mak- he had l>een crested a chevalier in 1849.
ing up of a legitimist correspondence, to be PERSIUMOK. See Batb Plttm.
furnished to the provincial newspapers ; and PER3IU8 FLACCUS, Atilus, a Soman satin-
now sssamed the tide of viscount de Perslgny. cal poet, bom in Tolaterrffi, Etruria, Dec. 4,
Convinced that there was no hope of a reatorar A D. 84, died Nov. 34, 62. B:e belonged to the
Uon of the Bourbons, he became a Bonapartist equestrian order, and after receiving the rudi-
in 1884. Apaperof his.Z'Oeeiimt J^^owfuiw, mentsof a good education from his mother, for
attzaoted the attention of the Bonaparte fom- whom he always showed the strongest affeo-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEBBPBOnVE ITS
tion, went to Borne and Btndied viib Lnoan oonld dr&v or paint mtoQ the glass the objects
onder the stoio phUoet^lier Annsos Oomatiu. visible through, it, the paintiiig iroiild be a
Littla mon is known of bis Hfo, but he -woe true perspecnre. But <nil^ one eje most be
distiiuniished for hia blameless mor&ls and used, aa each eje, having its own view, sees
ajmiable character. Ss extant works oonsiat the objeots in & different place on the plane of
of 6 sa^^ which compriee in all no more the slaas. This may be readily nnderstood hj
tli&u 6S0 hexameters, and there is no proof doffing the ejee iJtematelj, and observing
tliat he ever wrote mor& His style is obsonre, near ol^eoto, or in the oonteniplation of the
end abounds in ooHoqnJaliamg, &r-fetahed met- views in a stereoscope, which appear as one.
anhoRL and abrupt ttansidons. QnlntQian, A different view opens to the eye at every
Martial, and some of the early OhrioHan wrl- ohange of pontion ; the f^e mnst therefore be
ten speak in high terms of his merits, wiiile Irapt bUU, wMoh may be effected by a fixed
others ctoksider him not worth reading. The -^t or u>ertDre throngb which the eye ia
best editions of Ferdm are those of Jahn(Lelp- ^eeted dnring the sketddng. As glaaa is
ac, 1S48) and Heinrioh (Ldpeio, 18^- ^og- inoonvenient both to draw on and to pre-
lim tranalatlona have beien made hj Holyday, awe, it may afford an intdUgiUe plane, but
Dryden, Brewster, Sir William Dnunmond, not a practical me for the pnrposes of sketch*
end (Hfford. The last has bera pabUabed, ing: thla may be obtained toron^di the means of
together with a literal prcae verdon by the finely pei£^ded piq«r in whica several i^Mr-
R«T. L. Evans, in Bohn's " Olasdcal libmy." tores are ecmtalnea within an area eqnal to the
PERSOK, a K. co. of N. 0^ bordering «i pnpH of the eye, so that every part cf each ob-
Ta., and dmned by branches of the San and jeot Is seen by scone part of the eye, while
the bead waters of Uie Kense river : area abont other parts have a fall view of the paper on
400 eq. nu ; pop. in 1860, 11,221, of whom which the ottjects are to be drawn ; the view
5, IW were slaves. It has a diversified enr&oe is thos transmitted throngh the papor with snf-
and a generally fertile solL The prodnotions fioient diatinotnesa to enable the oranghtaman
1850 wore 269,072 btuhels of ^ian oorn, to trace an ootliDe on the inner snriaoe of the
4S,803 of wheat, 1,6^119 Iba of tobaooo. and Mper.
18 bales of cotton. There were 6 grist nulls, 4 The p
papw or pume on which the drawingls
tobaoeomann&cbnries, a tanneries, 18 churohes, made ia called the plane of the inctnre,the
and SOflpapOsattecidiiig public eohoolB. O^i- pgsUicai of the eye the p<dnt of sight, and an
tal, Boxborongh. tma^nary horizont^ line at the leved of the
PEB80KAL EQUATION, a term aF^Ued aye the horison. Toward some prints in this
by aatronomera to an error to which overy ob- line all strdght lines not paraQel .with the
serrer b liable in marking the precise Instant plane of the riotnre oonveige ; thrae points
of s star's transit. Some observers antii^iate are called vanishing points. A pictnre, to be
the instsmt of contact, and some are bdund- seen in tme penpective, should be observed
hand in recording it; and ourioualy enongh, at the same distance from the plane of the pio-
the error Is constant In kind ; that Is to say, tnre and the ssme position of the (^e nnder
one observer will give the time too early and which it was drawn ; bnt cnetom tables na
another too lata, not occadonally, bat always, to disregard these reqnlrements, and appre-
It ia constant in qnantity also, and accordingly clato a true picture even when looking with
the personal error of an observer is commonly both oyea and from varied prints. The per-
givan in decfanals, and mnst be allowed for in spectire <rf ol))eota being obtained by the in-
all deHcate cakmlations. It la not a flmlt ctf terseotion of the raya wUoh emanate from
inexperience, bnt an imperfection oommon to them to the eye, with a verUoal plane between
the greatest observer!^ and seems to be positive the eye and the oMectB,tbe scuoioe may be
negative aocordfaig as the temperament in- resrived geometrlculy mto the problem of
clinea to the aangnme or to the phlegmatio. constructing the section 1^ s plane snr&ce of
It 19 by no means an inrigniflcant source of a cone of r^s <tt which the Bummit and baae
error. In 1638 Bessel and Strove made a dif- are given, the eye being the summit, the whole
ference of an entire second in their respective vinble ext«nt of the olt|ect or oljects to be
records of an ohgwvalion. represented beiiu the base, and the interseot-
PEBSPEOriVZ. the art of representing on ing earkne the phme of the pictnre. The rea-
a plane eur&oe objects as they appear to the olution of thlaproblem is the sdenoe of linear
eye from any determinate point of view. All perspective. The faces of objects parallel with
the prints of the smfbce of a body are vidble the plane of the picture are said to be In paral-
by means of luminous rays proceeding fivm Iri perspeotive j bees obliqoe to this pUme, ii
these pointa to the eye. It we suppose a ver- angular or oblique perspective. In the con
tical plane to be Interposed between the olijeot templation of a undaoape, we observe that tiie
and the eye, and the iateneotion of these raya ol^eots nearest naare most distinct In ootline
to be properly dedgnated upon the [daDe. thwe ai^ oolorj as they recede from the viewthe
would be marked upon h an image of the ob- fbnns become vague and shadowy, and the
ject, or perqwctive of It as seen by the f^e. colors lose their intensity and blend together.
As we look ont of a window, the {^sss maybe ta painting a pictnre, therefore, to harmonln
coQiidered the intersecting plane; and if we with natore, it must not only be dxavm in troe
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
174 FXBSFIRATIOK FEBTHXS
pcnpeottve, bnt it moflt.alto be eolored tn ud dry air, eftndng a, greater detemdnalicn
referenoe to Qie proxlml^ of the oltjeota to of bloc^ to the ekm, prodnoea s mwe Ktht
the apeetattv. This la termed the art Mafirial tmuodatioii, vhlcb paaeee «£f ae iiuenshte
Mnpeettre, risoe the ■oftening of effect la doe t^kif, bat in a m<ABt atnuqiluve wq>ean
to ue interpodtioiL of the metUnm throi^ aa aeiuible perapiratdtHi or sweat ; it Is ako
wUeh the oqecta are aeen, t. &, the air.— To inflnenoed br the state of the ^^abem and the
^re ft aort of por^eetiTe emot to the drawing qoantitr of fluid taken into tiie atomach. The
of an ot^eot and ^et enable tt to be meaanred Tiearlona oflSoea of the persidration and nriiit
by a aoale, to make ei^otare and jet have it are notjoed under EiDHST;tlMBe are paftnned
am^tted for meehanloal oomtmctiwi, aprqjeo- not only in regard to the amonnttrffliiid efimi-
iicta haa been deriaed, called laometrieal per- noted, but alio to that of the jwodoeta of tht
speetive. lie principle of thia oondata In se- waate of tJie ^ateoi. It has been estiiaaud
leoting for tlie plane of the pr^l^etioD one that at least 100 nuna of nitrogodxedmattas
eqaaUj inclined to 8 piindpal axes at right are iaOj eicreted by the sUn, and whatever
angles to each other, eo that all etraif^ Imea interferes with this prooeaa tenda to diacnder
eoukddent or parallel to these axes are drawn the ftmctiona of the kidneja. D^meriiig
<ai the same scale ; thns the pndectioa of a emotatma, eepeolBllj fear, increase the pat^n»
oabe would be in oatline a regnur hemgon tion, and great nerrons excitement diminyMS
divided Into 8 equal rhtanbnsee repreeennng it; tbedestmotionoftheHkinbTanextauivt
the ad)aoent bees. IscHnetrf is especiallT ap- bnm, and the ccniseqaent suppression trf the
plieable to meohanioal and ardiiteotoral aia,v- permration, prodnoee death b^ ocugeatioii of
inga, as embradng in one view, and with mffi- the Iimgs ; a Tsnilah sf^ed to tlia skin of ■
dent natoralneas, planes and elevationB. ftog stops the trana^ration, and oanaes deafi
PES8FISATION,theexoremNititioQsaqne- by "oataBsoos asphTzia," the blood being
ons flidd secreted bj the sodoriporoDs glands imperfeotlj srterlaaMd md the temperstore
ot the akin, and also the product of dmple mncih depressed. The fluid of nmide tranrada-
I^Tiioal transndation mixed with it These tion b; its constant evqioration keeps down
riiuidB eonnst of long oonvoliited tabes In the the heat of the body, &o prooen bring actiTe
fatty tissoe beneath ttks skin ; the minnte tubes according to the warmth and dijuua of the
onite to tana a ringle dnct, which passes np air; the internal heat, hoverer, is prinoipallf
through the skin in a Bptral manner, <^ien!iig r^rilated by the secretion of the cntaneow
on the snr&oe of the epidemds obliqnelr, so glands, its eraporation canying off a laige
that its outer layer makea a kind of valvular qnantdtyof free oalorlewhieh would othenriee
covering. (See Diapbobxtios.) There is a raise the body's temperature ; ehnjle dry best
constant and generally insensible separation increases the secretion snd evaporatim, bat
of flnid tu the form of vapor by theae glands; heat and moisture ocanbined ehec& en^ort-
bnt when it is inoressed Myond evsporstion tion. Any sodden diminntioa of an active pe>
by exercise, heat, or disease, it tartta minnte spiration by exposure to cold diatnba the
drops on the skin, oonunonly known as per- cironlation, and brings on a variety <^diwaKd
niiratlon and sweat. It is nsuslly add from conditions, for the treatment of which sm
the presence of acetic or lactic a<ad, vrhenee DupHOBBnoe.
the sonr smell observed in many disordered FEBTH, a 17. co. of Canada We^ drained
states of the ^stem ; the prorxx^ons of solid by the sources of Thames river; area, 698 cq.
matters vary from 4 to 13 hi 1,000 parts, these m. ; pop. In 1861, 1B,K45, It u mt«tsected bv
consisting prtndpally of a proteine conqKnmd the Toronto and Goderioh railway. Capital,
in a state of Indpient decon^odtiwi (and in Stratford.
diseased conditions urea), with chlorides of PERTH, a city of Scotland, cwitsl of Fntb-
potssrimn and sodium, aM other saline com- shire, ptotureeqiiely situated on ue river Tav,
Connds. la the perspiration from external here crossed by an elegant bridge, 4JS m. by
eat, or from other causes of special detennina- railway K by W. fhnn Edinbui^; pop. in
tion of the blood to the akfaji, the prodoct of 16C1, S3,SSS. It is one of the most anrieU
tranmdation Is increased, bnt the amount of oitiee in the kingdom, snd was oncesnrroimdcd
solid matter la not augmented; the proflise by walls. ItiaconneetedbynilwayBirithtbc
peroidration after exereise in warm weather is rest of the kingdom, and has eome roanofac-
not the cause of the fitlgae experienced, but tnres of cotton goods, &o. In 1861 the regit-
rather Ute diminished acttrity of respiration tared tonnage of the port amounted to 68 vet-
frvm the less amount of carhcmie a^ exhaled selaofG.e&S tone. Perth la sni^Kieed to be of
from the Inngsathigh teinpwatpres; the col- Soman ori^ was at ana time tbe ei^dtal of
Uquative sweats of phthiris and otiier exhanst- Scotland, snd has be^ the eome of some le-
tng diseaeeeare the conaequencM rather tlian markable events in the history of that oonntry.
the oanaes of thegeneraldeUlityof thesystem. It wss oaptnred by Edward I. inIS»6, by Hod-
The amount of insenstUe entaneous perq>ira- trose in 1044, and by Oromwdl in ISfil. It i
tirai lost in S4 hours is fivm 1 to 8^ lbs., that was occupied byDnndee in 1688, and t^ the I
ofthelongs1>eingfrom{toHlbB.hithesame hl^ndwain 1715 and 174S. I
thne ; this varies aoootdiug to the external FEBTHSB, Oebirofb Fbizdskh, a Oenaau
temperature and condition of the body ; a hot book publiab^, born in Bndolstadt, Apiil 31,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Vm, died in Triedriohrada, near Go&a, Vxr FERTimUlKe; (me of tiw laigest oonntiM
16, 1848. Vhen IS rears of age he eoterea of Bootland, dtnated near the centre of that
the gynmadom at Bndolfltadt, and In 1787 was kingdom, bounded N.br die ooonties of biTer-
engaged in liie boc&sdUng eatabMimcnt of seas and Aberdeen, K by ForfEir and Fife, S.
BdnmeatLripaia. While aenlng his ^prentioe- by Elnroas, Olookmaiman, and Btiriisg, and W.
ship he fen Biok, and was obliged to rem^ in by Argyle ; area, 8,886 «q. m. ; nop. in 1801,
hia room 9 weeu, during wU<£ time IHderika, 188,600. It is divided into tlie highland uid
the dan^terof hiaina£er,read totdma trans- lowland diatricto, Uie extent of Uie former be-
laUon oi)fiiratori'a"BlBtor]' of Italy." Borne Ing much the greater; and these are agf^
time after a new mprentioe, Keadg, arrired, anbdivided into the andent and popnlarly
and Perthes and h& both discovering that Qttt^ known diviaionB of IConteith, Athole, Strath-
were in lore with Frederika, oonfl(»d tbe &ct earn, Breadalbane, Bannooh, Stormont, Perth
to each other, and agreed that the one who pn^ier, Gowiie, Balqnhidder, and Glenardhy.
Mled flboold hear his Me without ct»nplaining. The chief towns are Pertli, Orieff, and Don-
In 1T9S he went to Hambnre, as an assistant blane. The prindpal rirere are the Tay, liie
to Hoffinami, Neseig nndert^ins the ta^of basin of wliiefioranprlsesneariy the whole oons-
giTing a tnistwortby acootmt of the sta^ ot ty, the Fortii, Earn, and Teitfa. The ddef lakes
Frederika^ sffootions. After remaining 8 years are Loeh Tay, LcNjh Eiioht, Looh Bannoob,
with Hofflnann, he entered into partnership andLoehKatrjne^allranarkablefortliebesntT
with Neeslg. Both herenpon oRred them- of th^ eoenetr. Some of the moimtaina of
selves to the dan||hter of their old master, and the Qramfdan duun in Pertlidiire are ammg
were both refused, althon^ she admitted that the highest in the island, three <^ them iHdng
die loved both. Perthes for a time felt the nearly 4,000 feet above the sea. The extes-
disqipdntment keenly, so much so tliat he eive valleyB called " sbatha" are very remark-
wrote: "Ky whole life-plan is mined, mined able, and alao the glens, the beat known of
by her;" bnt in process of time he reeorered which is Olen lilt. The soil is mostly deep
from hiB despair, and anbaeqnently going into rich day. There are aome mannfiMitureB, bat
business alone, he married the drafter c^ Perthshire may be regarded as an agrionltnral
Oaodine, editor of the WtutdAteJeer BoU news- oonnty. The land under orops is estimated at ^
paper. While an i^prentioa to KHune, he had of the whole area. The fisheries on the Tay
made the Beqnmntance <£ Ooefbe, Hecoer, and are rery valnahle. Perthahire retnma tiro
Schiller, and now Iweame known to other lit- membwsto parliai»«it,one for the oonnty uid
eraiT men, amcntg wliom were F. H. Jaoobi, the one for the dty of Perth.
Stolbergi, Voss, and Berentlow. In 1709 he PBBTZ, Oxose ExniKiOELa Oerman histo-
entered into partnership with Besser, and the rian, bom in Hanover in lT0S. He was edn-
bnnness of the firm went on proeperoaajy until o^ed at the univeni^ of GOttinsen. In 1810
Hamburg was tnoorporated into the French he published ft " History of the Harors of the
empire. Even then it flonrished in R>ite of Palace nnder the Uerovin^ans," which attract-
the Berlin and Milan decrees, and of uie oen- ed the attention of Barrai Stein, who soon after
aorsbip of the prees. But his bostili^tothe aasodateditaanthorinhiBOwn prcneotof aocd-
T}reia.A, wlien the^ retired trom Hamburg be- lection of the Oraman historians (n tlie middle
fere the Buaetans m 1818, made him a marked ages. Ferti now undertook a series of Jour,
man, and on their return he was forced to fly, neyatiirongh Europe for the purpose of e^or-
and his eatablishment was plundered. Dur- log libraries and museums, ut 188S he became
ii^ an of theae trials he was snstidned by his a member of the Hanoverian representative
wife, who thanked him that his name " Stood dtambw, and in the sameyear eatablisbed the
unoi^ the 10 enemies of the ^rrant," and, "Hanoverian Journal," He was made a privy
altbou^ in extreme deatitntion, enoonraged eonncillor of the court of Berlin in 1812, and
him to do his duty, la 1814 he retmned to became director of the royal library in Uiat
Hamburg, and the firm reg^ned its old proa- dty and meml)er of the a<»demy of aoienoea.
perity. iMasolring Ma connection with Bea- His great undertaking is the editing of the Jfenu-
ser, be went in 1829 to Ootha, where he en- mmtaOtrmanim EvOoriea (18 vols., 18S6-'6S}.
gsged still more largely in nnbliahing, issuing PEBU. I. The capital of Miami oo., Ind.,
works chiefly on history and uieology. Here he on the Wabash river and oanal, and on the
pubtished the AUnanaeK de QoGm, the " Oen- Toledo and Wabash and Pern and Indianapolis
eral History of the Statea of Enrope," edited railroad^ 75 m. N. from Indianapolis ; pop. In
by Heecen and Dkert, and the works of Keen* 1660 eetlmated at S,000. It ia the bn^tesa .
der, Thduck, Bunsen, Dlhnaun, and many centra of a rich ainioultnral district, and has a
others. He aft»ward gave op hia bnriness to valuable trade. There are a handsome oourt
his son Jnstos^ by whom it is now conducted, honse^ a gaol, 2 newspaper offices, 1 flour mill,
The correapondenoe of Ferthee waa extennve 1 woollen factory, 1 dlatillery, 3 founderie&
andralBable,andspedmeiuof it maybefound and 6 churches, via. : 1 Bqitiit, 1 Episcopal, 1
in ''The life of F. Perthes" (8 vols. 8to., Methodist, 2 Presbyterian, and 1 Soman Oatho-
lB48-'6S),writtenbyhiason01emensTbeocIor. lie. II. A dty of La Salle co., IIL, at the head
This woik after some ocmdensaticm was tranelat- of navigation on the lUint^ river, 68 m. above
edinto£n^ldi(2vol8.8vo,,Edinbni^h,iaM). Peoria, on the Ohloago and Book Island r^-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
173 HE
road, 100 m, from Ohloa^ snd about 1 m,
from the Jonctioii of the lUinois oentral rail-
KM^ Titb the Dlinoia find Michigan caual ; pop.
in I860, 8,184. ItisheamdU^andhaiideome-
If dttuted, sorromided hj fine soenerT^ and en-
j<^ a verf active bnoneei. The river mmisliei
ezteudre water power, and it has become one of
the piindpal mannfimtoring towns of the state.
Coal abonnda in the vidnit^. In 18C7 the ar-
rlrala were 291, and tlie amonnt of ateam ^lp<
ping owned in the place waa 4,700 tona. The
reodpta of ]nmbeT were upward of 10,000,000
feet, and S87,OO0 bnahels of wheat, 636,000 of
Indian com, 161,000 of oate, end 48,000 bbls.
of fionr made in the oit7, beside immense
qnantltiea of ooal, were exported. It cont^na
a nmnber of mannfaotoriea and a la^e ship
yard, di; dock, and marine railway. There
ore also 9 banka, 8 hotels, 8 wee^y newep^en,
and 6 chaTohea, viz. : 1 Oon^egational, 1 E[rilB-
copal, 1 Lutheran, % Kethodist, and 1 Bomaa
Oatbolio.
PERU, A repnblio of Sonth America, bonnded
N. by Eonador, E. and S. by Brazil and Bo-
livia, and "W. by the PaoJflo ooean, extending
from laL 8° 85' to SI" 46' B., and from long.
66° 10" to 81° 80' "W,; eitreme length abont
1,3S0 m., breadth 7S0 m. in. the K and 60 m.
in the B. ; area abont 600,000 sq. m. The re-
pnblio is divided Into 11 departmenta, and 2
prorinoea which have the organization of de~
partmenta. The departmenta are anbdivided
mto 61 provinoes, the provinces into 026 dia-
trlota, and the distriota agun into parishes.
The departments, with their capitals and popu-
lation (not connting Indians) in 1858, were aa
follows :
t^r^ua^
CUA
S
Tow
1,88T,M0
The Btatistioal aooocnta recently nnbliahed by
Ur. G. Davila Oondemarin, of the oniverd^
of lima, represent the area aa 613,182 gq. m.,
and tbe popnlation 2,600,000, vkc : of Span-
ish deacent, 900,000 ; deeoendants of Indtma,
1,400,000 ; negroes and mixed raoea, £00,000.
— The sea coaat of Pern stretches along the
Pacific for abont 1,600 m., from the monUi of
the river Tnmbez on the N. to that of the Loa
on the S. Its general character is bold, with
deep water close to the shore, in some places
70 or 80 fathoms within a short distance of
the oli^ About SOO m. of the IS. eztzemity
is broken by bays and headlanda, and the re-
mj^nder of the coaat forma three sncoeadve
and almost straight lines, rnnning respeotlvely
abont a S.£.,B.K, ends. The northMS part
however ia not ao hold aa the aonthern, and
haa a greater proportion of aandy beach ; bnt
high land is always seen at a little distance in-
land. In its whole extent there are bnt few
porta of any consequence, many of them being
open roadsteads, or at least but very imper-
fectly sheltered. The bays of Oallao and Payt&
are Uie most secnre anchorages, and moat fre-
quented by foreign ahipping, the latter b^g'
a favorite resort for American whalers. The
moat important ialanda op<m the coast are those
in the neighborhood of E^aco, more particnlar-
ly the Ohmchas (see OsatcoA. IsLUfne) ; Hig
island of Ban Lorenxo, which forms the harbor
of Callao ; and the Loboa islanda, wliidt lie
between lat 6° and 7° B., and like the Chinchas
are covered with extenmve depoats of gnano.
(Bee LoBos.) There are no hidden dangers
near any of these iaknda, and like the coast
they have deep water close to the shores.
Along the whole coast the swell rolUng infi^uxi
the Pacific breaka in a heavy surf, which rea-
ders landing in most places dangerooa, and
often impossible for boats. In eroosed potions
rafta called ialiat are used by the n^vea for
Innrilng or embarking goods or passengera. In
the TS. these rafla are formed of logs of light
wood lashed together, with a raised platfiina
upon which the cargo is placed ; and wliere Uie
sorf ia very heavy, they are made of bundles of
reeds. Along the B. coast the platform ia anp-
ported vpon inflated akins. — The most remark-
able natural feature in Peru ia the vast chain
of the Aodee. which traverses the conntiy in
a general S. a. E. and K N. W. direction. It
here forms two parallel ridges, the W. of which
is sometimes distinguished as the Oordillera,
while the E. retains the name of the Andes.
They are connected by several transverGe
branches, and where the oue is highest the
other la most depressed. The E. ridge pre-
servM its grand character from Bolivia to lat.
18° S., where it loses it, and N. of the Nevada
de Baoantahi no snow-capped mountains oocor.
In the W. chain, near laL 16°, a considerable
poition of the range ia covered with snow ; S.
£. of Lima the Ttddo de ITieve rises above the
snow line, and about let. 11° the summit of
La "^^da and several others are nearly 16,0OO
feet in height. Between La Vinda and Ohim-
borazo in Ecuador none of the sommits of this
chain attain the snow line. The "W. ridge is
broader, wilder, and more mgsed, and ila Bom-
mits are lesa pyramidal than Qiose of the other.
water-^ed between the rivers which flow to
the Atlantic and those which reach the Pacific.
All the waters of the E. declivity work their
way throngh the other range to the Atlantic,
wUle there is no inatance of the Cordillera
being intersected by a river ; a remarkabl* &ct,
becanae in B. Pern and Bolivia it ia the lower
chain. The rivera of Pern that &I1 into the
Padfio we all short, shallow, gsnerally rapid.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEBXJ 177
indnselegBforiUTigatioii. The great liTera of it then beoomea tbr 900 m. a vide and futils
the country all unite in forming the prinoipd ooantrj, having a mean height of abont 8,000
bnnch of the Amazon. Thej are generallj feet above the sea. The most valnable part of
of considerable depth, and is the coarse of thePemYianterrib»7,howeTer,iatheffionf<ina,
time will donbtlees be navi^ted b/ rteamera or wooded re^on. whidi lies to the E. of the
torn the Atlantis ocean. The chief streama Andes, extendmg from their E. declivitf to the
are the Marafion, Hnallaga, Uoajole, and Pnma, Iwnndmes of Brazil and Bolivia. Thia re^on
ttie list of which forma part of the bonndary Is watered by the Hnallaga, Ucajale, MaraHon,
line between Pern and Bolivia. Witik the ex- and miaj tribntarj streaina. It is Bometimes
oeption of nticaca, the lakes of Fero are smaU. called Pampas del Sacramento, or Oollona, or
lAoricochais theaonrceof the river Uarafion; the " Land of the MisaioD^" In oonseqaenoe of
Ohinohacocha gives rise to the river Jaqja; the Jesuits having estaUiahed several miasiona
iDd Uroe is a dmall lake to the S. of Oosoo. in it shortlj after the oonqneet of Pern. There
Uke Titioaca ia IIS m. long and 46 m. broad, sre extensive pluna traversed by hills of incon-
omtaina many ialands, and ia situated 18,200 riderable height, the whole (»>vered with one
feet above the level of the sea. — ^The tract dense forest of Iniuriant growth. — The geo-
cilled la cotlOf between the ateep aacent of logical character of Pern, except in partionlar
the Cordillera, or TT. Andes, and the Padflc, locaUtiea, haa not been well examined. Bed
Tines in width from 10 l« 60 m., and alopes eandstone ia met with both on the coast and in
towaid the ocean with a very irregnlar anr&oe the interior, often accompanied by vast deposits
and rapid deocent, farrowed by a nnmber of of salt. Granite and porphyry appear on the
deep depreaaiona or golliM. which mn from the coast and in the highlanda ; and the conimoneat
moimtams to the sea. These gullies are gen- rocks on the rierras are trachyte, angite, por-
erallT traversed by riveia, moat of which are Phyry, and diorite. Between like Titicacaand
dry daring a great part of the year. Bain Cuzoo, the more elevated gronnd bordering the
never tills la the lower part of this re^on, and valleys ia formed chief y of clay state ; and in
vegetation doea not extend beyond the banks the neighborhood of Aregnipa, and from thence
of the Blreama. The ridgea between the rivers to Lake Titicaca, the aoit is volcanic la the
are complete deaerta, varying in breadth from province of Tarapoca, and in the neighborhood
ID to 90 m. The anilaoe Is very uneven, and of Iqniqne, there is an extensive deposit of salt,
u covered witb hillocka of considerable size, nitre, and nitrate of aoda : and the aondy re^pon
Bomposedof fine, light yellow drift sand, which over which it eztenda, between lat. 19° and
ii ofteo driven about mtb great velocity by the 33° S., ia a complete deaert. In many porta
viod and ascends in oolnmns to the height of the houses are bnilt of blocks of salt. In the
60 or 100 feet. All traoea of a path between coast distriot earthquakes are frequent, and
the river valleys are Qins obliterated, and no sometimea very destructive. It ia eadmatod
■tncger can travel from one to another with- that the coast of Peru has risen 85 feet nnce it
out a guide, who generally directa his course waa firat inhabited. Since the great earth-
bfthe stars at aignt, and by the wind during qnake of 1H6, the ooaat abont Oallao, which
tie day, which always blows from the south, was raised upon that occa^on, has been grada-
Tta region called ntmt, or highlands of Pern, ally unking. The water conrsea further Id-
])tffBs where the rainless district terminates, land, toward the base of the monntmns, fiimiah
■boot T,000 feet above the level of the sea, and proof of great natoral convulsions, many of
eiteada from the OordiUera to the chain of the them whioh exhibit the wear of centuries
Mdea. These chains are generally abont 100 being now dry. It has been already stated
m. qiart, and between them lie the table-lands, that the re^on bordering upon the coast Ia a
natioally diatribnted into regiona differing wide- barren desert ; but in the gnlliea, where there
Ij in characteT-. The ohm of these are the ia enfAoient water to irrigate the ground, abnn-
tuights of Pasco and Oazco, and the valleys of dant crops are produced from the aanay soil,
the Jams and the Tifarafion. The first liea be- which the ooltivators manure with gnano.
tweenUt 10° 80' and 11° 8., and has a general Some of the highlands are eiceedingly fertile ;
iiiaM of 14,000 feet ; it ia traversed by chains and the territory E. of the Andes is Bsii to be
of Mis from 600 to 1,000 feet high, and haa among the richest in the world. — ^Pem haa four
everywhere a m^ed and forbidding aspect, olim^ea : 1, that of the coast, npon a portion
The tabie-lond of Oozco extends abont 100 m, ^ which rain has never been known to fall,
each way. At the city of Cuzco, in lat 18° and on the greater part of which a shower is
SO' S., it has an elevation of 11,880 feet above considered very remarkable ; 3, that of the
the MS, but sinks ruiidly toward the K., so sierras, or highlands, which Is mild and variable,
that upon the banks of the Ifantaro it Js prob- with moderate rains ; 8, that of the Cordillera
ablynotmorethanSgOOOfeethigh, Thev&lley and Andes, which is exceedingly cold ; and 4,
of the Jaiya gMolaa the table-land of Pasco, that of the territory to the £. of the Andee,
oescenduig rwidly S. for about 100 m., and in which ia warm and damp. The first climate,
Its generd character reaemblea Oozco, The or perfectly rainless region, terminates at abont
vaUey of the Ifarallon extends between lat. 0° 400 feet above the level of the sea, and from
Bod 10° &, and Is for the firat 100 m. little thenoe to an elevation of 7,000 foeC extends a
more than a narrow gorge descending rapidly ; tract periodioaUy refreahed by sea vapora or
vol- xnL — 12
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
178 KEBD
drizzle, called gama. These Tapors oonttnne the rayB of ^e nm from reaohiiig the gronsd;
from May to November, when the country and the moirt winds whioHi blow from the At-
bordeiing the coaet desert traoomes covered lantio, over the phtins watered by the Amazon
with vegetation. About Lima, 600 feet above and its tribntaneo, are stopped in ttieir prog^
the level of the sea, tliis vegetation is most ress toward tha Pacific by the Andes, and
abundant dnring the months of July, Angust, accmnnlat« cloads which descend in heavy
and September. Toward December, when the rains accompanied by storms of lightning and
d^y season may be reckoned to have set in, the thmider. Tliese copions rauis csnse snch an
weather, except for an interval at noon, is for excess of moistnre, that tiie region is very nn-
the most part cool and delightfal. The cold healthy, and few Individnab among the Indian
current which rons along this coast from the tribes scattered along the hanks of the rivers.
seas ac^olning Cape Horn, the tfimperatare of reach the age of 60 years. — The mineral pro-
whlch is on an average 8° lower than the mean dnctions of Fern, more particularly the pre-
annnal temperature of the atmosphere at Oallao, cions metals, have been fomoua ever unoe the
contribntes greatly to moderate the heat of the discovery of the conntiy. Gold is found in
ohmaCe on l£e shore of Pern. The mean heat many places, and nearly all the monntain
at Oallao, in lat. 12° 4', does not exceed 60°, streams wash it down In small particles. The
and Htmiboldt states that he saw the thermom- mountains are interspersed with veins of gold
eter as low as 66°. At Lima, in almost the and silver ores, and with copper and lead. In
same latitude, 7 m. inland from Oallao, and many places gold is found in quartz. The fdl-
600 feet higher, the thermometer never falls ver ore is particularly rlchjfr^uently yielding
below 00° in winter, and seldom rises in sum- from 6 to 60 per cent. This ore constitatea
mer above 60°. The hottest day ever known the great mineral wealth of the conntry, and
in Lima was in,reb. ITfll, when the thermom- presents itself in all forms and combinations,
eter rose to 96°. In Piura, the extreme N. from the pnre metal to the lead ore mixed
province of Peru, the temperature ranges in with silver. It is found at the hi^est eleva-
smnmer from 80° to 96°, and in winter from tions yet reached. Qnicksilver is also found,
70° to 81°. The situation of the coast region, but in smsll quantities. The only qnicksilver
placed between the influences of the ocean veins yet discovered of any mtagnitade are at
current on the one side and the lofty momi- Huancavelica, and on the Ucayale river. The
tains on the other, makes the climate tamper- Andes are vuy rich in copper ore ; but it is
ate, as the breeze is cooled by either the sea extracted only from their w. ridge, as the dif-
OT the Andes. During the dry season on the ficulty of transport from the otlier to the coast
coast heavy rain falls la the interior, upon the is too great to make tiie working of the mines
v. slopes of the Cordillera and the table- profitaole. The lead and iron mines are not
lands, eBpeciallyinthemonthsofJannary,Feb- worked. Mining in Peru is still in a vetT
rnary, and March, and copious streams pour backward state. The great height at whici
down to fertilize the grotind lying upon the most of the mines are situated, the want of
river banks, Dnring fete greater port of the timber, the impossibility of traDsporting ma-
Sear the winds upon the coast blow from the chinery over snob roads, and the hi^ price of
., varying from B. S. K to 8. TT. ; but in the the necessaries of life, present great difficoltiea
winter months N, breezes are occaMonaUy met in, the way of Improvement. The silrer pro-
with. At some distance from the shore the duoed between 1680 and 1808 has been calcn-
8. E. trade wind prevwla, bnt with greatest lated to amount to $1,282,000,000. In 8 years
strength in winter. Lightning is sometimes (1826-'68) the silver coined at Lima alone
seen on the coast of Pcm, but thunder is never amounted to |SO,000,000. Humboldt estimates [
heard, and storms are quite nnknown. In the the average annnal yield of the gold and silver ■
id climate, in the district of the sierras or mines in Peru at (6,800,000. In 1826 some
highlands, there is a considerable range of "Fngluh miners discovered good coal at Cerro '
temperature between the rain line, at about de Pasco, and lately it has been found 18 m.
7,000 feet above the sea, and the snow line, 8. from Tumbez. Not far from Arica, broirn '
which varies in height according to latitude, coal is found on thecoast; and in the province '
About 9,000 i^t above the sea the average of Tsrapaca there is a subterranean fbrest, the \
temperature is about 80°, varying little throngh- wood of which affords excellent fuel and is
out the year, and the seasons are only distin- used extensively in the preparalJan of salt-
gnished as tie wet and the dry, the former petre, — Pern is exceedingly rich in vegetable '
of which lasts from Kovember to Hay. The productions ; and each of ita natural re^ons
8d olimat« occurs in a district covered with has its own flora. The coast district has not
perpetual snow. The 4th clhnate is entered many plants ; bnt E. of the Andes the species '
after descending the E. face of the Andes and are exceedingly numerous. Hany species of
arriving at tiio plains and nndulating coon- medicinal herbs, and a great varied of aro-
try which extena to the boundaries of Bra- matio bslsams, oils, and gums, are produced
Ml and Bolivia. The climate of thb region Trees and shrobs which yield 7 diffisrent kinds
is warm and moist; bnt the heat ia not bo of wax are known; and according to Peruvian
great as might be expected in a conntry lying writers this territory is a now world in itself.
so close to the equator. The forests prevent Almonds, ginger, the balsun of copaiba, gum
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FXBU 179
oopd, Ao., are all said to abcrand. On the during die season of bunibation. The com*
ooasta and the W. slopes of the Andes are pro- mon oanion Tnltnre frequents the towns in
dtMed the cabbage pahn, the ooooannt, the great numbers, and there are i epieoiea of con-
ohooolate not, the cotton shrub, the pineq>i>la, dor. Manj parrots are found in tho £. district.
tonnario, plantain, and sogar oane, beetde Hawks, faloons, owls, pigeons, and other birds
■ome treea that have only Peruvian sppell^- are abnndant ; and all the domestio fowls have
tiona. The coffea raetmotu is found in the in- been introdooed. — The inhabitonta of Peru con-
texior, and the berries are used fu Uie same aist of Spaniards, various tribes of native Fem-
■wttj as those of the cultivated species. The vian IndionB, and negroes, and of everj con-
large-flowered jasnine and the ialMra arho- ceivable adnustore of them all. The native
rta are abnndant in the vicinity of Lima, and Femvians or Indians are ezceedin^y ignoranL
are mooh used bj the women for -wreaths and but a few of them have riaen to eminence, aud
for braiding in Uioir hair. No fewer than M dispi^ great ability. Some of tlie trib««
qtedea of pepper and 6 or 6 of owaicum are coltivate the soil, and others are principally
reckoned natives ; there are several fpedea of engaged in manufactures. The ranks of the
tolamwa, or plants of the potato genua, and the army are recmited from among them, and in
potato oonunonly called the Irish was origi- the war of independence they showed great
nally brought tram Pern. Tobaooo and jalap bravery. In Uu^ 18S8, under Tivanoo, at
ore abmuUnt in the groves at the foot of the Arequi^a, out of a regiment 600 strong, 540
moontainB; and many of the flowers cultivated were killed and wounded before they submit-
in grMdhouaes and gardens in other countries ted to GastUla. The pure-blooded desoendants
groir wild in the foreata. Ootton is found in of the SpaniardB are mnoh inferior in nnmber to
great abondanoe in a wild stat« on the banks those oi mixed race. They are fickle and in-
of the Amaaon and its tributaries. Among capable of much mental labor, and addicted to
the numerous shrubfl whidh clothe the high- cock fighting and sJ! sorts of gambling. The
lands, tiie different E^wcies of cinchona or Pe- women are remarkable for their pereooal at-
mvian bark are the most vahtable. It ia scat^ tractioue, elegant taste, natural devemess. and
terad along the skirta of the Andes over an ex- pleaung manners ; but they lose their bloom
tent of 2,000 m., at an elevation of from S,800 at an early age. The n^roee are altogether
to B,600 feet, and therefbre thrivea in a n«at confined to the towns near the coast uid to
variety of climates. On the £. declivity of the set^rta ; with the molattoes, &c., they form a
Andes it forms a coi^inued forest for many very turbulent and nnmly portion of the cam-
miles. Oaoutohouc ia procured from the in- munity. — Agriculture ia not much attended to
apiasated juioe of a variety of different plants, in the maritime districts, and Liioa and many
The tree ferns range between 1,600 and G,000 other towns near the eea depend upon imported
feet abovelhesea; D^oud tlieheightof 10,S00 provifious, which are chiefly brought from
feet arboreaoent vegetables disappear; between Chili. In the plmns of Caiamarca large crops
6,600 and 18,600 feet the alptue pWito are of barley and wheat are raised, the latter yield-
fonnd ; apedee at the Winttra and EtaaHonia ing from 18 to 21 fold. Between the eleva-
ocoor betweui 9,200 and 10,800 feet, and form tions of 2,000 and 10,000 feet the fr^ta and
senibby bosbea m t^eoold and moist climate. oerealsofthetemperateoUiuatesarecultivated;
— There are extensive tracts on the W. side of but as no carts or wagons can travel tliese re-
Pern in which life eewia to be almost wholly gions, and there exists no means of transport-
extinct. Among the wild animals of the ooun- ing produce to the cooutj^ below except on
try are tiie puma, Jaguar, bear, deer, wild thebaokBofmuIeB,Dnly aufflcieutgrainisraised
boor, fox, skunk, orma^o, sloth, and several to supply Ibe immediate wants of the district
spedee of monkey. The Peniviui sheep is where it ia crown. The manu&ctnres of Fern
the moat valuable indigenous animal of the are inconsioerable. Some cotton and coarse
oonntry. Then are 4 varieties, the llama, al- woollen fabrics, straw bats, mats, and a flew
paoa, guanaoo, and vicoDa. The Spaniards in- other articles are made. Tanning, dyeing,
trodooed the European sheep into the country, soap making, distilling, and some other maun-
and flocks a 60,000 to 100,000 may now he factnrea are carried on. Gold and silver filigree
met with in the highlands. They also intro- work and lace are made at Lima. — The prm-
daeed horses, homed cattle, and asses; and cipal exports are the precious metals, guano,
the mule ie now the ordinary beast of burden, nitrate of soda, wool, cotton, hides, Peruvian
In the valleys and toward the coast the bark,sagar, oliveoil,pisco(aspiritinttdcchiefly
imported anjmid* have thriven, but on the in the neighborhood of the place from which
he^ti they are much degenerated in size, it takes its name), and eome wine of excel-
Alligators are found in the rivers, and scab lent quality. Lx 1854, 844,400 tons of guano
are very common along tiie coast. There aro were shipped, and it is calculated that the
numben of tortiuses, sn& several species of ser- oonntry now has enough of this manare to per-
penls, hot the latter are not often seen. The mit the exportation of 100,000 hms annually
shores of Pern are frequented by myriads of for 260 years. The imi>orts consist of woollen,
sea birds, and to them the world is indebted for cotton, and linen ^oods, machinery, cutlery,
the valuable manure called guano. In the days earthenware, provisions, &o. The trade of Fern
of tiie inoaa theae birds were protected by law w^ other countries was as follows in 1868:
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Total »,OOT,SCT
ot|4SC ber of dapatiM is oompoaed of one repreBent^
4^»^ tdT« for onrr 80.000 Ukhftbttanta, or for 9vtrj
'^^f fractional part above 10,000. Tlu>d«Mrtmenta
are soremed b; prefects under the direct an-
g^ thoi^ of the preeident; and at the capital of
Bi^DSo eaclt there ia a junta fbnned of two members
ooort at lima, and eiqterior courts nt at I
In 1866, 871 veeeels vith an aggregate burden Oiuoo,Ai«qnlpa,Tra2illo,A7aonoho,HiidPmio.
<tf 816,316 tons entered the porta of Peni from The jnitees are appointed by the preddrat,bnt
Oreat Britain and her posaeasioiiB, importing cannot be removed at his pleaaore. Capital
goodstothevaliieof$17,431,200;Mid77TesBelB, pmiiahment has been abolished for politiofll
vrlthanaggregatebordeaof 34,058 tons, clear- offences. Bj a law lately made, illegitfanate
ed directlr for the same desthiations, taUng ex- children are entitled to a share of their parents'
ports to the value of $6,728,200. In the same personal property. The hmd force oonsista of
Tear 61 vessels, tonnage 81,967, entered from abont 10,000 men, with an mmen^lf large pro-
French porta, and B8, tonnage 16,876, sailed portion of ofEcere: and the naval force of one
with return cargoes, the valna of the imports sorew frigate, 7 other st«em vessels of war, fiud
being$4,0&4,600,ai)doftheeiport8$6,tS67,600. a few smaller vessels. In 1BC7 the revenue
InlSOSthe merchant vesads registered in the amoontedlo {18,666,268, of whiohtlO,S96,9G8
Afferent ports of Pern numbered 187, tonnage was derived from the profits opon the sale of
36,228, Ship bmldms is not carried on, and gnano. In the same year the expenditnre was
the greater part of tbe vessels carrying the |l6,860,061. On Jan. 1, 18C8, the national
Feravian flag are old and only fit to make voy- debt amounted to (46,461,887- The currency
ages upon a coast where stOTms are qoite un- of the country is in a very unsadsfaotory oon-
Imown. They are principally craft from the dition, and the attempts lately made to improve
United States and different countries of En- it have been too limited to afford reliefi Oonn-
rope that have been condemned and sold upon terfeit money is so plentiful that in trifling
tiie B. W. coast of America for unseawoithi- trsnsaclioDsitniaybesaidtopasscDrrent; and
neas. The internal ti-sde of the country is very the Peruvian coin is so much debased th^ the
liiolted. Railroads have been opened between dollar is in reality vor^i Utdd more than 80
Tacna and Arica, Uma and Oallao, and Ijma cents. — The early traditions and history of
and Ohorillas, a fashionable watering place Peru have been teeated in the article isoA.
agreeablr utaated on the coast a few miles About 1611 Vasoo Ntmez de Balboa, the Span-
B. of Oallao ; bnt except upon the table-lands lah governor of a small oolony in Sarien, first
there are few roads of any description. — Edu- learned from a native chief that there was a
cation is in alow condition in Peru, bnt symp- oonntryto the southward where golden vessels
toms of improvement are apparent The edu- were in common use, and where that metal was
oatdon of the lower orders is almost completely of as little valne among the people as iron ap-
neglected, and in the interior of the country it pcared to be among Euopeans. Banx>aruaed
is BOmetimes difGcnlt to procure men qualified a considerable force of Spaniards, and togeliher
(br a pnbho office by merely being able to read witti 1,000 Indians started to invade the prom-
md write. Tbenniversityof StUarkatlima, ised Eldorado. The march acrosa the istomns,
established in 1C70, is themoBt ancient nniver- though only 60 miles, ocotqned i6 days; and
git^ in America, bnt ia not very well attended, when he came In sight of the Fadfic he for-
The eetaUished religion is the Romsn Catholic, mally took possesdon of that unknown sea and
•nd but little toleration is extended to other all that it contained in the name and on be-
oreeds. The chnroh is immensely rich; its half of the king of Castile. After penetrating
head, the archbishop of Lima, has 4 suffi^gsns, abont a degree further south he returned for
the bishops of Areqnipa, Truxillo, Omco, and reEnforoemcnts ; bnt he was superseded in his
Huamanga. Therearel,800priests, 720monks, command, and the attempt to reach Peru was
and 1,200 nuns. Beside the regnlar clergy, discontinued. In 1619 the capital of thecolony
tlm« are missionaries appointed for convert^ of Darien was removed from the Atlantio side
tlte aborigmal tritres.— bi theory the govem- of the iBthmns to nesr the prescot ate of the
ment is based upon popular representative prin- citj ot Fonomo, and shortly afterward on aseo-
dples, but in practice it has degenerated into a ciation was foimed for renewing the attempt to
ndlitsjy despotian. According to the oonstita- explore and oonqoer Pern. EVandsoo I^zarro,
tion, the preddent is elected for 6 years. There via had accompanied Balboa on the former
ts no vioe-preddent and in cue of avaoanoy expedition, was at the head (^UiiBeaterpriw;
ooonning Oie predaenffa place is Bopplied by and his colleagues were Diego de Almisgro, on
the president of the executive counuL The illiterate adventarer Ufce himself, and Heniaiido
cabinet is composed of 4 ministers, namely, for de Lnque, vicar at Panama. Lnqne supplied
foreign a^rs, Justice and religion, war, and the greater part of the funds, while the others
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
engaged to do t£e fightiag, Flcarro Mlled was also sttaokad, and Uma was tlkT«atened,
mm Ffuuina in Nov. IBM, in a Bmall veasel bot the PeniTisoH were at last obli^ to rain
with abont 100 men ; but after seeing enongh the siege in order to go home and onllivato
of the ooimtrj to be convinced of its wealth, their Sdde, or gtarvatloa had sorelv overt^ea
he was obliged to retnm withont acoomplish- tliem. Dnring the progress of these events
\ag UV thing. Having vidted Bpain, obttuned Almagro had led an eipedition southward to
a TOjv grant of the twritOTT to be conqaered, conquer Ohili, the Spanish monaroh baving
and ^xicnred reomits, among whom were bis granted to him ia 1684 all the coQntr;f for 900
1 br^JLera, he set sail again in Jan. 1581, with leagues 8. of that bestowed npoa Pizuro ; but
S Towala^ 180 men, and 37 horsea, leaving after penetratuig aa far aa lat. 80° S., and nn-
Almagro behind to ooUeot reentbrcemento. dergoug the most incredible Bufferings, bo
Jieodlng at Bt. Matthew's b^, abont lat. 1' returned to Onzoo, olahnl^ that It fell within
K., after ther had been 14 days at sea, the ad- the limits of his grant, The dispnto remlted
Tentorers plundered a town in the province In open war, and a 'battle was fought Jnne 2S,
of Ooamie ; and being tefinforoed by the ar- 1688, reenHmg in the defeat and o^tore of Al-
rival of about 180 men, thej began bnHd- magro andhissabseqnentezeontion. Theoon-
tng a town in the vaUej of Tangarala, oalliug dition of the country was now deplorable. AH
ft San 2GgneL The empire of the incaa was the ancient institutions were overthrown, and
now diatraeted bf civil war between the two the righta of Indians and Spaniards were equal-
brothers Hnasoar and AtahualJpa, to whom Iv disregarded. The conqneron had appor-
ttieir £sther HuaTna Oapao had bequeaUied taoned the land and inhabitianta together as the
equal dasea of his kingdom. Atahnulpa had spoils of victory, and tiie Femvians were re-
reeent^ gained a oomplete victory over his ffiieed to the worst kind of slavery, aggravated
brother md taken him prisoner, and was now by the &ot that there were ottoa two or nuffe
eneampedwilh his army at Oazamalca, whither white men each claiming to be master of the
I^sarro nurched to meet him, in Bept, 1S8S, at same serf. Thus Manco Oapao had little dilS-
the head of 177 men. Received wiUi ^parent onl^ in raising tiiem to arms whenever he saw
friendship, he mviaged treabherously to make fit. Pizarro prepared, aa a means of checking
the inoa oaptiva, and massacred a host of In- these disorders, to establish milltsrv setUe-
dians, wboM number is stated as high as 10,- ments in the conntry, strongly fortifying die
000, without lodng one of his own men. The honsea, and ^ving to each settler a certain
F^mvian army fled in dism^. AtahoaOpa offer- portion of land andaoertun nimibercff serb
ed as the prioe of his liberty to fill the apart- to onltivate It. ZCeporta of his oppressions
ment in which he was confined with gold ; but finally reached Spain, and in 1B40 Vaca de
after the predoos ornaments of the temples Oastro wss sent out with the commission of
and palaoM had been oontribated in amount royal Judge to examine into the state of af-
equu when melted down to more than $17,- furs, and if possible to improve it. In case
600,000, Pisarro canaed his royal captive to be of I^aarro's death, be was to produce his
put to death, Aog. 29, 1688. The Spaniarda warrant as royal governor. But before he
now moiohed toward OozoOi the Peravlan could reach Lima Pizarro had been assassi-
oa{ritsI, their force having by tms time bewi in- nated by a band of oooqHrators led by the son
creased to nearly 000 men, one third of whom of Almagro, The young Almagro prodalmed
were mounted. They entravd the city Nov. himaelfgovemor,oollectedaoonuderableforoet
l&,afterde&atingthenatives in a fierce battle, and gave battle to Oastro near Jaqja, S^tlS,
and proclaimed as inca a half brother of Ata- IS49. Defeated after an obstinate straggly
haadpa named Manoo Oapaa ; the captive Hn- he was made prisoner and pot to death, and
aaoar had been assasdnated by order of Ata- Oastro applied himself with considerable sno-
huQpa a short time before the latter's death, oess to improving the condition of the coon-
PiaaiTo now determined to boild a new capital tiy. He was soon superseded however br
near the ooast, and the vaQey of the river Bi- BLasoo Nunez Vela, who came charged with
mao was seleoted ai its site. It was founded the ezecntion of some new regulations for the
Jan. C, 1686, and called Oiadad de loa Beyes, colony, the most important of which respected
or " oity ct the kings ;" its present name has the condition of the Indians. It was declared
been derived from tost of the river, which the that all riaves should be free on tiie death tX
Spaniards softened into Ijma. In die mean their masters ; that Indian vassals of the crown
Ume ICanco had not proved the ready tool and slaves whose masters had nsed them ill or
which the oonqaeror expected to find Iiim. had taken part in the factions of Almagro and
Exasperated at Oie treatment he recced, the Pizarro ^ould be tree at once*, and that the
yonng prince escaped &om Onzoo and raised a Indians should be moderate^ taxed, and shoold
native insnrrection. That dty was besieged by not be fbrced to labor where they did not
overwhehning nmnbers, who set fire to the choose. These measures raised a eterm of dis-
booseswithbnniingarrowssndred-hotstones. content, and the colonists looked to Goncalo
One of Piavro's brothers was UUedj many of Pizarro, the last Vit that family now left in
the Spanlwda who rerided on forms onltivated Pern, as their only hope. Gonzalo accordlngly
by the fi»«ed labor of the Jbdians were maa- assumed the title of procurator-general of Pern,
sacred ; re&nforoemeute were cot off; Jaqja and, favwed by the raahnsM of the vioeroy,
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
182 FEBU
who vu Sntllj depoaed hj the audieneia, booh expelled. BoUvar rerigned the dictatonhip in
oolleoted a formidable force, entered the capi- 1826, after having matured hia plans for seps-
tal, and assumed regal state. The news of rating the B. and B. E.provinoea to form a new
Qiese proceedings caused ^eat consternation repobiic -which adopted bis name. A revoln-
in Spain, aai Pedro de la Gasca, who, thongh tion took place in 1836, when the oonstltntim
a member of t^e priesthood, had diatiognished adopted hj Bolivar was aboliahed, and a new
himself Iratli as a soldier and a atateemon, was one fhimed, founded upon that of Uie Vi^ted
sent ont to drav tlie people bacic to their alio- States. In 1836 Santa Gmz, preddent of Bo-
g^ance. He was inTested with all the powers livia, taking advantage of an invitation from
of the sovereign. In the mean lime Gonzalo some disoflbcted parties in Pern, entered the
had seized the forte npon the isthmns of Pana- conntry with an armf, and enoceeded in redn-
ma in order to intercept any force from Spun, ciiig it afler several sangoinarj engagements,
bat no duiger was apprehended hj hia omoers Benta Cmz was proclaimed enpreme protector,
from a poor prieat wno came without a reti- and K. Pern, 8. Pern, and Bouyia were mdted
nne. By his promises of pardon to all who in one confederation. Iho protector's troops
ibonld join him, Oasca gained poeseesion of were defeated at Ynngay in 1839, and the con-
tlie fieet at Panama in Nov. 1646, and after- federation brought to a close, when Pern and
ward by the same inducement sncceeded in Bohvia retnrned to their previone forms of
nimng a oonaiderabte force, with which he government. A congress assembled, end Oa-
■ailed for Pern in April, 1547. He was received marra, who then governed provisionally, was
witli great enthoMasm. Gonzalo retreated from appointed president. Gomarra was killed in
Ijma, and afterward gained a victory over some battle in Bolivia in Not. 1841, and Mencndez,
royalists; bnt Gasca raised a force of S,000 president of the conncii of state, sncceeded
men, the largest Enropean army that had yet nim, bnt was forcibly deposed in Ang. 1843,
been assembled in Sonth America, and follow- by Gen. Forieo. A series of civil wars now
ed him to Jaqouagna, where, his troops desert- ensned, and the coantry passed snccessivelT
Ing, he waa made prisoner, and shortly after- into the hands of Vidal, Fignerola, and Vi-
ward execnted. The war having been brought vanco. Gen. Bon Bamon Oastilla bronght
to a close, Gasos tamed his attention to estab- these stmg^ea to an end in 1844, and re-
lishing the government of the conntry npon a placed Henendez in power ; when, a congress
moresatisfutoTyfootingthanhadhithertobeen neing called to choose a president in accord-
attempted. He left Pern in Jan. 16G0, and ar- ance with the constltntlon, Gastllla himself
rived in his native country after an absence of was elected. He took possession of the gov-
4 years. With a few trifling exceptions, the emment, April 1, 184S, and for 6 years order
colony remaned qaiot for many years, and the and peace were maintained. In 18ei Oen.
anthority of the Spanish crown was complet«ly Rnfino Jos^ Echeniqae was elected president.
established. The empire of the incas, with Hia eovermnent was accused of the grossest
some slight alterations of boundaries, became frandi, and Castilla took advantage of the dia-
one of the 4 viceroyalties of Spanish America, satisfaction of the people to stir np a revdotioii
In 1718 the province of Quito was separated in the sonth. After several battles, Oastilla
from it and annexed to the newly created vice- gained a complete victory over Gimenique'B
royalty of New Granada. The Peruviana under troops near Lima in the earlypart of 186B.
Tnpao Amam, a pretended inoa, rebelled in TheeffectsweredecisiTe,andPemwaBplacedat
ITSOj bat were easily subdued. In 1788 the hisdispossl. Castilla waa not allowed to epjoy
provmces of La Plata, Potosi, Oharcas, Ohiqni- his power long in peace, for Yivanco Incited
tos, and Paraguay were separated flrom Pern on insurrectiott against him, and gained OTer
to ibrm the government of Bnenos Ayres ; and the commanders of all the ships of war exctnit
Guatemala, Yeneznela, Caracas, Oomana, and a small steamer which waa protected by the
Ohill were formed into separate administralions. mole of Callao, and another which happened
In the war of independenoe, Peru was the last to be in China at the time. The fleet threat-
of the Danish American possessions to rebel ened to take Oallao, and Castilla, alarmed for
against the mother ooontry, w»d the Spanish" its safety, rwaed a force of nearly 400 Europeans
forces remuned in it unmolested for aome time and Korth Americans under the command of
after they bad been expelled from the neigh- an artillery olScer named Smith, who had al-
boring colonies. In 1820 Gen. San Martin en- ready taken part in all the battles that had
tered the country at the head of on army of placed the president in an&ority. This force
Obihans and BuenoaAyreans, and took posses- garrisoned the fort of Oallao, and repulsed
rion of the capital. AJler a suooession of vio- Vlvanco'e attack with such severe loss that he
tones, the Spaniards were compelled to retire retired to Areqnipa, a place which had al-
to the interior. The independence of Peru was ways been attached to him. His fleet kept
declared July 2B, 1821, when San Martin was posaesaion of the sea, and at one time held the
proolumed protector. He afterward became Chincha ialonds. On Jan. 84,18fi8, two Amer-
nnpopular, and in Feb. 1824, Bolivar was made ican veasels, the lizzie Thompson and GeOTvi-
dictotor. The Spaniards maintained the con- ana, were captured while losmn^ gnano on ue
test with great obstinacy, and it waa not until coast of the province of Arequipa, by a small
Uielr defeat at Ayaouoho that they were finally steamer of Castilla's ; and aevenJ other dtips
wen robwonaatfy sticed under aimlUr oironm- of the A^enninee. The chief i^ties ue Pern-
ita"iw« Though there &re exl«iuiTe deposits giA, Asaisi, and Nooera, The lake of Pero^
of goaoo in other plMwe, the laws of Fem odIj (ana. Thraij/inenv*) ia in the W. part of the proy-
pennit it to be exportol to foreign conntriee inoe, near tiie Tuscan border, 9 m. V. of the
tmm the Ohiiu^ ulanda. The ehipB in qnes- atj of Femgio. Its h^ght above the sea ia
tioD were Aimiahed hy an ofBoer of YiTanoo'a 1,107 feet, ila length 9 m., ita breadth 7i m.,
with ponnita to load at the places where thejr and its depth not ov«r SO f^t. It contains the
were iuxed ; bot althon^ that chief was at three ialanda of Polvese, Uaraiore, and Minore.
the time in poasesraon of the snrronnding ter- Near PapignaDo, on the N. £. side of the lake,
riloiT, the government of Pern reAued to ao- ia anpposed to be the place of the battle foiudtt
knowledge them as anj aothoritr. The ships in SIT B. 0. between Eanoibal and the Ro-
WH« rraiored to Oallao, where toej were oon- mans. — Fkbuou., the chief town of the prov-
fiicated and both captuna and the mate of tlie ince (pop. 18,301), is mtoated on a high liiU,
Geergiana impria(Hied j but the; were released 9S4 feet above the sea, on the left bank of the
opon totiuritj after hemg confined for S da^ Tiber. It is endoeed hy walls in the form of &
"nie Perarian goremment have riooe ateadily polfgon. Of the ohnrches, said to be over
denied all redraa, and their refbsal to paf 100, the most important are the Daomo or
1150,000, the amoimt claimed by the owners cathedral, the chnrch of BanFranoesco, andtbe
of the liude Thompson and Oeorgiana, to in- ohorch of 8an Domenico. Amon^ the other
demniff them for their losses, led to the with- poblio bnildinga worthr of mention are Uie
drswalrftheU.S.niinisterfromlimainthean- town house, the old exdiange, and thedtadel,
tmnn of ISflO. Areooipa waa taken bj aasanlt bnilt bj Pope Panl III. Pero^ is a bislutp'a
\ij Cistilla in Uarcn, 18CS, after a moat ob- see, and has a nnireraity founded in 1320, with
■diute and gallant defuice, in which Vivanco a library of 80,000 volomes, a botanio gar-
bad sboDt 8,000 of his men killed sod woond* den, a mineralo^cal collection, and a cabmet
ed. IhoDgh alaTery was abolished in Fem by of antiquities. The mann&koturea, which are
the charter of independenoe, it still existed few, connst prindpallr of soap, diatilleriea of
till Oaatilla freed the alares by proolamaUon brandy and liquenrs, nlkB, and woollens. Fe-
in I85fi. When the SpaniardioonqDMed the mgia (anc Pettuia) ia not mentitmed in Us-
eoimtry, they anhjeoted the bidians to a cap- toryontil 810 B.O.,whenit b spoken of as one
itation tax, which, altboogh the revolntionary of the most powertU. dtiea of iftmria. It wss
butlee had been m^nly fonght and won by engaged in aeveral wars with Rome, but was
them, wss still continued till they were freed nltiniately obliged to sncoumb to its power.
bj Oattjlla. In 1669 and 1660 the port of In 41 B. C. it became conapicnoits In the mvil
Gujiqnil waa blockaded by a PeruTian force, war between Ootavins and L. Antonina, the lat-
and in the latter year Oastiila landed troops terthrowinghimselfintothecityandsiurtainhig
ukd proclaimed Franco, a minion of hie own, a desperate siege. He waa forced to oiyiitnlate,
peaideiit of Eonador ; bnt the new mler, hav- and Perngia waa bomed down, having been
ing no means of enforcing his aatliority except aooidentaUy set on fire. It soon became again
those Eopplied by his ally, waa shortly after- a flonrishing lAtj, waa a place of mnoh impor-
vird obUged to leave the ooiutry. All effbrta tance in the Qothic wars, rabsemiently beMme
to OTerthrow Oastilla's goremment haxiDg a free monidpal town, snfibred greatly from
Med, an attempt waa made to assassinate him the contests of the Gnelphs and GhibeOinea,
while riding in the streets of Lima in Aug. and finally of ita own accord placed itself in
1B60. Tliree months afterward a better plan- the hands of Bracoio da MontonL Fope Paol
■i«d attempt was made by the oonspirators, m. inolnded it in the Papal States. In 1869
ud a company of soldiers led by their oSoers its rerolted inhabitants were tiWed with «x-
neceeded in entering his house eariy in the ceeding severity by the papal troops, and in
nonuDg. Oastdlla, being aroused by his wife, 1860 it waa annexed to the possesions of Vio-
tuniged to eso^w in his ahirt to the street, tor EmanueL
«hen the soldiers who iiad been brought to PEKUGINO, Ptsmo, an Italian punter,
Mnasnutehim turned, by the order of a friend whose true name was Yannncci, the master
ofOaimia, and shot their officers on the spot of Bapbael,boniin Oastello della Pieve, in the
PEKDQU, a province of the kingdom of ancient diatrict of Umbria, in 1446, died there
ualj. formerly of the Pwal States, boonded K in 1524. He received hia first instractions in
hy the {Huvinoe of Droino e Peaaro, E. by painting from artists of the Umbrian school,
XHeratasnd Oamerioo, S. bySpoleto, and W, and at the age of 20 visited Florence, where
by Orrieto and l^iacany : area, 1,447 sq. m. : he studied with great assiduity, and became
PW- ia 1K3, 284,688. The entire aurfaoe of the friend and fellow pupil of Leonardo da
the proriiM is covered with spurs of the Apen^ Vinci. Having punted here a nnmber of
■unM, the main ohun of which runs along the wor^ including an altarpiece of the A»ump-
N- and E. frontiers. The Tiber flows through tion, now in the academy of fine arts in Flor-
ue luddle of the province. Although the ence, he returned about 1476 to Umbria, and
^ceoftJieoountry is generally hilly, there are established bimaelf in PemAa, whence be
^iny vide and fistful plains, so that Pemgia acquired the name Pemgino, oy which he is
u eoandered one of the most fertile prorinoea commonly known. In 1480 he was invited by
U,9,-„zOQbyGOOgIC
184 PEB1TTIAN BABE PESHATPEB
Sxtns IV. to Borne to asairt in dooonting tbe ^gent drotnnstanceB. He vas Imried in th«
Sutine chisel, and the ft'eecoea executed bj Pantheon near Raphael, He has been oftUed
him there ahov that his style vaa then esseo- the Raphael of architeotore.
tJally Florentine. AiT«r hie Tetom to Pemgia FESABO (ano. Fitavmm), a city of central
he Teenmed the feeling and manner ao<jnired Italy, oa[>itsl of a district of the aame name, in
iroin bis earlj TJmhrian teachera, modifying the legation of Frbino e Pesaro, and ritnated
tjieir asceticism bj an inftision of grace, and at the month of the F<»lia, 19 m. K. E. firom
greatly improving in drawing and coloring. Urbino; pop. 18,000, ft is fbrtifled, adorarf
His freeooes in tno exchange of Peragia are vith magnificent ohnrefaet, palaees, and other
oonaidered hia principal work. Other pictures bnildinM, and has a pnblio library, 2 hospitals,
paiDtedthere"areremarkable,"BaysUr8.Jame- a fonndling asjimn, and a theatre. SeTeraJ
son, " fbr t}ie simplicity, grace, and dignity of of the chnrcheB and convents contain valoable
his Virgins, the infantine Bweetnega of tlie paintings. Delf, glass, and silk are mannfltc-
ohildren and chembs, and the earnest, ardent tnred. The figs which grow In the neighbor-
expression in theheads of the sainla." Hewas hood are considered the best in Italy. — The
now one of the most popnlar painters of Italy, city ig first mentioned in history in 186 B. 0.,
Bndnndertooknnmeron8works,many of which when a Boman colony was set&ed there. It
were executed by his scholars from his designs, was a flonrishing town dnring the empire, wgs
Oradnally he was induced by avarice to sacri- destroyed by Yitiges in the Gothic wars, was
ioe his art to love of gain, and his pictures rebnilt in part by BeHaorins, became prosper-
painted subsequent to 1505 are feeble, manner- ons under the esarchate of Bavenna, and was
ed, and monotonous, beside showing marks of one of the cities of thePentapolis.
careless and rapid exeontion. His reputation P£BCIE,Kicola, or Cola, a Sicilian swimmer
oonld not long hold out against this deteriora- and diver, who lived about the end of the 141h
tion of style, and during the last 10 or 16 years century. He received the name of Peace (the
of his life he may be siud to have snrvived him- Ilsh) ftom hta skill in diving and awimming,
self. "BiB best period waa between 1490 and and was patroniEed and employed by Frederic,
1606. His school was then Dnmerons and eel- kins of Sicily. Having been accustomed ftom
ebrated, and among his pupils and assistants his boyhood to dive for oysters and corals, ho
he numbered Raphael, who remained with him became so expert as to be enabled to remain
(com 1496 to 1603. Perugino's works are under water longer than any other person on
flnmd in every conmderable collection in £n- record, and the most fabulous stories were told
rope, bnt those p^ted in his best manner are of hia feats. It waa said that he was in &e
ran. habit of passing whole honrs under water and
PEBTTVIAN' BABE. See OnncHOirA. whole days in it, and of swimming from Bicily
FEBUZZI, BALnAssAmt da Stera, an Italian to the IJpari islands, carryiuK a leather bag
arohit«ct of the Biennese school, bom in Tol- conttdning letters and despatdes. The story
terra in 1481, died in Home in 1686. The goes that Frederio wished him to dive off
early part of his life was devoted to painting, Point Faro, into the whirlpool of Charybdis;
and after executing some works in a chapel at and as Pesce doubted whether to make the
Volterra, he went to Bome. where he painted attempt, the king threw into the sea a golden
some frescoes in the churcn of B. Onofrio, in cup. Pesce dived alter It, and, after staying a
that of San Booco k Bipa, and in the fortress long time under water, succeeded in recoverug
of Ostia. Subsequently he began the study the cup, which he received as a gift along with
of arohiteotnre, and became especially distin- a pnrse of gold. A second experiment, how-
gutshed for his skill in architectural perspec- everjresulted in his death. Schiller's ballad
tives and scene painting. One of the best of of "The Diver" is founded upon this incident
his works was the Famesina palac^^so ele- PESHAWEE, or Peshawite:, a province of
gantly constructed that, according to Vasari, it British India, in the Pnnjaub territory, occupy-
" onght rather to be described as a thing bom ing the H, W. extremity of the Indian empire,
than as one merely built ;" and so exquisitely bounded H. by the territory of Oashm^e, E.,
adorned that when ^tian first saw it, he could S. E., and 8. by Lahore, and W. and K. W. by
hardly be persuaded that the objects were not the Afghan province of Jelalabad ; area, 9,824
real. Peruzzi erected and embellished a large sq. m. ; pop. about 600,000. The Oyber,
number of building and ft^adee. In 1620 Mohmuna, Bwat, and Ehuttuk mountains form
Leo. X. appointed him to snocoed Baphael aa the boundary line on all sides except the E.
the architect of Bt. Peter's; buton the sacking and B. E., upon which the Indus fiows. The
of Rome in 1537 by the constable de Bourbon, province is exceedingly well watered by sev-
Pernrai was stripped of all his property, and it etal streams, and the water is applied to pur-
was with extreme difficulty that he escaped poses of Irrigation by meana of eanala froio
with his life to Bienno. Returning to Rome, which it is raised by Persian wheels turned
he b^an the erection of the Palazzo Hassimt, by cattle, and by other contrivances worked
UBUaUy considered his masterpiece, but did not by men. The cumate is very hot in summer.
live to see it completed. His whole liffe was a Thb soil is naturally fbrtile ; vegetation con-
series of misfbrtnnes. He was poisoned by a tJnues throughout the year, and two harvests
rival archit«ot ttom jealousy, and died in in- are gathered. The prmd^ crops raised are
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
VBBTALOTXt 186
wheat, baritf, auuM, millot, eteffdT, tannnio, proq>er; the vIllftiFBa too ooBtlf for the estate:
tobaoco^ and ootton, together with ui« greater hia assistaiita were onfaith&l ; and he hunaelf
part of the frnita and v^ctablea growo m both vaa entirely incompetent for a bndnesa nnder-
tropical and temperate r^ous, and a kmd of taking of such magnitnde. The result was, that
rioe called iara, tiie finest in the world. The hia Zflrich partners withdrew their oapital; hnt
load ft^m Hindoatan to Oabool and Ehorassan Festolozzi resolred to continue his iarming, and
bj the EhT'ber pass leads Uirongh Peahawer ; to combine with it a school for poor children.
and Uie province being open to tiie inroads The school was opened in ITTC, and goon had
of the wild inhabitants of the moontaina, the SO pnpils. His plan was to make it a mannal
British maintain a regolar mllit«7 force of labor achool, employing the children in som-
npward of 10,000 men along the grand trunk mer in field work, in winter in spinning and
road between I«hore and Peahawer to hoM oth» handcrafts. Instniotion was to alt«r-
them in oheok. — ^Tlie oajatal, Pibhawxr, ia nate with labor in the sonuner, and in the win-
■itnated on the rirer Ban, in lat. 88° 59' N., ter the teaching, which was ohieflj oral, was
long. 71° 40* E.^lHnit 18 m. E. from theKex- to be conunnnicated while they were at work,
tmni^of the Khj-ber pass; pop. 5S,S9S. It The school did not succeed, partly because
is rorroimdad bj high mnd walls, atrengthened Pestaloazi was too good-natsred to resist the
with bastions^ and aefiended bj a fort. When importonitj of the parents in demanding a
Pashawer wwa mled hj the Alfehana, it eon- oompensation for tiie children'a work &r be-
taiaed lOO^OOO inhalutante ; hot after their de- jona ita value ; hot mainly beoanse he atten^t-
leat bjRiiqfeet Singh he destroyed the fine ed to carry on the higher branches of manaAo*
houses of the oliief (odaens, dasaorated the tore, when the children whom he employed
moaqnea, and l^d the mrronndiug ooontry liad not acquired safficient skill to prodnee well
waits. The ezaotiona of the Sikbe were snl>- even the commonest goods. In 1760 he waa
Mqoently ao heavy tliat its restoration was compelled to break up the school. He waa. at
C vented, but eiuoe ita oooopation by the thia time redaced to great extremities. Hia
tish all rastriolicais npon it have been re- wif^ who had pledged, nearly her whole prop-
mored, and the town haa rapid^ increased, erty fbr him, was snaring from a protracted
About } of the inhabitants are M<»iammedans, lUnees, and they were often without money,
ud the remainder Hindoos. Feshawer waa bread, or ftiel. It waa under these depreasii^
founded by th« emperor Akbar. The preset <nrcnmstaitces that his Renins, ripened by k£-
fortresi was ereotea by Bnnjcet Sngh. faring, began to display itself. Kear the doee
PESTALOZZI, JoHAHB HKraxioB, a Bwiaa of the year 1?80 there appeared a pq»er from
teaeher, and ibonder of ttie Peetalozziaii syatem his pen In Iselin's ^hemtridet, entitled " The
o! edneation, horn in Zdrich, Jan. 13, 1744, Evening Hour of a Hermit." It contained a
died In Bmg^, Feb. 17, 18S7. Ss&therwas series of aphorisms on ednoation, and prodneed
a phymcian of Zurich, b^ mother the daughter a decided effect in Germany and Bwitzerland.
of a Protestant clergyman. By the death of In 17B1 appeared the first part of his Lieiihard
his fhdier when Heiuich was only 6 yean of und Qvrtrvd, a work which at once eatabliahed
age, he was thrown entirely under his mother's his reputation as a writer, and the object of
care. Natnrally of a feeble constitotion, no which was to enforce the importance of home
dEbrt was made to develop and invigorate his education, and the evils of dissipation. It had
phyrioal system ; and he grew up awkward and a large aale, and excited ninoh attention In
slumsj. Hia temperament was highly virion- Qermany and Switzerland. It haa been tran^
uy and speonlative, and he was constantly die- lated Into most of the lan^agee of Eorope,
tieased with an ambition to do something for The agricultural society of Bern awarded Fea-
the benefit of bia country, and espedally of the taloEzi their great gold medal and a vote of
poor, while he poeeessed little executive ability thanks. Offers were made him to remove to
md ttsa lees praotioal knowledge. His dispo- Italian Switzerland, to Austria, where Oonnt
stiou was amiable^ affbction&te, and patriotic. Zinzendorf desired his aid, and to Florence,
Hii education was meagre, e^ieoislly In the where the grand duke of Tuscany was attont
rommon brKnebes (for he waa tolerably fa- to give him an appointment ; but, depressed
Miar with the olassioa), when Ronsseau's in spirit, he prefeired to remain at Nenho^
E»iie fbll into bis hands, and led bun to aban- where his cironmstanoes were not much hn-
don the legal and historical studies which he proved. In 1782 he published Okriatoph v/nd
had eommaiced, and set np for an educational El»», a supplement to his "Leonard and Ger-
refbrmer. BytheadvioeofTaohiffeli, an Intel- tmde," but Gu- less popular. Beveral other of
liKentbutenthnriastio and impracticable &nner his works of a philosophioal character were
of Eir^berg, in the oanttm of Bern, he pur- published between this period and 1796. He
cbssed a barren tract of land near Birr, and also edited during a part of thia time " The
in 1767, in connection with a rich mercantile Swiss People's Journal," and projected a In-
finn in Ztlrich, commenced a madder plantv natio asylum and a reformatory institution, but
tioo, and erected a TQla for himself, which he neither went into operation. In 1793 he ririt-
named Kenhot Here he purposed to estab- ed Germany, and formed the acquaintance of
lid) a centre for Us educational and agricnltnral Goethe, Herder, Wieland, Klopstock, and Ja-
Uhorsi but tiie madder phmtation did not ooU. Li 1797 and 1798 the Impending danger
U,9,I,z.-QbyGOO^Ie
to Ui ooiatij frwa Ota Stench ooonpalion Bate, Oumt^ noir in hl» 90Qi year, Peetailaiii
ransed hia pstriotio ^rit, and he nigai nptm entered t^nthework of teaohuigwitli greater
the peoi^ in bis "JoamAl," as well aa in other seal than ever before, and with more aeciaiTe
, _e promotion of ednoatawi, and a re- Gertnide teaches her Ohildreit" and hia "Book
turn to the integrity and ^etr of their anoea- for UoUmto," whiidi followed it, waa gaining
tore. Tho government osered him an offioe popoJari^inmostof thecooulzieeirf^iropei
to qniet him, hnt he i«plied to th^ inqnir; teaohere were eent to him for inatraedon, and
as to what office he would he willing to ao- the Peetaloadan B7Bt«m was fbrmallj adopted
cept: "I willbeasohoolmaster." Hewaeao- by the I'madan and other German govern-
eordinglj abont to open on edncatjonfll inati- moits, wltile it greatljr modified the metltod
tation in the canton of Aargan, when, in of Saganin Anotrio, that of Jacototln IVanoe,
Sept. 1T98, Btanx in Unterwslden waa burned and that of Father Girard in Belgium. But
bj the French, the entire canton laid waste, disseDsions soon sprang op among his teach-
and a mnttitnde of orphan children left home- en. Schmid, indiqkensahle to Festalozzi for
leas. Legrand, then at the head of the Swiss bis flnandal skill and executiTe abH^, was
directory, oaUed npon Feetaloid to go to Stanx hanghty, stem, and overhearing in hia manners
and take care of those deetitnteehildraL Here toward the Mher teachers, and in 1810 an
fbr 10 months he tangbt, fed, and trained imevtt oocoired, which was onlj qtucAed by
80 ohOdren, nnder the most difBcnlt and di»- his leaving the InsHtntion. There was no one
tressing ciroiunstanoes, a otmnderable number left wliooould fill his ^ace; Pestelczzi himself
of Ihttn aiok, and all sofibring from scurvy and had no skill in ^^'^wn'ial management or diatu-
outaneons ai^ctions. He would probaU; have pline, and in 1611 t^e downward tendency of
died nnder hia labors, bad not tike French, in the inslitati(»t necessitated Schmid'aretom. In
tb^ retreat, virated Sbanz again, and turned the 1810, 13 of the teachers, nnable to remwn with
convent where Peatalozzl waa teai^iing into & Sdunid, resigned at onoe ; among th^ were
hospital. After a few months he obtained per- Erftai, Niedwer, Blocbmsnn, and Buss. This
missiontoteaehinaprimaiTBcboolatBnrgdwf^ waa followed by a 7 yean' lawsuit, arising ont
in the canton of Bem. A year later an attack of the peonniary aff^rs of the institntion, be-
of pulmonary disease compelled him to reUn- tween Pestalozzi end Bchmid on the one ude
qnish bis lBb<H^ and in 1800, ta coifjnnotion and Niederer on the other. It was finally set-
with KrOsi, Tohler, and Bnss, be oponod an Ued by arbitration. Meantime the school was
edacalionalinstitntionBtBaTgdorf. Thissohool losing ground; a poor school at Clindy, in-
may be regarded as the first Eyetematic attempt, tendM as a sort of appendage to the inaldtntioD
on the part of Pestaloazt, to rednoe to wactice at Tverdnn, was mamtained for 6 years, but
the principles of education shadowed lorUi in was finally relinquished. At length, in 16S6.
his " Leonard and Gertrade" nearly 90 years the Tv^nn Institntion waa broken np, and
before ; and it is remarkaUe that he should Pestslozri, now in his 80th year, retired to ^e
have att^ed bis 64th year before potting in hinne of his grandson at Veuliof, where, 60
practice a system which bad been fliUy formed years before, be had oommenoed his first schod
In his tnind for 30 years. It waa the next year for the poor. In 1818 a portion of hia works
after the organizatian of this fiohool that be bad been collected by B<uunid, and pnbliahed
gave to the world a fall exposition of hia edn- by sabsoription, whicu yielded him a net re-
oational views, in a work bearing ttte dngnlar turn of about $10,000. After bis retiremeDt
and hardly appropriate title of TPiCs O^trvd to Neuho^ with a mind still unbroken by ad-
Ur«£tnd«r2«Art ("How Gertmde teaches her versity, he wrote his StAtBanrnffoang ("Boiw
Children"). This work had a wide circulation, of the Dying Swan") and Mein LebautekiettiUi
and attracted not only private friends of odn- alt Vortteher mtiner Sniehmtsft-Iftttitttta m
oation, but deputations from several of the Stirgdor/ and fferten ("Fortones of my Life,
European governments, to visit the institution as I^wpal of my Educational Instdtntions at
St Borgdoif. In 1804 another revolution oo- Burgdorf and Yverdnn"), and delivered two or
onrred in the government, and the castle at three lectures on education.— It is difficult for
Bni^dorf which Pestalozn had hitherto ooon- the reader, mtEamiliar with the history of edu-
pied being wanted by the Bernese government, oation, to understand how this man, whose
be was nnder the neoeedty of removing hie whole life, conridered in detail, seems to have
school to Buchsee, where tbe government as- been a eucoessioii of foilnres, should have exert-
rigned him a monastery, close by Hof^l, the ed an influence so powerfol as he evidently has
estate of Fellenbe^, who soon csma to have a upon the civiUaed world for the last 60 years;
oontrolling interest in the management of the bat the true explanation is, that in bis educa-
school. It was not long, however, before Pes- tional theories ne had brought to light great
taloEzi found the methods of management in- and abiding principles, and tliat bis system was
troduoed by Fellenberg so different from his greatly better than his own exemplification of
own, that he accepted a proposal in 1806 to it Ilie principles developed in his works on
remove his institation to Yverdun, At first edocation, though some of them perceived but
only a few of his teachers and pupils accom- dimly by himseff, are the following : that edn-
panied him, but half a year later the rest came, oation &bonld proceed according to the lavs
U,9,-„zOQ-byGOO^Ie
PE8TALQZZI rBSm 187
ofnaian; f&M h ia fha dntr of tiio taidwr to FESTH (Hong. PmQ, the onnmerdiltndUt-
oasist tluB, br«»nting tlM duld to Mlf-ACtiv%; emymetz^iollBof Him^aiy, andot^itBlof the
and rendering him only a limited degree of oeutoal ooau^ of the aaioe nime, eitiutted on
aaaistanoB ; tlutt prograH ahonld be slow and the left beak of the Dennbe, (mposite Bndo,
gradTul, bat imimE«rni|ited, never peering to e 186 m. B. S. £, ^ raUws^ from Viwne ; pop.
second topis OH the &Bt is laSj imderetood ; attont 06,000. Together with Bnds it ia also
thet the memoir '"^ ^ nnderetandlng ehonld known under tlie name of Bada-Festh (Hnng.
not be nndiilj ooltivated, but aU the &onhiee BvdapeiCf, both citieett^^ether oonatitotingtbe
devdoped in harmony; that the peonliaritiea admiuBtratiTa, and, according to Uie laws of
of ever; child and of eaohsesdionid beoare- 18i8,alBO the legidative coital of theootmtrf.
fbllj Btiidied in ordar to adapt Initrootion to Thej are oonneoted hj a anapennon bridge,
them ; that the elements of all knowledge are one of the greateet works of the kind, corn-
form, number, and language, and that these menoed in 1840 imder the direotioa of the
elements ahonid be tan^ with ainwlid^ and English en^eer Tieroer Clark, and opened
tiiorondlmeas; that the art irfobeernnganonld Jan. 6, 184S, being £rat oroated bj the retreat-
boaoqinied,a]idthepen»ptJTeboaltieswellde- ingHongarian rcTolutionary army imderCHir''
veloped; that every tofdo of instnuilion ahonld gey, and immediately after by the Anatrian
beoookeaD ezerdse forthe reflective powers; armynnder WindiachgrUa, boui accompanied
that mental sriUunette, geometry, md the arts br heavy tr^us fd artilleiy and ammnniUon.
of drawing and moddtbg are hiriilyimpor- Ihe towers of the bridge are SCO feet in height;
taat exertUM fbr training, atrengtt^ng, and thelengttioftheeentnuipanis67Dfeet,theen-
diatnplining tlie ndnd and the monltlM; tlut tire water way 1,850, the width of the road-
thelAwe of language ahoold be developed frmn way 26, and ofeadi footpath 6, the height of the
wilbiii, and the exerdses in it made not tmly ph^orm above the river 46, and <£ the towers
to cnltivata the intelleot but to improve the af- ebove the same level 120. The view from the
factions ; (hat voeal moalo ahonld do tan^dit in tnidse over the river and its banks, one of
schools, not by rote, bnt by a oarelbl stnoy of which, tiiat of Peslh, Is lined with a magni-
the ekmentary jprinoiplea of unude; that the fleont row of maarive palatial bnildings, and
propermethodofinstrtutimisnott^qnestion the other crowned by the high fortreaa of
and answer, but, in the early stages of edQo»- Bnda and the SDrronnding mountains, is uisor-
tion, by dictation by the teacher and repetition passed in beantf. Bat itis to the river and its
by the sehtdar, and at a more advanced stage Islands, and prmo^wUy to the i^elnreeqne en-
giving ont problems by the teaohw, to be virona <tf Bods, that the c^iltal of Hongary
sotved by the pnpll without asrirtaaoe; flkat owes ahnoat all its natural attraotions, Pesth
rcHgiooa insbrobon shonld begin with the being bnilt wl a aanc^rpluu, destitnte of any
mother, that tite filial feettngs of fite cMd interosting fboture. The town eonsiats of fi
should t>e first ooltivated and directed toward divisions, called the Inner, Leopold, Theresa,
God, and that fbrmsl reUgions instnetiim Joseph, and Francis towns. Of theBC the Inner
ehonld be reserved to a laterpeiiod, when the town is the oldest or original part of Uk dty,
child can imderstand it ; that despotao and forming a qnadran^ on the bttik of the I>an-
cmel government in schools (which had been nba liadiig the S. jwrt ftf Bada and the Blocks-
almoet nniversally praotised np to bis time) berg (OelKrt mounbOn). It is snrronnded by
is imivoper, but that artificial inoentivee to the o^erdividons in a kind of semicircle, com-
nially BO ; that the ocmsdoos- mendng with the Leopold town (m the npper
1 intellectnal vigor, and afibo- m nortbem bank of the Danube, and in the
BoiuK« regsm tar the teacher, are the best Francis town returning to the lower or sonth-
sUmnlaiits to exertion ; and finally, that the em. The Inner town and Leopold town con*
oareibl cnttnre of the pbyilca] powers and the tain the principal and most &ahionahIe parts
exercise of the eensee are of very great impor- of the metropolis, among others the long and
tanee to the complete development of the grand qnay along the water ride, abore and
child. It was the office of Pes^oizi to edn- below the bridge, with its row of high, msssive,
oate ideas and not children ; to otnnbat the and brilliantlv whitevashed buildings, some of
errors, pr^dioes, and abuses wliloh were them adorned with porticos ; the New, Joseph's,
I»^valent on the subject of ednoatioa in the Oity Hall, end other principal squares, of which
sgc in which he lived ; to lay down oorreot the former is one of the IsTgest in Enrope ;
prinoiplee; which others oould carry out mooh the fashionable and commercial thoronghfitres,
better thtti he, and which have effected a com- the Waitiner (Himg. F(i««t), GMitlenMu's, and
plete revolittion in the ednoation of the young. Bridge streets; the Dorc^es, Wind, and other
— A list of Peitalozii's wm^ collected byE. wides^eetsadomed with splendid privatereri-
von Raumer, enumerates 40 distinct volumes, dences ; the Paridaa alley, a mmiv* hi the style
of which about 80 are devoted to educational of thoseoftheFrendie^iital; the d^ hall, the
topiM ; the remainder an phlloeopliloal or po- comity house, and other admiidBtrative public
libea]. For an aoalyBia of most M these, and bnildmgs; the d^ theatre, the national casino,
ntrsets frmn several of them, see "Peetuozd the exdiutge, and the principal ■Dvwsfvgvt of-
and Peetalostianism," edited by H. Barnard, floes; and the largest hotels, some of which
LLD. (New York, 1859). rival hi eleganoe the flneat establishmenta of
u.a.iizoQby'Goo^le
188 FEBTH
tlidr Idnd In omtliMntal Sarope. The ooffeo -rian, tnd other Blavla dialecta.--TlM prisc^J
ItonBOB of Peeth, moat ot wlkieh are attached ocoupatiotis of the inhabitants ars conuDdr-
to hotels, are eapedaOf (xmunodloiu. Beaide tM, trade being promoted b;- railwaya con-
the above mentioned itreetg, the Waitzner road, neonng the metropolis with tlie moat flonr-
Ooontr^ road, Eecskem6t road, and King's iahing parts of Enngarr, aa wdl as with (he
street are among the mun thorooghfares of German provinoea ol AneMa, b;- the actiYo
Peath. Most of theae, as well aa other new steam nangation on the Dsnntie, which nuUies
streets, being wide and straight, the city ia fre- It one of ue most important depots of com-
qoeAtly annoyed br drifts of dnst from the meroial endianga between Constantinople and
sandj environa, ainunat which it is protected, . the West, and \>j torn annual fairs, doting
however, on the N. E. by an extensiTe planta- which the oity and its enbarbs are filled for
tion, called the dty grove, and forming the weeha with traders of variona nationalities,
moat frequented promenade. It ia well paved, Magyars, Germans, Jews, Slovaks, Poles, Bnthe-
and lighted with ^. — Peath contains some of niana, Wallaohs, Serbs, Greeks, Armenians,
the highest adminiBtradve or jadioial courts of Oroata, Tranqylvanian Saxons, and others, ex-
the conntry, among Others the ao called sep- changing the prodaoe or mannfaotnrea of their
temviral table, or supreme court of appeals, the respective provincee, or of foreign oonntriea,
rojal table, trad the central police office ; the One of the most active branchea of industry is
highest institutions of learning, the foremoet of the printing business, the pnbliahlng eatsblish-
wElch is the nniveraity, one of the moat richly ments of Feath suwlying Hungary with the
endowed in the world, with a library of more most important prodnctiona of national Enn-
than 70,000 vols., a botanio garden, a musemn, garisn literature, with numerous worka in Ger-
an observatory, and a printing eatablishmant man, Servian, 'W'aUaohian, Slovakiao, Rnthe-
(thelast two in Bnda); the national masemn, nian, Ac., and with nnmerona Journab and
which owes its origin chieflv to the munifl- periodicals. Of the d^y newspf^)eis publiBh-
oenoe of Oount Francia Bz^chinyi and other ed in lesi the Pati napli ("Pesth Diary"),
Hungarian magnates, and contuns rich colleo- Magyaroruig ("Hungary"), snd the Uoyd Cm
tdons of antiqnitiea, eoina and medals, worka of Gennan) are atnonr the most conspicuous. —
art and literature, and natural and historical The origin of Pea^ is ancient. The Romans
curiosities; anstionaltheatre,whichbj'thetal- had a oolony on its site, oaUed Transsoincum.
ents of its performers viea with the beat atagee It is mentioned as a town in the history of the
of Yienna; the Hungarian ooademj or eoien- 11th century, and was destroyed by the Uon-
tific sode^, founded by the diet in 18SS, the gols in 1241, but having been rebuilt became
principal otfjeet of which is the cultivation and flourishing at a lat«r period, when Bnda was
sdentmo dereloianenl of the Hungarian Ian- made the capital of the kingdom. The diets
guage ; and numerons other national or private and electdons of kings were then held on the
patnoao associations for the promotion of lit- plain of EUoa, at a short distance from the
erature. art, commerce, or industry. There are town, in the open air, nobles, magnates, and
large civil and military hoi^tala, poor and or- priests assemblmg in arms, and dwelling under
pfam houses, insane and blind asylums, a house tents. After the battle of Ifohdcs (1CS6),
of invalids, a workhau8& a mont de piiU, a Peath was for about 160 years fn the hands of
penrion house fbr ex-offldals, and numerous the Turks, until the conquest of Bnda (1666)
other benevolent instJtationa, some of which put aa end to their sway in Hungary. At the
bdong only to particnlar denominationB. Of b^(inning of the 18th centnry it was made a
the sdiools, too, siane are sectarian in tbeir royal free dty, and ftom that time ita growth
character, or belong oidy to a oertun nation- was continuous down to the national war of
ali^, there being aohools for Kain ars, Greeks, lB48-'9, interrupted only for a short time by
"Wallaohs, Gemuns, Elyrians, Jews, &o., aa a frightfhl inundation in March, 188S. Its
well aa common schools. One of the most re- great revolutionary day was March 15, 1846,
nowned dvil schools is the Piarist gymnasium. The HungBrian national aaaembly was opened
The principal militu? institution is the Lodo- there July S. The city was evacuated by the
vioenm. Ilie largest military building is the revolutionary government and army at the
"Kew Buildhw," a barrack and artillery dcTOt beghming of 1849. reoocnpied by the troops
ot enormous £menrions, bnilt by Joseph IL under Aulich in April, and repeatedly bom-
toT some unexplained purpose, and frequently barded by Eentd during the siege of Bada in
used as a state prison, from which after the Kay, on which occasion about 60,000 of the
revolntion ofl84B-'9 some of the most ^stin> inhabitants found refhge in the dtj grove,
guished Hungarian patriota were taken to the living there under tents. The Hnn^o^an in-
aeaffold. The ohnrches of Pesth are oomparft- dependent government estaUished itself there
tively neither numerous nor oonspicnous ; those and in Bnda in June, hut abandoned it in July,
of the Soman Catholica exceed in nnmber those After the anrrender of Comorn it witnessed
of all other denominatioua together, the Oatho- the eiecntion of Count L. Batthydnyi (Oct. 6),
lies fbrming about I (^ the population, the Jews of Cainyi, Per^nyi, Jeazenik, and other dietin-
i, the Protestants ^, and tfaeOreelu ji^,. The guished patriots. At that time thousands of
Bermsn and Hangarisn langu^es are chiefly its inhabitants withdrew to the rural districts,
spoken, and bedde these the Slovaklan, Ser- and it was fbr a time comparatively deserted.
TVTAL raiEB (Suit) 189
After fte disutere of the Anstrians in Itaij, th« Lsmb of God I" wtiorenpon the disaplefl
tiowero:, It sgaiii became the centre of na- followed our Lord aad remained with him ali
tional agitation, enlmiaaling in the ofBemblieB that daj. One of theee two was Andrew, who
of the ooontf board, the commone, and the had no sooner disoorered that Jesaa was tlte
" agonal dnb," in Feb. and March, 1861. Vesdah than he Bought ont his brother and
PPTTAT-i in botanj, an organ of the flower brought him to our Lord. "And when Jeans
which helpB to oompose the ooroUa. In eveij beheld him, he etiA, Thou art Simon the son
developed DlOBsran are fonnd two rows of ieaves, of Jona ; thoo ehalt be called Cephas, whio^ b
the eater, Mnenllj green, oaQed the edjx, the b^ interpretation a stone." (Jonn i. 42.) It
inner, nniMlf OcJored and sometimeB whitey is from ue Qreek word vrrpot, the equivalent
called tiie corolla. Then both oalrz and oo- of Oaphas, that the apostle derived the name of
nrila are of Qie aame snbstanoe and color, tiie Peter— a name which on a sabeeqaent oooar
rows of leaves are called the perianth, a term be- sion Ohilst ezpreed^gave to him, declaring:
kmgingproperlrtotheliliAceonsplanta. Petals "Thon art Fetv, utd npon this rook I vill
varr ^restl; in size, &vm ver^ mmnte paints to build mj chnroh." (Matt. xvi. 16.) After
broad and enianded laminie ; thej may be en- their first tnteroonrse with the Savionr Peter
tiiel; free and &11 separately, or be more or lees and Andrew retnmed foraseason totheiroo-
nnited at th«r edges, forming what is called onpation of fishing, and were engaged in wash-
tbe monopetalons corolla. Tae o£9oe of the ing their nets when Jesna, shortly after the
petals seems to be to goard the more essential ownmeneement of his ministrT, walking by
parts from harm mitil after impr^nation; they the sea of Oalilee, entered into Peter's boat to
constitute the bean^ of the plant, their tints avoid the presenre of the mnMtnde. Peter
beiDgofallgrodesfromdeiioate tomsgnifioent. had toiled all the night and had token noth-
PBTABD, in artillery, a very short gon, ing; but at Christ's command he let down the
formerlvnsedfbr blowing down gates and other net again and encloeed a miracnlons dran^t
barricades. It was monnted apon a plank and of fishes, so that the net broke with tiie
secured dose to the ol^eot to be bnrst open, weight. He now received his call to leave all
Its length was only abottt 7 Inoheo, and ite bore and become " a fisher of men," being with his
at the month 6 inches. Its charge was from 9 brother Andrew the first chosen of the apos-
tD 3D lbs. of gonpowder. Petards are said to ties. He seems beside to have been one of the
have bem first lued by the French Hngnenots most favored of the IS ; he woe one of the 8
■t the lie^ of Oahors in 15T0. Tarions on- who* were selected to witness the transfignra-
lioDs devices were ttatHojoi as a protection tion and to watoh with the Savionr daring the
sgainst tbem, one of wnioh, figured in Hanzc- agony in the guden of Gethsemane. He fre-
Irt's IVaitia mililairei (ISltS), was a sort of qaently appears in the Gospels as the spokes-
tnf in which the machine md those q)pl7ing man for his companions ; he Is often specially
itvBieean^t Loose bags of powder exploded addressed byonrLord, and it is probable that
igsinst oates are Iband to be eqaally enlMtnal Christ dwelt at his house in C^temsnni. It
wpetarns. is the opinion in tact of most, thongh not of
PffrOHORA, a river of Eoropesn Basria, all ciit»M, that he epjored a certain preSmi-
wludi rises in the western slopes of the Und nence among the ^Kwtles, apon which, coupled
monotoios, aboot lat. tl" W H., long, ttd" £., with the ii^anction given to Mm by the Savionr
aodflomintotheAroliooceanbynianymontha to ftod his flodc, and the declaration ; "Thou
in lot 68* ay H., between long. 6S° and C4°£., art Peter, and apon this rook I will bnild my
after a eonrse of 900 m. After leaving dta gov- chnroh," the Bcman Oatholios fbnnd the
emment of Fwm^ which it ilses, it passes doctrine of the swremaciy of the popes as
throng these of Yoh^da and ATohsngel by a Peter's snooeMora, Protestant tbeolo^ans how-
very dronitnoas coarse, and many islands are ever regard litis preemlnenoe as pwsonal and
filmed by the stream separating and again not offldal, aikd oonteiing honor without any
ooitliig as it approaebes the sea. Its prindpal anpuior aottiori^. The character of Peter,
tribnUriea are Uie ITsaa, Ishma, and T^lma, as displq^d in the gospel narratives, is one
PETEK, Lua or. Bee 6irATmui.A. that commends itsdf particolarlv to onr inter-
nrSB. Sahtk one of the IS qtostlee, bom est and afl^ction. Ardent, zeuoas, quick In
at fiethsdds In Galilee. He was a son of one his faith, and strong in attachment to his di-
Jonas or John, whence Ohrist calls him on vine Uaster, he yet exhibits in a more marked
one occasion (Uatt, xvL 17) by the somame degree than his fellow apostles the common
Bsijona, or son of Jonah. His original name fh&tgs of hnmsnitv. When Ohrist walked
was fflmon. Before hia vocation to the apos- apon the sea of Galjlee to meet his disciples
ttesh^ he had married and removed to Oaper- whose ship was tossed with the waves, Peter
nanm on the lake of Gennesareth, wiiere w^ witit his bave walked toward him np<m (he
fail brother Andrew he followed tiie oocnpa" water; bnt becoming titaiA. he began to dnt
Hon of • fisherman. It Is probaUe that like andoned: "L(nd,saveme." Jeans Btretohea
Andrew be was a discdple of John the Baptist ont his hand and oanght him, and rebnked his
It is related by St John the Evangelist that taan, saying : " O thon of little &ith, whero-
theBaptistiBtudingwithtwoofhisdisriples, fore didst Qion donbtt" (Uatt xlv. 29-81.)
saw Jesoa pass by, and exclwmed : " Benold Again, when Christ predicted his passion ana
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
ISO FMXB (^ioti) EETEB I. (Bnseu)
desth. Fster remoimtniM wiOi Um, e»daim> he cared .^Ineu of the pabf. At Jopw he
ing : " Ba it At from thee, Lord ; Uiia ahaU raieed to life a OhriBtion woman named Ta-
not be imto thee. But he tnmeid and said hitha or Dorcas. 'While lodging here with
unto Fet«r, Get thee behind nte, Batan ; thou one Simon, a tanner, he was t^ht bj a vision
art an offence tmto me ; for thoo savorest not that the gospel should be preached not onl;
the things that be of God, but those that be to tite chosen people, bat also to the geDtJlee,
of men." (Matt. xri. S3, 38.) At the lest and instxnoted to txt^at^aay 8 men who had
rapper during the feast of the passover, when been sent to him hjr Oomelms, a centarion
our Lord washed his diioipW feet, Peter at who dwelt at Orasarea. Having baptized ^ib
first reftased with great vehemenoe to permit man and his household, he returned to JeruMk-
his Uaster so to bomiliate himself before lem, where some of the brethren rebuked him
him; but being told bj him : " If I wash thee fbr holding intercourse with the nncircmn-
not, thoa hast no part with me," he cried deed ; bnt on hearinK of his viaioii thoj held
out : "Lord, not mj feet only, hot also mj their peace and Verified God. Imprisoned by
hands and my bead." The same night, in re- Herod (A. D. 44), he was released by an angel
^7 to a boast of the mostle that he wonld la^ and went U> Oiesarea. He next appears at a
down his life fi>F Ma Muter, Jesus sdd to him : oonndl of the apostles and elders at Jemsalem
"The oook shall not crow until thoa hast de- (A. D. 61), when he advocated tiie exemption
Died me thrice." (John ziii.) The fulfilment of gentile oonverte from the ceremonial obliga-
of this propheo7, and the apostle's grief for his tions of the Uosaio law ; bat St. Paal relates
fall, as weu as his rash eeal in the garden of that he "withstood Peter to his iace," becaoee,
Geuisemane, when he smote off the ear of one after living freelj with the gentiles at Antioch,
of those who came to apprehend Christ, are he withdrew from them throngh fear of giv-
fiuniliar events in the historT' of the passion, ing offence to the converted Jews. (Qal. ii.
Peter was one of the first to whom the Lord 11-14.) The remainder of his historj rests npon
showed himself after his resnrrection. On a tradition. Jerome, Origen, Eosebiaa, Cbrj-
sobseqnent oooasion be bad been fishing all sostotn, and others relate that he became
night with lltomaa, John, James, Nathanael, bishop of Antioch, where he passed several
and two olba^ and had oang^t nothing, when yeaia. He appears also to have preached in Pon-
JeeoB appearing on the ahore bade them east tas,Galatia,Bithjaiia,Cappadocia,andtheproT-
their nets on the right side of the ahip, and it iuce of Asia. AcoordioE to Easebias, Jerome,
enoloeed snob a mnhUnde of fishes tnat the^ and others, he was for t£e last 25 jeara of his
eonld not draw it np. As soon aa Peter tnew lifb bishop of Rome ; bat if thia is tme, which
it was the Lord, he threw himself into the aea many Protestant critiea doabt, he did not remain
in his impatience to come to him. Thrioe as- all the lime in that dtj. His first rist is stip-
sming Ohrist, in answer to his qaestions, that posed to have been made aboat A. D. 40, or 4
he loved him more than the rest, he was com- years b^re his imprisonment by Herod at
manded to feed his Master's sheep and lambs, Jerosalem. Returning to Rome after his re-
and was than foretold the eafferings and death lease, he is sud to have been banished by the
wherebyhe should glorifyOad, when he should emperor Olandius in 49, bnt he was soon per- i
stretch fortJi bis hands, and another should miOed to reenter the metropolis, and Buffered
^rd him, and carry him whither he would martyrdom there in the reign of Hero. — St.
not. (Joha xzL) From this time his charao- Pet«r is the author of two canonical epistles,
ter seems to have been changed by an infhdon the first of whioh^ dat«d from Babylon, -where-
of that strength and dignity which it pre- by some suppose is meant Borne, was probably
vkinsly lacked. He is frequently mentioned written between 46 and GG. It is addressed
in the Acts, and always appears aa a bold and chiefly to the converted Jews, and ita purpose ;
Tinflinnhing preacher of Uie new &ith. He was to confirm them in th^ faith under per- i
S reached to the mnltitnde in Jerosalem on the secation and to confbte the errors of Simon >
ay of PenteeoA with snoh effect that 8,000 and the NicolMtans. The second epistle is
perscms were converted and baptized. With likewise addressed to the Jews, and is snp-
J(^n he oared a lame man at the gate of the posed to have been written ahortly before the
temple, and was brought before the sanhedrim apostle's death. Its anthenticity haa often
and commanded to speak no more in the name been doubted, but that of the first epistle is
of Jesos; but he courageously reftised to obey generally anqnestioned. They are hoUi glow*
this injunction. At his rebokes *"b"1bh and iiig and rapid in style, and as literacy ^roduc-
his wife Sapphira, who had sold their goods tions have elicited the warmest admiration.
and laid part of the price at the apostles' feet, PETER L Ai.szEiBYrroH, czar of Hnsda,
Sretending that it was the whole, were struck known as Peter the Great, bom la Moscow,
ead. After Philip had converted a great Jone 10, 1672, died in St. Petersburg, Feb. 8.
number in Samaria, Peter and John went -17B5. His father Alexei died in 1S76, and
down to them, and laid tlidr hands on them wss aneceeded by Feodor, the heir apparent,
that they mif^treoeive the Holy Ghost. (Acts Feodor died in 1662 without issae, naminK Fe-
vlil 14, 17.) Peter then retonied to Jeruaa- ter as his snooeasor, to the exclusion of Ivan,
lem, preaching on the way in many Samaritui the next heir, an imbe<u1a youth. An insur-
villagea, and afterward west to Ly^a, where reotiou followed, fomented by their eiebex So-
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
PKl'EB J. (RtnsiA)
ibttlon and voua convt
some ttkleiits." The differeobe was settled after Mb countenance, during a few moments, into
mvoh bloodshed by the joint coronation of an Direct on which it was impoflsible to look
Iran and Fator (May, 1683), with Sophia as re- without terror, the immeBse qnastitias of meat
geiiL For 7 feara, ahe held the reins of gov- which he devoured, the pints of brandj which
emment tAot, when 17 yean of age, mar- he swallowed, and which, it was said, he had
ried the danghter of one of his nobles, the earefoUy distilled with his own hands, the fool
bofar Feodor AbrahamoTltch, contrarj to the who jabbered at his feet, the monkey which
regent's wishes, and soon afberwaid emerged grinned at the back of his chair, were, dnrinc
from the life of retirement and idleaees to some weeks, popnlar topics of conversation.''
which Sophia's ambition had oonrigned him, He soon removed to Deptford, where he ocon-
and, as^sted principally by two foreigners, the pied the honse of John Evelyn. In one of ^ke
Swis Lefort and the Bootohman Gordon, as- streets a tavern is shown, still bearing the sign
snmed the direction of affairs. He shnt ap of the czu-'a head, where he smoked and
hia intrignln^ sister in a convent, where she drank beer and brandy. He returned to Hol-
ended her lUe in 1704, and sent her minis- land In April in a yacht which King Villiam
t«r, Prince Qallitzin, into banishment. Ivan had presented to him, taking along with him
volnntarily withdrew, leaving Peter in effect a number of men of acienoe. He thence pro-
sole sover^gn, and died in 1698. Peter came oeeded to Yienna to inspect the emperor's
apon the ste^e of action with a neglected edn- army, the best in Enrope, and was prepar*
cation, an impetnons temper, and sensnal hab- ing to visit Italy when the news of a re-
ita. He at once began nnmerons reforms. He belUon at home oaosed his retam after on
organized a new army, entering the ranks him- absence of 17 months. The insnrgents, whom
aet^ and rising throngh every grade; and thia Gordon,hisgenerai, hadpntdown, hepnnished
example he required his noUes to follow, with savage cmelty. Untiny having raised its
finding Bnssiawithont ships, he laid the foun- head against him twice before, he donbtlesa
dation of a navy by employing I>ntah and Ye- thought smnmary vengeance necessary to the
notion shipwrights to bnUd several small ves- safety of hit throne. As a fttrthor security
sels on Lue Peipns. He learned prootioal aea- he disbanded the strelitzes, a corps of soldien
manshipbycnUmngonboardDatobandEnglish who had constituted the body guard of the
ships at Archangel, llie only seaport Knssia then czars, and had always been a hot-bed of coart
had, and sent yonng Busnansto Venice, Iie«- intrigue, and formed new regiments on the
horn, and Holland fbr the same purpose. Look- Germanmodel. Forrevenueheintrodncedtax-
ing to a maritime policy, he besieged snd took ation, which inclnded his snbjectfi' beards, and
the Turkish city of Azof near the Black sea Uie skirts of their Tartar coats. As the Rns-
(1696), and in the same year divorced bis wUb nans did not choose to spare these appendages,
on account of her opposing his plans, bi order they became a fruitful source of income. He
to improve his semi-barbarous subjects, he fos- regalated the press, caused valuable transla-
tered communication with the western nations tionstobemadeand published, and established
of Europe, at whose ooorts Rnssia was not then naval and other schools. He required his sub-
represented ; and, sensible of his own defiden- Jects to trade with other countnes, which was
ciee, he left his dominions for a temporary formerly a capital crime. To the horror of the
rendence abroad (1697). This journey is an priests, he ottered the calendar, making the
epoch inthehistoiy of hisempire. He went first year benn on Jan. 1 in place of Sept. 1 as be-
with a few attenminta to live at Saardam, a fore, ana instituted the order of St. Andrew,
&moiu ship bnilding village of Holland, where, the patron saint of Bussia. After thus ^ving
in disguise as a Dutch skipper, Fieter Tlmmer- a new vigor to the interior life of his kingdom,
man by name, he led the life of a common ship- be resolved to have a foreign policy also. To
Wright. "He rose early, boiled his own pot, recover ^e provinces of Ingria and Oarelia,
andreceivedwagesforhislabor." Bewasthen whichhad formerly belonged to the Buseian
deseribedas being "verytalland robaet, quick monarchy, he formed an alliance with Angua-
and nimble of foot, rapid in all his actions, his tos II. of Poland and the king of Denmark
face plump and round, fierce in his look, having sgi^nst the yonng king of Sweden. The first
brown eyebrows and onrUng brown hair, and fruit of the league was Uie disastrous battle of
swingiiw his arms in walking." To practical Narva. (See (SiAstBs XII.) Bnt Peter witi
ship Duifding and kindred trades he added va- unbroken niirit applied himself vigoronsly to
nous stndies, as natural philosophy, astronomy, repair his losses, declaring that his enemies
and geogrsehy, and attended the anatomical would teach him how at length to beat them.
lectures of Bnysch at Amsterdam. From Hoi- He melted down the ohnrch beHs for cannon,
land he went to London (Jan. 169S), and took and built as a barrier against Swedish invasion
p his readenoe in Norfolk street. Here, says a fleet of small vessels on Lake XieAogA. ''
np his read
Mocaulay:
. "His stately form, his tnteUectiud 1703 a Busslan force defeated the Swedes and
forehead, his piercing black eyes, hia Tartar took Marienburg, By cantious mancenvring he
nose andmonui. his graciooe smile, his frovn sncceeded in getting possesion of the river Ne-
bUci with all toe stormy rage and hate of a va, at the mouth of which, among marshes, ha
barbarian tyrant, and, above idl, a strange ner- laid the foundations of St Fetersbu^ (1708).
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
192 PETEB L (Birasu) I^TEBfiOBOUGH
In 1704 he became master of the whole of la- pgtihaiine bis Euccesaor, and ofiiiBed her to be
gm, and appointed Prince Mentohikoff Tioeroy. pablioly crowned a few montha before his death.
When Angustus, intimidated by the Swedish PEliat of Bloib, or Pbtbcb Blxstxksib, an
monarch, abdicated the throne of Poland in eccleaastical writer of the 12th centnrj-, born
fevor of Stanifilas Leazczynati, Peter entered in Bloia, France, died in England in 1200. He
Poland with an army, aaaembled a ^et, and de- atadied at Paris and Bologna, and was after-
posed Btanislas. But Charles XII. Boon ap- ward a pnpil of John of Saliabary, bishop of
pearing,PeterfonnditneoeBsai7toretire. The Ohartrea. In 1167 ho went to Bioih-, where he
royal Swede was on hia march with 70,000 men became aecretary to King William IL Falling
to ezecnte the magnificent project of wresting into diwrsce, he accept^ an invitation from
Rns^a from the czar. The rash expedition ter- Henry II. to settle in England, waa made arch-
minated at Paltowa, Jnl; 8, 1709. Peter oele- deacon of Bath and chancellor of the diocese
brated a trimnph at Moscow, and in the follow- of Oanterbnry, viaited Borne on eccledastical
ing year conquered the whole of Livonia and bnunesa during the pontificates of Alexander
Ouelia. Charles, who took refoge in Turkey, HI. and Urban lU,, and in the latter partof his
instigated Aohmet IL against Peter. A war life received the archdeaconry of London. By
ensued, in which the czar was narrowly saved command of the king he made a collection of
from destmction (1711) by the finesse of hia his letters, 188 in number ; beside which (here
mistress Catbaiine, afterward his wife and sac- are extant of his several sermons, treatises on
oeasor (see C&tbabinx L), and the sacrifice doctrinal and ethical sabjects, and a work on
of Azofl He built defenuve works in his cap- canon law and process lately discovered,
ital; and by the oonstmction of ships, dock- PETER THE HEEMIT, the apostle of the
yarda, tuid whar&, which gave employment first cmsade, bom of good family in the diocese
to some 40,000 laborers, he laid a substantial of Amiens, France, abont the middle of the
basis for commerce. This commerce he inan- 11th centnry, died m a monastery near Hay
gorated by making commerdal rwilations fa- in 1116. Alter trying several parsnits in life
voring St Pet«rabni^. In 1718 he rranoved without finding satJafecfion in any of them, be
the senate from Uoboow to the new city, and became a hermit, and abont 1098 undertook a
in 1716 the summer and winter palaces were pil^mage to Jerusalem, where the oppressions
completed. In company with the empreas which he witnessed and experienced determined
Catharine he mode a seoond tour of Europe in him to arouse the people of Christendom to
1719, and was received at Paris with great nndertake a war for the liberation of the holy
splendor. He carried hadk a large qnantity of sepnlchre from iniidels. (See CatrBADis.) The
books and works of art to adorn St Peters- first company of cmsaders which set ont for
hurg. His son Alexei, the child of his first Palestine was led by Peter himself. A part
maniage, and heir to nis throne, evincing a of it afterward sepuated from the rest imder
Reasonable spirit, was tried and condemned to the command of Walter the Penniless, but it
death (see AiJxxi) ; a few days afterward ^July waa dispersed in a quarrel with the Bungarians.
7, 171^ he died in prison, leaving a suspicion The others reached no farther than Nice,
of foul play. The protraioted diSerences be- where thev were defeated by the Uoslems.
tween Bussia and Sweden were finidly com- Peter had left them before this, and his name
posed after the death of Charles XII., by the was associated with the aocoeeding eap#ition
treaty of Nyatad (1721), nnder which Sweden which resnlted in the taking of Antioch. ^Fbile
ceded to her rival livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, a the crusaders were besieged in this city, he de-
part of Carelia, the territory of Viborg, the isle Berted,butwas captured by Tancredandbron^t
of Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic back. On the conquest of Jerusalem he preaob-
from Conrland to Yiborg. For these conoes- ed a aennon to the cmsaders on the Mount <^
idons Bnssia agreed to sorrender Finland, to Olives. After this he returned to Europe and
pay $2,000,000, and to allow a free Report of founded the abbey of Nenfinontier, near Buy,
com, to the annnsl value of 60,000 ruAes, from where he Mssed the rest of his life.
the ports of Bka, Revel, and Arensberg. Peter PETERBOBOUGH, a N. central co. of Oan-
now turned allhisenergieBtothedevelopment oda West; area, 1,006 sq. m.; pop. in 1861,
of the indoatrial resources of his empire. He 16,287- Its SDi&ce is tmdnlating, and contajus
built canals soA factories, established a unifor- numerous lakes, from which fiow several rivers,
mi^ of wugbts and meaaQres, and paved the the largest being the Otanabee. SeTeral rtul-
streetsofUoeoowandBtPetersbu^. Heframed roads diverge from Peterborough, the capital,
oodes, organized tribnnalB, and instituted hoa- PETEBBOKOUOH, a cit; of England, in
pitala. To polish the manners of his court, he Northamptonshire, sitnated on the left bank of
ordered the young noblea to visit western En- the Kene, 40 m. by riulway N. E. fi^im North-
rope hi company with their vrives. In 1728 ho ampton, and 79 m. N. by W. from Londcm;
founded at St jretersborg the academy of sci- pop. 6,678. The cathedr^ ia a fine spedmen
ences. His last war was against Per^ hi which of Norman and early English architecture. It
he gained the Caspian territoriea of Derbent, waa founded in 6B6 by Peada VI., king of
Bakoo,6hilan,l[aunder&o,andAstrahad(t733 Ueroia, but wss destroyed by the Danes, and
-'8). At last, being afflicted with a distressing has since been rebnilt and received many ad-
Bi^dangerouadiseikBe,heappoint«dtbeempreee ditkus and repairs. It Is built in the fbrm of
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FKTEBBOBOnOH 198
a oroH, ifn &et lonft with tmuqitB 308 ftet ib» almMt impteonaUe oitadel of Ucmtioaiok
broad, ouUng 78 aad tower 160 feet liigb. whioh ctmmuuided Uie oitf, and, in the &oe of
Cat^ianne of Ancoii, wife of 'Rtaar VIII., and & vastJ; saperior foroe havuig ererj Bdrantage
Uary, queen of Soots, vere boUi boriea in of [xmlioii, commenced a campaion against t£e
Pet«FDoroiigli cathedral ; but the remains of Spaniarde, the narratdTo of wnioQ seenia more
the l^ter were removed b/ Jstnea L to West- like a obapter of romance than sober hlatorj.
ndnstor abbey. Feterboroagh is the seat of a He qnicklr overran OataLouia, Aragon, and
iMshop, and Ute dean and wiapter exerdsa a Valencia, and parts of Morcia and Oastil^ ont-
certUD jurisdiction over the town. It returns witting fuid alarming his enemies bj the rapid-
two membeta to parliament. ily, secreoj, and mjster; of hia movements, de-
P£TERB0BOUQH, Ohaslkb Mobdaubt, feating thousands of men with a mere handfid,
earl o^ a British soldier and man of letteis, bom and not Bcmplins at any arldfloe which would
islAS8jdiedinLi8bon,Oot.S5,1786. Ssjronth insure soooesa orinoreaae hisnnmbers or pres-
«mtn his l?th jear was passed in the frivolous tise. The adranoe In April, 1706, of an armj
and profligate amnsements of the conrt, vearj- oi 20,000 men imder Phdip V. toward Buce-
ing of wluch he Joined an expedition sent to lona, checked the triumpbuit career of Pet«r-
obHstiae tbe Barbarj- corscurs of the Mediter- borough, and he hastened back to the cl^, into
ranean. Having seen severe service fit Trq;M)li whioh be threw a portion of his forces, while
and elsewhere, lie returned to En^and, was the rMn^nder ooonpled the heights sorround-
married, and succeeded to his other's title ot ing tlie enemy's camp and out offUMir supplies.
Viscount UordaunL In IS7&-'9 he again After an obstinate re»ataaoe the BaroeloneBe
serred awdnst the Algerines, tioA upon hia re- were relieved by the arrival of a British fleet
fcnra to England took his seat in tne boose of with supplies and reSnforcementa, and the be-
lordsasaBopponentof theconrt Subseqnentlv sieging force retreated with preoipit^on, dose-
he showed a strong ^mpathj for Lord BnsseU I7 followed by Peterboron^ Had the advice
and Algernon Sidney, the latter rf whom, in of the latter been followed at this janotnre, and
spite of the menaces of Jeffrey, he supported a rapid march made npon Uadrid, the archdoke
to the lost and accompanied to the scsffold. might have been established open the throne of
His pecuniary dronmstances heooming embar- Spun. Peterborongh'BmBnneTB,however,were
raased in consequence of a reckless generosity, not such as to oonciliato the arohduke or bis
and all honorable employment being cnt off at fellow generals, who envied him his militaiy
hcHne, he repured in 1686 to Holland, whence sncoasses and hated him for his arrogance ai '
retaned to En, ' ' '" " ■ » ■■ ^- > - ^ -..- -. .
._ „— -i with the prince of presumption. Dissentdons subsequently arose
Orange. In April, 1S8B, be was crested first among the allied generals, and Peterborough,
oonunissiouer of Uie treasury and earl of Uon- finding his counsels disr^arded, quitted Bpain
month, but retired from of&ce in & few months In di^ust, and in 1707 retnmed to England,
with BO ^at credit for political integrity, where he experienced a flatterioE reception,
After servmg in the campaign of 1691 on the and waa thanked by the house of lords for bis
continent, he lived for several years on his " wonderM and ""^nng success." He was
estates ; but hie restless ambition and vanity, snbseqnently emi^oyed on embassies to Vienna
which the king's refosal to recall him to power and other o<mtmental oourta, and, as in his
only ^flamed prompted Mm in 1606 to engage Bpaidsh oampa^n, moved so rapidly fhtm place
in thV Fenwiok plot, and he was for several to place that he used to say that he had seen
months a priaonec in the tower, where " his more postilUons and princes than any other
tmly solace was to contrive wild and romantic man in Enrope. His ambition and vanitr,
schemes for extricating himself from his ^- joined with undoubted tslents, made him in
fioultiee and avenging himself on bis enemies." many respects an unsafe person to intmst with
ina him
wfaigaai
t an object of detestation to both his authority or grstided his restless desire &
whiga and tories, he again went into retirement, display hr engaging in misohlevons intrigues,
and in 1697 succeeded to the title of earl of Hatred of Uarlboroagh induced bimdnring the
Peterboron^ inherited from his nncle, Henry last yean of Queen Anne's rei^ to side with
Mordatin^ and whioh enabled him to dl^ense the tories j and upon the accession of George I.
with the tarnished name of Konmoatb. AttUa and a whig administration, he retomed to his
time he was rednoed to such porer^ that he oonntry s^ and thenceforth ceased to figure
talked of Uving like a fknner and potting his in any important public c^woity. Throogboot
counteasintbe d^ry tocbum and make oheeses. his Bfe he was the intimate friend of Dryden,
The aceasRixt of Qoeen Anne opened the path Swift, Pope, Qay, and other eminent men of let-
of prebnnent to lum, and by paying ooort to ters, and bad a considerable reputation himself
the duchess of MarlboronKhlM procured the ^ as an elegant writer. He is said to have com-
polntmoit of general-in-ciuef of the fbroes sent posed his oWn memoirs, which after his death
m 170S to assiBt ib» oanse of the archduke were destroyed by his countess, tiie celebrated
Charles of Austria, cldmant of the orown of nnger Anastasia Robinson, with whom he con-
Spain. Vith an army of 7,000 undiadplined tracted a second marriage in the last year of
tnxme, priodpally Dutch and En^ish, he cw- bis life. His eccentricity, impetuosiU, vanity,
tured Barcelona, having first earned by assaolt and romantic oonrage are soffioiently illustrated
VOL. xm.— 18
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
194 FETEBHAKK PETEBS
\ij the hiBtor; of Ub pnblio career. Ss mill- tAeUmdm awt JvmVum pgrtAtt, geogniMiektr
taiy genlns, brilUant as tt was, was better Atittalt (" Cknnmimioatioiis from Jastoa Per-
adapted to partiBan TKr&re than to an; other tiiea' Geogrephico] Establiahment"), which em-
kind, and bis BooceBses in Spun have been coll- braces a view of all modem discoTeriea, with
ed "bapp7 temerilieB." Uaoaiilajr calla him mutB and oharta.
" the most extraordinaiy oharaoter of that age, FETESS^ or Fbktbbb, Bosayxstb&a, a
the king of Sweden not excepted ; .... apo- Hemiah painter, bom in Antwerp in 1614,
lite,leamed,aiidamoroiiBCaiaTleBtheTwelit£;" died, aoeording to most authors, in 1663, bnt
a comparison Bnggested b; Bwift, who ia his acccffding to VaUcema in 1671. He waa eepo-
lines " To the Earl of Peterboroogh" says he cislly distingnlshed as a marine painter, depict-
was ing with ^oat power and truth storms and
N*'ar to ba Dutahed In modsm nmdiug wreolts. HJa best works are now scarce.
But by hi! iiuiM«k«, ohnrtat of OwOui. PETEH8, or PsTEB, HnoH, in English dis-
In priTBte life he was generona to proftudon, eentong clergyman and politician, bom in
paasionflte and nnreasonabia, the slave of tem- Fowot, Cornwall, in 159B, enecnted in Lon-
porar; whims, an stheirt in religions opinion, don, Oct. 10, 1660. He was gradaated MA.
and (JmoBt to the cloBe of his life a confirmed st Trinity college, Cambridge, in 169S, and
Tolnptoar;. His Mends liked him in ^te of preached for some time with great succobb at
bis fanlta. Swiit confessed he "loved the the chnrch of St. Sepulchre in London; but
hang-dog dearly," and he was even admired having been oommitted to prison bj Aich-
b; Johnson. Bnrnet sajs he was " a man bishop Land for nonconformitj, he removed,
of much heat, many notions, fhll of disconrse, npon obtidning his release, to Rotterdam. Af-
brave and generons, with linle trae Judgment, ter preaching to an Independent congregation
and no virtoe," In person he was tall and there for several years, he embarked for New
gracein], bat soattennated that Swift compared England, and arrived there in Oct. 16SS. On
him to a living skeleton. A "Hemoir of Dec. 31, 1686, he became paetor of the church
Charles Mordannt, Earl of Peterboroogh and in Balem, enoceeding Boger Williams, whose
Momnooth, with Selections from his Oorre- doctrines he disclaimed and whose adherents
spondenoe," b; Eliot Warlmrton (2 vols., 18C8), he exoommnnicated. During bis residence in
has been poblighed posthnmonslj. Kew England, he took an active part in mer-
PKrEBUAKN, AcouBT Heinbioh, a German candle and civil affairB ; he enggeeted coasting
geographer, bom in Bteicherode, near Nord- and foreign voyages and the plan of the fish-
hansen, in Fmssian Saxony, April 18, 1623. eries, and aided in reforming the town police.
He was designed by his fainily for the ohorch. In March, 16S8, he was appointed by the gen-
bnt his preference for the stndy of geography eral oonrt to assist in ootleoting and rev&ng
led him to enter the academy which Bwghans the colonial laws. In 1641 he was sent toEng-
had established at Potsdam. With Berghans land to procure an alteralaon in the laws of ex-
he lived 6 yeara, acting as his private score- dse and trade ; and it was probably owing to
tary and librarian, and there made the ao- the inflnence of himself and W assodatee that
qnaintanoe of many scientifio men, including an act <^ parliament waa passed in 1648, re-
Humboldt, for whom he prepared m 1841 the Ueving aB oommoditiea carried between Eng-
map of central Asia. In 1846 he went to land and New England from the paytMnt of
Edmbnrgh to aid A. K. Johnston in the prep- " any onstom, snbsii^, taxation, impodtoii, or
aratdonof the "Physical Atlas;" and In 184Y other duty," till the mrtiier order of the boose
proceeded to London, where he became a of commons. In England he joined the parlia-
member of the royal geogr^tldoal society, mentaiy party, became a preujher in the army,
wrote fbr the " Athenfetun" aooonnte of the and in 1649 accompanied it to Ireland, hold-
prt^ress of geMrraphy, and in conjunction ing, it is sdd, a colonel's oommiedon. During
wiu the Bev. Thomas Milner prmiared an the war he also had interviews with Charles L
"Atlas of Phyocal Geography." To him is in r^ardto his "New England business," in
due in great measure the aid whidi Barth, whidh, says Peters, " he used me civilly, and I
Overweg, and Vogd recdved from the Eng- offered my poor thoughts three times for his
Ush government in their African enilorations, safety." In 16S1 he was appointed by parlia-
and he wrote an " Aoconnt of the £:^edition ment one of the commisdoners to amend the
to Oentral Africa." His hypotheees in r^aid laws, an office for which he was eminently un-
to arotio geography have been supported by qualified; and in 1654 he was made one of the
the alleged discovery of a polar sea made by " tryers" of ministers. In 16S8 he preached
Dr. Kane. In 18B4 the duke of Saxe-Oobui^ fbr some time to the English garrison in Don-
invited him to occupy the ohur of geography UA:. Accompanying Monk in 1660 on his
at the nniverrilT of Qotha, and the following march from Scotland to London, he preached
yearhereceived the degree of Ph.D. from the before him on a fast day, and, it ia add,
university of Gottingen. At the same time he " troubled the general with a long ftist sermon ;
was employed to superintend the geographical and at night too he snpererogated, and prayed
establishment of Justus Perthes at Ootha, the a long prayer in the general's qnarters." Af-
■argest in the world. From this place he pub- t«r the restoration Peters waa oommitted to the
luhea a monthly Journal under Oie title of Jfit- tow«r and indicted for h!^ treascm as having
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FETEB8 196
bean eOMnrned In the death of tiie king. It and ^e om of bromine and bromide of potaah
was ^80 aQeged tjiat he woa one of the masked aa epecifio remedieB in true membranoas oronp.
Cine who stood upon, the acaSbld when He naa devoted himself especiall? to the etnof
lea iraa beheaded. Dnriog his Imprison' of the materia medioa and the theory and prao-
ment he wrote several letters of advice to his tloe of medicine, and has endeavored to In-
duighter, which were Babseoaentlj published corporate in homtsopathy snoh improvementa
onderUie title of "A Dying Father's Last Leg- in medical practice as auscultation and perooa-
aoj to an Oolf Ohild." His other pobliahed Edtoi, micr^co^j, tlie nse of the ophth^mo-
workaconaiatof aermooaand political treatises, aoope, pathological anatomj and ohemisti7, &c.
ThoD^ not a man of learning he posseeaed no His medical pubhcations consist of a " Treatise
mean intellectnal powera, and his preaching was on Diseases of the Head" (8vo., New York,
rendered veiTpopiJar among the multitude bjT 16S3); "Treatise on Biseases of Females^
tlie use ofooarse hot striking images. His pn- (Bvo^]8fi4); aud "Treatise on Diseases of
TSte character has been the snbioct of mnoh the jE^aa" (8vo., ISfiG). In copjnnotion widi
disdurion bo^ in England and America. He Dr. Wotlierapoon he translated " Rokitansky's
WBB charged hj hb enemies with gross immo- Patholo^cal Anatomy" (Svo., 1849) ; and in
rafity, and the most bitter epithets were ap- ooinnnotion with Dr. F. G. Snelling and others
riied to him by Bishops Burnet and Kennett, he nas published a "Uateria Ifedica" (^vo.,
fe. Buwiok, Dr. Grey, and others; but of 1866-'60), He is now enga^ upon a " Trek-
late years he has been estimated more favor- tiae on the Principles and Practice of Medl-
tbly. According to Dr. Palfrey, hia name cine," published in numbers, and which ia to
Aogld be written Peter. form 2 vols. Svo. He was also editor of
FETKRS, John OhaslxBiILD., an American the "North American Journal of Homoso-
pbysioian, bom in New York, July 6, 1619. pathy" ftom 1866 to 1861. He waa one of
At the age of 18 he commenced tlie study of .the founders of the New York pathologloal
mediuue aocording to the Hystem of Hahne- society, and in 18S6 was elected president of
msnn, and in 1842 visited Europe, where, in the American college of medical ecienoes, and
the schools of Leipsic, Berlin, aud Vienna, professor of materiamedica and therapeutics in
he studied homceopathy under ita most eminent the same inatitntion. This college, however, haa
teachers, and received the instractions of the not yet been opened for students,
chief professors of patholo^cal anatomy, path- PETERS, Ition*m), an American Jurist, bom
ological ohemiatry, materia medica, md the near Philadelphia, Aug. 22, 1744, died Aug.
•xigaate sciences. Commencing practice in SI, 1828. He was educated in Philadelphia,
New York as a homceopathist, he gradually aud embraced the profession of law. At the
deviated in several essential particolars from breaking out of the revolution he became cap-
the views entertaiaed by phyucians of that tun of a company of volnnteers, and in June,
school, and is now understood to be in iavor 1776, was appointed by congress secretary of
of a compromise tietwecu the homceopatliio the lioard of war. On resigning this post in
ind allopathic sohools of medicine, both in 1781 he was elected a member of congress, aud
theory and practice. On this subject he holds after the organization of the government he
that the homcBopathio law, timilia timilibui waa offered by Waahington the comptroUerahip
euMTifur, is not nniversally true, but is a com- of the treasury of the United Btat^. This he
plAieutofthe general law of medical treat- declined, bnt accepted the ofQce of judge of the
ment, alteratitia altarantiit eurantur; that U.S. district court for Pennaylrania, a position
aimilar things differ aa well as resemble, and which be retained for the rest of his life. The
IS a medicine which acts similarly to a disease s4miralty law of the United States may be aaid
necessarily acts somewhat differently from it, to owe to bim its foundation. He was also
it follows that homoeopathic remediea exert an eminent as au agriculturist, being prendeut of
iherative action, and should be pven in aoffl- the Philadelphia agricnltnral society ; and
dent doses to bring about this effect ; that as through his instrumentality the nae of gypsmn
amilaritymay be considered a lesser or the in agriculture and the cultivation of clover
least d^ree of difference, and antagonism a were introduced in the United States,
greater orthe greatestdegreeof difference, tlie PETERS, Samukl, an American clergyman
qiparently antagoiustic laws timilia limitibia and historian, bom in Hebron, Conn., Deo. 12,
cumnfur and etmtraria eotttrariit eurantur are 173G, died In New York, April 19, 1826. He
Dut only not diametrically opposed to, bnt are waa graduated at Yale ooUege in 17C7, beoanw
the cemplementa of each other; hence homce- in 1760 a clergyman of the church of England,
optthy and antipathy are not in reaUty oppos- and in 1762 took charge of t^e churches of
Ing Bjitems, bnt are parts of the great law of Hartford and Hebron. Being a tory, he waa
^>ecMo alterative or speoifio allopathic treat- forced In 1774 to flee to England, where he
nieiit. Among the suggestions loade by him revenged himself on the Pnritana bypnbliah-
trhich have t>een adopted in medical practice ing in 1781 "A General History of Connecd-
sretheemploynientof alcohol in the treatment out," which has been called the "moat un-
of cmaumption ; the use of phosphatea in mod- acmpolous and molioions of lying narratives."
iciua; the curative treatment of Brlght'a dia- In I7B4 he was chosen bishop of Vermont by
ease of the kidneys with corrosive sublimate ; a oonrentlon of that diocese, but was never
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
196 PKTBB8 PETEBWABDEQf
ooiiBMrated to the office. In 1805 he retamed OaroBii*. There is a cont&mons line of n^
to AineHos, and In 1B07 pnbllahed In New road oomioanication from Petersbiiiv to Uo-
York a " HiBtoi7 of the Bqt. Hngh Fetors," bUe, and also to Uempbis, Teim. "The dtj is
hifi n«Bt-imo]e. In 1817 b« made ajonrnejto lighted with gae, and abimdantlj sDppliad with
the falls of St. Anthonj, claiming a large tract water from a reservoir. It is well bi^t and
of land in that region. He is the " Farson natoTBllj drained, the gronnd desceDding grad-
FetOT"of Trnmbnll'B"UcFiiigaL" naU^rfrom the heights on the Bonthem ont-
FETER8, SAxtfKi. Jabvib, an American mer- skirts down to the nver. The principal pnblio
chant, bom in York, now Toronto, Oanada, buildings ire the cnstom honse and post offloe,
Jnlf SO, 1601, died in New Orleans, Aug. 11, court home, mechanics' halLPhmniz hall, and
1866. He was a deecendaut of Hngh Peters, allbrarjof 0,000Tolimie8. There are 4 banks.
After pasdng some time in a French oonnting 4 uvings iostitntions, 8 dulj' and 3 weekly
room In New York, he removed to New Or- newspapers, and 14 churches, tIe.: a Baptist, 2
leans in 1S3I, became derk in a wholesale £pis(xipalian, 8 Uetjiodist, 2 FresbTtwian, 1
KTocery house, and in 1828 began business for Boman Catholic, and 4 for colored people,
himself as a wholesale grocer in partnership There are GO productive or mannfactDring es-
with a Mr. Millard. Of this firm, which was tabliahmente, with an areregate capital of $1.-
in time one of the most important in the trade, 104,000, consmning annually $3,070,000 worth
Ur. Fetors continued a member as long as he of raw material, and emplojing S,143 males
lived. In 1839 he was elected to tte citj and 981 females; vslne of products, $8,638,BV7.
council of New Orleans, and after the division The sales of cotton during the year ending
of the olW into mnnioipalitieB was chosen to a Sept. 80, 1868, amounted to 17,038 bales, 1869,
similar office in the second municipality, and 38.069; 1660, 80,000 ; 1661, 86,000, The re-
made chairman of the finance committee. In cefpts of tobacco in 1869 were 26,000,000 lbs. ;
the latter capacity he was identified with quantity manufiictnred, 12,000,000 lbs., in 30
nmnerons improvements. He was one of the raotories. The tonnage of the port tu 1S69
originators of the Fontohartrain railroad and was 2,663 tons. — Petersburg was incorporated
its first prerfdent,of the charaberof commerce, in 1748. It was twice occupied by the British
of which he was president until his death, and under Oen. PhlUips during the revohitionarT
of the dty bank, of which he was also presi- war. The Petersburg volunteers served witli
dent for 20 years. He was afterward prefldent distinction on the Canada frontier durimt the
of the state bank of Louisiana, was appointed last war with England, and it was Mr. Mad-
ooHector of the port in 1849, and was instm- ison, tlien president, who, refsrring to their
mental in Introducing the common school syg- gallantry, first styled Petersburg " the cockade
tern into New Orleans. In connection with of the Bouth."
the schools he fonnded a pnblio lycemn and PETEB6EN, FsxDBsn: CasaenAJS, a Banish
library, which are now fionrishing. philologist and arohtaologist, bom in Antsvor-
Fla^'S FSNOE, an aonnal tribute of one- skon in Seeland, Dec. 0, 1786. He was edn-
penny formerly paid to the pope on the fes- cated at the nniversity of Oopenhagen, and in
tival of St. Peter. In England, where every 1826 becune a member of the DaniBh aoademy
&mily possessed of 80 pennyworth of property of adenoe, and In 1843 ordinarr professor of
of any Kind was eouMdered liable to this ttib- philology in Oopenhagen. Beside oontributing
nte, it was continued from Saxon times to the to sdentiflo journals many valuable articlea,
rdgn of Heni7 YHL The tribute was ool- he has written an " Introduction to the Study
looted by the bishops. The term is also an- of Arolusology" (Oopenhagen, 163S), and a
plied to any general voluntary oollMtion maae " Handbook c^ Greek Uterary History" (Oo-
ibr the pope, sudi as that in 1880 ; on Jan. 1, -penhagen, 1836).
1861, the amount received at Rome from this PETEKWAEDEIN (Hun. J*^te«i(£fwJ),afins
collection had exceeded $2,000,000. trees and town of Anstria, in the Slavonian
PETEKSBUBQ, a city and port of entry of IGIitary Prontier, on the ririit bank of the
Dinwiddle co,, Ta., on the S. bank of the Ap- Danube, 44 m, N. W. from Belgrade ; dvil pop.
pomattoz river, 12 m. above its entranoe into about 4,000, garrison 8,000. The fortress is
the James at Oity Pohit; pop. in 1S60, 14,010; bmlt on a lofty escarped rode overhan^ng a
in 1860, 18,275, It is the third dty in the etat« sharp promontorv fomied by a bend of the
in population, and Is fovorably situated for river, opporite the town and steamboat sta-
busmeaa. The river is navigable to this place, tion of Nensatz in the Hungarian county of
which is at the head of tide water, for vessels B£cs, contdns extensive barracks and arsenals
of 200 tons; laiver vessels load and discharge for a large force, and presents to the water
at Port Walthal^ 6 m. below, on the N. bank and land side a 'formidable fece of walls, port
of the river, and the largest at Oity Point holes, and bastions. The place is of high stra-
Immediately above the dty the UHb afibrd ex- tegio importance, and the Romans are betiev-
tensive water power. Above the fUls &a Ap- ed to have had there one of their Fennomaa
pomattox is made navigable for bateaux to military colonies, called Acumincum. Themod-
Farmville, 107 m. Petersburg Is oonneotod by era name Is traced to Fetor the Hermit, who
railroad with Oi^ Point, ffiohmond, Norfolk, mostered there his motley host of cmsad-
Lynohbnrg, and Weldon on tiie border of North ers. K^oe Eugene wcm there a great victory
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FBIHKBICK PtlKHf WI
orer the ^vb in ITIS^ wldoh wnn^ated ttM distliietioa. In 1829 he vooooeded Bobeit T.
detbaranoe of Hniwary fyom the Uoatoa joke. Btijae as attorne^-geuieral of the state, wiueh.
l>iiriiig the vtr of lS18-'9 Peterward^ VU offioe he held for 8 jeara. During the nnlH-
ooDlintuIlr in Uie iianda of the Hmgsriaiu^ Scation tranbles of 1880-'82 he took eidea
oa^talatmg onlf after the snrrender of Gtrgej agunat the doctrine of tbe state reto, and be-
andof the fortress of And. came one of the leaders of the "anion And
PETHERIOS; JQHH, ft Britiah trarellor hi state rights" partf, vhich, while adopting to
AMcft. Ib 184fi he went to E^pt, entered the tJieir iulefit extent the opinioos of the nnlli*
eemoeofUehemetAliasminuigen^Deer.aud fiers on theant^ect of a protective tariff uid
wu sent hy the paaha to Ar^ia Petrfea to those of Oalhoon, UoDnffie, H^ne, and wiers
•eek for ooal. After extensive munooeaefiil req»«^ng state rights, nevertheless Joined is-
researoheB he retomed to Cairo, and in Jen. ane with the nolMers on the practioalulit; of
1847, WM ordered to proceed to Eordofim and q>plriiig the state veto to measures adopted
report i^>on some iron mines. He HtentBeversl }>j the federal congress. Daring the oonlro-
Tears in the rerion of the nppra Nile in ika versj, vhioh several times threatened to end
lerrice of the Sg^ptian govemment; bat on in civil war, he showed himself on earnest
tlie death of Hahemet All he resigned his worker and a vigorous and eloqiient speaker ;
mplojmeiit and established Umsalf aa a mer- ud upon the defeat of bis port;, he became in
ehuit at Khartoom, where he was made Brit- his poditieal capacity on ol:3^<'t of mach popa-
iah coDBol. In IBS8, »"■! rweotedlj i^gnJi^ lar oiaUke, his views being oon^dered antog-
in subsequent years, be asee^ed the ^dte onistto to the reooguition of the sovereignty
Nile, and penerbvted beyond ail fbimer travel- of the state, and ulantical with measnrea <a
lers into the interior of Afiica. In 18S0 he federal osnrpation. His talents and virtoee^
letumed to England, and after a reiidenoe and his nnqaestioned ability as an advooat^
there of two years, daring whidi he paUished neverthelaas eeonrad him tJie reapeot of the
• bighlrinterestingaccoantofhiaeniltM'idiona oommnnity in wbloh be lived, and he oon-
uititled "Eerpt, the Bondan, and Oentral tinned to maintun hia position as a leader at
Africa, with £zploratioDs bom KhartMnn tai the bar with scarcely a rival. Snbseanently he
tha White mie to Uie Regions of the Equator" held for a brief period the office of district at-
(Lmdoa sod E^bnrgh, 1661), he set oat in tomey of the United States, at a time when
April, 1861, Crom En^^iand fbr another ezpedi- aooh a position snbjeoted bim to pnblio odinm.
tim np the Nile, expecting to meet C^tt. Speke Be has also served in the state legislatore, and
and bu companions in their advanoe nortiierly is now (1861) a oommissioner for co^jying the
bom the lake region of E. Africa. laws and statntes of Soath Oarolina. iaOioagh
PfiTIQNY, Ixuigois Jvimb Fuimul s*, a opposed to the seoession movement of 18S0-
Vitafih histonan, bora in Faria, March 14, '61, be has followed the fortones of South
1801. He studied at the sehool of charts, was OaroUna ; and notwithstanding his views are
*K><dnted in 1836 oounsellor to the mfcatore shared by a very inoonriderable portion of the
of Loic-et-Oher, and after the revolntion of people of the state, pnblio respect for his char-
1830, by which he loet his office, devoted him^ aeteria nndiminisbeo.
■df to literOT pnrsnita, and enieoiaUy to re- PfiTION (or PfcrmoN) DE VTLLENEUVE,
ntrcbes in ^enob history. ^ flrrt work JftBAKB,arrenoh revolutionist, bom in Ohartrea
«M an esi^ " On the History, Lawa and In- in 17B8, died by his own hand in 1TS3. He was
rtitatioiis of the Iterovingian Epoch" (8 Tola. alaw7erbyprofb8sion,aadinl780waseleated
Sro., Paris, 1844), fbr which tJie institute by his native town deputy to the statea-gen-
twwded him the Qobert prize of 9,000 franca; oral His fine figure and countenance, sonorous
ud fat 1848 he received a Ki^ medal fhHU the voice, flnent qieeoh, fervor, and integrity se-
nme leaned body fbr his " ArehBolo^oal euied him considerable influence over his col-
HistorT of the Yendtaids." He haa alao pnb- leagaea and tlie people. He was styled la wrftt
liilud " Obsemtions on Baomiling the Amy" I'il&ien, He was a bitter enemy of the court
(ISSO), snd varions Usttnioal and antiqnaiian and of Hirabean, and was one of the 3 commia-
papen in the SiHiotUjw de Vieole da Mrttt, aioners who after the flight to Yarennes, Jane,
■he Sttue KUMumatigue, and the Minufint of 1791, were sent by the constituent assembly to
(lie aoriety of sdenoes and letters of the city bring the ro;ral family back to Paris, when he
of Bloia. He was chosen a member of the treated his iUastrioua prisoners with anpar-
^ca^vny of inaoriptions and bellea-lettrea in dooable roughness, and wished the king to be
"to- 1850. at once placed on triaL Being elected mayor
PETIQBII, Jum LooiB, ai\ Amerioaa law- of Paris m preference to Laf^ette, be secretly
T», ot mixed Irish and Hngneoot descent, aenated in the popular manifestation of June
^•'"a in Abbeville district, S. 0., aboot 1789. 20, 1792, snd was consequentty snwended from
na graduated at the Booth (Proline ool- his fimctions by the departmental directory,
. 1. ian» ,_i _ *. ._. , i_. .._., 1 4__ _, .V. J,^^
wy
Dcn in Abbeville district, S. 0., aboot 1789. 20, 1792, snd was consequentty snwended
He na graduated at the Booth (Proline ool- his fimctions by the departmental directory,
Hge in 1809, and a few years later was ad- bnt was restored by order of the aasembqr,
■Bitted to the bar^oommencdng praotioe as a which had become alarmed by the popular 017
wratry lawyer. Having attaiued great pro- of "P6tlon or deirih!" Ha parttoipt'"' '"
would eminence in the rural dtstriote, here- the insorreotion of Aug. 10, wnen he
Charleston, where he rapidly rose to himself to be kept under guard by his own
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
198 FftnOK PETITOT
friends in order to be excused from saj active FWon In » pitched battle, and parsaed him
pToceedisga to quell the tronblM ; neither did to Port-an-Pnnoe. At length the chiBft«im
Le interfere to stop the dreadfal maasacree of agreed, -vrithont entering into anj formal trea-
Septemher. In ifSS he was elected a dmmtj' t^, to suspend hoBtiimee, and leave each other
to the cocTention bj the department of £nre- nndiBtnrbed. Astripof waateoonntrjilOmiles
et-Loir, and nominated the flret president of wide, was made the nentral boundary between
that assembly. He now leanedtoward amilder their territories. Potion flow applied himself
policy, sided with the Girondists, and lost bis xealonsly to the improvement of his snl^ects.
popnlarity. He bad insisted npon Lonis KVL With alnolnte power ho preserved the ntmost
bemg tried, and voted for his death, bnt on republican simplidtr. Property waaeqnitablj
condition that an appeal might be made to the divided, witiiaiitreq>eottoaiBUnctionBof color;
people. This was a crime m the eyes of the great attention was p^ to pnblio inatruotiou ;
revolutionists. He was proscribed in coninnc- and the ganeral forme of adminiatration weic
tion with the Girondists, escaped from Paris, copied man French models. But an insnr-
and repaired first to Caen, and then to the vi- monntable barrier was opposed to his exertions
omity of Bordeaux, where he wandered for by the character of the recently emancipated
acme months and finally killed himsel£ His blackswhoformedthemajority of hissabQeots.
body was fonnd half devoured by wolves. The The flnanoes of the country fell into irretrieva-
worEs of Potion were published in Paris in ble disorder ; onerous imposts npon commerce
17B3 (4 vols. 8vo.) ; they consist of speeches and were reeorted to, and the government was com-
political tracts, of merely temporary interest. pelled to debase the coinage. The army was a
P£TI0N (Ajssz ALEXAHnna SAiis), first mere rabble, unpaid, undisciplined, and ill fed.
f resident of the repnblic of Hayti, bom in All this wretchedness and confusion, which be
'ort-au-Prince, April fi, 1770, died March S9, saw no meana of remedying, had at length
1818. His father was Pascal Sabds, a wealthy such an effect on the benevolent, though some-
oolomst, and his mother a fV«e mnlatto. He what over-cautious and irresolute Potion, that
Btndied at the military academy of Paris, served he fell into a state of hypochondria, fanc^g
in the French and afterward in the Haytian that he was in danger of assassination. Fmal-
army, and when the revolution broke out in ly, he reftised all medicines and nourishment,
his native island rendered valuable servioes to and, after designating Gen. Boyer as his euc-
Toussaint and Besaalines as an engineer, and oessor, died of mere inanition and despondency,
was rapidly advanced. He did much to pro- amid the nniveTsal and profonnd grief of the
tect the colonists in that time of terror, and hia people. Hia body was conveyed to Paris, and
mild disposition and engaging manners recom- now rests in the cemete^ of FSre la Chaise.
mended him to all classes. When Tonasaint PfiTIS DE LA OEOIX, FBisgois, a French
began his proscription of the whit«s and mn- orientalist, bom in Paris in 16C3, died I>ec. 4,
lattoes, P6non toos up arms to re^t him, and 1718. He was the son of tlie king's interpreter
maintained the conmct, with very unequal fbr oriental languages, and was educated for
forces, nnttl compelled to seek refuge in France, the same employment, passing several years at
Be returned from exile as a colonel in the Aleppo, Ispahan, and Oonstantinople. In 1682
army sent under Can. Leclerc to snlfject Hayti he went to ICoroooo as secretary to the French
anew to herformer masters; bnt the retaliatory ambassador, and was afterward employed as
omelties committed by that commander, and Beoretary-interpreter in the expeditions agunst
the conduct of the French toward Tonasaint Algiers, the negotiations with Tunis and Trip-
and Rigand, impelled him to quit the army; oli, and many other transactions between the
and placing himself under the orders of Dessa- French government and the East. In 1093 he
lines, they once more proclaimed the indepen- was qipoint«d professor of Arabic in the royal
denceof Hayti (1604). Haring succeeded Geo. oollege of France, and in 169JS encoeedod his
Olervani in the government of Port-an-Prinoe iUher as oriental interpreter, an office in which
and the command of the mulattoes. Potion held he himself waa ancoeeded after bis death by
that post at the time of the assassination of the his son Alexandre Louis Kane. Beside AraUo,
negro emperor (Oct. 180S). In the dissolution Perdan, and Turkish, ha is aaid to have under-
of the government which ensued, the mulat- stood uie Mc^ul, Armenian, and Ethiopian
toes rallied round Pfition, whom they prefer- langooges. He spoke and wrote Arabic with
red, as one of their own caste, to Ghrirtophe, remarkable finency and elegance, and daring
the leader of the blacks. Potion accordingly his re^ence at Aleppo translated into that
waa elected, June S7, 1807, president of Uie tongue an account of the campaign of Louis
southern and western parts of the island ; an XIV. in the NefherWds, which was published
office which was afterward conferred upon him in 1671. He translated the "Turkish Tales"
in perpetuity, with the right of nominating his from Sheikh Zadeh (ISmo., Paris, ITOT), and
eucoessor. Ohristophe believing himself en- fritm the Persian the "Thousand and One Days"
tiUed to undivided authority, the rivab took (6 vols. ISmo,, 17I0-'12), and Sheref-ed-deen
up arms, and for several years carried on a war All Teadi's " History of ttnnr" (4 vols., 1733).
without decisive results, but in which the ad- PETIT-THOtlAES. See Dd PBrn^TnoiiAEa.
VMitage seems to have been on the side of PETITOT, Ouddx Bxbbabd, a French an-
Ohristophe, who on one occasion defeated thor, bom in Djjon in 1778, died in Paris, April
jy Google
PEirroT ranOFi loo
S, 18S5. HeflBedvarioiupablia offlow, deroted of 184S-'4, and aotad without saooen In tbe
luslsiiorehonra to literatiire,wrot« 8 worthless plm of Shakeepeare, he repaired, petuuless
truediea which he himwlf mppreseed M &r and on foot, to Pesth, bringiiig with him b ooI-
u he was nble, tnnalatod thooe of Alfl«ri and leotion of songa, some of which bad already
the nords of Oerraiitee, e^ted Uoli^re and La appeared in the Atiianaum. He earned Bome
Eupe, and published the Sipeitoire da thtdtre money by tranalating one of James's novels and
Franfai* (W vols. 8to., Paris, 180B-'4, and anotherofBemard,eontribtttedtothe.^&(i:fc«i
S3 vols. 8to., 1817-18), and a coUeoHon of (" Fiottu«B of Ufe"), and assisted Yahot in edit-
Mmnra reiatifi A PhUtoire d» Franee (M Tola, ing the IHtiatlap (" Joornal of Fashion"). His
8to., Paris, 181B-'24}, to whiohbe added Uo- liime ass writer of popnlar songs rose imn day
graph ieai and historical essaTSof someintereat to day, but he met with little snooesa In otber
PETITOT, 3tix, a Swisspunter on enamel, branohea of literary or artistjo labor, a nov-
bero inOeneTsin 1607,diedatyeTar fn lOSl. el entitled A Mhir UUU ("The Hangman's
Eig father was a soalptor and arohiteot; he him- Bope"), and a drama, Tiffrii St Aiirta ("Tiger
■elf first fbUowed the trade of a Jeweller, and, and Eytena"), as well as a last attempt to flgtve
in concert with his master Bordier, give ^artlo- on tlie stage, proring decided fUlnres. Twop«>-
□lar attention to fanproviiw the &Drioation of nlar epic sketobes, A M/gtig kattyaieia ("The
enamel After visitmg Italy they removed to Hammer of the Flaoe"), and •Tifno* vitii (" War-
Englsnd, where, nnder the direction of Ifi^- rior John"), were farorably reoMTed. On a
erne, (be bead phyriman of King Obarlea I. tonr through the northern ^arta of Hnngary he
■sd s learned ohen^at, they invented proooooon received marks of enthomastac admiration. Dnr-
for Dreparing colors which enabled them to ing a snbseqaent tour along the upper Theisa he
eicel the brat works of Yeuloe and limoges. married a yoang girl, a passionate admirer of
Obarles L treated Petitot with marked favor, his poetry. When, at the general oonvention
MTt him lod^KS in Whitehall, knitted of uie oppoedtion preoeding the opening of the
nim, and ordered nim to make copies of van- diet of 1847, he recited his poem halaiia (" ttj
djks's pictnrea on enamel. He aocompanled Songa"), the members rose and embraced him.
Oharlee H. in his enle to Franoe, where the The eveuta of Febroary and March, 1818,
liberality of Louis XIV. indnced him to settle, opened for him the career of revolutionary
He DOW copied some of IGgtiard and Lebran's aetdvity. Scarcely had the news of the oocar-
beet compoiitions, and painted portraits of renoea at Yienna of Uaroh IS reached Pesth,
many of the celebrated oharaotera of tlte trben PetOfi, aocompanled by J6ku, Yasvdry,
French court. His masterpiece in this llnewas and BnlyoTazky, on the mondng of the 16th
the portrait of the oomiteaa of Sonthampton. assembled the atodents of the Huogarian me-
He aocnmnm»d a large fortune. On the re- tropolis, and, repfdring with a crowd of people
vocation of tiie edict of Kant«s in 168S, ha was to one of the pi&dpaf printing establlsbiaents,
imprisoned aa a Oalviniat, and released only compelled tiie Torkmen to prmt withont per-
wlien leng^ened confinement had endangered mission ih>m thaoensor the "Twelve Demands
hia life. He now retired to Oeneva, whcure be of the Hnngarian Nation," and a stirring rev-
pined Oie rest of his days, olationary song of the young poet, entitled
FETOFI, Slmxts, a Hungarian poe^ bom Talpramopyar/ ("Hnngarians,BiiBel"). Both
in the district of little Oumania, Jan. 1, 1828, were distributed and read before nomberless
diuppesred on the battle field of ScliSabnrg in mnltitndes, amid the general aoolamations of
Transjlvania, Jnly 81, 1849. He was the aon the people. The municipality gave its adhe-
of an innkeeper and batcher, and was sent sion, a committee of pnbllo safety was formed,
■Doeeinvely to the schools of Asz6d, Bcent and the royal lieutenancy of Bada was oom-
Lorincz, and Bchemnitz ; but being wayward, polled to yield. PetOfinowdevoted his poetry
oUtinste, and a poetical dreamer from his in- exolnnvely to quiokeniug the revolutionary
fuicjihewasexpelledordeBertedfrom tbelast movement. Appeals, odes, and battle songs
nuDed school, and served ttx some time as aoena followed each other ; and finally he ^rded on
■hifter in a theatre at Pesth, until he was dis- the sword hijnsel^ and sccompanyine Bern on
covered by his bther and taken home. Ha his Tranaylvanian campaign, with only a short
"istieatedbarsblybyblafiUher, but tenderly intermption, eontinned as his ^e-de-oamp
bj bii mother, and uter some 90 months was until the disastrous day of Bobasbnrg, where
Jflon lent to school, this time to Oedenbnrg. Petfifi was last seen among the scattered rem-
Scsraly arrived, he enHsted as a volonteer in an nanta of the army, pnrsued by OosBscks. His
^■utriin regiment, with which he was sent to dead body was not fonnd. There is little
Oroitia, and subsequently to ^tyria ; but was doubt that be was killed by the pursners ; but
MOD diimbsed, and went to the coU^e of P£pa. to this day the popular belief in Hnngary is
HeleftPjpa in lS48,sfterhaving seen his first that the great minstrel of the revolution still
printedMngiQBsjza'B^lA«naun»,andforsome lives in foreign parts or in one of the dun-
timeled thelifbof apooretrollingplayer, wan- geons of Anstris, soon to reappear. Stories
^nng generally slone throng the pluns of of his alleged reappearance at various places
Hanpary, composing short popular songs, and are cumint, and many a patriotic pen ia
^mating by Qie hospitality of the peasaoby. active in defending the one or the other ude
'nm Debreo&n, where be spent tike winter of the question, though tlie widow of the poet
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
has long 1>oen remarried. A lively eostro- ^ena, and otben, — See Vopage dam TArt^i^
versy on the subject took place, at Oio begjn- Fitrii^ by Laborde and Linant (Paris, 1880),
ning of I8fll, in the columns of the Pesth of which a condensed Engliah translation vas
Vatdmapi vAt&g (" Sunday Neva"), edited fay pobliahed in London in 1846.
PAkh an eany friend of Petofl. Among the FETRABOE (FsAniiEeoo Fxteasca), an
tranalators of hia songs in German are Szaira- Italian poet, bom in Arezzo, July 90, I8D4,
dy and Hartmann (jointly) and Vsafl (nom da died in Arqna, July 16, 13?4. He waa the
plums of Dr. M. Eiifer, now of Kew York). A son of Pietro or Petracco (an i^omatic form
collection in French, iaterwoven with inter- of PietrcO, and hia baptismal name of Fran-
eating sketchea of the poet and hia oonntry, cesoo di Petracoo he afterward changed to that
jwaa published by Cihaasin nnder the titie of by which he is now known. His fether, who
Le poitt de la resolution E/mgroue Alexandre was a notary of Florence, had taken part in
Pett^^raesda and Paria, ISOO). the contests between the Goelpha and Qhibel-
PBTBA, an ancient city of Arabia Fetnea, lines which were lien desolating Italy, and
abont half way between the Dead sea and the along with Dante and other membera of the
head of the jBIanitic gait The ancient geog- Bianchi ^arty waa driven from bis native city,
raphars destnibe it as situated in a narrow The family did not remain long in Arezso,
Tslley, Borroanded by precipitous hills, be- where it settled at first, and when Petrarch
yond which, especially in the direction of Jn- was 7 months old bis mother, not being in-
daw, were deserts. On. the W. aide rises Ut. eluded In the aentence of banishment passed
Hot. The entrance to the ruins of this long on her husband, removed to Ancisa m the
lost dty, flrat discovered by Burckhardt in neighborhood of Florence. There he remained
1812, is generally made through the rit or Y years, until he waa taken to Piaa by his fa-
ravine of Wady Musa, a wtoding street of a ther, who had gone thither in the vMn hope
mile in length, lined on both aidea with tombs of being restored by the arnta of the emperor
hewn out of the rooky cliff. At the opening of Henry VII. to bis original home. DisappoLut-
this avenne is the Ehumeh, the supposed great ed and disheartened, the &ther sought finally
temple of Petra, but bearing no inscription, a refnee for himself and hie family at Avignon,
It is in the Corinthian style, and is called by tiien utie seat of the papal court, and in the
tiie Arabs M Ehveneh (the treasure), from a neighboring town of Oarpentraa Petrarch re-
trsdition that one of the Pharaohs enclosed a ceived his first education. He early mani-
vast amount of money and jewels in an urn fMed a fondness for the classics ; but as in
surmonntiug the fsfade. Beside this and the tha:t age and that country the law waa the
nnmerona tombs, which form the most remark- principal avenue to private emolument and po-
able and interesting remains of Petra, the litical preferment, he was, when 16 years old,
most striking edifices are the Deir, a huge aent to the nniveraSty of Uontpellier to attend
temple hewn in the rock ; the theab«, exca- lectures on that subject From this place he
vated from the rock, with an arena 120 feet in waa removed in 1828 to the more famous
diameter, and capable of accommodsHng from echool of Bologna. Bat aa his passion for lit-
8,000 to 4,000 spectators ; and the acropolis, eratnre and aversion to law seemed oonstanQy
The reroaina of the city in the pldn are now a atrengUiening, his father hastened to the latter
heap of rubbish. — Petra la aupposed to be the eity to repress feelings which threatened to
same as Selah, referred to twice in the Old Tes- overthrow all bis ambitions designs. Copies
tament (2 Kings liv. 7, and Is^ah ivi. Ij, both of the ancient authors, purchased at great coat
names signiQring rock. It was a city of Edom, and hastily concealed, were discovered and
but waa taken aeveral centuries B. 0. by the thrown into the fire ; bnt the distress of Pe-
Nabatbeeans, an Arab tribe, who made it their trarch was ao real, that Oioero and Virgil were
chief city, Itsucceasftillyresistedtheattacksof rescued half bnmed from the flames. After
the SeleucidcB, and Btrabo mentions that in his the death of his parents, he left the university,
lime it was still governed by a native prince, and returning to Avignon found that, through
It was then a large and important town, owing the villany of his father's eiecntors, but little
its prosperity to the trade of caravans, for of hia patrimony was left. Settling at the age
which it was a haUing place. In the time of of 22 in that city, then cue of the gayest and
Trajan it was under the dominion of the Per- most lioentioos in Europe, the favor bestowed
elans, from whom it was captured by his lien- upon liim from the fascinations of of his person
tenant A. Cornelius Palma, It is spoken of by and his manner led to hia indnlgence to somo
Pliny, JosephuB, Ensebins, and Jerome; and extent in dissipation; but notemptations, bow-
in the IfotUia Eedmattiea of the 8th century ever strong, could turn his mind wholly or fw
it is mentioned as an episcopal see, Afier its a long time away from bis favorite studies,
capture by the Mohammedans, it disappeared To these he applied himself more closely than
altogether from history, and remained unvis- ever, the profession of the law having beea
ited and forgotten, at least after the begin- given up. About 1826 he gained the friend-
ning of the 18th ccntnry, until the discovery ship and patronage of Jacopo Colonna, and snb-
of Bnrckhardt. It was visited by Irby and seqnently accompanied him to hia residence at
Uangles, Banks, and Leigh in 181^ afterward Lombes in Gaacony, of which riace that noble-
by Laborde and linant, and by Robinaon, 6t«- man had been created bishop. Before thb time,
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FETEABOE SM
howevn*, an cmnt liad taken place which ex- 1^ the doDbl« proapeot of ft new cnmda and
ertod a oontroIUngiiiflaenoe upon the after his- of the tmiBfer of the papal oocrt toBome;
toi7 of Petraroh. On the morning of April 0, and when in 1884 Benedict Xtl. snooeeded to
ISSV, in the chnroh of SL OUra of Avignon, he the ohair of St. Peter, Petraroh published an
Bawabeantdfalwomanafewjearsjoougerthan epistle in I^tin Terse seconding the praver of
himself with whom he at onoe fell Tiolentlj the Boman embassy, that the pope wonld onca
in love. The myBtery which for centuries more fii his i-aaidenoe in the eternal city,
ahronded the namo of Lanra was never cleared Benedict replied bj making liini canon of Lom-
Bwsy nntil the inTcst^tions of the abb6 de bos, but did not accede to his reqneet In this
Side, one of her deaoendonto, who traced ont Tear he appeared in a new character. A snit
slmok all that is anthentloallj known in re- had been bronght before the piqisl tribunal by
gtrd to her life and chorooter. FreTionsiy ihb Bossi fainily against the Oorre^oe of
h«r virtne had been attacked by some, while Parma for having broken a treaty, and Axsada
many more had eren denied her ezistenoe. Oorreggio, the delegate of the latter, emi^oyed
In reality, lAnra, descended trom. an andent Petrarcn to defend his cause. The poet com-
Smily, was the daughter of Audibort de plied, and was Hncoeaaful in gaining the Tictory
Novas, a ProTon^ nobleman, and was horn for his friend. Bat finding it impossible bo
BtAvignon,probablyabontl303. Shenaspoe- overcome hie love for Lanra while in Avi-
leased of a considerable fortune, and was mar- gnon, he determined to travel, and In 18SS set
ried in 1836 to Hognea de Sade, whose temper, ont for Rome, afterward mode a Toysge along
nitorsUy morose, was probably not materi- the southern shores of Europe, and sailed aa
sDy sweetened by the affection expressed for far north as the neighborhood of the British
I1I9 wife by Petrarch^ as it appears tnat he was idandg. Under the excitement of traTel his
in (he habit of seoldmg her till she cried, and health and spirits retnmed. Ho now laughed
T moatliB after her death he married again, at his fbnner feelings, and, confident that his
Here is no evidence tliat Laura ever suffered love was cored, he went back to Avignon,
the advances of her admirer to pass bevond where a sight of Lanra plunged him into a
the bounds of propriety, although it is nnlikely pasdon as fervent and as hopeless sa before,
that the was a]t<^;ether iniU^rent to the at- It seems, however, not to have been as exdu-
Mntions of a loTerwhose prmse was immor- stve aaitwaslasting andTiolent,forinl3S7he
ulity, Certain it la that the mind of Petraroh, had a son bom to him by a woman whose name
for the 10 years fbllowing his first sight of and history ore alike nnknown. This same
lanra, wss agitated by a constant stm^le be- person afterward bore him a danghter, called
tveen his pasdon and his reason. The smn- Franceaca, to whom he was tenderly attached,
mer of 1331 he spent at Lombes In the society and whom he made the heir to iiis property,
of the bishop and of two friends, one a yoong The scandal created by the birth of a son, to
Gennsn, snd tho other Lello de Stefan!, whom one aocnstomed to speak with so much bitter-
be respectively named Socrates and Lralios. nessof the licentiousness of the western Babj-
Betoming to Avwnon, be made the aoqusint- Ion, aa he frequently called Avignon, affected
■oce of the cardinal Giovanni Oolonna, and Petraroh greatiy, and in his mortification he
became an inmato of his palace, then ths resort betook himself to the mral retreat of Vanclose,
of B crowd of learned men and foreigners of 14 miles from Avipion. There, according to
diitinction, whom political afiUrs constsntiy his own account, his ears were disturbed only
attracted to the pajHtl oonrt. Out of gratltode by the eonnds of nature, and within the sight
bi that fanuly, he nndertook, bnt nnwiiUnglj, of his eyes no female came save " a swarthy
. to nipcrintend the edaoatian of Agapeto, the old woman, dry and parched as the Libyan
son of Stefano Colonna the yonnger, bnt seems desert." In each a solitude, relieved only by
not to have been very snooessfnl. At this occasional visitg of friends, and more frequent
time I^nra, annoyed and alarmed by the asei- ones of strangers attracted by his fame, he con-
dnitj of bis attentions, treated him with cold- tinned his studies and hie sonnets. He under-
nesa, ind the fame he was guning he found took the comporation of a history of Bome,
uuofficientto oonsolehim. In lS81he set ont from Bomolus to VespaslBii; bnt of this work,
on a tour throogh tiie north of France, Flan- never finished, only two fragments rem^n.
ders,Brahant,andapBrt of Germany, and was Here alsohe began the Latin poem of "Africa,"
received wherever he went with marks of high with hb favorite Roman character, Bcipio Afii-
respect. He hastened home, however, in or- oanns, as its hero. Bnt his passion for Lanra
der to sccompuy the bishop of Lombes to remained unabated, and one of his finest son-
Rome; bnt finding that prelate had already nets vas occaaioned by his meeting her one
gone thither, he remuned at Avignon. When day in the streets of Avignon, and her saying :
John of Bt^sniia made his nnsnooessfal expe- "Petrarch, yon are tired of lovingme." Among
dition into Italy hi 1888, Petrarch wrote an others, he oompoaed m 1889 the celebrated
|»%naot epistle in Latin verae to ^neas To- SSd, 63d, and 64th sonnets, snd three canzoni
lomel of Sinma, deploring the dlvirions exist- to the eyes of Laura, which the Italians call
uig in his native luid, and bitterly invughing the three sister graces. On Sept. 1, 1340, one
Vtiost&e insolence of the northern invaders, great wish of his heart was gratified by aa
aa feelings were then still more deeply stirred invitation from the Boman senate to be orown-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
202 FKTBABOH
ed aa poet laureate, and on Uie aftOTnoon of plague, wi^di .In tiiat year desolated Enrqw.
the Bame'daf hj an inTitation from the Dsi- Upoii a cop; of Virgil ha wrote the follow-
TOrwty of Paris to reoeivo the same honor in ing celebrated mar^iial note, the authenticitj
that oit;. Thia position he had sought for of which has Bometimes been denied, though
many 7eanL and to gain it had left no means apparently without anj just reasons : " Laora,
Dntned. The former invitation he accepted, illuBtrions for her virtnes, and for a long time
and ohose Robert, king of Naples, as bis ei- celebrated !n mj Tarses, for the first time ap-
aminer, who jndged him worth/ of Teoeiving peered to my eyes on Uie 6th of April, 1327,
tlie lanrei, and gave bjm his own robe to wear in the chnrch of St. Clara, at the first hoar of
on the day of coronation. On April 6, 1841, the da/. I was then in mjr /onth. In the
he was crowned at the capitol bj the Roman same city, and at the same hour, in the jear
senator Oreo, ooant of AngniUara, and received 1848, this lominary disappeared from onr
letters patent entitling him to the privilegee of world. I was then at Verona, ignorant of mj
reading and disputing, of eipluning ancient wretehed situation. Her chaste and beaatifiil
hooka, of making new ones, of composing po- boij was bnried the same da/, after vespers,
ems, and of wearing a crown of lanrei or beech in tJte church of the Oordeliers. Ear soul re-
or myrtle and the poetic habit. Betuming tnmed to its native mansion in heaven. I
from Rome, he remained at Parma naarlj a have written this with a pleasore mixed with
year, eqjojing the friendship and society of bitterness to retrace the melancholy remem-
the Ckirreggios, who had recently guned the branoe of my great loss. This loss convinces
supreme power in that wtj. Whiie there he was me that I have nothing now left worth living
oommiHeioned by the Roman people to go to for, since the strongest cord of my life is broken.
Avignon for the purpose of bidncing the new By the grace of God, I ahall easily renounce a
pope, OlementYT., toflzhiareaidenceinRome. world where my hopes have been v^n and
No more encooaafU in this than in the former periahing. It is time for me to fly from Baby-
instance, he was answered by an appointment to Ion when the knot that boandmeto it is nn-
the priory of M^liorino. He gave vent to his tied." The copy of Virgil npou which this
anger in several severe sonnets, and in a work was written, after having passed through sev-
^£ed "A Book of Letters without a Title," iu eral hands, remained for a long while in the
which ho bitterly censured the papal court, Ambroaian library of Milan, but was afterward
saying, among oUier things, iu regari to Avi- carried to France, and has now for some timo
gnon, that neither Avemus nor Tartarus conld been in the imperial library at Paris. Petrarch's
be compared with the infernal place. Id the devotion did not stop short on this ude of the
mean time he began the study of Greek, a Ian- grave. The last half of the Caneoniwe is a
guage which was tiien scarcely known in Italy, tribute to the memory of the dead Laura, more
Thebeginidngof 1848 was marked by Uiedeath real and more afi^'eoting than the living Laura
of his friend Bobert, king of Naples, and he ever received. Twenty years after, when near
hbnself wasoommisalonedbythepope togo to his own end, he depicted Laura as appearing
that kingdom in order to obtain from the ooun- to him in a mist, and giving the reason for her
oil of regency appointed by the deoeased mon- varying conduct, in answer to his question as
arch a recognition of the rights of the papal to whwier she ever loved him. " it was b^
eee during the minority of bis daughter Gio- this alternation of kindness and rigor," she is
vanna. Here he was snocessfbl in gaining the described as saying, " that I have lad thee,
favor of the young queen, who made him her sometimes happy, sometimes unhappy, often
ohapl^ and household clerk. Betorning to wearied in truui, but still I have led wee U>
Avignon after a short stay in Parma, he re- where there is no more danger, and I have
mained several years in that dty or in the quiet thus saved ns both. There has been little dif-
of Vanolnse. In 1846 he was made preben- fbrenceinonrsympathy,ezcept that thou didst
dary of Parma. More Important events now proclaim thine to fJl the world, and I concealed
ezdted him. The revolution which in 1847 mine. But complaint does not embitter sufi'er-
Rienri brought about in Rome, the temporary ing, nor does silence soften it." At the request
overthrow (rf the lawless power of the nobles, of Lnigi Oonrado of Uantua, he stayed for a
and the establishment of order, justioe, and time inthatcity,andalsoinPadaaaDd Verona.
tranquillity, promised for a time to realize all He wrote a letter at this time to Charles IV. of
of Petrar^'a dreams of what Italy might yet Germany, entreating htm to come into Italy
be. Although the Oolonnaa were his frianda and restore peace to that country. In IS60,
and nominal patrons, be wrote congratulatory the year of jubilee, he visited Rome, and after
letters to Rienzi. Toward the end of the year this period ne telle us that he subdaed his
he went to Italy, parting for the last time with mind by religious refiections so as to be proof
Laura, who for a long while had treated him against all female fascinations. Certain it is
with less reserve than befbre. At Parma he that henceforth his manner of life became more
heard of the fate of the Oolonna family, and of austere, and his thoughts and writings of a
the fall of RienzL His sorrow at the sudden graver oast His friendship for the Carraras
vaoishing of his vinon of Italian liberty and led him to remain in Padua during the follow-
power was still further heightened b^ the news ing winter, and while there he occasiouslly
that on April 1, 1848, Laura had died of the visited Venice, and became an intimate friend
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FETBASOH 2(^
of the doge Andret Dandolo. To him he ad- ploma, in which OhArles created him a oonnt
dressed in Marob, 1361, a long letter, prajing palatine. In the Bnomier of 136Y he settled
that be would pat an end to the war with the at Oorignauo on the Adda, near Milan, and
Oecoese, then jnst begnn, and predicting that 1868 was spent prinoipallj in the oomposition
if it were prosecat«d disasters would be&ll of hb "Bemed; against either Extreme of For-
both states. In April his friend Boccaccio tane." Ja 1B60 he went to Paris, in behalf of
trrived from Florence, and annonnoed to him OaleaEzo Yisconti, to congratolate Sing John
the recall of bia fainilj to their natiTe oitj, and npon his restoration to Ubert^. In 18S1 he
tlie restoration of hia anoestral property. He Sied his residence in Padaa. During this
was oflbred the directorship of the nniTersitj ^ear his son, OioTamii, who was very disaolnte
recently foonded in Florence, hut this honor and had cost him maoh grief and trouble, died;
he declined. In Ma^ he set oot for ProTence, and his daoghter was married to Franoeaco di
ud reached his tnmaalpine Famaasoa, as he Broaaono, a gentleman of Milan. The plague,
railed Vandose, about the end of Jnne. There which had begnn to reappear in rarions parte
he eat about the compoaition of his " Epistle of Italj, fordng him to leave Padoa, he went
to Posterity," in which he narrated the events to Venice, and to that citj gave his books on
ofliisHfedown to the middle of 18SI, In the condition that thej shonld be placed in safety
snnuner of 18S3 Bienzi was brought a prisoner and should neither be sold nor separated. Th«
to Avignon, and being refused an advocate to republic assigned him a residence in a palace
defend him, Petrarch was ertremely indignant, called the " Two Towers," and lodged his man-
ind is said to have written the appeal to the nscripts in the chnrch of St. Mark, where some
Romins in behalf of their tribune, which is of them are still to be seen. Dnring his stay in
foimd in his " Epiatlea without a Titie." If Venice he was visited bj Boccaocio, driven
written by him, it waa probably never pub- from Florence by the plague, who brought with
liabed. Clement YI. being near his end at him his teacher in Greek, Leontins hiatus, a
thia time, Petrarch wrote hmi a letter, which Calabrion. Petrarch began once more to leam
broQght Uie medical fkcolty np in arms agiunst that language, seeking rehef in stud; from the
the poet He advised the pope to send away sorrow by which he was assailed. Bia old
his physi<ria)is, and to consider the whole and attached fiiends were all diHappearing, uid
crowd of them attending him as his enemies, his eminence had not saved him from the at-
Tbe tttaclu made upon bim for tliis letter led tacks of enemies. In the bitterness of bis heart
to his writing hiit " Fonr Books of Invectives he is said to have wept over his laurels, and to
■gunst Physicssiis.'* In Ubj, 1866, he again have owned that his crown bod been to him
Kt oot for Italy, and at the preoiinK invitation nothing but a crown of thorns. In 1366 he
of Qiovanni Visconta he settled in Milan. EGs removed to Padna, and at the request of the
friends were grieved tliat a man so professedly pope, Urban T., attempted to visit Kome in
1 lover of independenoo and hater of tyranny 1870 ; but being taken sick at Ferrara, he was
ahoold seem to ally himself with the lord d obliged to give np the jonntey. Be now went
Uilan, dreaded throughout Italy for his power, to reside atArqua in thie Enganean hills, where
and det«ated for his amlntion. He received he resomed his old habits of labor, keeping 0
many reproaohftil letters, and in particular a or 6 amanuenses, and paying no attention to
very seTere one from Bocoaooio. In reply he the advice of his phyMcian. Here also be fin-
■raietiinea defended himself, at other times ished a work entitied Ih tui ipnvt el aUarum
confessed that he was entirely in the wrong. Igneraiitia, written agunst some disciples of
The Dtter defeat of the Qenoese by the YenC' Averroes, who ai. Venice hod annoyed him by
tiani off linghiera, in Bardinla, on Aug. 17, their opinions, and who, because he did not
1363, filled him with dismay, and prompted yield to the authority of Aristode, bad jndged
Uffito writealettertotbevanqnished people; him to be illiterate. In 1878 Francesco da
but Iheir sodden submission to the Visoontia OarrarawaBobligedtom^eahnmiliatingpeaoe
prevented the letter from ever being sent. A with Venioe, one of the conditions of which
lesgaewasnowformadbetween Yeniceandthe was that he ahoidd come in person to that city
princes of Padna, Modena, Mantaa, and Verona or send his son to ask pardon for the insnlts he
agsinst the lords of Milan ; and in Jan. 1854, had offered. He asked Petrarch to aocompany
Petnicb was sent to the first nuned dty to his son and address the senate in his behaLF,
inake peace. He was unsuccessful in bis mis- The poet was old and infirm, but he remem-
noQ, mA thongh both Giovanni Viaoonti and berea only his ancient friendship for the Oarra-
Dandolo iaitA soon after, the war went on. A ras, and set out. The first day he waa unable
t^ce was negotiated between the belligerents to Titl«r a word ; but on the second he spoke
by the emperor Obarles, who, in Oct. 1864, with something of bis accustomed Are. It waa
ctosMid the Alps, and during his stay at Man- his last appearance in public life. After his
tna treated Petrarch with great favor. In retnm to Arqua, he read for the first time Boo-
1860 Pelnrch was sent by the Visoontds to oaodo's "Decameron," learned the story of
Q^rmaoy, nominally to instifiy them in the Griseldis by heart, turned it into Latin, and
emjKro^B eyes, bnt really to penetrate into sent the version to the antbor, with a letter,
his dengna and to dissuade him from coming apparently the last he ever wrote. One mora-
to Italy. Afler bia retnm be received a di- ing he was found dead in hia library, with his
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
20i FETBABOH PETBMi
head nolinlng npon an open book. He tu tion to write elegantlr in a dead tongne; it
bnried hi the pariah chnroh of Arqna. — Fe- vas hia good fortnne to perfect a Uving lan-
tratob'iworkBma]rl>edivided into three kiiida: gnage. To the Italian he gave haimouy, puri-
Latin prOBO, Latin poetiy, and Italian poetry, ty, and even stability ; and bo wonderMl; did
Beaide those alreai^ mentioned, tliere are of he nae ita resonroes, that even now soarcel; an
the ftnt named the following treatise*: Jk Vita obsolete word nan be foond in his writings.
StUtaria, written in defence of hia own love of His Italian poetry ia called II tataovitrt, oi
retirement; Ba Otia BeligiMorvm, written in Bim« di Petrwea, and conaata of over 300
ISfiS after a viait to his brother, who was a aonneta, about 50 eoncont, and S short poems
monk ; Apologia Aiithoru eimtra Caiumniat in lava rina, called Triat^o d' Amort, 7Hm/a
Oalli; D» Officio ei Virlutibvt Imp&raUrit ; diUa morte, and Trum/o ddla fama. lie
Benim MamoTandarvm, a oolleotion of facta eaiittmi ore odea the form of which was bor-
£rom andent and modem history to illoatrate rowed from the troabadoura, and the oontents
aome ethical principle; Be Vera Sapientia ; D» of which are aaoally of a more elevated cbar-
CbntMiptu UwidA, an ima^oarj dialogne be- aoter than the sonnets. The latter half of the
tweenhimaelf and St. Angnstine, which heoon- {3M«>n«0r0 is nniveraally regu^ed as the supe-
radered so important as to oedl it hb secret ; rior. The fame to which his Italian poetry at-
Fttnrum Viroram lUiutrium Epitoma ; Da tuned in hia own age aurprised Petr&rdi; bat
Sapt^liea optme Adrninittrmida, a collection great aa it waa, it was far below the admiration
of tiie principal maxima of Plato and CHcoro on aooorded by later times. In 1540 the aoademj
politics; Be Vita Btata; Be Obedientia an Fide of Florenoe was fonnded with the avowed oh-
Uxoria; Itinerarixtm Suriaoum; several csa- jeot of illuetraUng and perfecting the native
tions, and his einstles. The laat named aro the tonrne, and the worka of Petrarch were taken
moat important and interesting of bis proee aatne model by which everything was judged.
works ; they are rich in materiala, lutiierto One sonnet wonld aometimea be made l^e snb-
never folly nsed, for the history of the stormy Jectof a volome, and every word of it the sab-
times in which he Hved, and in many of the Jeot of a commentary. To this oarefal atodj
aoenes of wMoh he was an actor. His Latin and imitation of Petrarch, thongh carried to a
Ctry consista of his epio of "Africa;" of 8 ridioDlDnaexoeaa,theItalianwriteraof thelSth
ksof "Epistles" addressed to hia friends, or centnry owe the elaborate elegance of their
to various popes, Urgjng their return to Borne; style. A historical work of Petrarch, entitied
and of 12 "Eclognea," like those of Boccaccio, Le viU d^ pont^i ed, imperatori Romani, ap-
all^orioal, and being really satires agvnst men peared at Florenoe in 14*r8, and ia now very
in power, eroecially against the p^al court of acaroe, although mnch songnt after as one of
Avignon. At the same time the point of the the earliaat specimena extant of Italian prose.
' satires has been in aome instances so stndionaly The mosl^ andent edition of bis Latin works b
concealed, that it has baffled all inquiry to dis- that of Basel (foL, 1496), and the most complete
cover against whom or what they ware aimed, ia that of the same place pnblished in folio in
The suspicion which has at times sprung np 1C31, Hia letters and autc^raph manuscriptc^
from eipresaiona in these "Eclogues," that he many yet imedited, are to be found in the pob-
was a secret enemy of the Bomaa Catholic lie librariea of Italy. In later timea his Ital-
ohnroh, is wholly unfounded, as hia invective ian poetry has usudly been printed by iteelf.
ia always directed against the abuses which had There are over 800 editions of the Gtniimiert,
crept into the ohnr<m discipline, and not against with and withont oommeDtonaa, of wliich the
the dootrinea or ritea of the chorch itself! The beat ia that of Uarsand (2 vols. 4to,, Padua,
Soem of "Afiica," whose ^neral dniness and 1819-'S0). Of the commentators upon hia
ecent debility are occasionally varied by fine works, the moat oonsplcnons are VdlnteUo,
passages, ia now rarely read, and never praiaed^ Gesusldo, Gastelvetro, and, in later t^mes, Tas-
though itgave him in hie own age bis chief BOni,Uuratori,Biagioll,andLeopardi. In 1838
reputation among the noble and the learned. Domenico de' Roaetti published at Trieste a
At one time he himself deemed it the greatest bibliography of his works, with Qidir varions
of hia works. His lAtin style, though aupe- editjona and commentaries. There are said to
rior to any other of hia age, ia neither elegant be more than SS distinct biographies, of which
nor aoonrate, and ia condemned by Eraamns. tiie most importent are those of YeIlutdlo,Bec-
Bnt whatever his merits or defects as a writer oadelli, Tomasini, De la Baatie, Be Sade, Tira-
of Latin, as the restorer of classical lltera- bosohi, Baldelli, Ugo Fosoolo, and Thomas
tnre in Italy, and therefore is Europe, his ser- Oampbell. Very little of Petrarch has been
vioes are nnqnestioned. He was unwearied in translated into ^igUeh. The 3W^ were -ver-
the collecting and copying of ancient mann- gi£ed by Bord (1807), and the odes and son-
■oripta, bnt for hia efforts mmy of which netabyDr,lfott?1808), Archdeacon Wrangham
wonld probably have perished. He discovered (1817), Fraser Tytler (1810), &c. The first
at Arezio the "Institntea" of Qnintilian; at complete translatian, by various authors, of
Verona, the " Familiar Letters" of Oioero; the Petrarch's Italian poems, forms a volnme of
"Epistles to Attious," and other ancient writ- Bohn's " lUuatratod library" (London, 1880).
inss, beside speaiking of having seen aome PETREL, the common name of the web-
whioh are now losL It waa Petrarch's ambi- fboted ooeanio birds constituting the snb-fonu-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
Ij vnet^Mna, oliflracterized hj tabolu nos- mot before and parflj over the ejeB. It la
triu, placed on the banal portion of the eul- M>iuidaiii In the arolio seas, vhere it attends
men and opened In front; the beak as long as the whale ships, seizing the pieces of blnbber
the head, strdght, more or less compressed, irldoh All into the vater, and often boMl;
grooTedaaifoomposedttf several pieoM, with helpliv itself frcan the caroase wliile the men
the tip strong, Krohed, soddndf hooked, and are atwork;lt breeds in tbe norther
(Vigora), the stonnj- petrels. The general ftonn roriw, ^nd is prettj common on ttie banks of
of the body is like that of the gnlls, bnt the Sewionndland, where it feeds on the garbage
feet hare a Terr mdimentarr hind toe, and the r^ected hj the ood flahers. It also breeds i
beik is Terj- diflbrent, the apical being dis- the island of St. Eilda, on the V. coast of Scot-
tiictlj separated from the basal portion ; the land, where the inhabitants eat the fleah and
htbila also are like those of the galls, hot more eggs, preserre the down and feathers, and ool-
ocegmc, as thej' pass moat of their lives in loot the oil vomited bj the birds when seised,
^dmniing over the surfooe of the waves; thej or obtained by boiling down the yoong, which
nnlv vlMt the shore except for the purpose of is nsed for bnming and for medichial poiposee ;
braeding, and then aelect rookv ahores, deporat- theeggsare pore white, with very brittle ahella,
iig their eggs on the bare rock. They have a r^^nlarly ovate, 9} by 2 inches, and are ob-
bibit of nmning with closed winga npon the tamed with great difficulty and danger, as the
snrtsce of the waves ; this fiundty has been nests are in the crevices of nearly perpendicn-
compared to the walkdiig of St. Peter npon the lar rocks. These are bold and powerfnl birds,
K& of Gennesareth, and hence the tille of this ra^ and graeefnl fliers, exoellent swimmers,
bird, which is a diminutive of the apostle's batawkwt^on land; tiiey rarelv dire; they
name. The Sight ia rapid, powerfol, and con- are hardy, difficnlt to Idll from toe thickness
tinnoiu, the same birds foUowing vessels for of the plumage, and can inflict aevere wounds
DUfljsnccesarodays; tiiey ami aloi^ with ex- with the bilL Other ^eoies fonnd on the
tended wings, without flapping and with ap- American coast are the Pacific, slender-billed,
[urentlj little motion ; the hieher the wind and tropical petrels, respectively the P. Faei-
ind the more agitcj^ the sea, uie more abun- jieo, tertvirottrit, and mtridiimalu, the drat
iiai ire these birds, as at snch times the eras- two fonnd on the Pacific coast, and the last on
aaxot, mollnskg, and other marine animals the Atlantic from Florida to New York. The
upon vhich they principally feed are most ea- pintado petrel, or Oope slgeoD (P. Omaui*,
Aj ohtaa^; ffom this habit Is derived the linn.; gennB(U|pt&n,Stepn.),isabontIBinches
it^ersldtlon alesilora that they are the harbin- long; the gen^^ color is white above vuied
gera of a stoTm.~-In the genus pr^eallaria the wiw brown ; the upper part of head and hind
viags are long and pointed, the flrat qmll the neck pliunbeous black, smaller wing coverts Uie
bngest ; the tul moderate and ronnded, taxA same, tdpped with brown, the larger white mar-
sborter than the middle toe, toea long and folly gined with black ; primaries white on the inner
rebbed and the lateral ones margined exter- web and black on the outer ; secondaries and
uQy, the hind toe a mere triangular daw. tail frttite with dark tjps ; lower parts white ;
lliegiantpetrel (i>.£t(rantA»,Omel.; gennssi- bill black. This spedea is abundant in Uie
•i/rafo, Hmnb. and Jacq.) is about 8 feet limg Bontiiem ooean, with
and T is slar extent, at a diatanoe resembling a petrels; it has been ai
Eoall albatross; the plumage is dense, ftall, and foraia. Uore Qua SO other speitiGS are de-
eluiic, and ttie head la wholly fbathered; the scribed.— In Hie genua tAalotrfibvina the bill b
wbr above is brownish gr^ mottled with shorter and mora slender and weak; the nos-
diukj «hit«, the wings and t«ul dnsky brown; trils openby adn^etabalaraMrtQre,asinthe
www parte white; bill, legs, and feet yellow. preoe£ng genns: the Sd gnlD ia the longeeL
OfHimioa is the southern ocean, it is sometimes the bdl more or less forked, the legs long and
Men on the Pacific coast of North America as alender, with an extensive bare apaoe on the
ur^p as Columbia river in spring and anm- tibia, tarsi longer than the middle toe, and the
KHrj it b very rwacious, attatdm^ and tearing hind toe a small claw. The Erpedes, about a
to pieces the imuler petrels md yonng galls ; dozen, are of small size, inhabiting the aur-
it la^ its eggs on the sandy dioree of^e Talk- &ce of Qie aea in both hemiapheres, skimming
J^ isluds, where it occurs in immense nnm- lightly and Irregularly over the waves, floating
hers; thejtnmgsrefbd with oily matters which buoyantly upon tiiem, or mnningalongtbetopa;
ute parents ^ect from the stomach for the pur- they follow vesseb fbr great distances, feeding
pen. The fiihuar petr^ (P. glaeiaUt, Linn. ; np<m the greasy matters thrown overboard
fumarm, Leach) is about SO inches long, with and on minute marine animals; they are of a
an alar extent of 8 feet and a wridit of 11 Ibe; dark color, more or less marked with white,
the Mil, Iri^ and tbet are yellow, Oe latter with and are popularly called Uother Oarer's chiok-
* greeniab tinge; the head, neck, and lower ens and sometimea aea swaDowB. The com-
PUts pure white ; bade and winse ngbt grayish mon stormy petrel or Mother Carey's chicken
Bi^% palut on rump, and the taU blnish white ; (_T. pthffiea, Yig.) ia about 61 inches long, with
qniUs and thdr coverts blacUah brown; ablaok an alar extent of IS}; the bill and feet are
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
206 PETREL FKTROLEQM
bUck; the color Is greyiah black above tinged FETEIFAanON6. SeoP
with brown; below sootf brown; aeoondAiy PETBOLECM (Lat.p«tra,K rock, and a2«uin,
oorerts margined with grayish whit«, and qailla oil), rook oil, a natDrel prodnot of the soil in
black ; romp and upper tul coverts white with soma oonntrieB, oozing up from below the snr-
blaokBbafta, the tut coTortabroadlj tipped with face, and flowing oat with the water springs,
black. They are thought by sailors to fore- Aa it ooeora in nature it ia of no definite oom-
bode stormy weadier, am are therefore dread- poation, but conuste of variona oily hydrocar-
ed and aornpnlonsly nnmolested; they occur twns, which hold in eolation paraffine uid
in most parts of the temperate Atlantic, and more or less solid bitomen or asphaltom.
are common abont the banks of Kewfonndland When of the greatest fluidity they resemble
with the otlior speciea. They breed on rocky naphtha, and have been called by thia name,
shores and islands in the N. Atlantic, on St. and also oil of naphtha. As the proportioa
IT'l'lt, and the Shetland islands; in the latter of aaphaltnm increases, the mixtore becomea
they begin to lay toward the end of June, de- thicker and darker, resembling tar in appear-
positing a single egg in a nest made of plants ance ; and at length, by farther dlminntion of
and earth, oamblly concealed, sometimes at a the fluid ingredients, it passes iato asphaltom.
depth of 8 or 4 feet, onder the stones on the Tar lake in Trinidad, deacribed in the arti-
beaches ; they remain qniet by day, becoming de BrrnxBH, cooNsts of asphaltnm with not
BottTO about twilight; tho e^ are li by | enongh petroleum to keep the whole fiuid at
inch, white, with minute doll red dots at the ordinary twnperatores. Bach miitorea are of
larger end. According to BrQnnich, this bird little value ; but the liquid oily bitmnoiia in
beoomeBBofatthat theinbabitontjiof LheF&rOe some countries are very important products,
islanda string it to a wick, and use it aa a lamp, and in the United States have become so since
Other tpecues of this genus found in America the article referred to was printed, three years
an the fork-tailed petrel (^T. /areata, OonldJ, ago (1868). The various forms of these sub-
wholly blnish gray, with legs and feet brown ; stancee were known to the ancient Greeks and
it ia about S inches long, and is found oa Romans, and by Tadtos, Pliny, "Vitruvius, and
the coasts of Or^n and Russian America ; other Roman writers were designated bitumen.
Leach's ^trol (_T. Leachii, Bonap.), sooty a word derived from the Gre^ ttitto, jrunre,
brown, with white mmp, tail forked, and tarsi pitch, and probably first written ^Immeti.
and feet blaek, found from Uassachneetta to Among the localitiee cited, where the liquid
Baffin's bay ; Wilson's pefcral {7. Wiltonii, Bo- bitumen was found, is oneof the Ionian islands,
nap.), differing fWim the last in the darker color Zacynthiu, now Zante. Being referred to by
of the brown, the slightly emaipnate tdl, and Herodotus, tins spring must have been flowing
the yellow color of the basal two thirds of the more than 2,000 years, and how long before
webs ; the black petrel, on the coast of Oalifor- hia time we know noL At Agrigentum in
nia (71 melania, Bonap.), entirely black above Bioily the petroleum was collected and burned
and sooty below. — In the gfioaa peUoanoiie* in lamps as a substitute for oiL (Dioscorides, i.
fLBo6p.)thebilHB shorter than the head, broad, 99.) The oripn of these fluids ia very obscure,
depressed, and swelled at the aides ; beneath They appear to be of o^anic nature, and do
the bill is a membranoas poii<^ capable of ex- not differ ttom products distilled from bitu-
tension ; nostrils opening by 2 tabular aper- minous shales and ooal ; bat they are found
tares ; wings very short, as are the tarsi and in geological formations which were not re-
tail ; toes long, the hind one wanting. A few positories of great bodies of vegetable or ani'
species are described, inhabiting the coasts of mal substances, and are rarely met with in
New Zealand, Australia, and the extreme parts proximity to beds of ooaL Around volcanoea
of South America; they are seen in tiwips, petroleum ia oft«n seen floating upon the sur-
and dive very frequently, probably in searoh face of the water, as aroond the volcanic ides
of small fish ; they are rather poor fliers, oom- of Oape Verd ; and to the south of Vesovin*
pared with other petrels. — In the genus prion a spring of it rises up through the sea. Every-
(Lac^.) the bill is longer, depressed, with where it is accompanied by springs of common
nearly strMght cnlmeuj sides dilated near ttie salt, and by jets of carbnretted hydrogen gas.
base aud beset posteriorly with fine parallel The following are some of the moat noted lo-
laminra ; nostrils with S openings, short and oalities of it : Amiano and other places in the
elevated ; the hind toe a mere claw. The north of Italy, which have flimiahed the sup-
broad-billed petrel (P. nttatvt, Lao6p.), fonnd plies used for lighting the cities of Parma end
between lat. 86° and 70° S., is bluish ash above, Genoa ; Bakoo in oSorgia, on the borders of
with tips of quills and wing coverts black ; it the Caspian ; Rangoon in Burmah ; the island
is wild and solitary, a ra^iid flier, and constant- of Trinidad ; and portions of Pennaylvania,
]y on the wing ; the neets are nuide in society, Ohio, New York, &o.* In northern Italy, in
in burrows of about a yard deep, excavated ii
the sides of hills near the sea: the eggs are *8DTisgaofit>niep(iit<dbTCvtBtaoabary<uiibniich
white, do,,g,ted, lll« tl.o« of . plmoi, , »mj iS^kT^S.ZSS^i'^^Z '^TSS
Of tlie characters of the hill resemble those of bitnmlnMiaoailHKlDauevmilnilphtiriptliira. TbeFml-
the fishing ducka^For the senua twfflntu g™««. lio obMrrei. coUeet tha putroliom hr medldilil
(Bri».)8eo8KElBWATKR. J™(/»"« pajp™™ uifl for j««ing ttdr •Hon wh«U iB^b«j.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FETBOI^EUU SOT
th« dwiUeB of Pantu and Kodena, petroleum mada to test its qnalldes fbr aSi)Tiiag por-
hu been extracted from the earth ei&oe its atBne for candles. The material is de-
fint dfaooray in 1640, the method panned scribed aa of semi-fluid oonristence, Uke goose
Iwing merel7 to rink inta in the groond, end grease, its color greenish brown, and its
collect the fluid that eznded from the soil in odor peculiar bnt not disagreeable. DistiUed
liOle basins or reservoirs in the bottom of the with steam at Bnccessivelj inorearing tempera-
pits. The Tarions sorts were gathered tram tores below 800° F., the flnid hTorocarboDB
different looalities, and tlieir peonliar priqier- tJist came over were almost &ee from paraf-
tiea appear to have been correotl^ observed ; fine ; bnt the prodnctB which required s tem-
bat DO methods of pnrii^ing them were em- perature of 612° and npward solidified on
plojed; on tbe contrary, the Ught«r and bet^ cooling and contained most of the parafBne,
tecmlB were made the medinm of ntilizingthe which might then be separated by preamre. Its
poorer sorts by mixture. The W. shore of the total proportion is from 10 to 11 per cent. —
Caspisn (see Bakoo) has been celebrated from The occurrence of petrolenm about the hesd
1 remote period for the eitraordinai7 qnan- waters of the Alleghany river in New York
titjee of iDfl&mmable gases and liquids that and Pennsylvania waa known to the early set-
riM from the surface of the ground. They are Hers of that re^OD. The Indians collected It
m«t with over a tract of oonntry about B6 m, on the shores of Seneca lake, and it was sold
in length and about ^ m. in width. In strata as a medicine by the name of Beneca or Gene-
of ■ porone alliaceous sandstone oelonging see oik A stream is Alleghany co., N. T.,
to the tertiary period. In the vicinity are hiDa was named Oil creek in consequence of the
of volcanic rocks through which springs of the appearance of oil in its banks ; and the same
heavier sorts of petroleum flow out. The oil name was pven to another branch of the Al-
ia oollected by means of large open wells snnk leghany river in Venango co., Peim, Several
16 to SO feet in depth, and m these it gathers loctdities are de^gnated npon the old maps of
&9 it ooECB out from the strata. It is observed this part of the country as afibrding oil ; and
that the oil from the central portion of the npon Oil creek in Venango co. two spots were
tract is clear and pure aa if distilled, and by partionlarly noted, one of which was close to
ite faint jelloiw tint resembles Sauteme wine, the N. line of the county, and one abont 12 m.
That obtained Dearer the ndes of the tract la further down the stream. At these points
dtfker, gradually chan^ng to a yellowish springs issned from the banks of the stream,
;r««n, then reddish brown, and fInaUy to as- bringing up more or less oil, which collected
phaltura. The qnsntities annually collected npon the surface of the water as it stood in the
and Bold amount in value, as stated by M. pools below the springs. The inhabitants were
Abioh in his work on that country, to 8,000,- accnstomed to collect the oil by spreading
ODD francs ; and the sales might easily be made woollen cloths upon the water, aind wringing
to double thia *ext«nt. The oil is introduced them when sstnrated. Down the valley of
very Iwgely into Persia, and over large dis- this oreek there are numerous sndent pits
tri(^ there no other msterisl is used for pro- which appear to have been excavated for the
dndng artificial light. — The Kangoon distriot purpose of collecting oil, bnt by whom made
on the Irrawaddy la qnite as wonderftil fbr its no one can now tell. From the fact that logs
ifflmuue prodadion of rock oil as Bakoo. have been fonnd in them notched as if with an
For an unknown period the whole Bnrman are, some have supposed that the work was
empire and a considerable portion of India done by the French, who occnpied this region
hare be^ supplied with oil from this sonrce. in the early part of tbelastcentnry; bnt others
Tlie trade is carried on by means of large boats believe that the Indians, who are known to
that come up the Irrawaddy to the town of have valued the oil, dug the pits. Bay, in his
Rainanghong, a place inhabited by potters, "Historyof Pennaylvania" (1844), gives an ac-
*ho are constoatly making the earthen jars in count of the estimation in which tiieyheld this
which the oil is kept. Those are piled up tn product, nsing it mixed with paint to anoint
STMt pyramids about the town ready for use. themselves for war, and also employing it in
The wells are in beds of sandy days which their reli^ous rites. Be quotes an lotereetlug
rest on sandstones and argillBoeoTiB slates, and latter irom the commander of Fort Dnqnesae
are BometiineB etrak to the depth of 00 feet, to Gen. Uontcahn, describing an assembly of
Coder the slates is said to be coal ; bnt this the Indians by night on the banks of the oreek,
and the other strata may be of the tertiary and in the midst of the ceremonies their firing
epoch. Symes ("Embassy to Av&" vol. 11.) the acnm of oil that had collected npon the
states that the number of wells in Uiis distriot sorfboe of the water. As the flames bunt
exceeded SSO, and the annual yield of petro- forth, illnminaljng the dark valley, there rose
leum was more than 400,000 hi^^eada. The from the Indians around triumphant shonts
DatiTea use the oil in lamps, for preserving that made the hills reScho again. The scene
timber against inseota, and aa a medicine. It recalled to the writer the accounts of the cere-
has recently been imported into England, in monies of the Guebres or anoient fire worship-
metallic tai^ to prevent its volatile portions pers of the sacred city of Bakoo. The qnan-
from escapbig ; and at the great oandle fao- titles of oil collected by the early settlers were
toi7 of Mestrs. Price experiments have been unimportant, the largest amount, whiob wu
UigmzoQbyGOOglC
a08 PXTBOLEDM
frran ihe lowwiprin^ tmOil creek, readting i^ln tiheroek,ai>dthaoilraBewiUifai5tiuilMi
BometimeB 20 barrels in a jear. So Bnsptdon of the nir&oe. A email pump being intre-
appaars to have been entertuned that ths anp- dooed, a aopptr of oil treB obtained, amonnting
plies ooiild be increased by siukiiig deep weUs to 400 gaUona a Aaj ; and a lai^r pomp being
throngti the sandstones and shales that under- afterwud snbMdtnted, tbe flow wae increased
1*7 tiie TsUej ; and it was not known that bj to 1,000 gallons a daj. Thongb a ateam en-
distillation and chemical treatment the qnalib' ^e was applied to the work and kept in con-
of tlie petrolenia ooold be greatly improved, stant oper^on, the snpply oontinaed oninter-
Eraii when, in boring for aslt near Tarentmn, nipted for weeks. This saooess gave a new
SC m. above Pittsburg on the Aileghanjr rirer, Tslne to every spot where oil had ever been
spring of pelrolenm were stmok in 1840, the fomid or was tiiongbt likely to prodace it
material was valued only aa a medicine, and The narrow valleys of the water courses, eica-
for this nse baa been ever since retuled in vsted 800 or 400 feet throngh the pilea of bor-
■mall qnantities at high prices. In Ohio, on isontal strata, had been its natural oatlete, and
the Little Moskingnm, the inhabitants narrow- along these great nnmbers of wells were soon
Sr missed leamtog tbe importance of this pro- commenced. Oil creek below Titnaville, tbe
not as far back as the year 1819. Dr. B. P. valley of the Alleghany from below FraoUiD
Hildreth of Marietta, in an account of the re- up into Warren co., and the banka of French
gitm written in that year and pabliabed in the oreek, were soon explored by wells, and around
"American Jonmal of Science" (1820), ^eak- the most snocesBful of these villages rapidly
ing of the borings for salt water, aaya : "They epnmg ap, and extraordinary bnsiness activi^
have sunk two wells, which are now more was introduced into regions that had beni
than 400 feet in depQi ; one of them affords a among the moat retired and qniet portions of
very strong and pure water, bnt not in great the state. Next to Oil oreek tne valley of ^e
quantity. The other dischargee snoh vast Alleghany, from TIdionte in Warren oo., S. to
qnantitiea of petroleom, or as it is vajgarly the Venango lu>^ otm^ned the most prodoc-
called ' Soneka. oil,' and beaide ia ral^eot to tire vella, and others of great yield were opened
anoh tremendoos explouona of gas as to foroe In the town ot i^anklin. ^ numerous were
out aU the water and affbrd nothing bnt gaa these undertsking^ that the village preeented
for several days, that they make bnt little or a eurious aspect with the numbers of toll der-
no aalt. Kevertheless the petroleom affords ricks, employed in boring the Artesian wells,
oonsiderable profl^ and is beginning to be in scattered among tbe gardens and house lots,
demand for Itunpa in workahops and manufao- Before the close of the year 1630, according to
toriea. It affords a clear, brisk light, when one published statement, the number of wells
burnt in this way, and will be a valn*ble article had amounted to full 3,000, and 1i of these
for lighting the street lamps in the future eitiea were producing d^y as follows :
of Ohio." It is not a little singular that, with
tbe aouToes of snpply thus p<»nted out and the
nsefiil qipUoation of tbe petroleum understood,
tta valtie should have remained nn^ipreciated, _^„ , ..,„,.,.^
•nd at the «[piration 4^ more than 86 years be ^^^S-y
atlaetpwoeiTedthrou|dkthei«ogres3of exper- - ■ ' -"'■■■
iments made npon the distillation of bituminoua
sholaa and o«u. The snooess attending these, . _. _ . __..
and the identityoftheorude oil with the natn- The bairela holding 40 gallons each, the daily
— ' — ' — ' ' -"—.1— .- V- a:^._._a yjgjj ^ tiieae wells was by this estimate 48,-
„ 600 gallons ; and of the whole district it prob-
the o^iaoity of the suppliea, and applying to abN- exceeded 50,000 gallons. At 20 cents per
Ae natoral oil tbe metliodB of pnrifloation in- galloD, to which the price of most of the (M
vented for the artificial. The utst movement had fillen on the spot, the value of the daily
made in this direction was in 1854, by Messrs. prodact was $10,000. The produotdve wells
Ereleth and Bissell of New York, who aecnred vary greatly in depth. In some lai^ supplies
tbe ri^t to the upper spring on Oil creek, are afforded at 60 or 70 feet, and in others at
and orgaaiced a oompany in New York. The greater depths to over 500 feet Host of the
quali^of tbe oil was tested and a report made oil is from wells over 160 feet deep and leaa
upon it by Prof. B. gilliman, jr. No progress, than 260. Shallow wells, that are exnausted by
however, wsa made in establishing the busi- pmnpiog, are often made to yield again by sink-
nesB until Deo. 1357, when llessrs. Bowditoh mgthemdeeper. Several wellsmayoontdnue in
and Drake of New Haven nndertook to search enccessM operation near together withontseem-
for the oil. Ool. E. L. Drake r«moved to Titos- ing to draw npon took other ; and again wells
ville on Oil creek, and in the winter of ISfiS-'B may be sank near others that are prodndog
oompleted his arrangements for boring into the largely, or near tbe natural springs of oil, and
rook below the bed of the creek. The work prove unsnocesalbl. The pomps are sunk deep-
adranoed very alowlr, aikd it was not until er into the wells as tho snpply goes down ; and
Aog. 99, 18CS, that ou was stmok at the depth it b observed that if the pumping is Interruptod
of Tl foot. The drill andd«nly sank Into BOAT- for a df^, the product obtained when it is re-
LmiU,.
nlk.
"^sr
5
ToW
74
i.i«
D,o,.^oob,Google
?£TBOLEUU 206
neved wiS be irater, whloh is mora or lesa tlid Boil down to the rook, one pipe boltod upon
wlL AtsomewellB the floiv of water hfta Don- the top of another, to taj depth required,
tiiued dnring seveial dajs' pumping before the whioh is nsnaUj not more th&n 22 feet. If ob-
oil was recovered. This never seems to f^ Bt&oles ue enooontered that oannot be poiihed
entirclj, mileas it be &om some obstraction aside even after being broken up b; tlie drills
ureadng the flow, and then reoonrse is hod to working through the pipea> th» work is aban-
HDkiBg deeper or enlargir^ the bore of the doned in that qiot and oomnieaoed In another,
hole. Salt water oommomf oomes up with The derricks erected fi>r supporting the i^para-
Qte oil, and is separated from it by standing in tos for ilrilling and afterward tiiatlbr pnmping,
the Tsts into which the prodnots ore received, sra pyramidal strootarea of 4 comer posts, 80
The proportion of this to the oil is verj vari' or 40 feet long, framed together so as to indnde
sti]e,andtheqnantit7ofoUd^f pumped from a aqnaie of 10 to 14 feet on the sides on the
1 single well is far from being legtuar. A yield ground, and of 4 or G feet at the top. Covered
of 10 or IS barrels a day is common, and some with boards, th^make a convenirait shelter for
trella have averaged SO barrels for a considorable the workmen. TJie dnlls ore worked either by
time. InBtancea hare occnrred of the oil, when men or by horse or steam power. A atiff
£nt atnick, rushing np with great violence by spring pole firmly aeonred at one end lifts the
reason of the pressnre of the carbnretted hydro- mrill and roda eo^ended from its free end, and
gen MS that aocompanies it ; the eflfect being the power is ^iplied at thla end to make it
uke that attending ue nncorking of a bottle of saddenly descend. When maiuwed by men,
femfiDted liqnor. At o&e well near Tidionte it two standing tt^ether blaoe ea^ a fbot in
L» stated that a workman was knocked over by a doable stirrnp sospenoed from the pole and
the jet of oil, which was thrown np throngh the suddenly bear it down. Immediatelyit sidings
derrick and into the trees sronnd. The open np, and they repeat the operation. — The sonroe
veil sroimd Uie tube was filled by the overflow, of the petroleiun is an interesting qnestion,
aod 100 barrels or more of oil. it was supposed, particularly as it bears npon the probable per-
eK&ped into the river. — ^Beside the localities manenoe of thesapply. Though we obtain the
ilready noticed, several other places have re- rock oil artificially omy from bitnminons shales
cHilly become known for their oil wells. Upon and coal, its occurrence is not always limited to
the margin of the coal field in Ttnmhull co., locslitiea where large bodies of these formations
Ohic^ at a place called Keoca, 60 m. from Gleve- are known to ezist. On the contrary, springs of
kid and 31 from Erla, Penn., wells were first it issne in difi'erent parta of the world from all
sunk m the roring ot 1860, the encouragement the stratified rocks, and from the volcanio and
for making the trial consisting in the £^t of the metsmorphic formations. It is sometimes trarad
vtter In the weBa being strongly impregnated to beds of lignite, and sometimes its sonroe is
irith oil Fetrolenm was soon obtsined at the altogether obeonre. In Oliio and Yirginia it is
depth of 60 feet ; and in Kovember of that fonnd in the coal measnrea, and the wdls are in
fm it was stated that over a smaU district some instances sunk throngh these into Qit sand-
from 600 to YOO wella hod been snnk, and 76 stones and slstes beneath before they beoome
Et«am engines were in operation pmnplng oiL prodnotive. In N. "W. Pennsylvania or in New
la Alleghany oo_ K T, alxmt a mile S. W. York the wells are entirely oatdde of the ooal
torn the town of Onbo, operations wera com- field, and so remote from it that we cannot w^
menctd shont the first of Jan, 1861, near a imagine any connection between the oU and the
fuaom great pool, which had always been cosl beds. The strata in which the oil is found '
knova SB the oil spring. Before the iron pipe dip S, and pass below the coal meosana at
driven bto the gronnd had reached the rocK, least 600 or 600 feet, the nearest coal bed to tM
oQ mixed with water gashed violently np more northern springs occnrring in the tops <^
tbroo^ it From another well sank in the the highest hills, perhaps 80 m. distant The
rock near by more oil has also been procured, conglomerate which nnderlies the ooal formation
Id Tirginia wella are in snccessfal operation in caps some of the hills in the oil region, and at-
Bitdiie and Wirt cos. In Canada west also oil tarns a thickness of from 100 to 800 feet The
has been obtained for the last two yean, wliioh sbalea and sandstones that socceed below thla
a remarkable for its peculiarly offensive gai^ rock belong to the Chemung and Portage gronps
licky odor.— The process of tanking the wells of the New York geologists, and extend over a
does not differ essentially from that described large portion of southern New York, to the "W.
under AnrmuK Wxua. But the mode of so- of Binghamton, and of N. W. Peimsylvonia.
cnrinsanopeningdowntotherockis novel and The oil wells are bored in this group throngh
ingei&ini. In t£e creek bottoms the ezcava- alternating layers of shales and simdstones. and
tiouandwalliiigof aaopenwell is troublesome an oocasional stratum of a bluish aandy lime-
on accotmt of qnicksuids, and those which stone. The nest group below is that known as
have been made throng the superficial cover- the Hamilton shsles in New York, and in Ohio
iog of sand, eravcl, f^ clay have necessarily as the black slate. Dr. Newbwry of Ohio oon-
I>Kii large uid their aides secured by timberiag, aiders this the sourco which affords the petro-
ss practised in mining shafts. To avoid this leum. It cont^na much carbonaceous matter,
tnmUe, sfroug iron pipee of 4 to 6 inchea diam* and is supposed by him to be amply sufficient
eter, made for the purpose, are driven through for generatmg the euppliea that are foroed np-
TOL. ztn. — 14
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
210 PETROLEUK
irard from it by the water that finds ita way prapertjof notoongeaUngatlowtaDperataire^
beneath the oil, and by the preesore of the oar- and also oorrectiiig the tondenoy of the ktter
bnratted hydrogen gas sIbo ftamished from the to gum, while tike lard oil imparts body to the
same eouroe. ft is from those slates that the miztora, in which the petrolenm is defldeot.
oil springs of Oanada West issue, and these are They haye also been applied in woollen fac-
fitr ustant from the coal fonnation. Throneh tories to the cleansing of the wooL and where
the open seams, that are ecanmon in the shales thns nsed a preference b already given to
and ssndstonea, the oU oorrents find a passage, them over other oils. Faraffine, which re-
Bomelimes coming ont to the snr&oe ; and it is nuuns with the heavy oils and ia sepsnted
owing to the irr^alarities of these seams that from them by condensation at low tempera-
wells snnk jiear t^ether vary in their yield^ in tnrea, filteiiog, and pressing ont, as stearme is
the depth at which they become prodnotive, separated from lard, is of variable proportion,
and even aometimee, as in liie Kanawlia region areraging perhaps a potmd to 4 gaUons of the
of Vlr^nia, in the quality of the oil they afford, petroleina. The heavier oils do not prodnce it
Althon^ nothing certam eon be predicated in larger proportion than the lighter, and some
of the capacity of the supply, and actual ezpe- of tiiem, which appear to be isomeric with par-
rienoe alone onn determine this qnestdon, there affine iteeH afford very little of it. (8eeFARA>-
is osrtainly abondant enconragement for ez- rora.) — Petroleum acquired a reputation as a
pecting K Urge and long continued prodootion medicine before it wan used for other pnrpcsea ;
thm the ^at extent of the oil region, and end there ia no doubt it possesses some virtue,
from the history of the oil districts of Bakoo especially as an outward application in diseases
and Rangoon, which, though drawn npon for of the slon, ohilblaiss, rbeumstisiii, &c. Takm
oentories, have never &iled to fomiah the im- internally in doses of 80 to 60 drops, it acts as a
mense supplies denuuded of them. Single wells sadorifio and stimulating antd-spasniodic. Ithss
will continne to fail as they have done, but been recommended for disorden of the chest,
new ones will renew the sapply, and the old and in Germany as a remedy for tapeworm.
may recover that which they have lost. It — ^Ksranno. liie proceasea «nployed in le-
seems impossible that as a whole the bnnness fining petrolenm are the same as those devised
can ful to continue to be one of great impor- for the rectification of the crude cosl oils ; snd
tance. — Petroleum of different localities varies In describing them it will not be out of place to
eoQsiderebly in character. The substance is jndude a further account of the coal oil mann-
ordinarUy of a greenish hue, more or less deep facture, which since the publication in this
and opaque ; but some varieties of liffht clear work of the article Ooax Pboduots, containing
oils have a reddish color. All have a disagree- a short notice of it, has attained great impor-
able smell, which is not completely removed tance in the United States. The extraction of
by the ordinary process of punfication. Thdr oU from bituminous substances, as aitales, oools,
quality is indicated by thotr speciflc gravity, asphaltum, &o., is no new discovery. The first
and this is talcon by Baum^'a hydrometer, the announoementofthediscoverythatoilmightbe
higher degrees of which mark the lighter oils, thus procured la contained in the specification
such as are moat esteemed. The best are some of a patent n^ted in England in 1694 to
ofthoseof Oilcreek,of46°B. Othersofthe Martin Eele, ThoTnas Hancock, and William
same district increase in density to S8°. At Fortlock, for " a way to extract and nuike great
ndioute oils are obtained of 4B°. At Franklin quantities of pil«h, tar, and oyle ont of a sort
they rate from 88° to 86°, and on French creek of stone, of which there ia a sufficient fonnd
also they are heavy. At Uecca they are dark, within our dominions of England and Wales."
thick, and heavT) so that when cold they re- The atone proved to be a bituminous shale ; but
fbse to flow. Their density is 30° or 27°, cor- no practical results appear to have followed the
responding to a specific gravity of about 0.90. discovery and the patent In 171S the Hessrs.
The oil from Ouba, N. Y., resembles that of Betton of Shrewsbury patented a process for
fVauklin, marking 32*. — In the reotiflcation of extracting oil from the black, pitohy, fiinly
petroleum the light oils that first oome over rook commonly found overlying Uie coal beds,
are often called benzole, and are sold, pnt up This mnat have been the bituminons shales;
in small quantities, for some of the purposes and th^ method was to grind them to powder
to which benzole is applied, as removing grease and su^ect the material to destructive distilla-
spotB fr«m fabrics ; but no real benzole ia ever tion. The product was used only as a medi'
a prodaot of the distdllation. The proportion cine, and was noticed as such in 1T61 in Lewis's
of li^t oils suitable for illumination amounts " Usteria Uedioa," under the name of British
in the very best petroleum to 90 per cent., or petrolenm oil, "extracted by distillation
which however is rarely obtained ; and from from a hard bitumen or a kind of stone cosl
this the ylelddimimshesto 80 per cent, or even found in Shropshire and other parts of Eng-
a lower proportion. The heavy oila separated land." The anbstance and the method of i^ro-
from the lighter are of comparatively little value, curing it received occasional notice in the scien-
They are need for lubricating maohinerr, and tificjoumals; the earliestpaper of much interest
for this purpose are advantageoudy mixed with containing an account of Dr. Clayton's eiperi-
about an equal proportion of lard oil, the pe- menta was pubttahed in the " Philosophical
trolenm hnpartdng to the mixture its nsefbl Transaotioua" of Jan. 1789. But it was about
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FETBOLEUK
tdvatioe cadonaol
n adding to oar knowledge of the year 1861 no treatise upon the' eabjectliad ap-
prodncta of the alow diatillataon of organio peared at all comparable to that in the apeoifi-
bodies. The diaracter of the coal gas was un< oatJonof the patent of Mtiroh 19, 18i6 0reveU
deratood, and how to obtain it by distilling d'inemtion, nev series, iv. SO). Of this an
liitnminons substances at high temperatures ; ^'^glia'l' tranalatioD is recorded in the specifi-
sod some of the oompoimds of hjdrogeit and ootion of the patent of Da BnisBon, No. 10,726
carbon, derivable from the liqnid products of of the English patent ofBce. (See also a paper
tbis distillation, were eliminated and described, on tlie history of this mauniaotore by F. H.
Bnt the products of the slov distillation were Stor«r, in the " American Jonrnal of Science,"
known only M oily flalda, possessing no interest toL zzz. pp. 121 and 264, I860.) jbi flus
eicept as empirical medicines, vhen Beiohen- spe<^cation, Belligne describes first t^e ap-
bachof Moravia ondertook to investigate their paratns employed in the distillation, in one
propertiee, and extended his reseaohes to the fitrm of which he makes nse of snperhe^^d
greatvarielyofprodnctaof thedestmctivedift- steam. The prodacts of the distdlhition are
tillatdon at high and low temperatures of or- then enumerated, which are as follows: 1, &
gtDio bodies, of animal as well as vegetable very limpid whitish volatile oil, almost without
nature. The great nnmber of new snbstancea odor, nsefal as a solvent or for illumination in
which he thus discovered, togedier with tlie aoitable lamps, and sometimes known as naph-
promise that several among them might be sp- tha; 2, a straw-colored oil, somewhat volatile,
pEiedto nsefiil pnrposee, gave ^'eat interest to of q)eci£c gravity 0.84 to 0.67, almost odor-
the socoimta of hie investigatioiis which ap- lesa, and smtable for bnming la lamps in which
peared in theaoientifiojonrnalaof Germany yi the oil iskept at the same level, and which ar«
ISSO and 1881. He was the first to deecribe provided with a doable cnrrent of air, with a
the snhatance parsffine, which he obtained fl;om chimney, and proper bnmer : 8, a heavier oil
Tood tar, and to notice the distinction between adapted for labrioating machinery ; 4, a red
it and the BlmUarsnbstanoenaphOi^ine, which coloring matter extracted from the different
19 derived from the liqnid prooacts of the rapid varieties of the oils ; 5, paraffine ; 6, a grease
distillation of bitominons matters, as practised for lubricating machinery, beins evidently a
in making gas. The miztnre of the several hy- mixtore of paraffine in Uttle oil; 7, a black
drocarbons, such as constitote the porifled coal pitch, the residae of the distillation, suitable
oils, he called enpion (Qr. tv. very, and Riwr, for coating wood, metals, Ac., for their preser-
fat). He rec<wnized the qnahties in these oils vstion; 8, an alkaline soap prepared by txeat-
tlist rendered ftiem in no respect inferior to the ing the oil with alkalies; 9, solphato of am-
finest oils fur bnniing in lamps to produce monia; 10, fertilizing mixtures prepared with
light, and observed thtA a cheap method of t^e ammoniacal lienors; 11, sulphate of aln-
sepaisting them firom the tarry residaes was mina. The orade oil obtained trom his retorts,
alone required to bring fliem into extensive nse which were like those of the gas works, he
for domestic purposes. These valuable cootri- treated either before or after ite being redi«-
butions to science and art were published in tilled with a quantity of acid (sulphnria, mn-
diSerent numbers of the Journal far Ghemie riatic, or nitric), and caused tiie mixture to be
vniPltynh ofSchweigger-Seidel, of the^etMt thoroughly agitated. This operation being con-
Jahrhuh der Chemie wnA FhyHk, and in. Erd- tinned for some time, the tan? matters are par-
msnn's Journal ySr praktitche CKemU, for tially freed from the oil, and on the mlxtnVe
1830-'31. They attracted the attention of being left to repose they sabside with the acid,
sdentifio and practical chemists in other parts so that the purified oil can be drawn off from
uf lurope, Bome of whom in France particu- the top, bringing with it bnt little of the acid.
larly were already engaged in the extraction This is neutralized by addition of an alkali, as
'if die oils from bitmninoos substances, a patent the lye of soap boilerg, and after the mixture
fur which had been granted in 1824 to IDL hssbeenwellagitatedagain,moretarandoolor-
Cherrao; and in 1832 Blum and Honeuse pat- ing matter subsidMj from which the oils are
eoted the application of these oils to illumi- separated by decanting again and redisdlling.
listing purpose. The latter had a factory near By a series of fractional distillations the several
Autnn m tiie department of 8a6ne.et-Loire for sortsof light oils are obtained inapure state. —
treating the bitominons shales of tliat district ; In England, and incidentally in the united States
and the chemist Laurent was at this time en- also, uie establishment of the coal oil manufao-
gsged in conducting the operations, who a year tur9 is due to the enterprise of James Yomig,
or two afterward waa ancceeded by Selligue. Esq., of Glasgow. In 1847 his attention was
The psMrs pnbliahed by tliese chemists, and directed to the extraction of a lubiicating oil
espe<My the specificatJons of the pat^ita taken from petrolemn, that exuded from a coal mine
out by the latter from 1684 to 184S, pnbliahed in Derbyshire ; and having ezhansted the sop-
m the BmeU d'itumiuitt, present full details ply of this, he next applied to the same pnr-
°f the operations, which they had already pose the TorbanehiH mineral or Boj^ead can-
brought to such a state of parfeotion, that the net, a material which was first asoertained In
mbseqoent improvements introdncea consist 1850 to possess an unusual proportion of bitn-
merely in comparatively unimpoitant modifi- men, and to be citable of anordlng large ijoMOr
D,o,.^oob,Google
S18 PETBOLEUH
titles of gas. (Sm Ooax.) Kr. Tonng found the diflbrent works are essentiallj the same.
it still better wapted for the mumf&otQre of The ojHj distinotioiiB of importanoe are In the
oil, aai BQCoeedea so well in this enterprise forms of the apparatas, and particalarlr in the
tiiat In the year 1804, as he testified in a law- retorts. The common form in nse for some
aait fbr establishing bis pat«tit, bis prodnctlon time was that of the gas retorts— long oast iron
of oil amounted to aboat 8,000 gallons a week, boxes, witb an opening at the end, that project-
which sold for 6«, a gallon. For the year the ed from the ftimaoe in which thej were set,
sales reached abont £100,000, a large propor- and shaped in their seclion like the letter 0 .
tlon of which was profit Such sncoess soon Others were made of cylindrical form, were
led others to undertake the same branch of set npri^t in the ftunoce, made to be charged
mano&ctare, and coal oil works r^Idly in- at tbe top and discharged at the bottom, and
creased in England, and were introdnced into flimished with exit pipes for the Tolatile prod-
the IJnited States. The first factory of the nets either at the tup or at different hdghts.
kind in this country was that of the kerosene EartlieawBre retorts bare been substituted In
oil company, on Newtown creek, Long island, some works for those of cast iron, as in the
opposite the npper part of New Tork city, mann&otnre of gas. In the nse of all of tbem
which went into operation in Jnne, 1854. It a loss results from the unequal degree in which
was designed to work the Bogt\ead cannel or portions of the charge are lieat«d, a part being
other materials of similar character tbat might rapidly orerheated so as to produce gaseons
be brought to New York from New Branawlok matters, while otier parts are acqniiSig the
or Nora Scotia, or from the western coal mines; heat necessary for the generation of the oily
and the operations were to be condoct«d nnder products. To correct this defect a form of re-
the patent of Mr. Yoong granted to him in this tort was invented in France in the early periods
country, as well as in I^glacd, for the ezcln- of the mannfactnre, called the revolving retort,
slve use of coal for this manufacture, ^s This was a cost iron cylinder, which as now
cidm, however, was not recognized at other used is about 8 feet long and 6 iraet In diameter,
works of later date in the TJidted States, and suspended in the fnmace upon an axle in the
was never enforced. InlSOSthe Breokenrid^e centre of each end and made by machinery to
coal oil works at Oloveirort, Ky., on the Ohio turn slowly over while the charge is heating,
river, were producing oU from the oannel coal usually aboot two revolutions in a minute,
of tjie vicinity, which somewhat resembled the The volatile prodncts find their way oat to the
Boghead cannel in appearance and in ita rich condensers through the axle at one end, which
hitominouB character ; and the same year a fao- is made hollow for this purpose. The charge
tory was built In Perry co., OHo. The cannel is introduced through a man hole in the front
coua of this redon proving to be well adapted end. Tor a large retort it ma;r amount to 2^
for tUs application, several other factories were tons of ooaL This is distilled in 6 honra, and
soon consb^oted, parilcnlarly in Ute vidnity the carbonaceous re^due and ash being drawn
of Newark, LicUng co., Canfleld, Mahoning out a new charge is immediately introdnced.
00., and in Ooshocton co. ; and at the close of By keeping the retort at a temperature below
the year 1830 the total number in Ohio was redness, the operatioa goes on rapidly witJh
probably not less than 26, the vorkhiK capacity great uniformity and with the largest prodoc-
of which njght average 800 gallons of light oila tion of oil. Such retorts, however, are oostly
a day each. At the same time there were 6 or to ooOstmct, are more liable to get out of order
more fitctoriea in Eentncky ; one in St Lonis, than the fixed retorts, and it is also objected to
Uo. : 8 or 10 in Yirginia, mostly in the Ka- them tltat the coal Is more or less ground to
nawha re^on, except a few near Wheelbe; powder, which in the condition of dust is ear-
about 10 in western Pennsylvania; 6 in the Hed off by the vapors, obstructing the con-
environs of New York city; one at Hartford, densera and adding to the cost of the purifloa-
Ooun. ; 4 in and about Boston ; one in New tion. Methods of distillation are also In use by
Bedford ; and one in Portland, Me. The ooala which an external fire is dispMised with, and
employed in these works were found to difibr the heat required for tbe expulsion of the vola*
greatly in their capacity of producing oil ; and tile matters is produced by the combustion of
none of them were so valuable in this respect a portion of the material, as iiv the process of
as the Boghead oannel. From this it wss found charring wood for charcoal, and coal in pits
possible to extract 180 gallons of crude (^ and kilns for coke. Near Wheding, Ya., this
yielding about 76 gallons of refined oil, per ton ; plan is in operation, the coal being collected in
the usual product, however, is about 117 gal- pits to the amount of 100 tons at a chai^^ and
Ions of crude aad 60 of rectified oil. The maxi- covered with earth. The Sre is started at one
mumyieldof the Albert coal of New Brunswick end, and a draught through the piles is pro-
is llOgallons of crude andabont 76 of rectified duced by the exhausting action of a jet of
oil ; of the Breokenridge ooal and the cannel steam applied in the outiet pipe at the oppo-
co^ of YiTglida from 00 to 100 gallons of dte end. A draught is also produced at other
orade and 60 to 60 of rectified oil ; of those places where this method ia adopted by means
of Ohio from US to ST gallons of crude oil ; and c^ a tall chimney, between which and the pits
of those of Beaver co., Penn., fivm 45 to 00 the vapors pass throngh the condensers. Aa
gallons crude oil. — The processas ptmoed in ingenious form of VHn was invented aod iutro*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
dnoed In 1808 at the keroeene oil worln, by oa^. — Tlie ornde oil ooUected in tbe great rev-
Mr. Lnther Atwood. This ia of circular form, ervoir Is like the ntttarsl petroleum, and the
rsBembling a lime kiln 20 feet high and 12 feet enbaeqaent treatment of pnnflcation is the game
in diameter inside, open at the top, and of tha for both. It ia punped ont into the first set
otqtaoity of over 2& tons of materia. It is built of stilla, which at the works referred to are 18
of common brick and lined with fire brick, in nimiber, each one of the capacitj' of 1,600
The charge of Bosbead ooimel being introdnoed, gallona. Thej are made of cast or boiler-plate
it ia corded with about 4 tons of Omnberland iron, with bottoms of oairt iron 2 inches t^ok.
coal and a qnantitj of pine wood. This ia then Even this great tbioknees doea not Ingnre their
set on fire, and at the same time a Jet of steam ttabili^, tue iron soon becoming waiped and
is let into the eduction pipe which prooeeda finellT oraoUng from the effects of tbe heat,
from Qie bottom of the Inln. A downward The Area beneath them are of anthracite and
ight is thna produced, wl
and controlled bj attention t
The prooeaa ia thna conducted as alowlj or r^i' etdU, the oarbonaoeoos partiolee eeparating from
idlj, with as mndi or little heat as may be the oil and forming an incrostation of 8 or
reqnired, and most of this ia prodnoed at the 10 inches in thioknesa. The contents of the
expense of the cheaper Onmberland coal, in the atUl are worked off in 24 honra, the tern-
c<nDbiistion of which the oxygen of the air is perature gradually rising np to 600° or 800°
consmned, BO tliat little of it reaches and wastes F, Prom the' head of the still the vapors
the connd below. About 4 days are reqnlred pass through the worm of the condenaer,
for completing the distillation. At the end of whicli, in the latter part of the distillation,
this time the charge has settled down, leaving is not allowed to cool down sofflcient^ for iho
in the bottom some nnoonsnmed coal and paraffine to condense in it, as this mi||ht by
incombustible ashy reddnnm. The kerosene causing obstruction endanger the explosion of
company have 18 of these kUns at their works, the still itself ; but by proper regulontm of the
and one bedde of tiie capacity of 100 tons, fire and condenser a steady flow of the oil goes
The Tt9>or9 from the retorts or kihu are eon- on from the end of the worm. The quantity
ducted fnt into condenaers, of which varioos obtained Is within 10 or 12 per cent, of that in-
forms are in use. Those of the kerosene oil trodnoed into the stills; and though fteed of
company (to whose works the fbHowing de- this amount of impurities, the oil Is stiU of a
scription is more particularly applicable) are greenish hue, and retaina more or lesa of ita
tall oylindera of boiler-plate iron, standing disagreeable odor. The next process is the
seyem of them together. Through these the chemical treatment with snlphmdo acid. The
vupora pass in saccesdon, and as they are con- oil is transferred to large cylindrical cisterns,
deosed the liquid products trickle down their oalled agttators, of the capacity of 8,000 gal*
sides, and are thrice conducted into vats made Ions eaon, and 6 or 6 per cent, of sulphuric acid
of iron and set in the ground, while the gases bdng added to it, the mixture is swept rapidhr
escape from a chimney connected with the ladi round by the revolntion of stirrers in the tub
of the condensers. Being inflammable like the moved by machinery. This liaving been kept
coal gas, they may be ^plied to similar par- np for some time and the mixture b^g 1^
posea, or they may be conducted into gashold- some hours to repose, a considerable part of
era and bnmed under the stills for ftiel. In the the impurities settie with Uie acid to uie bot^
vata a partial separation takes place of oil and torn, from which they are drawn off, leaving
water, the former rimng to the snrfbce and the partially purified oil in the upper part oi
flowing over into a condiiit leading to a large the dstems with some acid and impurities still
reservoir in the ground of the capacity of about adhering to it. These are moAly removed by
4(^000 gaUons. The water settijng beneath the agitatdng again with water, and again after K
oil womd soon fill the vat, but for an ingenious repose of some hours drawing off Uie matters
arrangement, by which it is also oontinoslly that have oolleoted in the bottom. After this
dlschiurged. This is a bent pipe with a long a strong lye of potash or of soda is introduced
and ^ort limb like a siphon, but used hke a into the oil in tlie agitator, and Che stirring is
riphon Inverted. It is put over the edge of repeated with this; and the sediments bemg
the vat, the long limb inside reaching near the drawn off the washing is repeated, when the
bottinn, and the short one terminating outside oil ia ready for the second set of stills. ' This
alitOe below the level of the Bur&oe of the oiL method of purification, called the "cold"
Thejnpe being once filled, the water continues treatment, may be advantageously varied by
to flow up through it, and is received into the heating the oils. The second stills are of
veoond vat, where, as it brings some oU with the same number and capacity as the first
it, the same meUiod of separation is repeated, set The first product of this distillBtion is a
and so it may be throng several others. The very light oil which, if at first somewhat dis-
liqnid is flnallj collected into a lat^ cletem, oolored, is soon succeeded by a limpid oU that
and upon the sm^ce some oil still collects, oontinnes with little variation, except that it
which is saved by occaaioiial dimming. From gradually becomes heavier. This is the mer-
this cistern the waters with the ammoniacal chantable illnminating oil, and includes all
prodnots of the distillation are allowed to e^ that portion of the distillate below the speoiflo
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
214 PETBOKIDB ASBITEB PETTIS
mtitj of 0.8S0. Its proportion la verj rsria- aaoaaliag to 995 hexameter lines. Bdnlin
ble in the different oils, in some of the beat hxn vaiioody [daoed the date of the anOior
natural oila amonnting to 80 or even 00 per from Qie last jears of AngoBtiu to Uie rfafp of
cent., and in others not ezoeeding 80 per cent. Oonstantine tiie Great, aj manf it has been
The prodnots which sacoeed this are the heavy maintained that he wbb the Petroofau referred
oils for InbrioatinR, which paaa into tlie la^ to hj Tadtns {Amt, xtL 18, 19) as the moH
prodoot of dvlc-ocdored heayj oils containing ele^t Tolaptoatr of the oajn of Neroy the
the parafBne. The heavr oils may be made orMtor iUgmtia of that mcmaroh, and direct-
to yield, bj means of fiwitional diatillation& or of his pleasares. His li& b^ng tlireatened
the last portion* of the light oils they still b;^ the jealousy of Tigellinns, he opened Ub
oontaia, and the heaTiest portions nm^ then Tein& and, oooaaonaUy ohecMna the flow of
be made to ^ve up a considerable part of blood by bondages, sank eo gradoallj that hia
the parafflna by lesiing the liquid in tanks ex- death seemed to be Hie reanlt of natoral oaiues.
posed to a tenqteratore as oold aa majbe. The In his last moments he is sud to have sent to
parafBne condenses in bright rilrerj eoalea, Nero % sealed document, giving an acooont of
and is recovered bf drawing off the oil and the ezoeases and debanoheries of the emperor,
Qien sabjeoting it to heavy pressore. It is and taunting him with them. The first separate
pnriSed by snooesnve applioations of salpbaiio edition of Petronina Arbiter was printed at
Boid, hot water, and alkalies. From the agi' Venice in 1499. The best is tliat of BnrmanQ
tators there finally proceeds a rendamn of (2 vols. 4to., Amsterdam, ITIS). There are eW-
tarry matters miied with those portions of the lish tranglatjons in Bolin'a " Olaedoal library,
ohemloal ingredients that were introduced; PETK0PATL0V8K. I. A town of Adatio
these, and tne alkaline impurities from the Bns^ ritnat«d on tlie bay of Awatska, on tiie
Btdls, are allowed to ran to waste, the alkalies S. E. coast of the penioank of Kamtohatka, in
only having been eoonomioaUy recovered at lat 68° 1' N., long. 168° 48' K ; pop. abirat
one or two establishments. The iilnminat- 1,000. It is the o^ital and principal military
ing oils may be almost entirely freed from station of the pronnoe of Kamtohatka. The
the odor tliey possess by standing several days harbor is good, has a lighthonset and is defend-
over alkaline solntions in shallow oistems ; and ed by 8 forts. A flaw vegetables are raised ;
by exposare to light in open vessels the color bnt fish is the great artiole of prodnee, and is
they retain is also partiallj removed ; bnt al- dried in large qnanlitieB for e^xHtation. A
thongh the perfect^ clear and colorless oils British sqnadron bombarded Petro^avlovsk in
are greatly preferred in the market, even at 76 Bept. 1664. II. A town of Knsaia in Ana,
cents per gallon when the oils of a sightly yel- in the govemment of Tobolsk, sitaat«d on the
lowcolorwillhardly sell at 60 cents, the latter river Ishim, ISO m. V. from Omsk, on the
in reality possess a greater illnminating power great post road of Siberia; pop. alwat 4,000,
and are conseqnently worth more to the con- It is an important military post. A large trade
Bmner than the perfectly limpid oils. — Of the is carried on with other parts of Siberia, Toor-
materials now employed for lamps, the coal kistBn,andtheW,partof Ohina,Petropavlov8k
oils, on the conaideratioDa of safety, economy, Iteing a station for the oaravans from Bokhara,
andthebrillianoyof the light they afford, ore to £hiva, and the Etrghia steppe, and one of the
be preferred to all others. The chief obstacle print^al oommandal entrepota between Enro-
at present to their general nse is the necessity pean Bngdia and central Ana.
of employing a chimney to effect a thorongb PETBOZAYODSE^ a fortified town of Bos-
combtution of the vapors as they pass from t£e da, capital of the govenunent of Olonetz, ut-
wiok, and thus insure a flame free from smoke, nat«d on the Lossoleoka, where it falls into
Encnmbered wfth this appendage, the lamps Lake Onega, 193 m. N. £. of SL Petersburg;
themselves are more entensive than those de- pop. about 8,000. It oontdns 6 churches,
signed for other fliel, and this with the inoonve- sonools, an imperial cannon fonndery, 3 ezten-
nienoe attending their use has prevented many sive docks for lake vessels, and mannfaotories.
from adopting tnia mode of illumination. Three thousand tons of iron, oonudered the
FETRONIUB ABBITER, the name prefixed beet in Europe, are annually produced here,
to the fragments of a Latin compo^tion eo- FETBUS LOMBABDHa Bee Lokbud,
titled Patronii Arbitri Satyricon, whioh oon- Pbtkk.
sists of a prose narrative interspersed with a PETTIB, a central oo. of Uo., dr^ed by La
few poems. It describee the adventures of sev- IQne river and branches ; area, about 600 aq.
oral young dsbancfaees in the south of Italy, m. ; pop. in 1960, 9,493, of whom 1,S83 were
partioulor]^ N^>le« and Its environs. Farts of slaves. It has an undulating snr&oe, with ex-
the dia]i^[nes and descriptions are of an obscene tensive pruriw and forests of timber, and the
eharaoter, althongh the style is deemed elegant soil is fertile. The produotions in 1860 were
and tiie language olasaioal. The moat impor- 619,489 bushels of Indian com, 89,916 of oats,
tant section Is called the "Supper of Trimal- 20,000 of wheat, 1,944 tons of hay, 26,616 lbs.
Ohio," and gives an aoooont of the banquet of a of wool, and 61,898 of butter. There were 6
wealthy gourmand ; next to this in interest is grist mills, 8 saw mills, 3 tanneries, 16 ohnrcb-
the tale of the " Epheaian Matron." The long- es, and 700 pupils attending public schools,
•at section in verse is a poem on the dvil war, O^tal, Georgetown,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FEWEE PETBONfiET 216
SVWIE, ft name ^ren to eevaral epedea cf wtsoftheooimtrj; aB,forinBtaaDe,tlie8lt(wt-
Amerioan flTcatehera of the Bab-familj ^/ra^^■ l^gad pewee (0. Siehardsmii, Cab.), modi
n*rue. The common pevee, or Pbabe bird resembling the last speoiea, and fooud on the
(/tatf&nmJ^UBtu, Bonap.), is 7 inches long and fl^ woBtern coart of North Amerioo.
in slar extent: the general color of the plo- FEWIT, a name applied to the lapwing pIo>
mage is dull obve brown above, darkest on the tot (ttmelivi orUta^ Mejer), and sometimea
faesd, and ^enowiah white below ; qaiUs brown, in Great Britain to the blaok-headed gall (to-
most of the wing feathers edged with dull rvM ridHwndvt, Linn.), and in America to the
white; toil forked, tha outer edge of the lateral pewea.
feathw dnH white; bOl and fset black. This PEWTEB, an allof TarionslT composed of
livelj^eoieB is fbnndUiroiigliont eastern North different met^ ^ and lead are commool^
Ameriu, from Newfoundland to Florida, la used, but in no regular proportiona. To theee
the middle states it arrives from the eonth ear^ other metals are occasionally added, aa a little
in April, and gets oat a first brood bj the mid- copper, which makes the olio; harder and so-
dl« of Maj, aiA a second b; the beginning of norons ; antimony to harden and giro a eUTerf
Aognst ; it leaves agidn for the sonth in Oo- loatre ; and zifio, which b said to cleanse the
tober, migrating bjidghL The nest reeemblee BII07. The last ia sometimes introdaoed in
that of the bant swallow, being made of mnd, a strip of half zinc and half tin, which ia need
grssses, and moas, lined with softer materials, to stir the melted otetola; andsometimesalnmp
and attached to a rook, wall, or rafter ; Uiey of zinc is allowed to float npon the snrfaoe dor-
repair the same neat year after year ; the ing the oasliiig, its fumes probably protecting
eggs, 4 to B, are white, with a few reiddlsh the metals beneath from the oxidizing action of
spots at the larger <aid ; the yonug are hatched the air. The inferior sorts of pewter contun
oat on the ISth day, and leave the nest in 16 the most lead, some having full hii\f thtix
more; the pareats show great affecHon for weight of this metal; the alloy is dnll and soft
them, snapping the bill and darting boldlv and of bloiah shade. The best pevrters oon<
toirard ^ mtniders. Its flight is rapid, with tain only ^ or -^ of lead, the rem^der being
£reqaent sailings; itisfondof vibratingthetail, tdn; they wpear like tin, and ore used for
ereotiDgthecre8t,andmaking a tremuonsmo- plates and diahes, A pewter of 82 parts tin
titm -with the wings; it fbeds on iosecta, which and 18 lead is sanctioned by the French ^ov-
it takes with great dexterity and rapidity on emment for vessels to cont^ wine or vme-
thevving, swallowing them whc^ ana Reeling gar. This haa a speciflc gravity of 7.764; «
tbe hard parts like the swallows and gootsnok- greater densty indicates a larger proportion of
«r8. — Thewood pewee(Am{opuSMPm«,Oab.)iB lead. Pewter has been largely employed for
(t^ inchea long, taA 10) in extent of wings ; the domestic ntensils, as plates, mngs, eporau, Ac. ;
general ooloraboveis brownisholive, brownish and it is need by lapidaries for polishera and
black on the head; 2 pale grayish bonds across laps. Sheets of it serve for dieap engraving,
the -wings ; a narrow white drole aronnd the as of mnsio, the notes being stamped npon the
eyes ; greenish yellow below, with a grayish alloy instead of the more costly method of en-
tings on the thrust and breast. Itisfondofthe graving with the bnrin.
most gloomy forests, bat is sometimes seen in PETEOHD ±71, Ohabi:is Ioiiaok, comte de, a
shady (H«haids, and in the anttmrn near the French statesman, bom in Bordeaox In 177&
edges of still ponds anrronnded by woods. The died in Jan. 1854 His &ther, an attorney of
flight is swift, with sadden sweeps in porsoit of the parliament of Gnienne, had been ennobled,
ito insect prey; it seizes with certainty moths and soffered death by the goiUotine daring the
imdothernootninalinsectswhenitisverydark; revolntion. Oharles withdrew from Franoc^
it feeds sometimes also on berries. Its notes bat returned al1«r the 9th Tbermidor, and in
are low, mellow, and aweetiy melancholy when 1766 was admitted to the bar in his native dty.
in its favorite lunnts ; its ctomnim name, like He was better known by his licentions life and
that of othersofthesBb-fiunily, Isderivedfrom many dnels than his standing in theprofeedon.
its ntteronoe of the syllables " pe-wee," singly In 1814 he figured among the royaUst partisaua
or repeated, as Andabon says like what one who called m the Engmh and proclaimed the
n^htima^pneto be the prolonged "last ughs Bourbons. In 181S, being a obtain in the na-
of a deqKindent lover." It readies the middle tionalgnard, he evinced respect and devotion
states aboot the lOthof Uay,goingas&rnorth to the dnobess of Angoul&ne, on her flight
fts New Bronswick, sonth to New Granada, to England ; and his conduct was rewarded
and west as far as tbe high central pluns. The on the second restoration by his appointm«it
nest b delicato in form and stracture, covered as president of the dvU tribunal of Bordeaux,
by lichens, and so apparentiy a part of the In 1818 he was promoted to the post of at-
branch to which it is attached as to be detectod tomey-general at Bonrges, was dected trom
with difflcol^; the eggs are 4 or 6, light yd- that dty to the chamber of deputies, and was
iowiah, with reddish spots at the larger end; chosen in 1820 to assist in the prosecution be-
in the middle stotea a broods are rai»ed in a fore the conrt of peers of tbe imperialist oon-
seastm ; it boldly attacks man, beast, or ttird spirators, where ne distingniahed himself so
approBohing its nesL — Many other dark-col- much as to be rewarded the next year with
ored flycatchers are called "pewee" in various the portfolio of minister of jnstioe In UieTillcle
U.gmzoQbyGOO^le
216 FFTlFJrKL PFEIFFEB
eaUnet. Dnring his t gears' tenure of office, pasj, finding that hie strength and epirite irere
he proved an nnoompromiBing sapporter, if not not e^nal to ber own. The; landed at Bio de
the prime mover, of all the reactionaiy meas- Jandro in September, intending to cFoaa the
nrea proposed or adopted. In 182S he pro- 8onth American continent to tbe Paciflo. This
posed the lav for the restriction of tlie freedom plan, however, tliejconld not cair^ont la one
of die press; in 1828 advocated the armed in- of their eicoisions into the Interior thej were
tervention in Spun: in 1B24 procnred the attacked by a negro armed with a lasso and
retetablishment of tba censorahip; in I8S6 long knife, but defended themselves with two
catued the adoption of tbe law against sac- paiasols and a Jack-knife nntJl assistance or-
Irilege; in 1826 attempted to have the rigbt rived. Both travellers were wonnded, bnt
'of primogenitnre restored; and in 18S7 tried Madame Pfeiffer was soon recovered snfBciently
to reetriot the press still more, dissolved the to visit, with a single gnide, the Pnri Indiana,
national ^ard, and altered the JqtT' law. whom she Joined in a great parrot and monkej
The elections of 1828 obliged Oharles X. to hnnt. Taking ship again from Rio de Jan^ro
dismiss the YillSle oaliinet ; bnt in 1880 Pay- to Yalparatao, she made a short stsj in OhSI,
ronnet became minister of the interior under and then went in a Dutch vessel to Haeao,
the premiership of Potignao. He signed the toaching on the way at Tahiti, whore ^e spent
vaya ordinances of Jolv 25, which brought a fortnight. From China she went to Oalcntta,
abeat tlie revolntion, although he is s^d to and thenoe overland to Bombay, performing
have diaqtproved of them. AAw the outbreak abont half of the journey, for the sake of econo-
he was arrested at Toors when trying to es- my, in an ox cart An English steamer coq-
oape, was taken to Yincennes, arraigned with veyed her from Bombay to Unseat, Boshire,
his colleagnes befbre the oonrt of peers, sen- and Bassorah, whence she s^ed up the Tigris to
t«noed to perpetnal imprisonment, and inoar- Bagdad, and after a little more than a month's
cerated in the castle of Ham, where he wrote residence there proceeded by caravan to Voanl,
a Siitoin det Frane* (2 vols. 8vo., 188B). Re- and thenoe to Ooroomeeyah in Persia, where
leased aftOT Q years, he retired to private life. she arrived after a jonmey of extraordimiTy
PFEFFEL, GoTTLiBB Eomun, a German privation and danger. In a aimilar manner she
poet and fiibnliat, bom tn Oolmar, Jnne 28, reached Tabriz and Erivan, travelled thence to
1788, died there. May 1, 1809. At the nniver- Bedont-Ka]6 on the E. shore of the Black sea,
aity of Salle he pnreuea the study of law, and and there taking the steamer visited Eertoh,
while there in 1757 lost his dght, which he Sebastopol, Odessa, OonstantinopI^ Smyrna,
never regained. In 1778, with the assent of Athens, and Trieste, and reached Yienna Nov.
the king of France, he founded an academy for 4, 1848, having made the circuit of the globe
the purpose of teaching the Protestant yonth in 3 years and 4 months. Her journBlwas
in Oolmar. lids the Irondi revolntion broke published under the title of " A Woman's Jonr-
np, and h«ioeforth he ^pUed himself to iitei^ ney round the World " (8 vols. 12mo., Yienna,
ary occnpatlone. In 1808 he became jiresident 1860). In April, 1861, the Austrian goyem-
ofihe nei^ founded evangelical consistory in ment having given her $500 toward the ez-
Colmar. His " Poetic Ess^" fill 10 volmnes pensea of another voyase, she visited London,
^ew ed., TObingen, 1803-'10>, and his " Prose and sailed from the Thames in May for the
Essays" the same number (Tubingen, 1810-'18). Oape of Good Hope, hoping to penetrate into
PFEEFFER, InA, a German traveller, bom in the interior of Africa and reach Lake Ngami ;
Yienna in 1796, died there, Oct 27, 1868. Her but finding the cost of such an expedition be-
malden name was Reyer. From childhood she yond her means, she went to Borneo, Java,
had a great curiosity to see foreign conntries, Sumatra, Oelebes, Banda, Oeram, and Temate,
but it was not nntil she had reached the age of fearlessly making long excursions among the
47 tbat^ her husband being dead and her two dangerons tribes of the interior of some of
sons established in life, she was enabled, with a these islands ; and in July, 1853, she accepted
smallsumsavedfromhernarrowincomednring a free passage which was ofiered her by an
80 yean^to undertake a journey to Palestine. American captfun from Batavla to Ban F^nn-
She left Vienna in March, 1843, and after visit- cisoo. She spent 8^ months in Oalifbniia, and
ing Oonstantinople, Broussa, Beyrout, the chief then proceeded by stewner to Panama and
places of the Holy Land, Egypt, the Red sea, Oallao, crossed the Andes to tlie sources of
Malta, Bioily, Naples, and Rome, reached home the Amazon, returned to Panama, traversed
again in December of the same year, and pub- the istbmna, si^ed for Kew Orleans, ascended
lishedherjonmalnnderthetdtle of a "Journey the MiB^ssippi as fiu- as the fitlls of St. Ad-
of a Yienna Woman in the Holy Land" (2 vols, thony, visited the great lakes and the bBs
12mo., 1644). A tour through Norway, Lap- of Niagara, the St Lawrence, Mixitreal, Qne-
land, and Iceland in 1845 afforded material for bee, Lake Obampldn, the Hudson river, and
her narrative of a "Journey to the North of New York, and on Nov, 10, 1864, took the
Scandinavia and Iceland" (3 vols. 12mo., Pesth, ateamer to Liverpool Shepassodafewmontha
1646). On June 29, 1846, she sailed ihnn Ham- of the following year with one of her sons
burs in a Danish brig on a voyage round the at St Michael, one of the Azores, and then
world, aooonQ)anied by Oonnt Berohthold, from retnmed to Yienna, where her " Second Yoy-
whom, however, she snbseqnently parted com- age round the World" appeared in 1866. Hw
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FFEllTFEB FHASTOK 217
list enwdUioii wu to tih« idand of UAdflga»- oentaiT B. 0. He vos a native of Elis and of
car, where die arrived in 18B7, in companj' nobla oirth, bnt, becoming a prisoner of war
with a Aenclmian who vas aoon arrested about 400 B. O^waa brongbt to Athena and
for a conspiraor to dethrone the qneen, and aold aa a alave. He obtained his release throagh
ordered with his companion to depart firom tha efibrts of Soeratea, and was thereafter one
the idand, AEadame Pfeiffer returned home of the most devoted adherenta of tltat philoso-
with a fever which nltimatelvcaitaed her death, pher. Hato introdncea him as the prinoipal
Her books have been trantJated into Engiiah Interlocutor in hia dialogue on the death of
and widely read. The haste with which her Booratea. Pheedo flnallr returned to Elis, and
joarneja were proseonted readera them of lit- became the founder of the Elean school of phi-
:]fl use as works of information, and they owe losopbr,
thMT chief interest to the remarkable cironm- PBL£I)RA, in Greek legendary history, the
alancea in which they oririnated, and as records wife of Theseoa and dan^ter of Minos, king
of womanly oonrage and perseverance nnder of Crete, and of Fasipbae, and uster of Anadne.
almost insuperable difflcolties. Uadame Ffeif- Her stepson, Hippolytos, with whom she had
fer was ^orally nnaccompanied exoept by a &Qen tn love, refbajn^ to grataiy her passion,
hired gmde, and ignorant of the langiuges of ahe acoosed him to his fuber ixf an attempt
the people whom «be visited. Her means were apon her honor. Theaens herenpon onrsed
extreoiely narrow, and ahe was greatly indebt- his son, and asked Meptone to destroy him, .
«d to the liberality of the English and Dutch which prayer the god complied with. When
colonial governments, and the proprietora of the innocenoe of Hippolytns became known,
railroad and steamboat lines m the United Pheedra hanged herself, or according to some
StalM. was pot to death by her bnsband. Tha story
Pl'EIifFER, Lottis Geobo Eabl, a Oennsn of Phsdra waa the subject of tragedies by So-
natnralist and physician, bom in Oaasel, Jnly4, phoolea and Euripides, now loat. Eaoine also
180G. He served as a an^eon in the Polish wrote a tragedy on it.
patriot army in 1881, and l£en devoted his at- PKM>RU6,aI^tin&bnlistof theAugnstan
tention to the stndy of natnral history, travelled age. He waa originally a slave, and was brought
through a part of the Netherlands and Qer- team Thrace or Maoedonia to Rome, where he
many, and m 18S8 viated Onba. He has writ- maatered the Latin language, and was freed by
Un ertennvely on anbjecta of natural history. Angnstns, who patronized him. He wrote S7
FFISTEB, AiABKOHT, a printer of the Ifith &luw in iambic verse dietribnted in S books,
wntnry, bom about ItiO, died abont 1470. He and states in tLo prologae to the flrat book
*u a card punter in Bamberg, bnt abont 14S5 that he haa simply tamed the matter of ^Gaop's
twgui to print with movable types. Itisdonbt^ &bles into poetiy. In many oaaes, however,
fnlvhe&erhehit'npontheinventionindepend- he has borrowed nothing from hia model, as
MtljiOrleajneditaaan assistant of Gutenberg, he refers tohistoricd eventaof a later period.
Tlie tjpee of Pfietar, althongh they have eome With the exception of a probable allo^on by
Dtnilaitly to Gntenbeig's, are stdll pecnliar. Ha Hardal in one of his epigroma (iii. SO), Phs-
begtn with the printing of school and prayer dms la first mentioned by Avienus. The man-
Wki, and fragioenta of Latin grammars of nscripta of bis &blee are rare. The first edi'
liii work have lasted to onr time. Among tlon was printed by P. Pithow (12mo., 1696),
higprodactionswere indnlgenoea printed with from a mannsoript called the Rosamboaniu^
metal types of the years 1464 and 14CS, an al- frvm the name of its owner, and supposed to
maau of 14GT, and a Biblia Pavptrum. His date from tLe 10th century. The t^est and
great work, however, ia the IjAin G 6-line Bible only critical edition is that of J. O.Orel]i(Svo.,
in 3 T0I9. Mo, and oonsisdng of 881 leaves. Zflrioh, 1881). Ferotti, archbidiop of Manfte-
PFIZEB, GnvrAV, a German lyric poet and donia, in the middle of the ISth oento^, made
critie, bom in Stirttgart, Jnly S9, 1607. He a oolleotion of &Ues from Phndms, Avienus,
"u educated at the gymnariom of bia native and others, among which were SS not inolnded
place, Btodied in 1836-'80 at Tflbingen, and in in the nanal edilionB of Phndma ; they were
ISU VBs made professor in the Btnttg^ gym- first published at Naples in 1809 by Oassiti, as
nuhan. He fint attracted attention by the a 6th book of Pluedma, bnt their geumnenesa
|Hiblicati<u of a vx^nme of poems (Btnti^ort, has been mnch donbted.
IKt). A second volmne appeared In 188S. PHAfiTON, or Phaxthoit (Or. «HHe>i", the
He sIm wrote " The life of Martin Lnther" ahining), in Greek mythology, the son of He-
08SS);t larger poem, wititled" The Foreigner lioa ^^e smi) and the Oceasid Clymene. To
and the Qennsn, .£neaa Sylvina Piocolominl aatis^ those who donbted whether the snn
^d Gitgoty of Heimborg, Hiatorico-Poetio was his fiither, he obtained from Helioa an
FoniuoftheiBthOentary''(1844); uid"His- impnident promise that he wonld grant him
^ry gf Aieisnder -the Great for tlie TTse of any &vor he a^ed, and thereupon demanded
Tooth" (1817). He haa been oonneoted with pwmiasion to drive hia chariot aoroaa the heav-
^vions lit«ran jonmals, and has written oriti- ena. The celestial hones, demidng th^ weak
'^JMuys on Uhland, BSckert, and Heine. driver, tnmed oat of thdr path, blaokening the
PH^DO, or Faaoos, a Greek philosopher Ethiopians to the left by the near approach of
*ao flourished abont the beginning of the 4th the snn ; and when the chariot went over to
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
218 FHALAKQSB ^ULABIS
the right, BO near to tb« earth u almoft to oheit;; it Is ukrge us catiwitb long, pointed,
eet it on fire, Jnplter killed Phaeton with & fbx-llke eua and nose, and nmnerona long
thunderbolt and hurled him into the Eriduiaa blaok monfltaohes ; In c^tiritr it naoallr aleeu
(Po). His sisters, the Heliades, who fonnd him in Uie daTthne, and takes its food Itetween the
lifeless, were changed into poplars and thdr hands like a sqnirrel; the prehen^etul&angts
tears into amber. it in dimbing. In the sab-genoB pievdoehinii,
PHALANGES, a genns of marsupial mam- the 2 inner toes of the fore foot are separated
msls, the t;pe of the flunilT otpAaliKtgMida, from and opposable to the other S ; the tail
sooalledfromhsTing theSdand&d toesof the is covered with short hein except ^ the tip;
hind foot nnited in a common Integmnent the ears short and ronnd. Cook's phalAuger
The7 are expert climbers, dwelling upon ^wb, (P. [P*.] CooJrii, Desm.) hss long and aoft for,
and eating leaves, buds, fruits, and oeossiimally mj above and yellowish white below, w^
small birda, mammala, and' jpseote; they keep the stdes and outer aar&ae of limbs tinged with
concealed daring the day on the branohes or bright rusty ; it is abont 2 feet long, of which
in Uie hollows of trees, quitting their hiding die tul is 1 foot ; it inhabits New Sonth Wales.
places at twilight ; they are rather sluggish in In the enb-geniu dromida the ears are moder-
their movements, except snoh as are provided ate and nearly naked, the nails small, and the
with a fiying membrane. The head Is moder- tail olothed with small hairs, but naked at the
ate, the fooe short, the np^ Up deft, and tiie end beneath ; they resemble dormice in uze,
maffle naked ; limbs eqnal in length, all 6-to«d, wpearance, and some of thdr habits. The
the anterior with compressed andonrved olaws, £irmoQBe phslanger (P. [i>.] nana, Geof&.) has
the posterior with the inner toe lai^ nailless, a very soft far, of an asny grajy above tin^
at right angles and opposable to the rest ; the with pale reddish brown ; ouder parte white,
t^long,and gener^ly prehensile; thep«aah with rostyyellow shade on the chest; it inhal>-
vell developed; the eyea large; the stomach its Tasmania, and is Ti inches long, of which
umple, and the oeecmn la^dy developed. Of the tail is one half. Ilieee are livdy at night.
thegeneraoompodngthis&iuily,pAa«wZareff)f aln^jah by d^, £it, foeding on nnts andsimi-
(De Blainv.) has been notioed nnder Koala; lar enbetanoea, whidi they hold between the
the others ai» phaiimgUta (Oav.) and jMtawut fbre paws; they are hantueaa and gentle, bnt
(Shaw), — la phalanffitla the teeth are: in- notafibofionate; they arever-'—^ """^ "'^'"-
cisoTs 4, canines Jri, premolars f =f , tnie mo- soms of tlte Saiuctia ; (Ley h
(Shaw). — la ^atangitta the teeth are: in- not affectionate; they are veiT fond of the bios-
cisoTs 4, canines Jri, premolars f=f, tniemo- soms of tlM.fianiaia,'tliey hibernate in winter,
lars f:^; the anterior upper pair of inoisora Iike,biitnottothesamedMp'eeaa,thedormoase.
are larger and longer than the rest, and tiie Bpeohnena of these, and (usevenJ other n>ecie^
Ia^:e lower incisors are nearly horizontal ; the have been seen living at the London oocdogical
and molars gardens. — The^nsjMlaunuinolndea the flying
of the Jaws phalangeTs, which nave a membrane extended
small teeth between the incisors
are not constant even on both rides of the Jaws phi „ . ,
of the same individool, bnt in most the tme from the fore to the hind legs; the tail ia very
molars ore JlJ ; the tul is prehensile. The long, and well dothed with nalr ; they reeem-
Senas has been snbdiTided into 4 eab-genero. ble fiying squirrelB in appearance and habits.
a the snb-genns euteu* the basal portion only The flying pholonger (P. taauanoidM, Besm.)
of the tail is covered with hair; the esrs short, has broa^ short, and roimded ears, densely
almost hidden by the far ; eyea with vertical hairy externally ; the membrane extends to the
pnpil ; the fnr is dense and rather woolly, and elbow ; the tsU is oylindncal, longer than the
the apical part of the tul bare, with nnmerona head and body : tixr long and soft ; guieral color
fleshy tuberdes. They are abont the size of a above browiuiui black, pencilled with whitish
domestic oat, and are confined to the iBlands of on the flanks, the nnder parts impure white,
' the Indian and AnBtrolion archipelagos. The and the tail block; the length of the body is
nrsine phslanger (P. [0.] urtifut. Temm.) is of a 20, and of the tail 22 inches. It iohobite New
general black color, freckled with yellow, under South "Wales, is nocturnal, and feeds on flowera
parts dirl^ yellow, and iris orange red; it is of gum trees, and on insects and honey oon-
aboat 20 inches to the root of the tail, the latter tained therein ; it is on expert climber, and
being 19; they live in thick woods; the very fat rarely deeoends to the ground. Some of the
flesh of this, asof other species, is mnohrdished smaller spedes, as the sngar or Norfolk island
by the natives, and the teeth are nsed as om»- flyloK sqnirrel (P. anurout, Desm.), ore hunted
menta ; some of the spedes emit a fbtid odor for thdr tar, which is osed for the eame pnr-
from the anal glands. Ta the Bnb-genna tri- poses as diinchilla. Di flying powers they are
ehoiunu the taU ia densely olotlied with ftir, equal to the flying eqnirrele. For other genera
with the exception of a part of the nnder sor- and species, mi fbll detuls, the reader is re-
face ; ears distinct and nsuslly long ; they In- ferred to vol. L of Woterhouse's " Natural Bis-
hablt Australia; the ftirls longer and looser tory of theMamn]ali&."
than in the northern islands. The vnlpfaie PHALANX BeelinrAKTBr, vol. ix. p. 612.
phslanger (P. [?'.] cu^ino, Desm.) is of a gen- FHALARIS, tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily,
erol grayish color, yellowiah white below, with probably fr<»n sfo to CSC B. O. He vas a na-
the miude and ohin blackish, the feet tinged tive of Agrigentom, or aocor^ng to some of
with brown, the tul bushy and black exoept at AstypalKs in the .^gnan sea, ^d acnnired the
the base, and an oblong maty potoh on Qte inprame power by a atratagem. The early
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FHAIABOFB FHABISEES 219
Cti hii ralgn wu nrild, and be ia sild to nurgtnal membrane of ^te toes is nearly even,
been led to the career of omelty and op- The noiiheni phaUrope (P. hyperbonvt,
pruraou fbr which his name bos beiooniB no- Temm. ; ReDoa lobipti, Out.) u ehcut Y inches
torioiiB hj Qm unwilUiigneBs of the people to long, irith on alar extent of 14, and the bill 1
aubmit to his ■nth<ait7. It is related that inch ; the webs are scalloped at the Joints.
Perillns, an Athenian artist, oonstrncted for The general color above is broTmish blati,
him a bnzm boll tn which his viotdms were paler on the mmp, and nixed with ferm^ons
roasted, and tlie first nilferer by the machine on the bach; head and neck behind soo^ ash,
was the makw himself. Atheoiens speaks of and the latter enoiroled with a ring of bright
his roasting ohildrat alive, and Aristotle bkts ferrngtnons, with a stripe of tlie same on eacji
that he ate them. 1^ mlagovenmient at lut aide; tips of greater wing covets whito; sides
caused a popnlar outbreak, In which he was aehj mixed with reddish, and onder parts
stoned to death. The stories of his cnieltj are white; the jonng are brownish black above,
OTObaUj nmoh ezaggented, and in the lat«r manr fwtbers with ashf or jellowish tips.
GnekwritVB he appears as an admirer and pa- This spedea is fomid in thetenmerate parts of
tnm of Bteratnre sad philosophy. The " Epis- Korth Amerioa, and is widely dutribnted over
thscf Hialaria," wueh were first mention- N. Europe and Asia; it is one of the handsom-
ni bf StotMeOB, and were first published at eat and most graceM of the waden. Thej
Tentce in 1W8, were long believed to be thft oongregate in flocks, and are very shy ; they
prodaDtiims of Uiis tyrant; bnt their spnrions- breed in the north, both sexes incubating, the
DMwastboron^ily exposed by Bentley. Tbey female having, it is asid, a bare space on the
are bebeved to be the work or a Gredc writer abdcmen where it comee in contact with the
of ttie age of the Gnsars. They have gone eggs; theegasarellbyf inch, of a buff color
thna^ several editions, and have been tran»- with daric reddish brown blotches. Tbeybave
lated into Enriish and otiier modem langnages. been seen on fioatinK sea weed more than 100
coning near the mipes, embrsdng the genos oorvut, Bonw.) is 7i inches long and U in
pidbmipHt(BrisB.), subdivided into 8 by modem extant; the bill is strong and flattened, widened
utmalista. In this &mlly the bill is as long st the end; the head above, throat, and back
u ot longer than the head, almder, stndgbt, brownish black, on the last edged with pale
whieli is cnrved and acute, the noatrilsiitiiated tips of greater i*ing coverts, and BtHt>e on
in the lengthened groove of the ddee; wings cheek, white ; mider parts deep brownisn red,
long and ptdnted, tne 1st and 2d qoillB eqniu tinged with parplish on the abdomen ; nnder
ua Imnet; tall short asdnranded; tarn as wing coverts ana ajdllaries white ; bill green-
toDg ts the middle toe, strong and compressed: iah yellow; the yonng are light dnereons
dasin theeoot; hind toe temperate Ajnerica, A^ and Eorope, and is
moderate and tderated, and aUgbtly msigfned oonddered excellent eating in the antnmn ; tbe
withmonbrane; daws short and sharp ; feath- e^s are H by { inch, dnll greenish yellow
enofthebreastoompaotuiddack'^e. Theee with blotdies and dots of reddish brown,
birds hre in Uie northern regions, inigTating FEANABIOTES. See Fuumons.
eoutb hi aevera winters; they ara generally PHA£AOH (Egypt. Phrah, "the son"), the
Ken ia pairs or amall parties, swimming (m the Egyptian word tar king, and applied particn-
wa, lakes, ponds, and fresh water s^euia, nsn- larly to the native mlraa of E^pt before the
iSy sear the margin, aearohlng for floating Peraian and Macedonian oonqneets. The tdtie
fMt, sqnatio Inseete, and small omstaoeaiu; dnioted that the king was an emblem of the
large beds of floating sea weed are thedrfimir. godof light, and derived his authority directly
itenK)rt8;theTareexeellentswlDiiner8,Uioiigh from hearen.
they do not dive, and faia^ and r^ flien; FHAJUBEES (Be^t.peniAim, tbosewbo are
tlieytaySorle^B fat atnftofgrass in marshes, sepsratad), a sect of the Jewa, mentioned first
Wilimt's or the gray phalarope (P. WUimii, by JoBephos as an established religiooa party
Sib. ; geDiB itafanopiu, YieilL) is about H during the priesthood of Jonathan, about ISO
incheslosgiwitiiaaalarextentof 17; the bill B. 0., bnt whose origin is unknown. Their
U inebes, blaofc; general color above aahy name indicated thdr separation from the rest
gray ndxed with reddish; stripe behind eye of tbe Jews by the assnmed hoUness of their
reddish Usck; fhmt of neck reddish brown; Uvea and their strict observance of rdigions
nnnp snd npper t^ coverts and mid«r parts oeremcmiee. In the time of Christ they were
white; the young am dnereons above, mixed divided into two sohools,that of HilleL who
^^^dark brown, and aahy white below, tt represmted a moderate Fharisidsm, and laid
B tonad throogbont tbe temperate redone of the fbnndation of the Talmud, and that of
Nortlt and South America, on tbe Atiantio and Bhamm^ who demanded more austere obserr-
raafie wests, and sometimes wanders to En- anecL Tbe former finally prevailed. Joeepbus,
^; it is fcnd of wading as it searches tar who was himself a I^uttee, ^ves the finllow'
BMd, and is a Uvely and graoefbl bird; the ing summary of th^ opinions: " The Phaiiseea
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
220 PHAmCAOT
hxn delivered to the people a great inanj ob- them are of fbreign origlii, and thOM of naliv<
servwoea hj anoiMwioii from their ftthera. growth are oommonlj obtained from persom
which are not written in the law of Hoses ; and who devote themaelvea apeciallj to their cnlti'
for that reason it ia that the Baddnoeea r^eot vation and oolleotion. In purchasing then
them, and saj that we are to eateem those care ^onld be taken that aeeda are perftetlj
serrioee tobeobligator7whiah are in thewrlt- ripe, that leaves and other parts hare beei
ten word, bnt are not to observe what are gathered as reoentlj' as poeeible, are drr, tree
derived from the tradtdon of onr forefeUiera. mnn inmnrities, of a fl^ah, livelj color, and
Henoe great disputes. The Saddnoees are able have their oharaoteristia smeQ, taste, and gen-
to persnade none bnt the rich, and have not eral appewance etifoaglj inarlrad. bi preaerr-
the popalaoe obseqoioQs to them ; bat the ing madianes, volatile and deliqneaoent sob-
Hianseea have the mnltitade on their side." stances ahoold be eoolosed in botUeairellsbip-
("AntiqnItieB,"riii. 10, Cande.) "ThaPhari- pad with gronnd f^m stoppeta, leavea and
sees live meanly and despise delioacles in diet; flowers in tin oanistm or in boxeB lined with
and the^ fblloir the condnot of reason, and tin, rino, or lead; h7dtoo7anio add and the
what that prescribes to tliem as good, they do. salts of silver ahonld lie kept in the dark, dec
Thej also paj respect to snoh as are in yean, — In componndlng and diq>enBing medidnes,
nor are they so bold aa to contradict them in the apothecary nsaa the troy poond and its
any thing which they have introdaoed; and lab^nslons, while for other pnrposeB dmga
when they determhie that all things are done are bonght and sold by the aToirdnpoia ponnd,
by &te, they do not take away from men the 9 of which are nearly eqnal to 11 poonda troy,
freedom of aottng as they think fit, sinoe their The nse of two ^ffiarent standards of wdght
notion is that it hath pleased God to make a la a fertile sonrce of inoonvenisnoe and ooiifli-
oonstitotlon of things wnereby what he wills ia don, and tUa is ftuilier oompHoated br the nse
done, bat ao that the will of man oan actvir- of aflnidmeasareforlianids. In this latter the
tnonsiy or vidoasly. They also believe that wine pint, ooutainlng S6.87S cnMo indies, is
Bonis have an immortal visor In them, and that the etandard, and this Is dIvitUd into 16 Add
ander the earth there viU be rewards or ptm- oonees, the fluid onnoe into 8 fluid drachms,
ithm«its,aooordinK as men have lived virtnona- and the fluid drachm Into 60 miniwa. Afloid
ly or vidonely in uils life. The latter are to oonoe of waterat69'' F.andSO'of thebarome*
be detained in an everlasting prison, bnt the ter wdghs 465^ grains, bdng 18 grains more
fbrmer shall have power to revive and live than an avolrdnpoia, and 34} graina leas than
amin ; on acconnt of which doctrine they are a troy onnoe. — llie variooa operslionB of phar-
^le greatly to persnade the body of the peo- macy have for thdr otg'ect to render noedidnes
pie ; and whatsoever ia done abont divine wor- more effective and less repngnant to the taste
ship, prayers, and saoriSoes, is performed ao- or the stomach. They are often powdered, and
cording to their directions, Insomndi that the nnmerone devicee are resorted to in order to
dties gave great attestation to them on aooonnt oonvert refractory snhstanoes into powder or to
of their entire virtnona oondnot" ("Antiqni- render the powder snffldently One; sometimes
ties," Tviii. 1, S.) In tbe Gospeb the Pbari- it is precipitated trom a eolation bya ehemieal
sees appear in a mnoh lees &vorable light, being reageoL Insolnble earthy snbstaiuwa are levi-
Ihe moat powerful and bitter enemies of the gated, that is, they are moistened with water
new rdigion. They are represented aa proud, or doohol and tiieo rabbed with a mi^r npcu
selflsh, ^d hypoorifaoal. Jn the Tafannd sev- a hard fiat stone ; or they are elntriated, the
end daaaea of Phariaees are mentioned, among powder bdng stiired Dp with a large qoanti^
whidi were the tmncated Pharisees, who hardly of water, and a Utile time being ulowed for
lifted thdr fact from the gronnd, in order to the ooarser particlea to aettle, iwn ttie water
aeem absorbed In meditation ; and the mortar ia poured off and the finely divided powder
ntarlsees, who wore a cap ahaped like a mor- wMdi rem»na floating dowly Babaides to the
tar.wUdiwonldonlyalloTlhemtoiookdown, bottom. Camphor ia powdered readihr by
and gave them an iq>pearanoe of profotmd con- adding to it a few drops of alooh<^ Seme
templatlon, end at the same time kept them tabstanoee reqnire to be powdwed while hot,
from seeing women. others after Mving been ^vlonsly well dried,
PHAKHAOY (Gr. ipapfuaan. a medicine or &o.— Extracts are fbrmed dther by first ex-
poison), the art of choosing, collecting, preserv- preasing the jnice of certain plante by means
mg, and preparing medicinea. Pharmacy ia of a screw press, or by fonmng eolntiona of
inUmatdy allied mth several of the natural their active principles by means of alcohd,
sdenoes, and Its snocessftil cultivation demands ether, or water, and then ev^Mradng to a
an eztendve knowledge of diemiatry, and fo- proper consistence by means of a oorefnUyreg-
mOiarity with ohemioiUmantpnlBtions and with nlated heat, and if posdble with the exdnsioQ
the ^hydeal properties of medicines. Bnles of air. Tinoturea are solutitms of the active
are given in works of pharmacy for the mode prindples of medicines in alcohol, proof spirita,
and time of collecting tAevarlons roots, herbs, or ether. The adive prindples of certain vege*
leaves, seeds, Ao., which enter into the materia table substances are often isolated from the
medics; bnt these in this country are very Inert matter with which they are nstnrdlT
ran^ gatliered by the ^>othecary ; moat (^ oombined, and used dther ptire or united with
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
a teH to increase their Bolnbilify : tar exam- began tlie ezeootioii of his i
pie, auimne b obtained from dnchona bark, after driving back Qte email bodj of borae oj
iunptiiite from opinm, str^choine from noz posed to than, his oaralrf were uiezpeoted
rwdca, and atropine from belladonna leavee. aasailed hj 6 ooborts of infintrr, irhieh Otea
^ome phannaoentio preparations bave for sospeoting the design of the enem^, had s—
iheir otijeat the preeeirtfton of an nnatable tdtoed on the ri(^t as a reserre force. Fom-
!»mponnd; the carlxHute of iron ia r^>- per'a oaTalrr tots pot to flight, and, the 6
idlf deoompoaed irhen exposed to the at- oonorte tondnx his left winK. nis troops gave
mwphere, bat when nnited with saccharine war in everj Section. He himself retired to
nutter it remwns unchanged for a length of the camp in great d^eotion, and after the ront
lime. Borne preparations, as pills and n^- became genwal he fled, ^s camp was storm-
Curea, have for thur ol^ect convenience of ad- ed about the middle of the daj, and the vie-
nmiistratioii, or the diagnising of naoseoos taste tor^ was rendered complete b7 the surrender
or odor ; other medicines are adapted to par- of 4 legions, which Oteaar, who never gave any
ticnlir directs, aa plasters, ointments, cerates, rest to a flying enunv, snooeeded in taking
ImimenU, Ao, Pormnlsa tea certain prepara- prisoners abont night&lL This b^e deoidea
tiooB of widely approved activity are recced the ftte of the Roman world.
into tiie pharmacopoeia, and thus become offid- FHA600GALE, or Fouohxd UonsB, a genu
nal, while eztunporaneons compoonds ordered of email marsupial Tii"n"iait of the da^tvna
bribe pbTriciaii are called msf^aterial. family, inhabiting Australia and Tasmania.
POAIIO. See Fabo. The dental formnia is : incison |, the two an-
PHAB08, the ancient name of a raoall island terior in eaoh jaw laiver than the others,
IfiiLg off the coast of Xlgypt, 7 stadia from the oanines fr|, premolars iz}, trae molars }i},
incieat Alezsndria, connected with the maio- stndded with pricUy taDwdes. AU the feet
lindbya mole, and fitmons for ita li^thonse, are 5-toed, the inner one on the hind feet a
which gave the name of Fharoa to all stmotnrea emalL naUless, prehenidle thnmb; tail ^th«
of ■ umtlar kind. (Bee Alexahdbia, and wholly clothed with ahOTt hairs, or with long
IiBBTHonaa.) The ialuid became at lengtb a and bnshy ones on the epical portion ; the
mbnrb of Alexandria by means of s street rmi- fomales are lometdmes destatDlA of a ponch,
m^ along the mole, and retained tcana fan- the vonns being protected only by the hair
pdttauce even to the time of Jidins Ossar, bnt of uie abdomen : mymmm $, ammged io a
mlneqDently sank into its original condition oirde. The CTanul cavltj and oodpittJ openr
of s Mung station. ing are oomparatively buge, and the mnsoblar
PHABSALI]S^owPA«rMZa),adtyofTbe8- lioges of the skull and the cervical spinons
Mlj, dtnated in Iniessaliotis, on the left bsnk processes feebly developed ; the mtizEle pcdnted
cj the Eni^eus, and at the fbot of Ut Narihor and moderately long, muffle naked, nostrils
dm. In Iu8t(n7 it is not spoken of nntll after lateral, ears moderate, and limbs short ; &ey
the Fendin wars. In 456 B. 0. it was misno- are insectivorous, and olimb trees in search of
matolly bedeged by tbe Athenian general Ii^- f6od. The largMt species la the brush-tailed
nudM,ifierbi8B(Miaan expedition. Through jdusoogale (P. jMMMUota, Temm.), about the
Fslfdimss, a native raler, it became subject to rise of a common rat, 18 inches long, of which
Jnon,^rsntofFher», and was for a time in the the tall ia one half; the fiir is long and soft,
poMesionof Antioohnain his war sgalnst the grn pendUed witii white, below white, the
F-omKia, bnt was takon by the oonral AdUna middle part of tbe bead dnaky, and the tail
GlihriainlBl. Inthetime ofFUx^Hianalna bnsbr, witb king Idaok hairs eio^ on tbe
wuafree'etate. Tbe andent d^ was nearly basal third, whM« they are short and gray ;
tmileibdroiut,andmtnatednponaiiendnenoe it ia iridebr dlstritnited in Australia; it nudw
*Mch WW 600 or TOO feet high, and on 8 sides anestin tbe boQows of trees, and Isaomued <rf
vu defended by pr«d0oes. 'ritia,''esysLeake, attacking the poultry and plimdciing the stores
'oDeofthe most litQKKiant military podtionsfai of tbe aettleofs. The handsome-tailed {diaaco-
QtmtiHitandingattheeatranoeofttiemost gale (P. mjuto, Gould) is aboot 10^ Indies
diredmdoentral of the passes whidi lead from long, of which the tall is 0; It is ashy gnqr
tbe |Ua of Ihcesaly to the vale of the Bper- above, yellowish white bdow, with the base
obeioaaDdThennin^."— nunalns Is chiefly of the tail bright rnst color and the apical half
«^1>nted for tbe battle fought in Its territory with long black hsirs ; it inhabits W. Anstra-
(nped?hanialia)onAng. 9, 48B. 0., between lia. Several other species are described by
CassrsndPompey. The army of the former, Waterhonse ("Naturol History of the Mam-
<=<^'osi"lii>f of ai,000 foot and 1,000 horse, waa malia," vol. L), in which the tail is uniformly
potted on die plain between Phaiaalns and the dothed with diort hairs ; they are pretty and
Biiimas; that of tbe latter, consisting of 4fi,- active animals, varying in length from 11 to 6
WO foot ffid 7,000 horse, was drawn npoppo- inches, of which the tail ia one third.
ii». FompCT expected with bis body of cav- PHAULOON. See OoimrAimK Fattlooh.
jlj^totamOMai's right wing, and thns k^ PHEASANT, an extensive fimily of galBaa-
wevwoty. The inny cJ Otusr advaooed to oeoua birds, comprising the snb-&nuliea jMCMrf-
mdiuge on a nm, and when tbe engagement ncs or peacocks, ^2ina or Jungle fowls, pAoff-
''KKna general along the whole Une, Pompey anjna or phearanta proper, JepAcpWtna or
jy Google
moo»niB,aD.imtltaffr4iiaortaAgjB. Of tiieee, apeoiea, and, it ia Btatocl,dio vith Uw Usek
tilL« Irt and moat of the Sdh>T« been dMoribed; gronse. A breed called the ling^iec^edpliev-
Uw SQi wiQ be found nnder Tcbkit : and ddIt aat has a vMto ring around me nedc, and a
tbeSd,4^*»d*P''^<^^'^^^^^''<*^'^ either a mere yarietf, or a hybrid vi& tbe P.
hwe. The bmilf indndes the handsomest of torqvatut (QmeiL) of Ohin& Pheasant ^mm-
Om raaorlal biid^ and is for tiie most part oon- ing is a funoos pastime in Enrope^ and grts:
fined to AJria and itd idands; the Guinea fowl, nnmbers are killea at batttui; the; are apecul
however, is African and the tnrkeTs Ameiiosn ; favoiites with poachers ; the fleab is exoetkc-
the latter, witli the oommcm fowl and the pea- They are snliject to an epidemic and often &-
cook, hare been oomfdetdr domestioated, and tol disease in confinement, called tbe "gj^tes."
are ^stiibnted very generally over the (^obe. eaDsedbyanematoidsbon^loidpansticwora
The bead ia rarely nmiered all over, but more (telemtomvm ttfttfamta^ Dies.), which prodncH
or lees aboat the eyes and often a ocouiderable inflammatory sweUing of tbe windpipe, ad
part of the neck are bare, and ftamished with freqnently snfibcation ; the best remiedy is f>
crests, wattles, and combs of lingolar forms. — mimition with tobacco carried to atme&etic*.
In the jiiofidniius may be indoded the genera O^er more beantifol species flwn «Vfn tad
phatiamu (Liim.), Ihavmaiea (Wa^\ and or- northern Asia are Siara's vjieasant (P. ttni-
gv* (Temm.). ia vhattanm the bill is moder- eolor, Yieill.), of a Keneral rich green rxils
ate, strong, vanltea and slightly arched at the witli golden and violet reflection^ throet kA
tip, which overhangs the lower mandible ; the fbre neck bright bine, and back varieoiitJ
nostrils in a lateral groove and partly olosed by with golden yelIo\
membrane; the wings short and rounded, the mering's pheasant (_ , _
4th and 6th qniUs the longest ; t^ lengthmed, of a rich reddish pniple, with Ytrtaaj loBtre, aoi
wedge-shifwd, with each ftether attenuated; eatdifeatlierwith brilliant eddng; andBeeve'i
tardrobiist,coveredmfr(aitwithdividedBcales, pheasant (jP. wv^erbut, ls£a^, ridi j«Jtowi&
and in tbe males armed with a strcaig spur ; above^ witii whUe head, neck, and vnoer pare
toes strong, united at the base by a membrane, tbenuddleof the latter being blaiik; tultcPEK-
the bind toe short and elevated, and tbe daws times 4 feet long, grayidi white witb goUKi
stent and sUghtly carved. The few species de- red edges and ercMentio bare of twown lotl
scribed are natorally inhabitants of the monn- cbMlnnt — The gemis fAaumatsii differs baa
tainoQs rwions of Asia, bnt some have been the last only in having the head fiimuhed widi
natoralizedin temperate Ecrope ; they frequent a orest of long slender foathers^ and a kind <i \
tbickjangles,theBezeskeepiiigBeparatee2cei>t tippet of lengthened feathers around the ted
in the breeding season, when ther fbrm fiuni' of the neck. The golden pheaMat (T. fieU,
lies of a ungle male and several females, each "Wagl.) ia perh^M the moat sandy of tbe fatnilT.
with thdr special locali^, trcaa which all In- the brilliancy mi varied M ita plinnaM beiEg
traders are expelled. They are rqiid ronners, beyond dewmpUon ; it is, however, wdu knowv
and fly rapidly and netnly for short distances; in aviaries and colleotiona ; the general ctto it
the food oonuate of erains, seeds, bolbs, and golden yellow above, scarlet b<dow, wiUi yeDciT
insects, which tbey seek nsnaily toward souset ; crest, green back, brown hood, and bine teox-
they roost in trees in the cold season ; the ^ga daries ; it ia abont the aim of tb» ecmws
are 10 or 13, and are lud generally on the pbeasanL but the twi is longer ; aavsoalintha
ground, with ve^ little if any nest. The com- family, the female has a phdn. bnnrniah plt-
mon pheasant (P. Oolehiinis. Lion.) is abont 8 mage. It ia a hardy bir£ a natiTe of C3uu.
fbet long, of which the t^ is nearly oi^dislf; kept in domestication, and highl^plzedfiirtlie
tbe male is bright mfoos above, the head and table. Ladv Ambeist's pheasant (7. .datfcn-
neck bine with green and golden reflections, tia, Leadb.) has the top of the head, bieasL
and variegated with black and white ; the bat^ and wings rich metallio green, flie tipp^
cheeks bare and red, the sides and lower parta and lower parts white, the former banded ni
pnrpliah ohestnnt ; tail with transverse black tipped with green, and Ota tail variegated viOi
bands; the female is smaller, brownish gray, brown, green, yellow, sosrle^ and white.— b
varied with reddish and dnsky. This bird is the genos aiyut tbe 7ih and 6Qi qtdDa <k tbi
anpposed to have been introduced from tbe wings ore the longest, with the aeoondaiiea n-
banks of tlie Phasis, a river of anoient OolchSs, msrkabfy prolonged ; the tidl is kog and mo-
on the E. coast of the Black sea, whence its pressed, with the 2 iMd^ featheis much doi-
Bcientific name; it is generally diatribated gated; the tarri long and slender, wilbo^
over S. Europe, but in the northern parts re- spurs : head and ne^ covered mlr vith «!■
qnires protection by etiin^nt eame lawa to teredh^rs. The argns pheasant (JLfrV'MlM
Erevent Its extinction ; it conld probably be Temm.) ia about the size of a ownmcnt fe*L '
itroduoed with advantage into the temperato but the 2 middle toil feathers are 8^ or 4 fe(>
parta of America Ita habits exe mooh like long; the under parts and lower neck are i«J-
those of the common fowl ; it breeds in oon- dish brown spotted wiUi yellow and black ; ite
finemsnt, but is apt to neglect its eggs, whioh back oohrey ydlow, with blaok and bran
are therMbre uaniJly placed under a common spots ; tail deep aheetnut with white qwts sa-
hen; itwillbreed with the common and Guinea ronnded by a.blaok ring; seocHtdkriu abctt J
fowls, in the wild state with the liag-iieoked faet long, browniab, but when q>rmd tiavi
PEEASAST 228
with bewUftil ooelkted ipots like fbow in the aixt(G.£aaami,Qra:f\iBAr«ejhewaiM\AiA,
ttMCoefc^ tail ; the female ia dnll ohestnnt red, ahoat as lai^e u the domestio fowl ; the pre-
raried with r^kiirish brown and Vihek, with- Tallfng oolor la purpliBh oiimamoii red, the
outUiadeTelcniiMntofthetMlfeatheTsaiidBec- wings and upper parts nmber brown, the ^ of
ondariea. It la fennd in the dense fiinests of eaoh feather with a white eye spot, lai^est on
Somatra and the othw large Eaat Indian ialanda, theaidea; taQ almost eoncealea by tiie ample
where it lirea in paira ; Uw long seoondariea, oorerto, which hare a oonapioaona white root ;
which render fli^t difficult, are of great ser- bare flidn of head blniah pnrple ; long feathers
rice to the bird when tanning, acting in the of crown pn^liah black, deep crimson red at
manner of s^ls ; these feaUiere, with those of the oodpnt. The golden-breasted pheaaant ((7,
other brilliaat galUnaaeoiu birda, are exported iMlaaocepkala, Graf) is a still more beantiftil
from Bataria as ornaments fbr droaaoa, acrewu^ speraea; the wings and upper narta are deep
fana, and similar objects. This bird does not wood-brown, eaSi feather witn a white eye
thriTO In oonflnement.— In the snb-bmily gai- spot enuTonnded with black ; back of neck,
Una ahoold be mentiixied here thegenna gai- npper back, and shonlders purplish red ; bl«)k
lophtMsit (Hodgs.) or mploetmiat (Teimn.), in ereatof disonited feathers; horns and long wat-
wnioh the wings are moderate and mach roimd- ties bhdsh purple, and beneath a patch of bril-
ed, with Uie 4th to the Tth quills nearly equal Ihint golden orange of hard homy feathers ; rest
and longest, and the secondaries am^e and of under puts deep black. These tragopans
broad ; tul and its coverts ample, with com- belong to the genos latj/ra of Lesson. — In tiie
preoed ndea, arched or straif^t and Bometlmee enb-fimdly lophophorina belong some very re-
forked ; tarn long, strong, and armed with a markable pheasants. The genos Icphophoriit
large aptir ; the rides of the head bare, wiOi (Temm.) has the npper mandible very mnch
wattlea at the base of the lower mandible, curved otm the lown-, the 4th and tOi qniOa
and sometimes a creet. They inhabit tLe prl- longest, tail ample and ronnded, and tarci
meval ferests of India and ita islands, pre- anned with a short mnr. The Impeyan pheas-
ferring tiie close oovera of moontunoaa dis- ant (£. ImpManvt, Vi^-) is abont 2 fbet long ;
tricta; they are commonly seen in partjes of 8 the colors of the pinmage defy description or
or 10, which nm rapidly among the onishwood representation, b«3ng resplendent with ever-
whenalaimed. Uacartney's or the flie-backed changing hnee of green, steel-bine, violet, gold-
pheasant (Q. i^Uttu, Shaw), a native of Bn- en, and bronze, dense and metallic in u>pear-
niatra, Is sboiA 2 feet long ; the general oolor ance, but soft and velvety to the touch ; the
ia deep Waok, with steel-blue retleotionB ; on middle of the back pure white, and the tail
the middle of the back b a fiery orange patch, bright chestnut with transverse bars of a duB-
wHh brilliant gloss ; romp and t^ coverts er tint ; oa Uie head Is a crest of feathers with
broad and tnmoated, bluish green with orange naked shafts and oval tip of metallic hue ; the
edges, and central feathers white, legs and female is sm^er, of a general reddish brown
feet TemiiHon; head with a orest of slen- color, mottled with c^ts and bars, with throat
der barbed feathers; the fetnale ie of a dnna- and fore neck white. This species, named In
mon brown color. The sUver pheasant (G. honor of Lady Impey, inhabits the mountain
ngetAMunit, Hodgs.) has the throat, nnder rangeaof the Himalaya and ITepaal, and, with
parts, and ample crest glossy purplish black, many other beantifDlIy plomaged birds, enli-
the fbatbers being generally lanceolate; the Tens these dreary solitndes. In the genua pu-
rest of the plmnage pure white, the weba of ertuia (Oray) the bill is short, broad at the
the feathers of the back diagonally streaked baee, and much arched ; the 4th quill the
with blaok ; legs and feet pnrple lake, and longest^ and the 8d and 6th equal ; t^ long
large, nabd, velvety space aMrat the ^es and wedge-shaped, and tarsi rather slender.
bright Tvmilion. It is a powerM bird, and a The Paoras pheasant (P. maorolopka, Less.) is
match (br a game cook ; It is a native of north- rich brown above, the feathers huiceolate, and
ern China, where it is often kept In a tame the nnder parts rich chestnut bordered with
state ; being very hardy, it is fivqnently oar- long lanceolate white pinmes ; head, throat,
ried to Eorope, and, with the golden pheas- md neck beantiM green, with bine and vlidet
ant, fbrma a pleasing addiljon to sriaries. reflections; patch of white on the sides of
About a dosen other species of the genos are neck ; orest of long broad feathers, of the oolor
described. — ^The genns eeriorruM (Swains.) in- of the head and neck, the shortest ones reddish
clodes the brilliant tragopans ; these have a yellow. It Inhabits the alpine regions of In-
short, thick Ull, arched and obtuse ; wings am- dia, where Its fleeh is highly esteemed. In the
pie andTnTconcRve; tail large andronnded, genus UtraogdUm (Qray) belongs the Oanca-
and tard roboat; the head has a lai^ horn sian pheasant {T. Gatieatieut, Fall.), cinereons
over eaoh eye, bikI nnder the throat two short above with minute undulations and edses <rf
nskedwaldes. They are peculiar to ttie dense cream oolor; breast cinereons, with brown
pine fertafa of tiie motint^ifs of India ; they arrow heads on the sides, abdomen creamy
sre solitary and hard to ^proaoh, end dia- white, vent and thighs black. This spedes.
coverahle only by their shrill wtiisde ; their fonnd in the inaooeseible moimtain ranges of
food coneistB at grains, roots, larvce, and in- N. and ff. Asia, is very difflonlt to procore; it
sects. The Nepanl tragopan or homed pheas- b eald to warn the wild goats of tlie proximity
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
331 PHET.P8 I^EBEOTDES
of man bj a cnrions whisOing note ; Qm fbod was to be distributed in chari^ at Ua sou's
oowdsta prindpally ofmsB. disoretioa. In addition to lai^ lesades to 24
PEEIfS, A'Mn'* Wiiyp Ijhooui, an Amer- grandchildren, he intznated to teaa a Amd of
loan teacher and writer, bom in Berlin, Oonn~ 15^000 for charitable pniposes.
in 1198. At the age of 19 she taught sohool PHELPS, Euzabbth BrcABr, an American
at her Esther's house, and not long afterward writer, horn In Andover, Masa., Aug. 18, 1815,
took charge of the Sandy HDl (S. T.) finale died there, Not. SO, 18(2. She was a daughter
aoademj. In 1817 she WMntsmedtoSimftcai of Profossor Voses Stoart. In 1843 she was
Lincohi of Hartford, then editor of the " Oon- married to the Rev. Austin Phelps, now pro-
neotitmt Mirror." Be died in 1898j and soon fenor in the Andover the<da^oal eemiiiaiT-.
afterward she beoante asaooiated with her ti»- " The Smrny Side," one of the most popular of
ter Mrs. Emma WiUard in the direction of the her works, after several r^ectaons bj diCfereot
female seminary at Troy, N. Y., where she pnl^iahers, was at last pnblished by her fHends,
oontinned imtil 1881, when she waa married to and almost immediately attuned an onpreoe-
the Hon. John Phelps of Vermont. During dented sale, reaching Its 40th thonaand in leas
her residence at Troy she pnblisbed a text than two years, and oonlinaing to b^ largely
book on botany, which has nndei^ne several to the present time. It was foUowed, ia rapid
revisions, and still continnes in nse for schocjs snooession, by the "Kitty Brown Seiiea" (4
and colleges. In 1888 she took eharoe of a voK, Philadelphia, 1849), "Peep at Number
Bominaiy at West Ohester, Penn., and after- Five," "Tell-Tale," "Angel over the B^bt
ward tanght in Bahway, N. 3. In 1B41, on Bhonlder," and soon after her death by "llie
the invitation of the bishop of Uaryland, Mr. Last Leaf from Sonny Side," all published at
and Urs. Phelps took ohaige of the Patt^iaoo Boston. These, as well as some compilations
instltate, a diooeean female sohooL whidt soon of her magadne and newSpwer articles, bare
attained a high reputation ; koA after Uie death met with a very eztenrive sale,
of Hr, Phelps in 1848 Iba. I^^ps oondncted PHENE, a name Bomettmesgiven to benzole,
it alone until 180S, what she resigned. She a compound of 12 atoms of carbon and 6 ot
now (1861) reddes m Baltimore, Ud. She has hydrtwen, ^obably nnlted aocording to the
published "FbnuUor Leotnrea on Botany" formnla(OiiHi)H. A series of oomponndB are
(Hartford, 1829 ; revised and enlarged with a reoMnized founded a " ' " " '*--
snpplement,NewYoTk,1861}; "Diddonary of Oii£, which is known as ^lenyle, and the
Ohemiatry" ^ew York, 1880); "Botany fbr series as the phenio series. Phen<de, or pheiuo
Bef^ers" CQartford, 1881); "Oeoliwy fbr acdd,knownaBcarboliaadd,lBaprindpumem-
Beginners" (Brattleborongh, 1882) ; " E^mole ber of this series, and its compounds are phe-
. , , — .- - - i,orph«
Beckers" (Hartford, 1881); "Geology fbr acid, known as carbolic add, Is a prindpu mi
" '^ - "^ sandil
^ raoij, 01 ,
PHEBEOYDES. I. A Greek philoft<^ber of
Studentj or fireside Friend" (Boston, 1888)
"OaroUne Westerb^" (New York, 1888)
" Ohenustry for Beginners" (New YorJt, 188« :
natee^(See^RZOL^ and Oabbouo Acid.
■ogrMdve Edncatjon," translated ttom the abont 644 B. 0., and is s^ to have been the
Joh (Boston, 1884); "Lectures on Nstural teacher of Pythagoras. He sbidied under Fit*
Philosophy" (New York, 1886 ; revised and tacns of Ifitylene, was a rival of Tbalee, trav-
mlarged, 1854) ; " Lectures on Ohemistry" elled in IBerpt, and was insbucted by tiie
^ewYork, 1687; revised ed.,18S7);"Nataral %yptians ana Ghaldeans. He wrot«aphllo-
Phitosophy for Bemnners" (New York, 1887) ; eoplucal worit, which was extant in the Alez-
"Ida Norman" (New York, 1864); "Hours andrian period, in whidh be tn^tained that
with my Puinia" (New York, 1869); and "Obris- there were S principia, Zeus or .Ather.Ohthon
tJan Eooseholds" (1660), or Earth, and Oronot or Time, and 4 d<unents,
PHELPS, AjmoKQBEEHB, an American mer- fire, sir, earth, and water; and that from these
chant, horn in Simsbuiy, Oonn., in Uarob, aU things sprang, Qs dtsUngidshiiig doctrine
1V81, died in New York, Nov. 80, 1868. He was that of metempsyohod^ or aocorfflng to
lost both his parents while yonng, and learned others that of the immortalibr of the BonL ^
the trade of a saddler. At the age of 18 he wss the first to write a phUoeo^oal treadae
removed to Hartford, and establi^ed himself in prose, and aocordiDg to some fbe first to
there in his trade, and fbunded also a branch write in prose at ^ Thensnal aoooont of his
boshiess in Charleston, S. 0. In 1816 he en- death Is that be was eaten up by wonos and
gaged in New York oltv as a dealer in tin plate insects. The fragments of JnieretTdea are
and heavy metals. Having aoonmolatedaUMte printedhy August Wolf In tJie first mrt of his
fortune partly by investmenta in real estate, he Z^torortasA^ JkalMtm (Beifin, 1611). H. A
devoted himself with great seal to benevcHent Greek logogrwber, samamed of AuMus, be-
enterprises, and was president of the New ToA oanae be poMed moot of his Bfb in that d^, or
blind asylum, the Amerioan hoard of commis- of I<eros,beoansehewasbornintbatisiani He
sionerstbrfordgnmisuons, and the New York flouriiiied probably about 480 B. 0. He wrote
branch of the colonization sodety. At bis a work on mytbolo^, wbidi is mentioned nn-
deatb he bequeathed to various charitable in- der various titled, and condsted (^ 10 tiooka
atitutioiu sums amounting in the whole to beginning with the genealogy of the gods, end
(871,000, and placed in the hands of hla onlr ooming £>wn to the families of the heroic age.
son a fimd of tlOO,000, the Interest of which The fragments of it have been oollected by
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHIDIAS 22S
Stan, Fhtm^dit Ihumtnta (Ldpefc, 1824), It was remored from tiie Btatae by Lachares in
and ij the UOllen mf^ragwitnta MUlorieorvm th« time of DemetrioB Polioroetea. about 3S6
OTMoram. B. 0. FreTions to the time of Phidias, caloe-
PHIDIAS, the Bon of Charmides, the moat sal statues when not of bronze were aorolithe,
iHostrioiiB MolptoT of antii]iiit J, bom ia Athena the head, hands, and feet being of marble,
probably in 400 B. 0., died there aboat 433. while the bodj was of wood, concealed b; real
The details of bis personal histoiy are to be drapery; and the aabstitntion of Ivor; and
gifaned onlj from detaohed passa^ in the sold for these materials is believed to have
writing of classio authors and scholiastsj and been his invention. Bupposed copies of the
eo iiooflicting are these statements, that the statne are in existence, and restorations have
dates of the most important events In his cs- been attempted by Qnatrem^re de Qnlnoy and
teer can only be approximately ascertained, others. The architeotaral scnlptnres of the
Hia biogr^hy is conseqnentl; in a lurge d^ree Parthenon, which were in all probability do-
the result of a balancing of authorities. He is signed by Phidias, and perhaps m some iu-
enpposed to have belonged to a family of artistSj stances executed by him, are described under
and is said to have originally occupied himself the head of Elgin M/bhtfji. The Athena was
with painting, an aril practised vith great re- finished in 4S8, and, with the Parthenon, vas
pule by his nephew Paaasnna. He was inetmct- dedicated in the sam^ year. Shortly after-
ed in Knlptnre by two native artists, Hegiaa ward, at the invitation of the Eleana, Phidias
and Agdidoa, and probably between ^e ages commenced at Olympia the coli^ial ohryaelQ-
of 25 and 80 began to exercise hia calling in phantine statne of Jupiter, which, in the ophi-
Athens. His anhjects were for the most part ion of all the anthors of antiquity who have
ucred, and among the works attribnted to written upon the aabject, was the scnlptor'a
him are no fewer than 9 statues of Athena masterpiece. The god was represented as
(Hinerra), the tntelary goddess of bis native seated upon a throne of cedar wood, holding
diy. One of these, at Pellene in Achaia, was in one hand an ivory and gold statne of Vic-
perhapa his earliest public work. Abont the tory and in the other a sceptre, with his feet
ume time ha execnted the gronp of 13 bronze supported by a footstool, which, as well as
stuueg dedicated by tta Athenians at Delphi every port of the throne, and its base, was
ont of the tithe of their ehare of the spoils elaborately adorned with gold, ivory, ebony,
taken from the Fersiana at Marathon, and the and gems, with enchased work and paintuigs,
(oloBaal bronze statue of Athena PromAchos in with scnlptores of precions metsls, and with
tli« Athfuian aoropolis, 60 or 60 feet in height, nomerons accessory groups and bass-relieis rep-
asd viable from a conMderable distance by resenting allegories or legends. "The Idea
ships approadiing Athens, whidi is also said which Phidias essayed to embody in tUs, his
to have been made frvm the spoils of Marathon, greatest work, was that of the snpreme dieity
Pericles seems to have been so impressed with of the Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in
the genins of Phidias, that he not only intmst- conflicts with the Titans and the ^onts, bnt
ed bim with the ezecntion of the principal having laid aside his thunderbolt, and entnron-
flatnea intended to adorn the public buildings ed as a conqueror, in periect mqesty and re-
of Athens, bnt made him general director of pose, ruling with a nod the Boyeot world, and
lUthegreat works ofaitia progress in that city, more espei^ally presiding, at the centre of the
including the Propylfea of the acropolis and Hellenic nnion, over those games which were
thePartaenon. For the latter he executed the the ezpreedon of that reli^oos and political
coloasal chiyselephantjne or ivory and gold union, and giving bisblessingtotiioBevictorieB
Aatae of Athena, which stood in Q>aprod«niv» which were the highest honor that g Greek
or front chamber of the temple, and which, oonld gun Expresaion was given to
with the statne of the Olympian Jupiter at this idea not only by the whole proportiona
Ol^mpia, constitnt«d the grandest productions and configuration of the statue, but more espe-
of asCiqae plaatio art. It embodied the idea oi cially by the ahape and position of the head.
the Tiivin goddess, as that of Athena Proma- The height and expansive arch of the forehead,
chiie^ofthewarTu>rgoddes8,andwaBformed the masses of liair ^tly falling forward, the
of plates of ivory laid npon ft core of wood or lamnesa of the &oial angle, which exceeded
Btone for the fleah parts, irhile the drapery, 90 degrees, the shape of the eyebrow*, the per-
the teds, the shield, the helmet, and other oo- feet calmness and commoudiiig mi^les^ of the
cessories were of solid gold, adorned with de- large and ftill-opened eyes, the esprenve re-
vicea and elaborately engraved with snbjeots pose of all the featores, and the sl^ht forward
taken from Athoiian legends. No expense mdinatioD of the head, are the chief elements
vas spared by the Atheniona to make this that go to make np that representation which,
Etatue worthy of the sEirine in which it was tmrn the time of Phidias downward, haa been
enckiwd; and it is said that when the sculptor regarded as the perfect ideal of supreme mo-
intimated hia desire to execute it in marble, jeaty and entire complacency of the ' father of
tbej£rect«d him to employ those materials gods and men' impersonated in a human form,"
which were the most ooatly. The weight of (F.Smith.) Pauaanias, who has given the follest
the gold has been estimated at between 40 and description of the atatae, relates that the god
50 talents, or somewhat more than $60,000. testified his approval of the sonlptor's work bj
VOL. nn. — 15
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^[c
886 PHIGAT.TA PHILADKLPHIA
rtriUag the p&Tement in front of it witli light- served its freedom agmist tti««non)aaIim«ite of
nlng ; and aooording to Aniaa it was ooosid- the Bpartans, and althongli in 069 B. 0. the in-
ered a oalami^ to die withont having seen the h&hitanta were compelled to abandon it, they
Jnpiter of Phidiaa. The statne was nearly 60 eoon ratarned. Ita cSebrity is ohieQj dne to the
feet in height, and oocnpied Phidias and his tempie, which waa sitnated on Ht, Ootylion,
BsaietantH, among whom were Oolotea and Al- abont 6 m. N. E. from the city, and waa de-
oamenea, sonlptors, and Pannnus the punter, soribed by Panaouios to be, after tlutt at Tegea,
between 4 and 6 yeara, from 487 probably to the moat beantilbl of all the temples of the
488 B, 0. The Eleana granted him the honor Feloponnesns. It was bnilt of yellowish brown
of inscribing npon the footetool the following limestone by lotinna, who in conjunction with
insoription: others had erected variona public worka at
*iitua XapiuSm vUa ABipnm f^ rwot/nfi Athens during the age of Pericles, and waa
and his descendants were intrnsted with the dedicated to Ajwllo Epicnrins, becaose the god
office of cleaning and preserving the statue. ^bA cured the citizens of the plague during the
It waa removed by the emperor Theodosins L Peloponnesian war. Ito niina were explored
to Constantinople, where it perished by fire in in 1812, and the entire acnlptured frieze of the
A. D. 47B. Restorations of it have been at- ceila waa bronght from it for the British mn-
tempted by Quatremfire de Quinoy and Flax- senm in 1814. It represents the contests he-
man. Upon the completion of the Htatoe Phi- tweenthecentanrsandlapithea and between tho
dioa retnmed to Athens, where a formidable Amazons and the Greeks, and is known aa the
party was aiming at the overthrow of Pericles. Phigalian marbles.
Fearing to attack the great Athenian states- PHILADELPHIA, the raetropdiB of Penn-
n directly, his enemies sought to undermine sylvania, and the second city of the United
his influence by peraeonting his friends; and States in population, situated on the Delaware
Phidias, who for many years had been on >iver, 96 m. by the course of the stream and
terms of intimacy with Pericles, was accused bay from the sea, 186 m. N, E. from Washing-
by one Menon, a workman employed upon the ton, and 87 m. 8. W. from New York. The
Parthenon, of having stolen a portion of the old state house, now independence hall, which
gold appropriated to the chryselephantine Is near the centre of the city, is in lat 89° 66'
statne or Athena. As the gold howerer had fiS" N. and long. 75° 9' 64" W. The tide as-
been afQxed to the statne in such a manner oenda the Delaware river &r above the city on
that it could be removed, the accusers were the E. side, and the Schuylkill on the W. ride
challenged to substantiate their charge bj to its upper or S. limit, thus surroandinir it
weighing it, which they shrank from doing, with tidal waters. Its site is mostly a plun
Another charge was then made against the from 3 to 4 m. in width between these livera,
sculptor of having introduced portraits of hun- elevated 80 to 80 feet above tide. This spo-
self and Pericles m the bass-reUefii of theshield dons piaia extends beyond both rivers E. and
representing the battle of the Amazons. As W., and on it are built the suburban city of
this act was supposed to imply a dishonor to Oamden £. of the Delaware, and West Phila-
the national religion, ho waa thrown into pri- delphia "W. of the SohnyUdlL Northward the
son, where, according to Plutarch, he died surface rises in low hiHa, npon which, and
either by poison 6t by a natural death. In along the borders of the rivers, several popa-
addition to the works mentioned, Phidias exe- Ions manufacturing and residential snhnrbs are
cnted a number of statues of deities for Athens built within the municipal limits. The densely
and other cities of Greece, including an aero- bnilt port of the city Is about S m. in extent
Itthtc Athena at Platea, and a famous chrys- along the Delaware, and from 8 to Si- m. in
e1ephantine.^!sculapiusat£pidaiiru3.— Phidias width E. and W., covering an area of nearly 12
was the first to break away from the stiff, ar- sq. m. Previons to 1864 the mnnioipality of
chaio style of the earlier school of Greek sculp- Fhiladelphia proper was confined to the belt
tors, and to ^m at pure and severe ideal bean- between the two rivers originally assigned aa
ty. He is said never to have imitated exactly the city limits by Penn, an area nearly a mile
any human model, however beautiAiI, nor do in width by two miles in length. A^oining
his works exhibit an^ of that sensuous grace this sever^ distriots possessed distinct muni-
whEch in the prodnctions of succeeding sci^p- oipal orguuzations, those of Sonthwark and
SOTS tended to deprave taste and to corrupt Uoyamensing on liie B., Northern libertiesi,
the art. Dignity, ni^esty, and repose were Kensington, Spring Garden, and Penn Town-
his distinguishing characteristics, and in no ship on the N., and West Philadelphia beyond
other artist have they probably ever been niu- the Schuylkill. Uost of this area being then
ted in so high a degree. He has been called compactly bnilt upon, and the less populons
the "sculptor of the gods," and his age the suburbs rapidly becoming connected with the
golden age of sculpture. central city, the muniolpolities were consoli-
PHIGALIA, or Psialia, an andent town of dated in 1S64, and extended to embrace the
Arcadia, near the borders of Meaaenla and Ella, entire ooonty, an area of 120 sq. m. Most of
on the right bank of the river Neda, of which this added surface lies N. of the old city ; it is
mins still existnearthe modem villageofPau- thickly stndded with villages, andhae also the
Utza. HotUng is known of Its origin. It pre- large towns of Frankford, Germantown, and
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FBILADEUHIA SIT
Ibn^fimfc, eaoh oontainiDg iWnn 8,000 to vestera railroads. The Streets nmniiigN. and
10,000 inliaMtaiite. The immediate front on S. are nmabered from the IJelaware, Front,
the Delaware vas originall;' a bloff hank of Second, Sk., to Twentj-Mh street. Honsee
gnvel SO to 60 feet high, on the slope and on oU the streets are now nnmbered in hon-
riiet edge of vhioh Fenn forbade the settlers dreds corresponding to each square, from Front
to boild, Intending it to afford an open project street westward, and from Ma»et street N. and
and free poblio levee. A few whaxf hnildinga S. ; thus at Tenth street W. the nmnbers are
onlf were pennittadontil after Fenn'e death; It 1,000, 1,002, && ; and at 10 squares N. or a
is cbw oloeelj' built up with lofty warehonsea of Market street the same nombers occur on
uD narroT streets, and many efforts have been streets mnning N. and B. The pavements of
made to restore some degree of the original the streets generallv ere of oobblesttoie, viti
jiliffi, Bteph^ Girard having left a large sum brick gutters, gramte curb, and brick Bide'
<rf money to the city for that purpose. The walks. Onbicol blocks are l^d in Gheetnnt,
water on this front is 36 to 60 feet deep at the Third, Walnut, and Second atreete, in the biui-
pier heads at low tide for more than a mile and ness centre. The citj is lighted munly by gas
a half, and the strong cnrrent settjng on the lamps, of which there were G,684 in 1860, and
W. shore at both flood and ebb tide prerents 461 lamps burning fluid ; total nmnber, 6,S4G.
eniTORcbments on the harbor bydepont The Of gas sappljed to these in 1860 the total was
rise of tide b but 6 feet, and flooda or over- lie,9M,81S feet ; and the total cost of the
floTi are nnknown. The fonndation of the lighting department for tbat year was $285,000.
dty is mainly a dry, well drained gravel, mok- — There are ? sqnores phuted as parks within
to; the sewerage easy and perfeoL Ledges of the densely oconpied portion of Uie city : lo-
gneiss und imp^ect granite nnderlie the upper dependence square, siuTODndiiig the state hoose;
put of the ctty; Eamnoimt reservi^ rests ml "Washington square near it on the S. W., cele-
a Urge and pecnliar ledge of this sort, 80 f^t brated as the potter's field of the revolntion,
bigh, sear the Sohoylkill in the If. W. part. — and as the spot on which the comer stone of a
The decennial progress cf population once IT&O natiraial monnment to "Washington has been
iiufollows: * laid; Franldin square, with a fonntiun; Logan
m 4tw I isse WJM KP«re,-^th a deer park ; P«m square in the
IBM J^^ W" »118,|>OT centre of the city, &c Hunting park m the
^ ,?!SJ KSS ISS'lS northern suburbs, and Fairmount pork along the
"" ^'^ ' "*• ;-■ '^ BchnyUdU on the N. W., are in rapid process
The whole number ofpersonsof foreiCTbirthin of improvement on an eitenure scale. Many
1950 was 191,699, nearly BO per cent Thodeaths highly improved cemeteries exifit near the oity,
in 1860 Dombered 11,S68, and the births for the t^ief of which is I^nrel Hill, 5 nules S.
the last G months 8,484, no trostworthy record yf. Others are "Woodlands, Oothedral, Odd
hivingbeenprevionsly kept— The oripnal reg- Fellows', Motmt Horiah, Glenwood, Monument,
uiuitj of plan on which the streets were had and Mount Yemen. The cbm'chyard ceme-
ost has been preeorved in all additions to the teriea within the dty were originally large, and
cilT. High street, now Market, the great central Franklin, witJi many other historical i
^reet E. and W,, is 100 feet wide, and built up may be found in Christ church and other
for more than 8 m. Broad street is the central grounds. Laurel Hill is justly celebrated and
— o __. — ^_„, — ._„ J d and
street N. and ^-i 113 feet wide, and built upon much vinted; it has an area of bnt S5 acres.
' * The other great streets are &om A»ljacent to it is South laurel Hill, occupy-
oO to es feet wide, forming squares with sides of ingSO acres in a similarly attractive position.
from 300 to 460 feet, and regularly succeeding ^%ie style of building has always been prin-
Mch other each way from toe central streets dpally of brick, tie vicinity producing veiy
nsnied. hi most cases the squares are subdi- superior preeaed brick at a low cost Sam.'
<idedb J small streets laid out at a later period, bers of brick buildings remain standing and
(It^nt street, the first E. and "W, street 8. of in good preservation which were erected b«:
Hu-ket, la the fashionable thorouglifare. Wal- fore 1T60; those built since 18Q0 have mar-
nut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine streets succeed hie lacings and marble steps, and are re-
^ other on the S., and are oconpied mainly morkably uniform in height and general char-
hj woBlthy rendents; fhrther southward ore aoter. All are conspicuous for neatness and
wrabani, South, Shippen, I^tiwater, Christian, durability ; even the cheaply built blocks and
md Wishmgton. K. of Market there are, first, suburban streets intended for laborers' reai-
Ard), Bace, and Tine, leading and wealthy deuces are distLognished for neatness, and dif-
ttreets ; a«t O^owhiU, Spring Oarden, Green, fer externally from those of the wealthier class
n"'^ * hanking and flnancial centre is in more in size than in anything else. Tenement
loirdand Walnut streets; the dry goods and houses are unknown. For the best residences
otherjoblnngtrade in Thirdand Market streols; marble and brown atone have been much uaed,
<he wmmissioD houses in Front and Chestnut; and in the business streets iron fronts are com-
we Ehipping and proviaon trade on Water mon. Of pnblic buildings, the principal in
"Set and Delaware avenue; the newspMWr marble are the old United States bank (now
nffi-». ™ .pv,.^ __:, ™... . ^ , . . ., „ >nd United States
, costing |fi00,000),
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
.3 Third and Oheatnut Broad street the Girard hank), the second United States
has a large hosiness in produce, brought to it by bant (now the custom house, costing |fi00,000),
238 pBTT. A nin.PffT A
Uie old FenneylvanU bank, and th« United Ginrd house in Oheetnnt street, and t2ie IJ
States mint, all fine marble buildings of Ore- Pierre in Broad street, have been edebrstet
raan arohitectnre, Girerd college is the chief for years ; both are fine arohiteotnral stmo
building of this oIbbs, and the finest in the Uiii- tares, bnilt in part of brown stone. Hie con
ted Btatee ; it is built in the Oorinthlan strle, tanental hotel, recently erected, is eqoal if nol
318 feet long, 160 feet wide, and 97 feet high. snperioT to any other in the United States ii
at a cost exceeding $1,000,000. The merohanta' size Bai beanty; it covers 41,636 Bqnare feet,
exchange Is a fine stmotnre of marble, with an and is 280 feet in depth by 194 feet fi^t. The
ornamented front on Dock street, a semloircn- main halt is 16S feet in depth, and the cdhtral
lar colonnade of 6 piUars, and a spadona ro- open area 88 by 78 feet. It has over 100 com-
tnnda within, on that nde. The fbrmers' and plete soilee of &m!lj rooms, and employs 380
mechanics' bank in CSiMtnat street, recently persons in its r^^ar oare. The bmldin^ is of
erected, is areiTEinperiorstniotareofinarble in brown atone, divided into 6 stories in the
the modern style; and a^oinin^ it ia the Phila- front and S in the rear. Very many faotela
dslphia bank, a fire-proof granite bnUi^K of exiat hi variona parts of the city with the signs,
great<]O«tbniltinl800sndl8S7. Theold Christ arms, and inrignia of revolutionary times. The
ohnroh (Episoop^), oelebrated in early oolonial chief basinees streets are now oconpied with a
times, is still a tine bnilding, and in perfect pres- large number of costly and superior bnildings
ervatioD. St. Peter's, in Third and Fine streets, of marbl^ granite, iron, and sandstone. The
a church of note intustorical times, is also still nomber of bntldingB erected in the city in 1860
preserved. Theoharchof the HolyTrinity,re- was 3,878, and the census of that year gives
oeatly erected in Twentieth and Walnut streets, 89,078 as the total nnmber of dwellings. There
is a fine specimen of Norman architecture, as are are S£0 places of worship, viz. : 89 B^tist,
also St. Mark's, in the later or English Qothio 68 Episcopal, 14 Friends', 7 Jewish, 14 Ld-
style, in Sixteenth and Locust streets; St. theran, 69 Methodist Episcopal, 4 Methodist
Luke's, in the (Jredan style, &o. The West Arch Protestant, i!0 Presbyterian Sew School, S4
street Presbyterian church is a very handsoroe Presl^terlan Old School, SO other Presbyte-
and spacious structnra in the Roman OorintltiBn rion, St) Roman Catholic, S Unitarian, 8 Uni-
Btyle ; the West Spruce street, the Oalvary, versalist, 96 of other denominatians, and SO
the Lo^n aquare, and other ciinrches are fine of various denominaHons for colored people.
buildings in various stylos. The new Oatholio There are 6 Bible societies, 18 missonary sod-
cathedral on Logan square is an impodngstmo- eties, and IS tract and religions publication so-
ture of brown stone, in the dassie or Roman oieties. The operations of many of these are
style, not yet fiiUy finished. The academy of very extensive, particularly the Pennsylvania
music, recently erected, is without a superior Bible sodety, the American Snnday sohool
for space snd iatemal beauty. Arch street nnion. the Presbytwian board of publication,
theatre ts perhaps the most noted of tlieatres &o. — The prindpal libraries of Philadelphia are
proper ; next are the Walnnt and the Oootinsn- the Philadelphia library, founded by Franklin,
tal, Doth in Walnut street between ISghth and and combined with the Union and Loganian li-
;EHnth; the Olympic in Race street; ^nford's braries. It had 70,000 volnmcs on Jan. 1, 1861.
opera houae ; a German tlieatre in OaUowhill It ia iHe to strangers, and open from annriss to
street, Ac Concert haU in Obestnnt street, na- sunset duly. Stock and shareholders can use
tional hall in Market, muaical fimd hall in L&. it as a circulating library. The philosoptucol
oust, the assembly bnilding, Jayne's hall, me- sodety has a library of 91,000 volumes, and a
tropolitan hall, national guards' noU, and many vei7valnable collection of ooins, medala, maps,
others, are occupied for publio meetings and en- charts, &c, of sdestifla and historical vsln&
tertdnments. Carpenters' hall, the first place The mercantile library has 21,000 volmnea,
of meednc of the continental congress, is still with a large membership. Its income in 1860
maintained by the carpenters' Bocie^. Indepen- was $11,8C1, and the number of Wnmes lent
d«ice hdl generally dgnlfles the whole of the to subscribers and members was 87,000. It Is
<Ai state house, but more apedfloally the large open from 9 A. M. to 10 P. M., and has a news
eastern room of the lower floor. In this hall reading room with 160 newspapers and 6S pe-
La&yette had a great public reception in 1894, riodioals. The Athennum has a library cf
and in 1880 a public movement was made to 18,600 volnmes. The academy of natmal sd-
reetore it to Its origind condition, and to set ences, on Broad street, has a very valuable
It apart "for dignified purposes only." The sdentifio library of 98,000 volames, and the
portraits of the ^eat men of the revolntion largest museum of natural history in the conn-
were procured, and historicd relics were placed try, containing over 90,000 mounted Bpecimens
there for permanent preservation. In 1864 the In ornithology alone. The apprentices' library
consolidated city took a renewed interest in it, has 1G,000 volumes. The Franklin Institata
the old iodependence bell was taken f^om the has about 7,000 volumes, a news room, and a
tower and placed In the hall, a large number course of sduitific lectures ; the mechanic and
of portraits trom the Peale gallery were hnng inventive arts are espedally favored in the plsji
on the walls, and a keeper was appointed. — of its operations. The university of Pennsyl-
The hotels of Fhiladdphui are not behind those vania has a library of 6,000 volumes, and a fins
of other metropolitan Amerioan ddee. Tba anatomical mnaenin. The Pennsylvania hospt-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHlT.ATWeT.PTITA ggg
taliiuaHbni7oflO^ODD'ndiimeB,andTaricms S40 Btndenta or benefldariw, bH of vhom ar«
other inditirticHUiKMSMioonaderablelibrBriM, domiciled and wholly supported at the coU^e
There ue also a number of large prirato libra- dnriiig their soholarship ; bnt the period ma;
riei.— The aoademT' of fine arts was eetabliahed be longer or shorter aooOTding to the capaci^
in 1807; it holds aunnal ezhibitataiB. and owns developed, and the Jnd^ent of the dkeotora.
iboQt 1,000 Talnable paintings, liie modioal On leavlDg, every student must be qtpren-
coUeges of the city are oelefarated. The oldeat tieed to a ^ade or profe«n(m. The cost <a tLe
B thp medical aohool of the nniTersi^, which buildings alone wna (3,000,000, indodiiig the
iras tetabHehed in 1Y6S ; it has 7 professors, princip«l one before spoken of. The cost
lod on Its cata]ogtiefbrl800-'61 there ore 466 t^ maintenanoe of the college in I860 was
ttndente ; tlie number of altntuii is now about 181,084. The estate, called the Oirard tnist,
ifiOO. The Jet&jtoa medical eoUege was e»- oonfided to the care of the city, is valned at
tabliihed in 18SS, and it has had extraordinary over $8,000,000, bnt a large share oT it is at
cdebri^ and 8iu)oe8S,tlieo]asBeB often nmnber- present nnprodaotiTe. The revennea heytoA
m more dian 900. The PennsylTania medi- the wants en tiie college go to the improvement
ul mllwe is a eaeeeerfkd institntion, with an of the oi^, and to aome minor cdiarilieB ; their
mnnil daas of abont flOO. There are Bereral total amooDt ia 1860 was $108,749.— There are
rthers, of more or lees celebrity, inchiding two 18 ^^^t ^ tri-weekly, and 46 weekly news-
femile medical coUeges. There ia also a ool- ptqiers in Philadelphia. Of m^adnes and pe-
lege of pharmaroy, with Spro&asors, for the rlMicala the Dnmoer is 44, abont 80 of wUi^
instrnetion of dn^gists. The total nnmber of are ismed monthly. Two ddly and 2 weekly
students in the annual oonrsee of theee oollegea Jonmala are In Uie Qerman longoage. — The be-
19 abont 1,600. The literary colleges of FhU^ nerolest institationB of Philadelphia are nmaer-
d^hia, though genaraliy sncces^al, are not ons. The Pennsylvania hospital was founded
amt^camiB. There are four whose omniza- la 1763, wholly by piivate endowment. It has
don and course of instmolion entitle uem to qiaoiona boildinge oocupylug a square near the
be BO called: the university of PennaylTania. oentre of the dty, and an insane dq>artmait
the pol;rtechnia college, the hi^ Bchobl, and erected and maintamed on a moet liberal scale
Girard «fle« ; though the last two are chiefly in the western enborbs. Tbe hospital depart-
cbvacteHzedbyotherfaaturaB. The univend- ment treated 1,0S8 coses in the rear ending
Ij has a law sehool, a regolar collect* depart- with Uay, 1S60, and the insane oaylma had S7l
iMnt, and a scientific course. The Frankhn In- patients under oara; both have a clasaof pa-
stitiitehssssdentifiooourse,bntdoesnotoonfer tdentswho pay, thongh two thirds are treated
degrees. The polytechnic college baa a course withoutoost. There are, inaIl,15boapitalsand
dtMribedbyitatltifl. The high sSiool,Hiiet^ed dispensaries; 14 a^lums, including 8 widows',
by the dty la the crowning feature of its ftee 8 Magdalen, 4 orphan, and B insane asylums,
Bchool ijtfem, has a thoroogb course of colle- and the fJ. 8. nai^ asylum ; 14 hranes for the
giate bdning, and confers the famior of de- indict, 7 of which are for friendless and
PKes. The systwn of pnblio s<^ools of Phila- destitnto children, and one news boys' home;
dclpbiawise8tabIishedonafreebaaIsinl818. 4 lying-in charities; 7 societies for the relief
It b soworted by dty tax, and for the year and employment of the poor ; 7 soup societies ;
MidingjBn.l,1861,Hatotalcostwae tC19i014. 7 charity education societies, which include a.
The whale number of schools at that date was school for feeble-minded children which is very
SI3S, of wUoh S Tere high idiools, M gram- snccesirfal : the house of reftige, which is in
mai Bchools, fiS seoond^, 170 primary, and part penal; the institution for tustniotiou of
SO undsmfied. The whole nimber of soholarB the blind; and the institution for the deaf and
wia tSJSSt and of teachers 1,107. The Ugh domb. This last had 118 boys and 102 girla
Kbool for boys had, at the bcfjnnlng of 1861, mder its care at the close of 1860. The institu-
^ itadents; 11 were gradnated from a B tionfortheinstroctionof the blind is Bupported
Tears' coarse, and 20 from a 4 years' course, in mainly by private endowment, but receives aid
1860. The girls' high school was wganired in also from the state. IthadlBG inmsteaon Jan.
IBSS, sod during 1B60 had S40 puuila. Its ob- 1, 1861, of whom 8 were jpaying pupils. The in-
jKti ire nudnly tlioBe of a normal or teachers' digent are employed as far as possible, goods to
Khool. The pnUic schools are in large, well the value of $12,717 having been made in the
Mt edifices, all owned by the city, and die- year 1860. There are also a city pest hospital ;
tribntsd so as to give aocees to them by the a most important and nsefal prison society,
entire population. Text books are furnished whloh annually procures the relief of a Isrge
^J the city. Candidates for the higher grades number of perscms improperly eommttted ; a
nndergo a rigjd examination, but are snl^ect«d socfet;^ for the recovery of drowned persons ;
to no oast even for graduation at the high the union benevolent association, which expends
Nhool. tbA number ot private sohools of ail $10,000 yesrlv in aid of the poor ; a Friends'
grades b abtfut 200, with an attendance of almshouse, and many other charity and benevo-
aboDt 8,000. Oirud oollege la a fr«e Bdio<^ lent trusts and sodetiee. The secret benefleisl
for orphsns founded by Stoi^en Girard, and societies number abont 860, odd fbllowa, tern-
™ll7 a private charity, though placed under perance »oi»eties, Ac, The city alm^ouse
tfie gnsidianaUp of the dty. In 1860 it had oocuplea very extensive buildings west of the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
230 pBrn.ATHer.pBTA
Sehnjlkni ; It bad 8,091 InmstM on Jan. 1, Fiinnonnt wwlt mre b^VB, «bA in WaT the
1B6I. It is under tbe control rf the board of premnt ftdminble iTstem of npfij from tbem
gnardiaiui ot the poor, who exp«nd«d $824^086 wim completed. Tbese trtaka «re remarkftUj'
for the alnuhonse and ontslde poor in 18A0, b«HitiAil, and bare long eoDBtitnted one trf tbe
The bonae of refoge for JaTenile deBnaaanta, prindpal attraotiona of the dlr. The Trater ia
maintained In part Df the state, las peiuJinsti' elevated 93 feet to 4 reaerrtm, vbkib eorer
tntion; itbad4C9 Imnateaattbecloaeof 1800. an area of abontlaore^ irith 1>) feet depth
It baa eztoaaive buQdinga weoted ataoostof ofirater>rbenAi]l,andacapad^<^S&,181,97S
|8BO,000, work rooma, tx., and in 1860 coat for gallona. Theaa reaerroira atand on a cdnije
m^tenance 146,888, onenalfofirhtohwaB paid block of rock, wiUino other eierationa near it,
bj the atate: the eaat«m atate po^tentiarf is the valka overlooking tbe atf at a height of
in PhiladdjMiia; ita penal dladpUna U on the 100 feat. The entire preaent ajatcon of water
plan of HiGtai7 oonfinement, and it was here Biq^lj ia bjr 4 diatinot woAa; that at Fair-
Uiat thU iT^tem originated; it bad 484 oon- monnt operates by water power; theBohnvl-
Tictaon Jan. 1, 1801. There la one lai^oitr kiDworka employ 4Bteainaa^e8; theDus-
prJBon only, whiob haa departments reprea^t- ware works have i powerfhl enginea^ and tbe
iBg the penitentiarr, oonntj- gaol, and work- SHth ward works S enginae. All the works in
house pnrposea. The total number of commit- 1800 raised 7,405,740,377 gallona of wMer, or
mania in 180O waa 20,780, and the ecpenditnre 7S,88C tons Oailr, of which tha Fairmonnt
for ita m^tenance was t03,18&. Tta police works supplied one half. The direct cost of
fhree nmnbMa 7S8 men, all of whom are nnlr rinsing tbewsterwsa(1.74perniilH<»galkHu;
formed; thev made 8S,0S1 arrests in 1800. A the recdpts for the jearfrcHn water renta were
poliee and &e alarm telegrwh oommonioatea $608,081, and the ezpenaeactf the works $198,-
wltb all parte of the dt^. The nnmber of fires 980, leaving a profit of $8SO,S03. The total
in 1800 was 89&and tbe loss of properl? by length ot water pipe in nae in 1800 was SSO}
flre $808,889. There are 90 fire companies milee, — Gaa worn were first ocmabiioted on a
whose orgmizaUon ia recognized, and whose general scale in 1880 ; th^ were ptiaAp^
expenses are in ^art paid ij the city, liberal conducted hj tbe anthoritiea ef toe original
sppropriationa bang made for tbe coupaiiiea, citr limits, and were verf sncoeaafol. In 1850
I^ticnlsrlT' those mdntalnlng tibesm fire en- and 1800 tlie woika owned bf the monidpsli-
^es ; bnt the ayatem ia volontarj'. These com- ties were conaolidated with Uioae ot the dtf
paniea have 2S steam fire engines, 40 band proper; and in 1809 the works of two oonpa-
engines, sad 104 hose carriages. The active nies, prevlonsljr independent, were pnrobasM,
members nnmbar 8,000, and the total of active, brining the whole aervioe nndar Om control
bonorar;, and contribnUne members ia 11,700. of the citj aa ita property. In ISOOthe sevtnl
An assodatJon for the r»ief of diaabled fire- works made 089,678,000 ftot of gas, wUidi was
men numbers 600 members, and has a capital sappliedtooonBameraat$SJ0perthonaandfoet.
of $20,000. — The manloipai government con- The total length of street miuns is 888 miles;
slsts of a major, who is elected for 3 rears ; the total oost of the worka $8,708,904; tin
a select connoit, composed of one member for profita of the badness of 180O wtm $408,480,
each ward, eleat«d for 3 years; a common exchusive of Interest on the ooat of the wwkf.
oouncil, composed of one member for every Great oare was taken in the original eataUiih-
1,300 taxable Inhabitants, for one year. The ment of the city gas works to aeonre the best
election is held on the first Tuesday in If ay. Improvements then efibeted in tiiemanD&ctnre
liiere are 24 ward^ 84 members of the select of coal gas in Eoropean dties, and they hare
oonnoU,and96membersof theooBunonoonndl, from the ontset fomiahed gas ohe^>er than
In each ward aldermen are elected for 6 years, in in any other American dty. — ^Ihe mint of
Bomberaocordlngtopopnlation, the whole onm- the United States waa fonnded at Philadelphia
ber being 78 in 18B0, who are also Jnstjcea and in 1793. It occnpies a marble bnilding in
eommitt&g magistrates. The revenue raited Obestnat street, erected at a oost of $300,000.
for support oftCed^govenimeDt in 1800 was It has coined np to Jone 80, ISOO, of gold,
$2,724,^09, prodoced by a tax of $1.70 per $836,988,984 ; of diver, $98,901,766 ; i^copper,
$100 on $106,697,669 of aasessed valoation of $3,046,813; total eoin^dirae 1798, $438,^-
real andpereonal property. The chief items 604. Thisisexdndveof oouugeatthebranchea
of ezpenditare were: for highways, $404,086; of the mint The highest oobiage <tf any year
polioe, $430,400; and fire department, $06,986. waa $60,111,249 in 1868; the coinage of the
The funded debt of the dtj is $30,969,409. year endbig Jnne 80, 1800, was $0,663,658.
The total receipts of the dty treasDij for 1800 The amount coined variea very greaUy, aceord-
frora all Boarces were $OAS7,490, and the ex- tng to the course of exchanges, rather than the
penditnres $6,608,704. The valuation of real production of gold. In the early part of 1B6S
and personal property in Philadelphia for 1861 coinage was brisk for a few weua, hot gener-
was $164,088,707, of which cmly $9,719,702 ally the last 0 years have exhibited a cdnage
was personal. The number of tax payers was of lass than $10,000,000 yearly, while from
114,886. — Water works were first erected in 1861 to 1864 inclusive tbe average was $S0,-
1TO9, the reservoir being in the present oen- 000,000 yearly. Ooinage is again rapid in the
tre of the dty at Peon aqnare, b 1813 the beginningof 1801, over )|4,O0O,O00betDg coined
^ULADXLPHIA.
Iwtjttmt bar in the
ilroads for panengerB onlr was in- lovwateread 26 feet at high water. The
trodnoed in its best fonn in Pliil&delphia in wh&rf front of the oitjbas eztraoidinsrr depth
185B, lince whidi thue 16 distbiot roaoa bare of water, there b^iu; 67 feet at low water at
been laid within the dtj, having a total length the pier heads for ba& a mile, and not less than
of track of 16S miles. The plan of the atreets fiS feet for 8 m. of the river front. The occn-
pirtionlarlj' fkvors theee roads in Philadelphia, pied oommeroial front is 6 m. on tbe Delaware,
and the bet that all are snocesBful attests the and 1^ m. on the ScbufUill. There are G
inunsDw use of them by the population of the eteam ferries to Camden and other snburbs
citf. TheyweludwithabioadrailaBnearlraa across the Delaware, 8 leaving Bontb atreet
poanUe lerei with lite pavement, and aid rauier wharf, two from Uarket street, and one from
than hinder the use of the Btreetsbf carriages. Tine street The number of steamboats pi jiug
The fsre is oniforml; S cents for taij distance np and down the Delaware between Fhiladel-
bj one road, and 7 oenta for an exchange ticket phiaand the varioos towns is abont 20. There
over two roada. The antiiorized capital of are 14 steam lines to more distant points, the
these roods is (8,600,000, bat th^ were built chief of which are the Boston line, two lines to
at a eost of obont 10,500,000. lii 1800 thej New York, a line to Bicbmoud, Va., one to
emplo7ed 600 oars, 8,000 horses, and 3,000 Obarleston, one to Savannah, two to Baltimore,
men. Oan for city rulroads were boilt and fto. No regular trons-Atlantio eteamsbip line
tent to Torions parts of the United fitates, and now ensts. A regular packet ship line to liv-
eren (o Kokand, doring that jeai. — Several erpool employs 4 ships steadily ; this was the
liri^market bnildinga, of a verjr superior char- firat packet line eatablisbed from the United
tcter, have been eracted in the oit; within 2 States to that port. A number of sailing lines
or 8 jearspast, gea^enilj'bjiDOOtpOTti^ ooax' connect with sonthem ports. The coal trade
puiies. There are 0 that contain from 800 to ontward emplojs 6,000 veesels, and in I860 it
BOO stalls each, viz.: tLe eastern, £tb street; carried 702^99 tons of coal to New En^aud,
Ibe brmera', JlaAet street near 11th; the 884,914 to New York, New Jersey, and Penn-
Fnnklin, 10th sod Ibrket atreets; tbe western, sylvauia, 129,906 tons to the southern states,
leth and Uarket streets; the union, 2d and and 17,000 tons to foreign countries and Oali-
Joluisfreeta; and the &rmera' western, Slst fomia; total, 1,184,813 tons, worth on ship-
md ICitrket streets. In parts of the dtj mar- board $4,200,000. The internal receiving and
kstshitheeentreof the BtreetetiIlezist,owned distributing trade is conducted on the Dela-
bj- tbe intf. For rents of markets iha citj in ware and Raritan and Ohesapeake and Dela-
IBEO recdved $46,046. — There are 12 banks, waroconals, which nseoapaoioos steam bargee;
irith an aggregate oapital of (12,108,860 ; 11 on 4 rulroad lines which reach the oitj from
ofthesehad, on Jan. 1,1801, loanst26,691,280, the east and New Jersey (the New Jersey cen-
specie )U)20,S66, drcolataon {3,689,813, and tral, by w^ of Trenton and tbe W. bank of the
deponts $10,361,930. The week's clearings Delaware; tbeOamdenandAmboy,atCamden;
were $17,806,784^ and the balances $2,014,620. the Oamden and Atlantic City ; and the 0am-
Tbere are 16 savings banks, and 146 building, den and Cape Hay ; tbe last just now(1861)
ssTinga, aoA loan institutions. There are G In- completed), S railroads leading N. and W. (the
ccfporated commerdal InslJtations, the board NorthPennsjlvania,tbeGermantownandNDF-
of trade, com exchange, and mershante' ex- ristowii,aud theReading),aad41eadlngS.and
ehsDge, each with hws, reading rooms, fto. W. (the Penn^lvania central, the Westchester,
— lbs bnoneae interests of the mj are nearly tbe lower 'Westchester and Baltimore road, and
tqatUj divided between foreign commerce, the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore).
itunnfactDree, and the interior distributing The weight of merchandise, mostly li^t goods,
trade. The Talue of foreign goods entered at carried Maud by railroad and canal, was about
tbe [«rt of Philade^hia in 1800 was $16,190,- 400,000 tons m 1860. Tbecentralrulroadalone
T55, and the estimated importation of steamer carried 100,000 tona of through freight, and
Mid other gooda entered at New York by and 67,000 tons of local freight westward from
fat FhHadelpbia merchants was $80,000,000, Philadelphia. Tbe total valne of goods sold to
of wUch $23,000,000 was foreign dry goods, the interior was about $140,000,000, of which
The export to foreign ports from Philadelphia $78,000,000wasbyjobbersof ligbtgoods. The
forlSSOwss $7,848,610, the leading items of railroads and canals carried to Fhifadelphia in
which were breadstofife. provisions, and manu- 1860 very nearly 4,000,000 tons of coal, rf the
bctntss, each to tbe valne of abont $2,000,000. value of $14,600,000, and a heavy tonnage of
Ths coastwise commerce of the city is very prodaoe, provisions, iron, and manufactured
large, and its entort to other states of the goods from interior works. The quantity of
million is abont $36,000,000 annually, and its goods by tbe central rulroad alone, eioludve
coastwise import abont $20,000,000. There of coal, was 278,780 tons; of which there was in
were 693 forugn and 87,904 coastvrise arrivals cotton 14,866 tons, S<mr 63,000 tons, and grain
inlBaO, The ti»mage of the port on Jnne 80, 81,890 tons. The fboilitiea for transa«tinK
ISfit, was 320,889 ; In 1860, 147 yeeaels were heavy freight business aro abont to be increased
bailt, of 19,760 tons, and 84 foreign vessels by the extension of the central railroad across
*sre first musured, having 21,769 tons. The the lower part of the city to tbe Delaware.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
3M FirP'.APRr.pmA
There are 14,000 plaOMciflniBiiieaaMaeeeed for When actnatlr earreTed, in 1701, the oHf^il
mercantile taxes in Philadelphia. — The maun- plan was, however, restricted to 10 prinoipal
CBctcres of the dty are verr dlTsr^ed ; their streets E. and W. between the Delaware and
total annual Talne is abont |lTfi,000,CH)0. The BohnyUJll, and 25 Ki«at streeta N. and 8^ and
chief itema are : iron and machinery, $16,000,- the city of Fbiladdpliia was then declared to
000 ; carpets, (3,600,000 ; cotMn am woollen be bounded by these Ibnita. The name PhHw-
Koods, $31,000,000 ; sUlc and ornamental goods, delphia waa selected by Penn more becaase of
13,600,000 ; woollen and cotton knit goods, its intrinmo significance than from hiatorical
11,000,000 ; clothing, 118,000,000 ; chemicala, regard to the dty of that name in Asia IGnor ;
$6,000,000 ; boots and shoes, |4,000,000 ; pro- and the polioy of Penn and his associates
viuons, $4,000,000; morocco leather, $1,600,- was oonsiBtent^ and practically peaceful to a
000; paper, $1,600,000; gold and silver wares degree entitling bim to claim its recognition
and mennfcotares, $3,800,000. There are 22,- in the name of the oily he founded. It was
000 persona employed in the varicos depart- always the heart and centra of his proprie-
memto of Cbeolouungmannfactare, and 160,000 tary government, and it bad the rara good for-
persona are employed in mannfactores of all time as a city which attended the ^airs of
kindswitibintheci^, and in the suburbs across the whole province. Its people seldom or
the Delaware. The large proportion of per- never snfferad from ^dian bostilitiea, fl-oni
eons employed in mannfactoro Is owing to the Beverfty of climate, want of food, or any other
genera] union of manuiacture and sale in the of the nsual colonial distresses. It therefore
same establishment, to the fact that females prospered in a high degree as a colonial city,
and youths ore employed in very large nnm> and was the most conspicuous and popnlona
bers, to the employment of persons whose red- on the continent, not only In colonial times,
denoe is not in the city proper, Sk. The aver- bnt for more than a qnartcr of a century snb-
age value of goods made by eaoh man is from sequent to the declaration of independence.
$I,1D0 to $1,400 yearly ; by each female, $400 The Swedes had settled in considerable nniu-
to $600, The West Indies are largely supplied bers on both shores of the Delaware below
with Ftiiladelphia manufactures and prepared the site of tiio city before Penn came, and
provinons. ui I860 there were in the ci^ and from 16T6 to 1681 a large nnmber of X^gliah
unmediate suburbs 270 factories of texUle tab- Friends bad settled on the Kew Jersey side
rica, with 421,000 cotton spindles, 147,000 wool above It, at Beverly and Burlington, to occopv-
•pindles, 28,800 silk spindles, 18,600 power a grant made in West Jersey to Edward Byf-
looms, 88 sets of printing machines, and 28,600 linge, with whom Penn was subsequently as-
Eeraona employea. There were 4,000 carpet soclated. A few of these families also settled
and looms, 1,200 hand looms on cheetce, dco., at Chester between 1676 and 1680, and an
and SOO hosiery looms, employing, outside of effort was made by them to indnce I^nn to
the power factories, 6,700 persona. There are direct emigration uiere and make it the capi-
18 ailk and 80 morocco factories. A large share tal of the province. Several nroprietora of
of the iron prodaotion of eastern Pennsylvania Swedish origin at this time held small tracts
is marketed here, and the business of the works on the present site of the city by titles derived
is done and capital fnmished here. In I860 from the Dutch and English governors of New
the U. 9. census reported the capital employed York, one Sven Schute being the largest holder
'- manufactures in Philadelphia at $88,787,911; on the original site. Noneof these had serions
.jfsohs employed, 5B,09B ; total prodaotion, difficulty with the proprietor of the province,
jS4,114,112. The census of 1860 is known possession, it appears, being readily yielded to
to have been very defective, omitting a large the founders of the new oity, who proceeded
nnmber of establishments altogether. — Phila- at once to lay it out, and to occupy it. Penn
delphia was founded by William Penn, as his was greatly pleased with the tract on which
first act in taking possession of the grant of a his oily was to stand, describing it, in 1 683, as
province by Oharles U., the purpose of found- a spot " that seems to have been appointed for
ing a oity being always remarkably prominent a town, whether we regard the rivers, or the
in his prooeedmgs. He sent out a body of col- convenienoy of the coves, docks, springs : the
onists in AngOBt, 1061, intending that the city loftiness and soundness of the land and tha
should be at onoe surveyed under the direction air." " Of all the places in the world, I remem-
of his comnussloners ; but this was not actually her not one better seated." Emigration was
done until near tbedoseof 1982, Penn arriving very rapid to the colony at the outset, 2S ships
meanwhile, and superintending the conclusion, arriving in 1682. In 1683 and 1683, 367 houses
Great nnmbers of colonists arrived in 1683, were built, and in 8 years' time 600 houses were
nearly all of whom were Friends, and persona erected. The year 1688 was marked by a few
of property and high respectability. Penn de- criminal cases in the new city, but an assembly
liberately selected and planned the rite of a was convened at the beginning of the year
great d^, at first proporing to survey a space (10th of 1st month) to enact laws for the regu-
nearly as Isrge as that now oconpied, which lation of the colony. The Jury system, tiie
ho proceeded to lay out in squares with broad sheriff's power, and the nsn^ representatives
rectangnlar streets on a scale quite nnprec»< of the English common law were then put in
dented in its &r-Bighted comprehensiveness, operation, John Test was the first sheriff, and
^
D,o,.^oob,Google
PHILADELPHIA 388
IbefintKraiidJiaTWasfammiHiedontheSdof tha deolsration of independence, and naxr in
3dmouth,lB6S. The flrat oriminal was named independence hall. The first colonial congress
Kckering, who, bung fonnd guilty of passing met in Philadelphia at carpenters' hall, a bnild-
bise monej, was condemned to paj £40 to- ing still in use as a ball, on Sept. 4, 1774. Oon-
wird bniiding a ooart bonee; bnt the oonrt greea held its seBstons at the state honse in 1776,
hDnsewas not completed till 1707. In 1883 and here adopted and signed the declaration of
and 1684 a large emigration arrived, in part independence. The Britisb forces occnpied the
from Holland and Germany as well as from dty from Sept 1777, to Jane, 1776. A oensas
EngUnd end Wales. They vere all, or nearly was then taken by Gen. Oomwallia, and there
ill, Friends, including the Qermans, and the were fonnd to be 21,767 inhabitants and 5,470
city continned to be almost ezclnuTely occn- houses ; but the people were then mnch scat-
pied and controlled by Friends for half a oen- tered. Oongresa reanmed its sestdon at Fhila-
tnry after it was fbnnded. Penn presented delphia after the British left it, and continned
Phiiadelpliia with a city charter, Oct. S8, to make this the national capital until the re-
1701 ; its chief officer had before been called moval to Washington city in 1800. The battle
mayor, but at this time the title and office were of Gennantown. Oct. 4, 1777, was fought with-
flrat regnlarly established. Edward Shippen in the present cnartered limits of the city, ? m.
vas the first mayor, and Thomas Btory the N,W, of the centre of the old city proper. The
fint recorder. Though constantly espresiing state house was made by the British a hospital
hiaderotion to its interests, Penn spent bnt lit- fbr the Americans wounded in this battle. The
tie time in tha oity on account of tne perplext- state le^atnre remoTCd its sessions to Har-
'ate which the oares of the province and his riabnrg m 180O, simnltaneonair with the remo-
business in England broi^t on him. It grew val of the seat of the general government to
rapidly, and as the snironnding oonntry was Washington. The fbreigD commerce and gen-
Httled by carefhl formera it had a great deal oral trade of Philadelphia increased rapidly
of business, and in 16S4 was estimated to after the revolution, the domestio exports ris-
contain 9,600 inhabitants. Interesting relics ing to 17,000,000 In 1793, and to $17,800,000
remain of the earliest times. The house is in 1786. So official account of imports for
Btill standmg which was first bnilt for Penn, thin period exists, bnt their amount may be in-
ud in which he lived in 1683, called Penn's ferred from the fhct that the export of foreign
luttage, in LetitJa conrt ; and another, called goods rose in 1806 to tl8,809,88Q, and Oie to-
the "Btate-roofed honse," in which he lived tal export to $81,864,0(11. At the war of 1813
at his second visit in 1700, at the comer of this commerce almost wholly oessed ; in 1816
Second street and Norris alley. The present hnsiiieBS and epeonlation revived, bnt the re-
brick Swedes' ohnrch was bnilt in 1700, on suits were not fortnnate, and direct external
tbe spot where a wooden charch had been trade never recovered its former importance.
erected in 1677, 6 years Itefore Penn's oolony Previons to 1889 the banking capital of Phila-
came. In 1744 the population of the city was delphia was large, and for moat erf the period
Htimaied at 18,000, and the honses at 1,600. previous to 1BS6 it was the monetary centre of
hi 1749 the honses were carefully counted by the country. The first bank of the United
Dr. Fninklin and others, at S,076, and there States, eatablished by act of oongresa in 1791,
vere 11 chnrchea. In this year the very nn- with acapital of (10,000,000, was locatedbere;
metoaa German and north of Ireland etnigra- and the second bank of the United States was
tioQ arrived, ambonting to about 13,000 of established here in 1816 with acapital of $86,-
cub, and peopling whole counties In the in- 000,000. The management of tliis bonk for
tericr. In 1743 the imports from England several years previous to the expiration of its
were £T5,295 sterling, and in 1751 £190,917. obartw in 1886, and the contest of ite presi-
In 1753 the exports were 126,960 bbls. Soor, dent, Nlcholaa Biddle, with President Jack-
8fl,G0O boshels wheat, 90,740 bushels com, son in regard to tha veto of the bill for its
TO,000 bnahela flaxseed, 249 tons bread, 8,481 reoharter in 1882, excited universal interest
bbls. beef^ and 4,612 bbls. pork. In 1741 the The snbseqnent failnre of the bank under its
city was divided into 10 wu^ which divi- state charter in 1889, and the loaa of its lor^ra
aiona were retained till 1854. In Deo. 1719, capital, greatly weakened the financial atrengUi
a printing press was set np, and Andrew Brad- of the city, and the monetary centre was per-
ford began to publish the "American Weekly manantly transferred to Kew York. The re-
Uercary," which was continued until 1746. vnlsion of 1S87, and the snbseqnent financial
la 1738 the " Gazette" was begun, which fell depression, ftall heavily on the city and state,
to Franklin to conduct in 1789. hi the latter the recovery ftom them not .being ^parent
yew the bnildiog of a state house was author- until 1S44. In 1798 the yellow fever made
ued, the site waa selected in 1780, and the terrible ravages, nearly decimating the popula-
bnildiog begnn in 1783 and completed in 17S5. tion, and driving great nnmbere Into the conn-
The b^ tower was not erectM until 1760; try; and ag^ in 1798 it waa epidemic. In
and on June 7, 1758, the "new great hell, 1882 the Alnatio cholera was very deatructive,
caat here, weighing 2,080 lbs., with the motto : the viotima numbering 770. Uore recently
'l^taimliberty,' '&&, wasraisedtoitsplaoe; there have been milder forms of ei^demlo
this is tbe bell celebrated in oonneotlon with oholem and yellow fever, bnt as a whole the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
8M PHIL£ PHILIP IL (Uaokdox)
clt]rliufromUafoiiiid«ti(>nbe«ii«»qdow>iu^ Ub 2^ nnirortby of a plaoe in the oauon. The
healthy. The Mparsta mnnicniiilities comb- EpisUe to Philemon is one of tho shortest por-
tnting the agxragate oi^provMOttfaTorablo to tdoiuof the Bible, oonUiiuDgouljcMie chapter.
the preserr^on of ord^ for & period of fears It was Tritton dnrinf Faal's impriaonmoit at
previoos to the consolidation, Uinor riota Kome. After ttieiiBadintradaotorjecJntationa,
__B freqnent between fire companies of the the apostle oUadee to the good repntationwliich
riyal diatriota, and more or less of disturbance Phil^on as » Ohrietian eojoyed, and to ihe
from this oaose contianad down to the better J07 which the knowledge of lUa afforded him.
organization of the fire department in 1867. He then introduces the main subject of the
In 1885 riots were incited against the oolored epistle. Onesimns, a seirant or alare (&>uXoO
popnlation, and again in 1888, when Pennsfl- of Philemon, who had mn away from his nu»-
vania hall, belonging to the anti-skverf eooi- ter, probablj after baring committed a theft,
etdes, and ooonpled by their meetings, was had been converted by Paul at Bome, and was
homed bjs mob. Other minor distorbancee senthackbyhim to hismaster, whoiaentreat-
ooeurred from the same oao»e. la 1844 tiie ed to receive bim " not as a serraat, bat as a
difibTots of Kensington and SonthwaA were brother beloved." Paul then tdedgea himself
the scene of riots arising frcaa the hostility be- to make goad any loss that Philemon mw have
tweentJie Roman Ofttholio8and"Kfttiv6Ajner- snffered either throngh the dishonesty of One-
icans;" the disturbance waa protracted ovar a simns ortbrongh the want of hta service; he
considerable time, the military were called ont reaueets Philemon to prepue him a lodnng,
to enforce order, imd some lives were lost. as he trosted soon to visit nim ; and concltides
FHILiS, an island of the Nile in Fnbia, just with the aolntations of some of his fellow la-
beyond the oonflnes of Bgypt, d m. 8. of As- borers at Bome. The Spistle to Philemon has
swan, in lat. 24° 1' 84" N., long. 82° 64' 16" K of late challenged in Ajnericon the<Jogy par-
It lies between the 8. extremity of the island tioulor study and comment, on account o^ its
of Bi^eh and the E. bank of the river, b a anppoeed bearing on the question of the lela-
qnartertf a mile long and about GOO feet broad, tion of Ohristianity to slavery; and a number
and is oovwed with picturesque rnins of tern- of religiouB organs in those states where Airi-
plee, mostly of the times of the Ptolemies, can slavery exists have contested the correct-
with addlliana by the Roman emperors. These ness of the rendering of the Greek iavXot by
are priot^tally at the B. end of the island. " servant" in the oommon Englidi version and
The chief temple is that of Ms, the portal of in the new version of the American Bible
which bears the name of Neotanabia I., who union, innsting that " slave" would be the
reigned from abont 874 to 867 B. 0., while the only correct rendering. — Of the life of Philo-
winga were added by the Ptolemies a oentnry mon nothing else is kaown. According to an.
or two later. Phils Is celebrated for itn bean- ancient tradition, Appia, who is mentioned in
ty, not only from its mins, but from its palm yem 2, was his wife, and Archippus (xa the
trees and the grandeur of the Bmrounding same verse) his sod. According to the Apos-
aceMMTT. t<dloal Oonstitotions he was bishop of Oolossse.
PHn^BMON, an At:tnmi»n oomio poet, bom libe Soman OathoUo church conunemorates
Erobably at Soli in Oiliua aboat 860, died him ai a s^t <at Nov. 82.
k 362 B. 0. He was the first writer of the PHILIDOR. See Dahiou.
newoomedyin order of time, and iirfetior in FEIIJPU.,thel8tbkingof Uacedoii,oonnl-
oelebiity only to Menander, from whom in- ing from Oaranus, horn in G62 B.C., assasmnat-
deed he bore away the palm of victory in sev- ed at Mga in Aug. 886. The acoonots of bis
eral dramatic contests. He began to exhibit early Hfe ore in many respects oontro^ctory.
plays about 880 B. O., and during his lifetime He was the yonngest son of Amyntas II. and
prMuced 97, of which not even the titles of Eurydice, and in 868 was given up by Ptolemy,
many renuun. The frvements of his extant then resent of Uacedon, as a hostage to Pelop-
works are nsually printed in the principal edi- Idas, who had marched into that country t.t
tions of Henander, Philemon's snlyeots are theheadof aTheboaarmy. At Thebea Philip
chieflylove intrigues, and hisplays ore remark- remaned 2 or 8 years in the house of Pom-
able for thrir wit and elegance, Acoording to menw, one of the prindpal citizens, and daring
one aocoont, he died ftom immoderate lai^ter his residence there nnaouhtedly acquired an
at seeing an ass eat figs from a coantryman's intimate acquaintance with the strategetic art
basket ; according to another, from Joy at oh- in its then most advanced state. When his
taii^g the prlie La a dramatic contest brother Perdiocas had slain Ptolemy Alorites
PHILEMON AUD Baucis. See Badoib. and bad ascended the throne, he presented
PHILEUON, Epibtlb to, a canonical epistle Philip, upon tiia advice of the philosoplier
of the New Teatameot, written, acoOTding to Plato, with the goverament of a subord'mate
the constant tradition of the andent diivoh, district. In 860 Perdiocas was slain in a battle
by the apoatie PaoL Enael^ and Jertone at- with the Illyrians, and leftthe government in a
test its nnivereal reception as a Pauline e|dstle distracted state. Beside the infant son of Per-
in the Ohristian world, though the latter also diooas, the legal heir to the throne, there
remarks that, in consequence of the subject ware cla'Ti'ig it his tliree half brothers, Ar-
of which it treata, it was deemed by some in dielans, AriSeaa, and Menelans Fauaanias,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FHiup n. (Uaoxdox) ass
uded bf I TliTMiaa prfnoe, and A^nns, aadat- ft Tlgorons deftnoe die d^ at laat anmBdand,
ed b7 ue AtheniaDB. Iteeover, the ooimti7 md Phil^ master of this port, extended his
vu threatened by inonnioiu trnat the nel^- inonrsiona into Thnuw, mwotiing as &r as U^
bormg varbke Mbee ot Dlyriaus. lliraobiu. nmea, where he entered into negotiations
and PnonUni. Philip at first took charge of against Athens with the Thradan pruoe Oe^
tbe pmmmeBt for hu nephew Amyntas, bnt eobleptee. He also tiireatened the AUienian
shortly after, probaliI:r in 8fi9, asoended the poaaeasions in the OherBoneae, bat was nnable
throne bbnoel^ and inune^Btelj-toofc^igonnia to reaeh them on aoootmt of the hcstilityof
meaBoreatoielieTehinuelffromthedlffionhto Anudoona, another Thra4uan prince. Tnndng
\>j Ktieh he was environed. One of hia half his attentton to Theoaly, he marohed to the
brothers be pnt to deatii ; the other two saved aadotaaoe of Uie Alenads cf Lariaaa against
tbemselveB 1^ flight. The nijriana were bon^t I^oophron, thetgrrsntof Phtts; andthelat-
cdrwl& presents and promiaea. TheAthsnians tw, miaUe to withstand the Haoedcniaiia, im-
be ooDtartred to detach to all int«ita and pnr- ^orad the aid of Onranarohna, leader ta the
posM from the snppOTt of Argnna. hj mh> FhoolaDS, who sent into Thessaly hia brotlier
drawing hfa garrison flxim Amtd^Ua, and de- PhayUna wilii 7,000 men. Philip however
diring It a free dfT; and when tbat leader !«• delated and drore hfan oat <rf the ocnudry,
tnriMd from his onsnooessftil maioh npon Sffb wherei^on OnooiarchiiB, taUng tbefleld In pw>
he was met at Metluine br PhHip and oom- sca>, marohed Into Htsasaly, and rooted the
pletely ronted. The Atbman prisoners taken Useedtmians in two battles, and -wiOk a loss so
m the battle were treated with Itititj and sent great that tb«rr were foreed to withdraw into
home, and Uiese prudent meamrea, together their own territory. After oondderable diffi-
widi his pudfie oTertnrea, led to a treaty of oaltyittreriTingtheooiirageanddBTotionof his
petce between Mm and that people. Tanitag soldiera, PhU^ marahed again into Thesealy,
now bis Rtteationto nearer enemies, he snb- and,atfbeheadof an army of 20,000 fbot and
dned Psonla, and in the same oampalm re- 8,000 horse, rignallydefetfed Onomarchns on
dmad OJyria as &r as Lake LyehnitiB. These the sovthera coast He followed up ttiisTiotOTf
operations had taken ap two yean, andPhilfo, by thecaptnre of Fhers, which he made a free
baving freed himself from sU danger of attai», dty , and of the maritime station <d Panaee.
bsgantoaetonttie offtadre. InSSSheoom- He had on his mardi into l^essaly proolunted
onieed the ia»g^ ot AnqdiipoliB; and when himself Uta avenger of Qie Delpluan god, and
snbissadonfiromthatrityiniidoreatheddof befi»e the battle had decorated bis eoldien
the Athenians, their effort* were ooonteraoted with laurel wreaths. He now pnshed on to
by the Haoedonian envoys, who promised that thenKtcisnterritorymidertheiweteztof pnn-
Clb place if taken Bhoold be riven Dp to Athena, lahtng the aataileg^ons robbery of J>el[^ ; bat
Amphipolis fell, and I%ilip tiios seonred a oon- hisentrameintothatoonntiTwaBpreTOntedby
TSDient maritime port, cxmunanding fiie oonn- the Athenians, who gnerded the pass of Iher-
tiy east of the StrTmon, and in Mrticalar the mopyln. He now advanoed toward the Oher-
ndd region noar Mt. Pangnns. The Athenians sonese, and began the siege of Heneon Teiohos.
na oontiooed to deoeive with the promise of The Athenians, alarmed by his rqiid progress,
larrendering the dty into their hands ; and made immediato eSbrts to equip a Hoit fbr the
when the O^uthlans, who now be^ to dread defence of tbdrpoeseariona in tWricini^, but
bis nowing power, s^t embaaries to Athena on a folse report of his death they allowed
prcnwfaig an altianoe, his partisans anoceeded their military operations to langnish. Aboot
m having tiieir pnmosals rejected. Bat while this time Bwnoathenea delivered his 6nt pbl-
AlheoB was engaged in the sacred war, he sad- lipplo. Meanwhile the Olvnthiana, who nad
denly formed an alllanoe with the Olynthians, fbrmerly been allies of Philip, now began to
ud ceded to (hem Antbemns and Potidtea, the fear bis power, and conclnded a treaty with
latter of which he had redaoed. Ho had pre- Athens abont 869. No ofibarive operations on
viouly captured Pydna tor himself, and d- his part seem to have been began until the
tixMgh the slwe of these places lasted long middle of SCO, when he serionsly set to work
ffiongh for aid to arrive from Athens, none to reduce the whole penininla of Ohaloidioe, the
came. Extending bis conqnests east of the pretext for the war against Olynthns being that
BtrjmoQ, he took possession of the mining Lis two half brothers had obtained a refnge in
ccontry tnqioeite Thasos, and enlarged t^e city that dty. The soooeM of hia arms in the pen-
of Q^nides, changing its name to Philippi. insula was gradual but certain. Oity aflor
la the rammer of 8Se, not long after the taking oity yielded to hia power or was betr^ed into
of Poiidiea, three messages with good news his hands; and at tart, master of Ohaloidioa, he
reiehed Philip at once, ioformlng him of the marched wectiy agatnet Olynthas and its two
birtli of hia sou Alexander, the defeat of the confederates, ^ollonia and the Thraeian Me-
niyrians by his gemeral Farmenio, and the thone. Near uie last named place he was
victory <rf one of his horses in the Olympic wonnded and lost the slghtof one eye. Athens
games. For a time he now laid aside active sent sm expedition to the assistance of its ally,
(Wratfams, bat in 8S4 and 8S8 he iMgan the bnt the reenforeements were not snffioient to
we of Methone,, the only poaseadon which avail against the arte and aims of Philip. Olyn-
k&VDa now held on the Thennaio gult After thus was taken, probably early in the spring <rf
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
288 PHUJP n. (Uusdof)
MrT, niMdrtsmncbbythfl OM of moneyaeb;^ fleet oompeUed ^im U> retire; and ■ shnDar
actaal militarf etreogtb. Tbe inbsbitanta were attempt to captnre Byzantium Mled in ctmae-
sold Into alvmry, and Olynthns itaelf and the qnanca of &e preaence of a fleet nnder Fho-
<rtiher (dtiefl of Oialddice, 83 in all, were dift- oion, wbo moreover guned Beveral advantages
mantled, and BO thorongfal^Tninedtbat, accord- over him in land and naval actions. Fhuip
ingtoa^eeoh of Demo^hmes 6 years later, tiierefbra made peaoe with the BjEantines,
their ver; dtea were scarcely diacemible. withdrew bis forces Irom that part of tbe
Athens now made a vigorona effort to nnite ooontaT', and in tbe spring of S39 made a sno-
tbeatateeofOreeoeinaoommonleagiieagainst oeesM land expedition against the ScTtblau
Kacedon; bat ffdUng of mncb enoceaa, she Ung Atheas; Imt os bia return be was at-
listened to tbe OTertcres of peaoa which PbiHt) tacked hj tbe Triballi, a Tbraoian tribe, de-
indireotlf ofibred. Negotiatimu were opened fteted with tbe loss of bia booty, uid r«oeived
wUoh were akUfiilly proto«oted bv I^uHp so a severe wound in his tbigb. Bat about thU
aa to anbserve bia own tntcreata. The first em- time tho amphictyons brought a new war into
bassy left Athena about Deo. S47, and retnmed Oraeoe, by resolving that the Amphissian Lo-
abont the beginning of Harcb, bringing back a crians, who bad seraed on tbe Oirrhnan plain,
letter proibasing tbe most friendly nellngs, bnt oonaecrated to the Dclphiaii god, were to be
insistiBg as a condition of peace tbat each party pnoiabed for impiety. Philip waa called in to
dioold retain what it posaeeeed. Tbe treaty ezeonte the decree. He immediately begtm
WM adopted at Athens. But a dispnte arose the march sonthward, and on bis passage
on tbe qnestion of who were tbe allies indnded tbrongh Fhoois seized £lat«a and commenced
ia tbe terms of tbe peace, the envoys of Philip refortitying that town. Be declared his par-
n^^Bg to Bttotowledge tbe Fbooians as snch. pose to invade Attica, and sent envoys to
Before the second embassyreaobed him, bebad Thebes, where a strong feeling against Athens
conquered Oersobleptes, tbe Tbradan prince prevailed, asking her aasistance, or at least
and ally of Athens. The ratification of tbe that a ftee passage tbrongb Bffiotia should be
treaty be delayed under various pretexts nntil panted. By the eloqnenoe of Demoetbenes,
be was at Pher«, within 8 days' march of Thebes was persuaded to enter into an alll-
Tbarmopyln. Tbe Athemana, persnaded by anoe with Athens,and tbealliedforoeakeptthe
.Asohines and tbe other trtutors of tbe Philip- field ngtimt Pbilip during tbe autumn ana win-
piong fiution, did nothing for tbe defence of ter of 8S9 and 886, and gained over him several
the pass. Pbuteona, tbe nephew and aucoeasor advantages. In Aug. 888, the battle of Obse-
In command ofPhtn^ltus, thereupon oondttded a rouea was fought, in which Philip was signallr
oonvenlion with Piiilip, according to which ha victorious. The conquered Thebans he treated
waatoevaonatetbeteiritorywithbismeroenary with aeveritr, but motives of policy led him
soldiers, and with all Phodans dlgiosed to ac- to adopt mild measures in regard to the Athe-
company him; and tbecountryfellunmediately nians. between whom and himself tbe treaty
into tbe bands of the Hacedonians. The am- called the peaoe of Demadea was negotiated,
phidyons, assembling, invested Philip with the by which tiie Athenians recognized Phibp as
right of enffiage previously enjoyed by the Pho- the bead of Greece, and thus tbe great object
dans, thus recognizing tbe Hellenio character of bis ambition waa secured. He now carried
of his nation; tbey moreover appointed him bia arms into the Peloponnesus, and reduced
E resident of the Pytfaian games, which were the entire country, with tbe eioeption of
eld in Aug. &4fl^ two months after the aubju- Bparta, which it seems be did not attack. He
Stion of Pbocis. Athens, mortified and m- held a congress of Grecian dties at Corintb,
gnant at having been deceived and betrayed, in which he unfolded his deaisn of invading
was at first not disposed to concur in tbe vote the Persian empire, and liberatmg tbe Aaiatio
giving him a place in the amphtctycnlo assem- Greeks. The congress voted him tbe leader
biy, but was persuaded by Demosthenes not to of the Greeks, and decreed that tbe varioas
display au auger at once dangerous and impo- atatea should famish contingents. Daring 887
tent. Master of Thermorpybe, Philip now be- his preparations for the expected invasion
gan bis intrigues in the Peloponnesus, striving went steadily on, and early in 88S a bH>dy of
to exdte the Kesseniana, KegalopoUtans, and troops under Attalus and Parmenio waa sent
Aleves against the Spartans. His active spirit over into Asia. Not long before be had ro-
waa constantly at work throughout tbe wbole pudiated bis wife Olympias, the mother of
of his dominions, oonflrmiug his authority in Alexander, on tbe ground of infidelity, and
Tbessaly, overmnning Psonia and the Hlyriaa bad married Cleopatra, the niece of Attains.
countries bordering upon Uacedonio, and cap- At the wedding banquet, incensed by a re-
tnring cities on the Ambraoian golf. In 844 mark of Alexander, he tried to slay him, bnt,
Athena, aroused by tbe eloquence of Demos- overcome by passion and drunkenness, fell to
thenes, s«it embassies into tbe Peloponnesas to the floor. Alexander hereupon exclaimed ;
Gonnteroot bis efforts, bnt they were attended "Here is a man preparing to cross &om Europe
with no success. HI feeling prevailed between into Asia, wbo yet cannot Bt«p sorely from one
tbe Athenians and Maoedomans for along time oonoh to another." He enhsequeutly conducted
before It brokeoutintooponwar. Philipbegan his mother to her brother Alexander, king of
tlienegeof PennthQBln840, batan AUiemaD Efdros. Aft«rward a reconciliation was ef-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FEniF T. (Uaxudos) SK
footed betw«ai 1^ and Ua fiither. Tontun leader; but owinsto the ambaasadorbdng in-
tbe good will of the kiiis of Epiroe while he teroepted hj llie BomsiUj the treatT' tbb not
bimsBlf waa in Asia, Philip gava him Ma made until 810. la 214 hia fleet ^peared in
dan^tar In marriage ; and featiTitdeB of sreat the Adriado, took Oriona and laid dege to
^Icudor irere celebrated at Sgie in Kaoe- ikjtollonia, bnt was obliged to retroat on the
dcmia. Among the membera of hia body arrival of a Btmian force ondor LiennaB. The
guard vaa a noble fonth named Fanaaniaa, next year, however, he took Liaana and rednoed
who had in vain implored Fhilip to avenge an the greater portion of niyria. Meanwhile the
oDtrageoommittedbyAttahu. Indignant at hia character of Fhilip aeemed to safEer a great
— ■ ' ---.-^^i-i---- --. ^ange. In the befrinnuig of hia reign he had
. t onlfmanifbatea military telenta of a high
have beau auooniaged b7 01jiiq)laa. Asl^iilip order, bat had l>een so distingniahed for Ub
waa enterh^ the theiirtL Paoaaulaa raahed moderation and ganerodtr that the dties of
forw^ and throat a Bwordfhrongh hia breast, Orete bad placed themadvee of their own
killing Mm almost inatantly. The aaaaamn at- accord nnder hia proteotiou. Bat now he
tempted to eaoape, but was overtaken and broke with Aratna, hia fbrmer friend and ooon-
aiain on the spot.— Fbilip was a man of great sellor, and in S14 ravaged Ueeaenia with Sn
cottrage and aotivitv, poaseeaing militaiy and and sword. In Sll an alUaiuie waa entered
^•_i — ^-^ talents of uie highest order. Sin- into ag^nat him bv the Ktnnana, the .fitolians,
" ^"^^ " ■TUyria.aniJ ■ ' ■■
oom^itioa aa by anna. He waa of a atron^j aaoceuftil, as the B^nnana were too much to.'
sananal temperament, as is evident from the gaged with their Oarthaginian war to rwder
number of Us wives and concnbines, was nn- mnch asaistanoe to their allies. The terms of
gcnqnilom in Ma dealings, and oareleas of hia the treaty were not mnoh reapeoted 1^ tlM
promiaea. His patronage of liter&tnre and Uaoedtmun Mug, who formed am allianoe with
acieace was libwd. la addition to a manly Antioohnaagidnst Egypt; and having infliotad
i and a powerfid frame, be bad a several iqjimeB on the Bhodians, he beoame in-
' ' oh art only wplied volved in a war with that people and Attains.
a aatiify the iasddi- While beoe^ng OMoa, he waa attacked and
dage; qmokneesof defeated by tbe combined fleet; but in an-
obaamtion, aonteneaa ot diaownment, pree- other engagement off Lade, he was anooeasAil.
«noe <tf mind, fertUi^ of inveudon, and. dex- The allies however egnipping another fleet, tt
terity In the management of men and things." was with some difflouty that Philip was tJAa
PHILIP v., king of Maoedon, aon of Deme- to pass over into Europe in the aprmg of 200,
trina n., bom ia 287 B. 0., died in 179. Eia The Bomana, now tro6 from tb^ war witli
fether died when he waa B years old, bat ha Oarthage, listened to the oomplunts of the
did not Bocceed to tbe throne ontil the death Bhodiws, Attaloa. and the king of Egypt, and
of his node Anti^onne Doeon in 220. In the declared war againat Maoedon. The contest
flrat year of hia reign he was brooght into the was carried on ontil 190, at first somewhat to
war then raging between the .^toluna and the the advantage of Philip, bi 200 he invaded
Aduean leagne. Warohing to Oorintih with an Thm^ to«^ .^na and Ibronea, penetrated
umy for Uie import of the l^ter, he predded into the Ohersonea^ entered Abydoa, and
over an aseeml^ of the allied states m wMoh retoning entered Attioa, neat^ etntvidng
war waa dealared agaMat the ^toliana and in Athoia; bi^ being foUed in this, he laid waste
theapringof 210enteredEpirTU,butqnloklTre- the oonntn' around the d^. The followhw
turned to rqid an Invasion of the Dardamana. yearhedelaatedthe^toliana, whohadjtdnea
At the dose (tf the year be suddenly showed the Bomana, The arrival of Titns Qmntins
himself M the Peloponnesus, and In a short Flamininua to take the command of the Bomaa
oampdgu defeated an jEtolian and Elean army army aoon changed the aapeot of affiilrs. A
under &r^ds«, of^tored Paopbis, ravaged the battle was fought in 197 at Oynoeoephaln In
Elean plidn, Kid oonqnered Tnpbylia. In Tbeeaaly, in wBoh the Maoedomana were d^
318 lie soddenly paaaed over into ,<S:tolia, and feated with a loss of 8,000 mm killed aad
took Therma, the capital of that country, with 0,000 taken prisoners. A peace waa oomduded
aHitatreaaQres; and then, turning to the Pe- in 196, according to the terms of wMoh Fhilip
• - ' ' ^defeated V . , . . ., . .
next year
d rednoed 1
__ it finally o . , . __.
eluded a peace, by which it waa agreed that hostages for tbe fulfilment of these terms was
loponnesos, ravaged Laconia and defeated the waa required to give np all hia oonqneste in
" — '~a nnder Lyon^ua. The next year he Europe and Asia, surrender J ' " - - " "
1 ^lazora in Fnonia, and rednoed the mans, reduce Ms standing ai_. .. ,
Phfhiotio Aiebea In Theaaaly, but finally 0<m- and pay tiie aum of 1,000 talenta. One of the
each par^ahouidretun what it poaaeaaed. At hia son Demetrius. PhiUp now acted cntward-
tbis ome PMl^ began to torn Ms attention to ly aa a zealoua ally of the Bomana, anisted.
the war then wag^ in Italy by Hannibal, and them in their war againat Nabis,king of Sparta,
after the battle of Oanne sent a messenger and subsequent^ not on^ reftised to join An-
to conclude an allisiica with the Oarthaginwn tiocbos, but aided the Bomans in their war
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
288 PHniP IL (FsAXo)
■viSk that monardn. 80 thoroi^hlj' wwe Ouj of the En^^iBh Ung. Kevertli«le«, he Booa
Batufied with hie oondoot, that the portioD w found a pretext for invading Komuiidj, and
tha fine tmptld vae remitted, and hta BoaDe- madeBomeeonqoeetSiirhileBldiardvasapris-
nutrioa vaa Bent home. Bnt after the defeat onerinthebantUof thecmpeior of G«nnan7;
of Antioohnstiie^Krev jealonaofl^iifip, who bnt in IIM he vaa repmsed Ataa Bonen.
was Btrragthenins hia powar in evei? qnarter. After Bicherd's raleaoe a war, maded bj no
He vae compelled to give np all hla oonqoeata great military or poHlical erenta, began be-
in Ferrhnbia and Thesaaly, remove hia garri- trreen ibt two mooarohs, and laated till the
Bona frmn the dtiee of Thraoe, and re«triot hie death of mohard in 1199. The etateainanahip
aathorltr to the ancdent bonndaries of Kaee- of Philip in tb» end proved too nmoh for the
donia. Demetrina waa sent to Bome, and iraa more (oldterly qnalitiea of the Etujisli kin^.
received with bo much &vot and procnrod Dnrins tbia war Philip recalled the Jews, b^K
anob advantegeona taima that the ieaton^ of in nera of mone7. Having divorced hia eeeona
lua brother Persena waa esdtod. The life of wlfb, and, in d^ance of a p^>al bolL married
Philip waa henoefotHi emUttered bj thedia- inllBSAgneaof Meran,nprinoGeaofuie7^roI,
eeneions between hia two sons. In hia domes- be waa esoommnmcated, and hia kingdran liud
tio adminiatration he alao became more cmel, nuder an interdict. The death of Agnea of
while he waa engaged in aeoret preparationB Meran enabled him to reooncile himaelf with
for rwewing the war agtiust the Eomana. In the chorch, and the morder of Arthur by King
an ezpeditioii into Pnonia, Perseos b^ means John afforded bim a planiiible pretext fbr re-
of forged lettera enooaeded in inducing hia newing the warwith :^^and. He BDuunamed
&tlier to put DKnetrioa to death. The on- John to ^pear at bia court and anawer for
b^tpr king was now overcome with grief and the crime, and on hia fwiling to do ao ad-
i confiscated. Normandy v
he waahaonted bythe avan^^ng spirit of I>e- qaared in 1308, and Maine and Aijon eoon
metrins, and not long after cUed, in bis last afterward; and though Poiton and Gniame
moments cnrdng hia eon Perseos. — Folfbina were not effectnaliy anbdoed nntil the reign
said of Philip, tbat there were faw monaroha of Philip's son, the power of Qie T-^glig^
of whom more good or more evil oonld jnstly waa brofcen. In Oct 1E06, a traoe of two
be spoken. The early age at which be ascend- years was concluded, which Philip emplojod
. ed the throne thwarted the development of hia in atrengthening bis power, and devdmnng
naturally good qoslities, eo that dnring the the mat^ial reaonroee of his dominions. About
latter yeara of his reign he became tTrannioal, thla time the cmaade against the AllHgenaea
perfidious, and cruel. In conversation he waa began is the south of France, where the king
a read;- speaker, and posaessed great power of acaroely exereiaed even nominal authority,
repartee. In private life he waa exceedingly lie early sncceaa encouraged the pope to ex-
lioentiouB and fond of exoeseive drinking. oommonicate John, with whom a diamte bad
PHILIP H. AuotrsTcs, king of Prance, the arisen, and to present England to FhUip. Im-
7tb monarch of the Oapietian line, bom Aug. mense preparationB were made fbranlnvauoD,
S3, 1165, died in Mantes, Jnly 14, 1228. He bnt the French king waa diverted fivm the exe-
waa the sou of Louis VII., was crowned at oullon of his purpose by the inauhordiiiation of
Bhelma during the lifetime oi his father, whom Ferdinand, connt of Flanders. He Invaded the
be snooeeded in the following year (1180). dominions of his vaaaal in 1318, and oommit-
His marriage with the danghter of the count of ted great ravages; bnt his fleet waa defaated
Hainanlt tmlted the race* ot Oapet and Oharle- and destroyed at Dsm by the EngUah, under
magna, and a second coronation waa performed command of the count of Boulogne and the
at St Denis. He immediately banished all the earl of Salisbury. The next year he waa at-
"■'■'■ ' ■ ' ' ' " n the side of Poiton by John, and on
jf Flanders by the nobles of the Low
ane, the ooimt of Flanders, herunole, reftised to Oonntriee oommanded by Otho, emperor of
gjve np Amiens, a part of her dowry, and a Germany, John waa beaten off by t^e dan-
war broke out, in the course of which the count phin Louis, and Otho was defeated in the battle
marched to the gates of Paris (1184). Philip, of Bovinea between LiDe and Tonmay, in which
however, ultimately secured Ajni^na and near- the oounts of Boulogne and of Flanders w —
ly all of Vermandois. He was next involved ' ' ' ' .■.■..<■»•">
in a war with the doke of Bargmidy, who dis-
nntedbis authority, and with Henry II, of Fnf- _, , ^. . __,
land, whose aona he aupported against their Lonis to England, to take possceeion of the
&tber. In 1188, on Leanbg of the ftU of Je- crown of that country, to which he had been
msalem, he assumed the croaa, and in 1190 the invited by a portion of the harons. Louis be-
allied forces of France and Engjand started on oamemaster of nearly all the eonth, bnt in 1321
the third omsade. They reached the Holy was obHgedto leave the country. Philip him-
Land in 1191, but, outshone by hia rival Kch- self took little intereat in the military en>edi-
ard L, Philip soon returned to Europe, ewear- tions in which his son afterward engaged, do-
ing on hisd^artnre to respect the dcaninlons vntltig>iltnnaif t.iitBflytrtt>ui Aivti a>imitit«t»«jfwi
ly all of Vermandois. He was next involved taken prisoners. After this the life of Philip
in a war with the duke of Barmmdy, who dis- is marked by no events of ^reat military im-
nnted bis authority, and with Henry n, of Enf- portance, except the expedition of his son
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHILEF IV. (Fbasob) 280
tad flie mmagwaaat of Mb ttrwiiiet^ apiMring neariy eqnsl to those of Aaaoe in mbsMBent
great vealth, irUoh he divided amaag serem emtariefl. He wgaMd in a qnarral with P<^
I^ataea. He wse the ablest king that had eat Bonlfaoe VnL,andlnl&02stinmionedameet-
on the throne ^Franoeaboe the ame of Ohu> ing of the atato»{teneral, in which it hat been
lenuigne. The kingdom, limited at lus aooee- ati&ed, bat ernxieooBly, that the fun itat ware
rion to the De de France and portiona of ^ for Uie flnit time teoogidzed. A. reb^ion
card; and Orl6anoia, indnded in 1305 in addi- brt^ oat in Slander^ and in att«mptiag to nip-
tionaUor nearlrallofVermandoiSiArtoIetfbe preaa it the French were defeated with terrilda
Texin-Franc^andthe Veiin-Normand, Berri, alaogbter at Oonrtrai, July 11, 1803. The next
ITormandr, Mtiae, Aqjon, Tonraine, Ptdton, and year Philip nuvohed into the Elemiah terrUor;
" - ' ■ -eheadoT ' ■ " "
^and Tanala, of which he hinmelf as soser^ (1808), and to a treat; of peace Iietween the
was the head. He was still more Bnooessfol in two (Tomie. In the mean while, his qoaird
his efforta to free royalty from the power either with the pope oontinning, ^ilip snmmoned a
of the pope or of the national olei^. la 1309 meeting of the prelates and nobles, and accused
he sei^d the domains of the Inshops of OHeans Boni&ce of beetey, simony, sorcery, sensnal-
nnd Anzerre, who had refiued their contingent Ity, and disbeUef in the eucharist and in the
does for the fle& they held, and, in spite of a immortality of the son). An appeal to a gen-
papal interdict, compelled tlie prelates to ad- eral cotmcU was adopted. Bat Philip, tmsting
mit his daim. He caosed the streets of Paris more to force than to patdfie meaaores, sent
to bepsTad, extended and hdghtcDed the wallB, into Iti^ WiUiamof Nbgaret, who by the aid
oonstmcted nmneroos pablio buildings, con- of the Ooloiinas made the pope priicaier ; mi
ferred its chief prlTileges npon the nniTendty although Boniface was released br a rimng of
prindpai towns of bis kingdom. He &vored from ill nsaoe. He was snoceeded by Benediot
we rigbts of the commnnes in the mnnicipal XI., who did not live long, and in turn was
towns, and hia popnlar policy led them to pre- suooeeded by Clement V., a pontiff wholly in
fer the government of the crown to that of the French interest^ who transferred tlie pqial
their feodal lords. Under him royal power reaidenoe to Ayignon, Philip now proseonted
connected itself with social and material pro- his Flemish war with fresh vigor, bnt little ene-
grees, and the French people made ra{»d ad- oesa, and a treaty of peace was finally oondnded
vances toward comoUdation into one nation. in 180S, by wbioh the independenoe of Flanders
PHILIP IT., IBM Fats, the 11th king of was partially tecogniaed. Aetoated, it ia «im-
I>ftcce of the Oapetian line, bom at Fontaine- posea by want ot money, which had previons^
hiean in 1868, died there, Nov. 29, 1814. He led Mm to pereecote the Jewa and dqureoiato
succeeded his father, Philip the Hiu^y, in Oct. the coinage, Philip next resolTed to SD^rea
1SS6, and was crowned at Bhetms In Jan. 138S. the order of the templars. Chargea of the
The Mginning of his reign was dlstmbed by most seriotts natnre were brought against the
the war with Ara^ begnn in 18&8, bnt this body, and in Oct 1807, all the knights of the
was ^>eedilT settled. He had long been medi- order were arrested on the same night Oon-
tating the invadon of Gnienne, tben held by demned by diocesan tribnnala, nnmbwe of them
Edward I. of T&iglwnd, when in 12B2 a sort <tf were homed, and others, who throagh fear of
piratical war waMd between the Bailors of the tortnre or death had oonfeeaed, were sentenced
cinqoe ports ukd nance gave him a pretext for to minor pnnisbmeats. To Banotion tbe sup-
snnunoning that monarch before the parliament pression ci the order, the oonnoil of Tienne
of Paris. The EngUsh king, acknowledging assembled in Oct. ISll, and in the spring of
the Buendntj of Philip, hat detuned by hu 1813 the pope prononnced it dissolved, and its
contests with the "Wdut and Sootoh, seat his property made over to the hospitallers. It did
brotber Edmnnd with foil powers of negotifr- not however prove a very valaabie endowment,
tloo ; and this credolons prinoe was so oat- the exactions and claims of the king's officers in
witted through a flotitions treaty, that the the seqaeetrations being so enormoos that the
Barrender of all the fbrtressee in Oatenne was crown absorbed tbe graoter portion of it. In
procored. Philip then charged Edward with 1814 two leadlni; officers of uie templars. Gay
contomooy for not appearing in perscm, and de- of Anvergne and the grand master Jacqaes de
clared bis fief^ oonlteoated. The latter formed Uolay, were bnraed for recanting th^ eonfisa-
sn alliance with the German emperor, Adolphns rions: and on this oooasian, it is said, the
of Nassao, and the connt of Flanders. A tmoe grand master summoned tite pope and the king
■was however agreed npon, by the terms of to appear before the jodgment scat of God, the
which ike qaeslion of Qnienne was referred to former within 40 days, the latter within a year
tbe decision of the pope. In 1&99 Flanders, and a day. "Wbetber this snmmoni was real
which had not been included in the treaty, was or imaginary, both soverdgns died withiii the
rednoed, and its ooont enticed to Paris and im- spe<flfled periods. The last years of Philip's
priatHied. The dominions of Philip were now Im were taken np with the odleotion of taxes,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
240 PHILIP VL (Fbuiot) PHILIP H. (Spadt)
and pnweonldoiia &Dd ezeontiona for politdoal PHILIP IL, Idng of Spain, born in Tallado-
ofibDoes, In 181S the wives of his tiiroe rods lid, U&r 81, 1627, died at the palace of the £s-
'were oh&rged with adQ]tei7 ; one of them was cnrial, Bept. IS, 1568. His father wbb Charles
sentonoed to perpetnal impriaonment, and one, T., emperor of Oennanj and king of Spun,
Ifargaret of BnrKund;', wife of his eldest son and bis mother tlie empreai Isabella, danghter
Lonis, was Btran^ed in prison, while the third of Emaunel the Qreat of FortogaL He was
wasaoqnitted. Involved m new difficolties with careMlf educated, and showed some taste for
the Flemings, he was obliged bj an insDrreotion scienoe and the fine arts, especiall; for mathe-
of bis own people to make a compromise with matics and architeotnre. Even In childliood
them. Dnring bu wbde reign he was goveroed be waa thongbtfol, oanttom, and reserved. His
bj the legists, who steadilf strove for the over- ftither kept him snrrODndea bjr able sUtesmen,
^row of tbe fendal ajatem, and to strengtlien who earlj familiarized bim with ideas of goy-
and render indepeiid«it the royal antbority. enuneut. At the age of 16 be waa married to his
His power was of the most despotdo oharaoter, consin the infanta Maria, danghter of John HI.
and tiiere waa often mocb disaffection among of Portagal, wbo died within two yeara, a few
the people in oonaeqnence of the enormoos taxes Sajn after giving birth to the celebrated and on-
and debasement of the coinage. bappyDonOarlos. Philipwos married a second
PHILIP VL or Vamis, the IBth king of tdme, July 35, 1554, at Wmchester, to Mary,
France of the Capetian line, and first of the queen of England, with whom liis father had
boose of Yalois, bom in 1268, died in Nogent- negotiated the mat«b. To make the bnsband
le-Boi, near Ohartres, Ang. 22, 18S0. He was ec|nal to the wife in rank Charles redgned to
the son of Charles of Yakiis, brother of Philip bis son the kingdom of Naples and the duchy
the Fair, and during Uie reign of Philip the of Milan. The marriage was not a happy
Long headed an onsncceEsfal expedition agt^nst one, for Mary was very ugly, and Philip, tbongb
the Ghibelline party in Lombardy. On the she doated on bim with the most pasaionate
deathof (Carles theFairinl828witboiitamalo fondness, treated ber with coldness and waa
heir, thoogb bis widow was pregnant, Philip notorions for his infidelities. After a residence
was intrusted with the regency. When the of somewhat more than a year in En^and, he
queen was delivered of a ^ogbter, who waa was smmnoced to Flanders by bia father, and
excluded by the Salic law from the throne, the in Sept. 15CG, reached Braesels, where on Oct.
right to the soccesaion became a matter of dis- 35 was fnlflUed the famoos act of abdication
pnte ; bnt at last it was settled on FhUip, who by which Charles transferred to Philip the
was crowned at Sheims, May 36, 1S26. The sovereignty of the 17 provinces of the Nether-
same year he nndertook an expedition against lands. Three months later, Jan. IS, 166S, the
the Flemings, whom he defeated with oonsid- emperor also ceded to bia son all his remaining
erable loss, and took the city of CasseL The hereditary dominions, and shortly E^rwara
next few years were occupied in the civil ad- resigned the elective crown of the Qermsn em-
ministration of France, regulating the oorrenoy, pire in favor of his brother Ferdinand. By his
settling disputed boondcuies, and especally in Esther's abdication Philip thus became aover-
determmiug tbe claims of Robert, count of eignoftbemostpowerim and extensive empire
Beaumont, to Artois. The pretensions of Bob- in the world, inclndlng, beside the Netber-
ert were not admitted, and that prince, ban- lands, a great part of Italy, the whole of Spun,
ifihed from the realm in 1880, took refnge in and tite vast Spanish possesions in America,
England. PbiUp entert^ed the project of a Afi^ca, and the East Lidies. He is described
crusade against the Moors of Granada, but the at tltis time as a small, meagre man, much be-
demsnds he made of the pope were so exorbi- low the middle height, with thin legs, a nar-
tant, that the matter oame to nothing. In the row chest, and the shrinking, timid air of a
mean while tbe assistance wUch he rendered habitual invalid. He had a heavy, hanging
to Bobert Brace, king of Scotland, irritated Ed- lip, with a vast mouth and monstroosly pro-
ward m. of England, who cslaimed to be tbe tradic^ lower jaw. His complexion was mir.
heir of the French throne, and a war broke out bis hair light and tiiin, bis beud yellow, short,
in 1887, Edward forming an ellianoe with the and pointed. He had the face of a Ileming
nemisnbnrRbersnnder Jamea Artevelde. This with the mannersof a Spaniard. He looked
war, which lasted tbron^^ the reign of Philip, constantly on the ground when he conversed,
proved most disastrous to diaFr^ich. In 1843 was tihary of speech, embarrassed and even
PliUlpissnedani»dinancemakinKsaltagoveni- snffering in manner. "This was ascribed,"
ment monopoly. In Aug. 1846, Philip waa de- says Motley, " partly to a natural haughtiness
feated at Ortoy by EdwiS IIL, who took OalaiB wbicb be bad occaaionally endeavored to over-
the next year. In 1848 the ravages of the come, and partly to habitual pains in the stom-
plagne prevented a general renewal of tbe war. aob oocadoned by bia inordinate fondness for
Phuip was somewhat compensated for his losses pastry." He was considered bv bis contempo-
both from war and disease 1)y the addition to raries at that period to be slo^sh in character
tbe French dominions of the provinoe of Dan- and deflotent in mental capacity. He had,
Bbin& In 1860 he espoused Uie prinoesa however, an Inclination for business amonntdng
llaoohe of Navarre, but soon after died. He almost to a pasrion, and was an indefatigable
was succeeded by his eon John II. writer of despalohes, spending nearly aU bis
PBTT.IP IL <8p4ar) 241
ttoM b tib oabinet vUh his minfaton nnd Bw- abeth, which wen Tq«otod. Philipdidsottaka
ntiiiM. HumBinolyect inliibwasto npport the refosal greatlj to heart, and speedily Bonght
■nd adranoe the Boman .Oatholio reli^on, of and obtained the hand of the princess Ellza-
frhich he waa a most devoted adherent. His beth, or Isabella, daughter of Henrj IL of
unbitJoD far the ugraadizement of liis empire France, who at the late treaty had been prom-
wia alwa^ Bobot^nate to hia concern for the ised to Philip's son Carlos, for whom in jean
diitrch i and he waa soouBtomed to w' ; " Bet- ahe was a loach more aaitable match th^n for
tet not raign at all than reign over heretics." his father, the prince and the priocees being at
But aldiau^ hia pletr and hia position at the that time both about 14. The marriage was
hGidoftheSomanCUhcJia princes of Europe celebrated at Paris, Jane ^ 15G9, the duke of
Qude htm tlie nabaral all; of the pope, one of Mta acting as his aoveretgn's proxj. A few
dkefirateveatsof hiareignwaaa watwithPtnl weeks later Philip sailed firom the Nether-
IV., who then ooonpied the papal throne. The lands to Spun, where ho afterward always
pope had farmed an alliance with Henry II. of resided, and where he was Joined bj hia Itride
Fnace and with Boljinan the TuiUfih saltan, early in the following year. He left the gov-
ibe Utter of whom agreed to make a deeoent enunent of the Netherlands in the haadk of
on tbe Italian dominions of Philip, while a hia half aiat^ ICai^aret, duohesa of Parma, as
poirerfid EVenoh army led by the dnke of regent, assisted hy a oonndl oompoaed in part
Gnisg entered Ita^ for the conqneet of Uilan of William of Onmge, Ooont Egmont, and
udlfaples. Philip had tntmated the gorem- AntaineFermiot,bi^opof ArrB8,Bnb»ecnienlly
ment and defauoe of the latter kingdom to the better known as Oardinal GrsnTelle. Philip had
doke of Alva, and that able and experienced not been toan^ days in Yalladolid, where the
•oUier in one oampidgn oarried hia anna to the court then resided, Uiidrid not bung made tbe
««!lgofRome,aiiain another drove the French ct^titaltiU 1668, befw« he dgnaliBed hia devo-
ont of Nqilee and conipelled the pope to sue tion totheohnrehbyattendrnganoHtodf^at
for peace, which was oonclnded Bept 14, 1G6T> which by order of Ot» inqnisititai 14 Broteat-
Meuitims PhU^ in iperson was Ttgorouely anta were homed at the eMiA, two of them
poMonting hostilities in the nortiiem prov- men of high rank and diatJngiUshed talents,
incei of France, having hy his influence with Don Oarloe de Beso and Don Domingo de Box-
Kary indnoed En^and to declare war against as. As the victims were led past the gallery
tbit oDDolry. Under his direction a powerfol in which the roysl family sat to witness the
imy, liie aetnol commander of which was speotscle, De Seao called out to Philip: "Is it
Immnel FhlUhert, duke of Savoy, assisted by thus that yon allow your innocent sntdeots to
WilIiamofOrange,E^ont, and other o£Qcers be persecntedt" Philip replied: "Ifitwere
of disljoction, entered I^o^^ and laid aiege my own son, I would fetch the wood to bnm
toSLQaeiitin. Al^reneharnv' commanded by him were heaawickedas tiion art." In this
the mnitaUe do Montmorency, attempting to apirit, soon after hia retnm to Spun, Philip be-
nliere thf place, was defeated, ohifdly by the gan to take measures for extirpating heresy in
briUiaiit valor of l^ont, In a decisive battle the Netherlands, where the doctrines of the
fbaght Aug. 10, 16S7, the day of St. Lawrence ; reformation had already made great progreaa.
ud m honor of that martyr, to whose int«rpo- For this purpose he had In ooqjoncQon witii
BtJon he ascribed the viotory, Philip Bnbse- tJie pope added 14 new biahoprice to the 4
qnastly botlt the convent and palace of the already exiBting In these provinoes. This step
SMuriaL Two thirds of the French army were oansed great exdtementamtmg the Netherlaaa-
killad or taken priaonerg. The town of St. ers, who looked upon it as but the prelnde to
Qoentdn soon after the batUe waa taken by tlie overthrow of all their rights and privilegaa
•term. Other viotories over the French rtmid- gndth^oompletoanbJeoldontotheiQqoidtioB,
!]> iDcMsded, but the Jealonaies of his English which had already crushed Proteatantiam in
ud Qennan allies prevented Philip from pro»- B/ptia, and was now bosily at work among
scnting hia oonqnests by marching on Faria. themselves. The pcmular opposition to this
In the fbllowing year the French nnder Uar^ and other measures of the Spanish ooort was
■hs] Termes invaded Flondera, and were eig- led by Orange, %mont, Horn, Uont^;ny, and
luHy dalboted in the battle of (iravelines by a other eminent and indQenlial nobles, some of
Spuiish and Flomiah army oommanded hy £^ whom were Oatholics. Their energetic pre
moa^ who mnoli enhanced by tliis achieve- teata compelled Philip in 1664 to withdraw
meat tbe repntallon be had fnined in the cam.- Oronvellefrom the oonntry, the odium of these
paign beGire St Quentin. These defeats in- prooeedings being popolarly fixed on that ^-
dnced the French king to accede to terms of ate. The peneontiMi erf tbe Frotestanta was
peace, whidi were fln^ settled (Apnl 9} by however oontinned, and in IBM it is recorded
the treaty of Ooteoo (Ambrfiua, which was that 17 were pnbliolybnmed at the stake. The
highly favorable to Philip and gteatly raised people at lengtli rose in insorreotion,. and in
hia r^ntalion in Snrope oa a sovereign and aa IGS? the cmel dnke of Alva waa sent with a
a diolomatiat IfiUle neRotiations were going powerfol army to repress the rebellion and
on his wib Vatj of En^and died, Nov. 17, extirpate the heretics. Under the rule of thia
I^. Vety soon after her death Philip made tyrant the most terrible lurharitiee were infliot-
oSersofmuriage toher Buooeesor Qu^enElix- ed on the Protestants. Egmont and Horn and
TOL. xm. — 16
jy Go Ogle
242 PHnJP n. ^aut)
•trraral odier greatnoblet irere arrested and be- was taken and pat to death, but PhUip reward-
headed, and during hia adminiatration of 6 jeara ed hia heire ynOt estates of ffreat value aoA with
18,000 peraons pwished on the ecafibld, bende patents of nobility. " Had it onlj beea dons
immense numbers ^nt to death in battlea,uege8, two years earlier," said be on hearing of (he
and massaores. TtuaferodtyboweTer failed to murder, "much trouble might have been spared
sabdna Uie insnrgents, who nnder the wise me ; but 'tis better late than neTer." During
leadership of Willmm of Orange maintained a the earlier part of the war with the Nether-
heroic and generally soooeesM stmgrie against lands, Philip carried on almost constant hoa-
Alva and bis ancoeaaora, Beqneaen^Don John tiJities against the Uobammedans. The fam-
of Aostria, and the dnke of Parma. In lfi79 ons siege of Malta bj the Tarka in 1S66 waa
Ibe seven United Provinces formed iLe nnion raised by his forces sent from Sicily. Hia per-
ot Utrecht, and during the rest of Philip's reign aeontion drove the Moors of Granada to a re-
maintained their independence and carried on volt in 1568, which was enppresaed with rigor-
a vigorons war with the Spaniards by land and ons barbarity. It was followed in ICTl by a
aea. Among the remarkable jncidentB of this war with the Turks, tbe principal event of
lonff oont«st was one strongly illnatrative of which waa the great naval victory of Lepanto,
PbUip's character — the secret execution of won by Philip's brother Bon John of Austria,
the lord of Montigny, the younger brother of in which the Ottoman fleet was nearly snni-
Oonnt Horn. He was sent to Spun in 1666 by hilated. In 1CT8~'80, by the death of Dom Se-
the nobles of tbe Netherlands as an envoy to bastion and of Henry the cardinal, the throne
the king to lay before him the real state of of Portugal became vacant, and Philip, as uncle
the provinces. Philip received him at first of Sebastian, dumed the crown, and sent Alva
grscioQBlj, bnt dettuned him, and in Sept. with an army to enforce hb right. This waa
1667, committed him aa a prisoner to tbe for- anoccsBftilly effected, and in 1581 Philip was
tress of S^ovia, and afterward to that of Bi- recognized by tbe Portuguese estatea as right-
maneaa, where, in Oct, 1570, he was Btrangled Ail sovereign of tbe kingdom. Aiter tbe death
in so secret a manner that his &te remuned a of Orange, he bent all hie ener^es and re-
mjatery till a few ^eare ago, when tbe opening Bonrcea to the conquest of England, ihnn
of the arohives of fiimaneas, in which tbe which the Netherlanda were oontinu^y re-
king's correspondence with his ministers had ceiving assistance in men and money. After
been depoait^, disclosed the &ot that Philip in long preparation tbe " invincible armada" wai
his own handwriting had given the most minnte sent for this purpose in 1566, and was com-
direcdoas for the mnrder and for ita sabseqaent plotelj foiled and vanquished, partly by the ele-
ooncealmant by giving out that Montigny had ments, and partly by the English fleet com-
died of a fever. The unfortunate nobleman, manded by Lord Howard, Sir Frgnois Drake,
though he opposed the peraecniaon of tbeProt- and other distingniahedieadera. ^eeAmuui.)
estants, was a devout Catholic ; and FhUip, in Philip received the news of this terrible dis-
commnnioating in a private despatch to Alva aster with composure. " Tbe will* of God be
tbe real circumstances of his death, BAja: "If done," he aaid; " I sent mj ships to £ght with
hia inner man was penetrated with asChristJau the English and not with the elementa." The
a spirit as he exhibited in the outer, and as tbe relations of Philip with France during hia long
friar who confessed him has reported, God, we reign had been sometimes warlike and seme-
me presume, will have mercy on bis soul." tiraeapeaeefnl, bnt both his arms and his mooey
Another remarkable transaction, in which the were ireely given to wd tbe Catholics of that
personal agency and oharacter of Philip may kingdom against tbe Huguenots. He continued
be clearly traced, was the assassination of Wil- hia hostility against Henry IV. even after that
liam of Orange, the great leader of the revolt monarch had become a Catholic, and his in-
of the Nefjierlands. Against thia eminent trigaes ledEenry inl695todeolBrewartusiDst
statesman and hero the king issued in 1680 a him. The contest was not favorable to Spain,
formal ban, declaring him on ontlaw and on and in 1697 Philip waa reluctantly comi«lled
enemy to the human race ; " And if any one to consent to the peace of Yervins. In tbe next
of onr sabjeots or any stranger shall befoond year a complication of distressing maladies, the
anffidently gen^xtus of heart to rid us of this consequence of early debauchenos, caused his
pest, delivering him to us alive or dead, or tak- death, which took place in the palace of the
mg hia life, wa will cause to be famished to bim, Esourial, which be bad himself built, and which
immediatelyaftertbedeed shall have been done, still remains the most maimifloent monument
the sum of 26,000 crowns in gold. Ifhehave of his power andwealth. One of tbe strangest
committed any crime, however heinous, we transactions of Philip's reign was bis trestment
promise t« pardon him; and if he be not already of bis eldest son Don Oarloa, whioh basfre-
noble,we will ennoble him for bisvalor." In- qnently dnoe afforded a favorite theme for
ait«d by this proclamation, varicas assassins historians, poets, and romanoers. It was corn-
attempted to kill the prince ; and at lengdi a monly believed until recently that the prince
Bnrgnndian fanatic, Balthasor Gerard, having bad been put to death by command of Philip,
previously made known his dengn to tbe prince but the researcbea of Presoott and of other
of Parma, who communicated it to Philip, recent historians have shown that Don Car-
murdered Orange at Delft, in 1684. O^rard los was probably insane, and that after va-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
pmr.Tp v. (Spais) SMS
rfoDS on&vgeB on Us fUher'a fliends and min- 1702, bat ma obliged to retnni in haito to
isten be hod fonned the design of takioK the Spain, which vas attaoked hj the combined
king's life, and was conEeqaentlj arreeted and troops of Great Britain and Holland. Tha
tept ID confinement till he died about 6 months arcbdake landed in Portugal in 1704 ; and tho
aftervard of a fever bronght on and heightened king, marohing agunst him, defeated the Poc-
bj tlie most extravagant reoklessneas of diet tngnese on the frontiers, hnt was nnable to re-
and eipomre. Within 8 months after the death take Qibraltar, which had been oaptnred bj
of OaHoa hU stepmotiier Qoeen Isabella ^ed, Admiral Boot^ Aug. 4, 1704. Baring 1706
u reported at the time by poison admin- the provinoes of Talenoia, OaUlonio, and Arft*
9d by Philip's order. This oalnmn; has ' .-j--i .> - ---.-i-.- — ^ — »«.„_
iftared by Philip's order. This oalnmn; has gon aoknowiedged the arehdoke, whom PhiUp
also been refbted by recent reeearches, and it nnsnooesBfoIlTbedeged in Barcelona. Thedi»-
is noir known that Ae died in giving birth to a ornniEation<^hi8armyobtiged him to retreat
dsnghter who ^d not survive her, and was to Ferpignan, bnt he eoon reentered Spain, and-
le coffin. The queen died in throowi Navarre and Old Oastile returned to
., _.70 Philip married aa his Madrid, where his presence was aorelv needed.
fourth wife the arohdncheaa Anne of Aastria, Boaroelj' had he rraohed tlie <Mui]tai, novrever,
dsDghter of the Qennan emperor Maximilian when tiie uiproaab <^ Lord ^dway and the
n.,irlio became the mother of his successor manjnia of Las Mines forced him to retreat to
Pbilip m.— See Prescott's "History of Philip Bargos, aooompanied by a small band of ^th>
II." (8 Tok, Boston, 18G6-'9), and Motley's fal adherents ; while the archduke, under pro-
''Bise of the Dutch Bepublio" (S vols., Neir teoUon of the Dngliab and the Portnxaese, waa
Tork, 1S5S), and " HistoT? of the United Neth- proolauned king with the tdtle of Oharlea SL
erluidg" (3 vols., New York, 1861). Philip's affurs were now so deeperate that he
PHTI.TP T., iW of Spain, the first of the was advised to emigrate to his American domii^
house of Bourbon m that country, bom at Ver- ions ; hut, enooaragad by his wife and the mii^
»illes, Dec. 19, 1688, died Jnly 0,1746. The ceea desVrdns, he refused to abandon the ileld,
id wm of the dauphin Loais by Maria Anna of and r^ected the overtores of peace that were
BsTsria, and a papil of F^n^lon, he waa known made by his opponents. ^ constant^ toon
ts duke of Anjou unlal by the will of Oharlea had its reward : supported by Marahal Berwick,
II., who died ohildleas, be was colled to the whose skill and valor retrieved his fortnnei^ be
tbrone of Spain, Oct. 3, 1700. In the follow- reentered Madrid after an absence of eoarcely
ing month he was declared kinz at Fontaine- 8 months, and was rdustated on lite throne by
bless by his grandfather Lonis XIV., and Berwick's brilliant victory at *'™""i Ap^
proclaimed at Madrid. His arrival in the pen- 25, 1707. The encceeafhl operatioiu of the
uiaola was hailed with lively manifestations duke of Orleans in Valencia, Arogcm, and Oata-
of popular satisfaction, while his power was Ionia consolidated his power; but that com-
uknoTledged in the kingdom of Naples, IHIan, mander, being ohai^[ed oy the princess des Ur-
Ihe Netherlands, and the Spanish colonies of rans with views of personal aggrandiiement,
America. No oppoution was offered to his was recalled to Franoe ; and PhiUp's ancceu in
uceasion by any European power except the Spain was checked, while abroad he lost Sar-
bomeof Austria and the empu-e, who protested dmia and Port M^oninl708. In the oam-
igsinat the will of Oharlea II., and prepared paign of 1709, however Tortosa, Denio, and
for -war. PhQip nevertheless seemed to be Alicante were token by his troops ; bnt in the
flrmly established, winning the favor of his following year the two victories of Count Sto-
lobjects by attention to his duties, onrtailment femberg enabled Oborles HL to return to M»>
of [tselesa offices, reform of obuaeB, and personal drid, whence Philip had again to fly. liia
affiibQity. Bnt the rashness of Louis XIV,, timely orriv^ of YendAme from EVanee gave
The, in contraventtou of express stipnlationa, another fiivorable turn to afiJairs, and in oom-
andeavored to secure to his ^andaon the right pany with that brilliant general Philip boldly
of aacceaaion to the crown <a EVance, alarmed odvoaoed to the capital, ezpeQed his oompeta-
Surope. A league between Austria, EoUand, tor, and reentered it^ Deo. S, 1710. The oeci-
Gfeat Britun, the empire, and Prussia was rive battle of YiUavioioBO, fought Deo. 10, was
formed against France and Spain, to uphold the dgnil of his definite triamph. Oatuonia
tbfl cUms of the archduke Charles to the and Arsgon were reconquered, and the orch-
Spaniah crown. The only allies of Philip V. duke having meanwhile by the death of his
at the opening of the contest were his uncle brother become emperor, the greatest obstade
tbe elector of Bavaria, the duke of Savoy, to peace was removed, the European powers
whose daughter Louisa Maria Gabriella he had being nnwilling to restore the vast monarchy
married, and the king of Portugal; bat the of Charles Y., and Philip T. on hia part aseent-
jast two were soon detached ftom hie alliance ing (Nov. 6, 1712) to a formal renondatlon of
by promiBea of territory, and finally Joined the his cl^ms to the French succession. By the
adrerse coalition. The war opened m 1701 in treaty of Utrecht he remained master of the
Italy, where Prince Eogene at the head of Aus- kingdom of Spain, Spanish America, and otJiw
frisn troops gained the victories of Carpi and colonies out of Europe ; but he had to abandon
Cuisri. Fhmp repaired to Italy in person Sicily to the duke of Savoy, and the Kether-
ud shared in the victory of LuEzora, Aug. 15, lauds, Milan, and Sardinia to tjiehonae of An^
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
PHILIP V. 0eAa)
md a tre<U7 being Edgned wMi Port(ual,f •
™. ™,„ -*"-dtorwgnliip«
in6,Pliilipirupeniiittedtoragniiipeaoefor temar to Ital^, when the latter, b; his victory
idbeeiilM9«> at Bltonto in 17BC, conquered th« Ungdom of
V may- K^les, irhich vaa moared to tlie yomw prince
ins,FiimpwaBjMniiitted tormn in
atmnljnm. 1lieeoTonimeiitbadb<
tofbre moatlj' in the panda of tbe eofltof
r,tfieoBle])rstedpriDeeaBde8CTrina,wiioniaie bj t}ie treaty of Vienna (1^8), irhUeTaBcuiT
muen had Inon^t from EVauM with hn. Thi« wm transfarred to the dnko of Lomune, and
wl» woman had mad« and nmnademinlstera; Pannaand Piacenza were aadgned to the em-
■he had aatiitedOni in restoring Utefiuanoea; peror. A dispQt« with En^and rdatin^ to
■ha had even exerdaed her inflnenoe over tho American colonial affBirs ended in hoatdblke,
OMrationB of war. The death of the queen, which were atill Koing on when' the war for
^>. 14, in4, seemed but to add to herpower, the sncoeefflon of Anatria broke oat In thk
aad ihe »o conq>letel]r w<m iha confidence of PhUip, or rather his queen Elizabetli and hei
the Ung that it waa mmored tJiat ^e waa to second son Philip, actively engaged _^ and the
become bis wifb. By the advioe however ot latter was in a &lr way to win a ktogdoin in
AltMToni, die earned Philip to marry Elizabeth northern Italy when the Mng died. Notwith-
Fanese, whxn abe expected to govern as she standing hia want of energy and enterprise,
had done her predecessor ; bnt on her arrival Philip's reign was npon the whole £aTorsbIe to
Eliiabedi mioeremoidoDBly banished the eomo- Bpun ; some ns^iil reforms had taken place.
finiMayof from Bpaln. Throi^ herlnfioence eapet^allj in tha administration of Joatioe; the
AlbenNii was ^tpranted prime minister (171ft)i fiiumceB were mansged with conHidersble rega-
aad Spain seMned to be insidrad with new Hfe. larity ; the navy was restored to a state of
AgrienUm«, commwoe, and the arte revived ; efSdency ; indostry and commerce were foe-
Bardinia and Sidly were reoon^nered, and Al- tered ; and a royal hbrary and acadanies of
bwcnt, rewarded with the dignity of joardinal, langnages, history, and the fine arts were es-
penoaded his master to tmdertdie to restore tabmhed. PHUp bad by his first wife two
the Stoarts in England by the assistance of sons, viz. : Lonis, who died after a reign of 6
Obariee Xn. ttf Sweden, to wrest the regency months, and Ferdinand VI., bia eaoceseor ; by
of Fnmoe from the dnke of Orleans, and to bis Sd wife, Don Oarlos, whom he left Idng of
predidtate the Tnrks npon Austria. Bnt, de- Naples, Philip, who became doke of Parma in
natad in all these projects, Fbilh> exiled the 1748, and several daughters, a of whom msr-
muoooeeafhl ndnister Bndj<^ed the quadraple ried respectively Joseph, king of Fortngal,
aHianoa, F^. 17, ITfiO, giving up gio^ to Ans- Louis, danpbin of EVanoe, and Victor AmAdeus
tria, whUe tlie dnke of Savoy received Sar- m. of Savi^.
(Unia. He moreovM-, in 1731, abandoned Gib- PHILIP L and H. of Burgundy. See Bcb-
raltar and Port llahon to the En^ish. and by sinn)T.
matrimonial aSiancee strengthened bis nidon PHILIP, one of the 13 apostles, bom in
with fVanoe. Ss health h^ fkiled nnder hia Bethsaida, of which Peter and Andrew were
long trials ; an invlnolble melancboly, ^(gra- also natives. Fbilip was the 4th of the apos-
vated by religious fesTs, preyed upon his mind; ties who attached tnemselves to the person of
and. In spite of bis wife's remotutranoea, be Jescs (John [. 48 at »eq.), Andrew, John, and
abdioated, Jan, 10, ITU, in &vor of his eldest Peter having been called before him. The
flonLonia,and retired to tbe monastery of San first act recorded of Philip is bis bringing Na-
Ddefbneo. But his son dying at the wd of thanael to Jesoa. When Christ fed^tbe fi,000
6 mootha, he yielded to the entrsatieB of the people with five loaves and two fishes, be ad-
g-andresamedtbeexerdBeofpower.Sept. dreesed to Philip the qnestion; "'Wbenceshall
L AnotbCT change of poHoy now took we buy bread that these may eat !" and it is
and by the instigallon of Bipperda, a added: "This be said to prove him, for he
adventurer, who hod won tlu quem's himself knew what be would do." (John ri.
itemr, Philip ent^d into an alUanoe wHh the 1-7.) On another occasion Philip asked Jesns:
nnperor Oharlea VL, by the treaty of Vienna, " Lcvd, Aow us the Father, and it sufficeth us."
A^l 80, I73S, wbere^ the two aoverelgna (John liv. 6.) Prom these two passages seve^
namiteed euuk other's posseaeiima, and the al of the fathers, as Obrysostom and Theodore
^NudsbUngpromiaed to npbold the empoor'a of Uopsuestia, inferred that this apoatJe was
pragmatio saaotion. The alllanco prorod tat weak in faith. In another place of the Gospd
Innn advmibaReom. Philip mode an misaooess- of John (lii S0-B3), we find that certain
then beoomiDgdisgiiated with B]ppwda,wb<nn lem, who wished to see Jesna, applied for
he bad made his prime minister, banlsbed him that purpose to FbiUp, who, uncertain whether
from Sp^ Ustraed to proposals from Oardl- to con^ with tbetr wish or not, consul^
Innn advmtuieom. FhUIpmadeanmiBaooess- of John (lii SO-33), we find that certain
(bl attempt fc IRT to retake aibraltai-, and "Greeks" (proselytes of the gate) at Jemss-
thenbeotniiDgdisgoated with Bipperda, wb<nn lem, who wished to see Jesna, applied for
*^ * ■ • rtainw'^-"--
nal Fleury, sent pleifipotentiaries to the con- Andrew, and both then went to tell Jes
cress at BoiBsons (178^, and finally signed with is again mentioned in Acts i. 18, as being pres-
Franoe uid Great Britain the tresAy of BeviOo, ent with the other apostles at the reUxions
by wUoh he obtained for Don Oarlos, his elder assembly following the resurrection of Obrist
■on by Elisabeth, the reversion of the dncMes According to Theodore be preached the gospel
of Tnaoany Parma, and Piacenza. He partid- in Phiygia, according to others in Upper Ana,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
locording to most in BcTthla. All tn£tioiu bnildingfl vere tmraed, 600 of the ooloniita
tgree that he met hia death at EierapoUa in veraaliun, andtheexpeiiaeswer« inthendgli-
Sjrift. ThB Qreek church oommeinor^vs him borhood of $600,000. The oalamities of (ho war
on Not. 14> the Roman Oatholio on Maj 1. A fell oMefly upon tb« MasBMhoHtta and I^
cbnrch at Borne elaima to possees his bodf, month oolonies, ODnitection.t sn&ring tamptt'
Sererd qraoiTphal vritings vere aaoribed to ativelT litde.
Iliilip ; thus the Qnostioa and HaniohiMBa had PHIIJP, Pbkudo. See AsDEfBous.
an Etanyelmm PKUippi, and the decree of Fope FHIUFFI, an anoient <At3 in the E. eztrwD-
GelaainsdaiunmeeB tike forged "Acts of Philip." itrofMiaoedonia, enlw^ed bj Philip, fittherof
PHI£JP,Kira,aaohemofPokanoket,]ronng- AJeiander the Oreat, from whom it re«leiT«d
eat mn vS Massasoit, and tbe sncceasor in 1667 Its name, FreTlonsIj it had been oolled Ore-
ofhiibroUier AlezanderJUlled Ang. 13, 1S76. nides, the "place of fonntaina," from the mi-
Id 166S he promised at FlTmonth to oontinne merons streams in the neighborhocid. Near it
the friendsh^ heretofore existing with the Eng- were gold miaea, vhioh were not veir prodno-
lish, to Tsmam futhfril to the Ung and ooloaj, tiveantil WOTked by Philip, who obtuied from
md not to dispose of any of Ma tenitory with- them 1,000 talents a year. In S60 B. 0. the
oat ^ring them notjoe. In 1670-'71 nimora city waain thehandaof the ThradanSjlratwaa
began to prenul that he waa inclined to bi'eak taken and fortified by the Haoedonian moa&nik
tlie treaty. ThetiibewasfreqaentlyaMemblecL aa a protection against the Thracian moon-
irir preparations were constantly going on, and taineera. It waa at Philippi that the battle
vanton mnrdera were sometimea committed, between Bmtns and Oaasios on one aide, and
The meaaengers from Uassabhnsetta sent to Antony and Octarins oa the other, was fbo^t
mediate between the people of FlTmooth and In 42 B. 0. Thera were two ei
Philip hdd a meeting at Tannton,mwUd) the ilia aame ground, SO d^s ^art, in the first of
latter renewed his corenant with his ** ancient whioh Brntoa guned the advantage over Oct^
friends." Bnt^Bregardingtheoondition,anev vins, and Anfan^ over Oasdos; bntinthesee-
aireement was finally entered into, I7 wUolt ond tfao mnrderera of Otesar were totally ront-
PbilipidmittedtheBapeTioritycrfthenTmoatli ed. Phili^nti waa afterward made a Roman
go7emment. For S years aflnr thia thero waa oolony by Aognatns. It was twice yiaited by
no disturbance, and it has been a donbtfiilpi^t Panl (Acta xri. and xz.), and to the ohnnm
irhelher the storm which broke ottt so Bodaeiily founded there he addressed one of hiaepiatleB
in 10T5 waa mmply aooidental in its orimn, or during hia cj^itivity at Rome. Snbeeqnently
the resnlt of a real and deliberate plot. At any Fhili^i became the ecclaaiaBtdcBl oapita^l <4
rate hostilities 'w^re preoipitated by the rash- Uaceaonia Prima, when Utat province waa di-
nesa of some of tlie yonnger members of the Tided into two by Theodosiiu the Yonnger. It
ti^. Sassamon, a oonTerted Indian wiio had is now a mass of ralna, of whidh the chief ore
informed the colony of the preparatioDg going the remuna of what appears to have been a
on, was killsd. His murderers were tried, con- palace, and of the acropolis, sitnated on a k&-
med, and executed, and in revenge the Indians tory height, and consiedng of 8 towers and
mnrdered 8 or B white mm. Philip thos be- po^ona of walla.
liuiie a rebel, although he ia said to have wept PEIUPPIAItS, Efistlb to thb, a oanotdoal
Then he heard that a white man's blood had book of the New Taatoment, written, accord-
been &hed. The war waa of the moot desolat- ing to the nnanimona testimony of the andent
!ng ctiaract«r, the Indians never meeting the ehnroh, by the iwostle PaoL It is ezpreuly
enemy in the open field, bat rapidly passing referred to l>y Folycaip, by tlie ohnrcbea of
Eron one ei|>o9ed point to another, baraing Tlemie and Lyons in the 9d century, and by
villages, cnttmg off by ambuscades detaohed many of the earliest fothera. In modem
pirtiee of troops, and aliooting down every one times its anthenticitj has been doabted by
vbo ventored to stray outside of the places of "BmiiPavlutdefApcttelJau- C^triiM, p. 468 et
protection. Philip also formed an aUianoe M^.Vag^DStwhomithasboeninparticolard^
with the powerfiU tribe of Narragamtets, end fended by Lflnemami (PouK ad PhiUppianot
in Deo. IS76, 1,000 men under the command EpUtolameotitra Baiwriwm dtfmtdit, 60tdng«n,
of Joelah Winalow invaded their territory, 1347). The epistle was probably written to-
tomed a fort in which there wore aaid to word the close of theapostle'simprlsonmentat
have been 4,000 Indiana, and utt«rly destroyed Rome. The oc«auon for it aeems tohavebeea
their villsge with all its stores. The war raged given by a pecuniary oontribation which the
daring the first half of 16T6 with nnabated oongregationat Philippi senthimthronjhEpfr
tm, bnt the conquest of the Narragansets phroditus ^iv. 10-18). Epaphroditoa waa tann
and the complete destruotioa of his own tribe sick in Rome (ii. 27), and after his recovery
a»n left Philip without resouroea. Deserted was sent back with this epistle to tiie Philip-
by aQ, he was bunted from spot to spot, and piana. The epistle may be divided into 8 parte,
at last, taUng refuge at Ifoimt Hope, was tltere In the first (ch. i. and IL) the ^loatle refers at
attacked by a party under Oapt. Onurch, and length to his sufferings in Rome, whieb, how-
la attflmptuig to flee was killed by sn Indimi, ever, fell out " rather unto the fbrtherance (tf
InthiswarlStowoa ware oorapletely destroy- thesoapel." For thia cause he deoUreshimaelf
td and many othera suffered severely ; 600 willing to live and labor, tihough, aa respecttd
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
£16 rHTUFPINE ISLANDS
his personal fbeling^, he votdd " rather depart inland sSbid greei fodUdes for internal cotn-
and be with OhriBt." He calla on the PMUp> miiniaatjon. The geological formatioD consists
piana to maintain ateadfastly their profession, of almost ererj kind of rock, but tlie Btrocture
and particolarlf nrges onion and hnmilitj. In ia thronghont Tolcanio. Gold is found in most
the second part (ch. iii.) he warns them against of the larger islands, together with iron, oop-
the teachings of &lBe Jnduzing prophets, per, and lead, and mercorj in Lnioa. Sulphur
whom he eaUa dogs and evil workers. He la abundant, and coal has been worked to some
shows that if Jewi^ descent and Jewish priv- extent on a small island off the E. coast of In-
ilegee were to so for an;r thing, no one oonld ion, and fonnd in two places at the S. end of
have stronger claims on tiiis groond than him- Mindanao. Carbonato of lime is Terr abun-
self; but he counts " all things but loss for the dant, and marble is found in several places. —
exoellenc; of the knowledge of Jesna Christ," The climate is warm, and there is the same suc-
and he exhorts the Philippians to be Hkewise oeasionof seaBons throughout the group as elso-
thuB minded, and to strive after holinese. In where in the Indian archipelago and upon the
'Qie third pwi; (ch. iv.) he addresses some ex- coaeta of Hindoaton. During the S. W. tuon-
hortations to indtvidual niembers, oontinnes soon,' from Maj to September, heavy rains fall
hia general admoniBons, refers again to his per- npon the W. coasts, the low crounda become
eonal cironmstanoea and to the aid received flooded, and violent storms are liable to happen,
from the Philippians, and concludes with sain- while tue chain of mountains that traverse the
tations and benedicHona. — Good separate com- group keep the weather on the E. shores serene
mentaries on this epistle have been written and dry. The opposite monsoon, however,
bj Bheinwafd (Berlin, 1827), Mathies ^reib- which begins to blow in October, bnngs similsr
walde,188tS}, Hdlemanntlieipsic, lB39),Hengel weather on the E. ooasts, keeps the climate
(Amsterdam, 18S9), Killiet (Geneva, 1841), cuid eonstantlf damp, and renders vegetation ex-
in ^gliah by Pierce and Ferguson, oeedingiy lumnaiiL The soil is remarkably
PHZLIPPIFE IBLAIO)S, a group of the In- fertile, and the principal productiona of the
dian or Eastern archipela^, belon^ng chiefly group are rice, maize, cotton, sugar cane, coffeej
to Spain, bounded K. and £. by the Pacific, S. olovea, pepper, indigo, hemp, tobacco, cacao,
by the seas of Celebes and Booloo, and W. by bananas, cocoanuts, and Tarions other kinds at
the China sea; extending from lat. 6° 82' to palms. Many tropioal frnits andv^etableaare
19° 88' S., and from long. 117° 31' to 1S6° 8' grown, and the Spaniards liave introduced sev-
E. ; area of the whole, about 200,000 sq. m. ; eralkinds from the temperate cones which hsve
Kp. estimated at 6,000,000. The total num- succeeded remarkably well. The mountains
r of islands is about 1,800, bat the greater are covered with forests of lai^ e trees, which
part are of little importance, being mere rooks, furnish excellent timber for various puiyoses,
About 40 are of considerable size, and of these and several valuable gums and dye woods are
th6 principal are Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, procnred. The hnflalo is found wild aa well as
Fanay, N^ros, Zebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Mas- domesticated, and is used for ploughii^ and as
bate, and Palawan. Luzon is of very irregnlar a beast of burden. Antelopes, goats, pigs,
shape, and oonsiats of two portions connected foxes, monkeys, and wild cats are also found.
by a narrow isthmus; its eztreme length is SGO The Spaniards introduced horses and horood
m., breadth ISO m. ; area, C 7, 60S sq.m.; pop. oattle,maiiyof which now ma wild among the
B,1?Q,9S0. Mindanao is next in dze to Luzon, mountsins. Sheep and all the domestic fowls
uid in shape somewhat resembles an isosceles were also introduced by them, and have thriven,
triangle, measurir^ nearly 800 m. each way. The crocodile is found in the rivers and lakes;
Ifindoro is about 110 m. long and 63 m. broad ; there are several apedes of tortoise, numerous
Fanaj nearly 100 m. each way ; Kegros 180 sorpentB, some of which are poisonous, and a
m. long, with an average breadtih of 25 m. ; pytiion said- to attain the enormous length of
Sebu forms a narrow oelt about 100 m. in 00 feet. Many kinds of water fowl are found
length ; Bohol is about 62 by 34 m. ; Leyte 110 on the lakes, and wild birds in the forests, A
by 60; Samar 147 m. long with an average spedesof heronmeaanring 5or6feet inheight,
breadth of GO m. ; Masbate abont SO by 17 m. ; and another from 2 to S feet high, ore the most
and Palawan about 260 m. long with on aver- remarkable, the latter being often tamed by the
age breadth of 40 m. In general characteris- natives and tan^t to dance to the sound of a
tioa all these islands bear a striking dmilitude. flute or drum. The most numerous of the fes-
The ooasts are much indented by arms of the thered tribes are thoseof the parrot and pigeon
sea stretching far into the land. A range of families ; and there are jangle fowl and a spo-
monntains traverses the entire group in a N, oies of pheasant. A bird called the fv^m leaves
and S. direction, the summits of which seldom its eggs in the sands of the sea shore to bo
exceed 6,000 feet in hdght ; many of them are hatched by the snn. The swallows which build
extinct Toloenoee, while some are still sulyect t^e esculent nest so much prized by the Ohi*
to dongeroiu eruptions. Among the mountains nese frequent the limestone caves in great nom-
are many extenrive valleys and plains, numerous bers, Mah are particularly abundant, and are
marahea and bogs, and several lakes. Some of said to be more so than in any other country;
the rivers are tx condderable size, and in con. some of them arc migratory, entering particu-
Jnnction with the arms of the seaUiat extend larriversfromtheaeafbrthepurposeof apawn-
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
prni-TPPrnF. IBLAKDS PHILIPS 247
ins, at vhloh tkaee great qoantitaea an osaght tmt tbe bdubitants of Jlsiaj desoeot an edn<
Tnth little trouble by the natiTes; IS^edes ottiad.—Maaj jMta befote the nations of the
foand In Eorope and the "Weet Indies, and 41 Test foond their waj into the eastern Mas hy
peculiar to these seas, bare bera ennmerated. the routes round the oapea, the Arabs had ea-
A kind of Ma sing, called bieh6 dt m«r, or tabliahedoommnnioation with the Indian amhi*
b7 ihe HsIajB tripunf, a Chinese delioao^, ia pelago along tbe W. ehore of Eindostan and
foond on the sliorea, together with a great aoroas the ba7 of Bengal. Some of tlieir eolo-
vaxietj of abell fish, inolnding the pearl oje- nies were found In tae Pbilippinea when dia-
ter, and the enormous hima cookie, some of covered byUagalhaeoB in 1G21. TheSpaniwds
the shells of wiiicb will hold a gallon and are sent a fleet &om Uezico in 16B6, which took
used in the ohnrobes as fonts for holy yfitet. poBseseion of the cn'onp and named it in honor
Flights of locusts are soioeldmea ezpoienoed, of Philip II. of Spain. Zebn was the firat
bat tbej are not verj destraotiTe. Mo«initoea island attacked ; and a few years afterward a
and ants, inolnding the termites or white ant, descent was made npon Luzon, and a settle-
are nnmerons and teoaUesome on all the ial- ment effected at the month of the Manila river,
ands ; bnt the oommon fly is not f^eoaent, uid The invaders proceeded to extend their con.
fleaa and bngs are almost nnknown. — ^The group qnests, bnt in consequence of the great extent
is inhabited by tiro distinct raoea of men, the of the islands and the warlike spirit displayed
Ifalayan and Qis n^iito or oriental n^ro. by the inhabitants their progress was slow, and
The Jtalays fbrm by &r tLe most nnmerons even yet they are not meters of the entire
part of tbe population, and are chiefly divided group and all tbe Bmaller islands in its vi-
into two tribes, the Tagala and Biaayans. The cinity. In 15B0 the soltan of Booloo repulsed
negritos are found only aroosg the monntains on the Spaniards with heavy lata, and, in deflanoe
the 4 principal islands, and are supposed to be of all attempts to conqner them, tbe inhabitants
the aborigines who have been driven from the of that island continued for 8 oenturies to main*
more aocesnble parts by Ualay invaders firom tun piratioal fleets in tbe a^oinin^ seaa and
the a^acent countries. Beside theeeraces, the to infest tbe coasts of the Fhilippmes. Ma-
islands eontun a considerable number of Ohi- nila waa attacked by a fleet of Obineae pirates
nese, who have recently settled there, and a in 16T4. In 1689 about 80,000 natives of Obina
comparativBly small number of Spaniards aud had emigrated to Uanilo, bnt tbe Spaniuds en-
mixed breeds. Tbe honsea of the natives are tertained snob a hatred of the race that they
formed of l>ambooa, raised on posts 6 or 10 slauf^tered tbe greater part of them ; and tbe
Cset ^wve tbe ground, and covered with palm Ghinese, unless converted to Ohristianity, were
leaves. — The mannfactnres are not important, not permitted to establish themselves on tbe
and oonsst cbieSy of coarse olotb, straw hats, islands till very recently. Tbe English besieged
ooidage, and cheroots. Forthalastuamedman- Manila in 1762, and the place capitulated, p^-
nfactDre the i^ands are partioolarly famous, Ing $0,000,000 to redeem it from being plun-
but it is a government monopoly, and at Ma- dered; bnt it was restored to the Spaniards
nila employs a la^e nnmbw ot nutds. (See when peace was concluded, after an occnpaUon
KANn-A.) Ship bnilding is carried on to a small of nearly S years. InlSOStbeauthoritiesoftbe
extent. The commerce of Uie Philip^es is Philippines adhered to Ferdinand YIL, and open-
principally in tbe hands of foreigners. Tbe ed their ports to tbe British, since which time
value of imports and exports is estimated at other nations have been admitted to the same
(30,000,000 per aimnm, of whiob about half privileges. Tbeoreolesandmixedbreedsmade
beloDgs to tbe British. During the year end- an attempt to procure a liberal government in
ing Jnue SO, 1868, 61 vessels under the Saf of 1S28, bnt the insnrrection was suppressed by
the United States arrived at tbe Pbilippmes, the Spaniards armiag the converted natives.
with cargoes valued at $468,669, and their re- Several earthquakes have occurred since tbs
turn carsoes were v^ued at $8,299,744. — ^The islands have been known to Europeans, the
oiril, multaiy, and naval administration of the most recent being in July, 16SS.
Philippines and the Ladrone ielonda is in the PHILIPS, an £. co. of Ark., separated fr(Hn
hands (rf a a governor-general appointed by the Hiss, by the HissisBippi river, bounded K £,
crown of Spain, who resides at Manila. The by the St. Pranois and L'Angmlle rivers,
jslsnda are divided into provinces, each under and dr^ed by Big creek and other smaller
a governor also appointed by the crown. In streams; area, 725 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 1^878,
ibe ports not sn^ect to the Spaniards, tbe of whom 8,941 were slaves. It has a level
laws tre chiefly formed on the £oran, while snrilaoe, swampy in parts, and a fertile soiL
among many tribes in the interior pagan one- Tbe prodnotions in 1654 were 899,010 bnabeb
toms and superstitions are the only guide, of Ii^lan com, 6,478 of oats, and 11,300 bale*
The people who have been tallj sat^ected to of oottos. In 1660 there were B saw mille, 8
Spanish rule have adopted tbe Roman Gath^olio newspaper offices, 4 obnrches, and 9S pupils
religion, whQe some of the others profess tbe atteMingpnblio u^ools. Capital, Helena.
faith of Mohammed, and the remainder have a FHilifl^ Aicbbose, an English poet, bom
belief peooliar to Qiemselres, which does not in 1076, died in London, June 18, 1749. He
' ■" * " ■ ■ ■ - ' • ' ,.,.-.. ^^^ ^ jggg^ ^j ^^
e collection of verses
admit of any fttturestate of reward or punltb- was graduated at Cambridge in 1606, and
menL The native languages are barbarous; one of tbe authors of tbe collection of
248 FHIIJP6 FBSaiBa
pobHAed by t&e vniTeni^ on ttw 'de«& (4 agalnit than. David defeated titem in several
QnMn Mary. Among hb earliest poetioal batUee, aitd to eome of hia mtscemon they pud
eomporitioiiB are six " Pastorals," which vers tribute; bat generallf they were iDdependent
f rioted in Toneon'a " Poetical lOsoellanj" in and carried on war agwnit the Hebrew mon-
709, the pastorala of Popo q>p«ai1ng in the archs. Tbdraitaatioabetweaitlie contending
same Tolome. The rivalry thnB |»OToked led powera of Anyna and Egypt rendered tbeir
to a violent war&re between the two anthors land a thorongh&ro for the passage of hostile
and their respective adherents, and Fhilipe, armiee. btthetimeof UieHaceatwea FhillstJa
whoee verses are now forgotteD. was esteemed was miUeet to Byrta, and enbeeqnently came
by not a few the first of English mstio poets, vndra the power of the Bomsns. Its chief
Pope mercilessly ridicoled Fhilips'e pastorals eitJea were Gaza, Ashdod or Azotas, AsoaIod,
in a serio-oomio paper in the " Goardisn." In Oath, and Ekron, which early became rich and
1718 Philips produced e. traoedy called " The poveiftal In oonseqcenoe of a large transit aod
IKBtTessBd Mother," founded upon Rodne's maritime trade, which was still ftirtherpromot-
Andtvmaqtu. It was played with great sno- ed by superior agricnltard resonrcea. Tbe re-
cess, and reoetved high praise from £e " Speo- ligion of the PhtliBtiDes resembled that of the
tator." In 1722 he broaght oat two other PhinnioianB, the deity most worshipped being
trag^es, "lite Briton," and "Emnphrey, Ashtoreth, who was reverenced as Bagon or
Doke of Oloncester;" and soon afterward, in DecirtoatAscalon, Gaza, and Aehdod. Ekron
connection witii Dr. Bonlter, he oommenoed was the principal seattrfBeeUebnb, and to the
a serial pqier under the title of "The Free- oracle there Ahadah, king of Samaria, sent
thiakerj''^ which eigoyed great popularity, when he became sick. They bad numerous
When Boulter was made primate of Ireland, priesta and soothsayers, and in war carried
PhBlpa became his secrettu?, and was chosen about with them the images of thdr gods. Of
rwresentalive of the county of Armagh in the the worship of Dagon a relic still eilst« in aome
IrUi parliament In Deo. 1726, he was made parts of Syria in ttiecare token of certain holy
secretary to the Irish chancellor, and in Aug. fiahea.
1738, judge of the prerogative court. Some PHILLIFS,Ohjislzb, an Irish barrister, bom
years after the death of bis patron he returned In Sligo in 1769, died in London, Feb. 1, 1860.
to London (1748), and published a collection He was educated at Trinity college, Dublin,
of his poems, of which, according to Dr. JobU' was called to the Irish bar in ISlit, and in 16Si
*on, "at least half deeerfes to be read." to the English bar, at which time he had ao-
PEiUPS, JoBR, an Kngliah poet, bom in quired a considerable repatation as an effective
Bampton, Ozford^ure, Deo. 80, 1676, died Feb. though florid speaker. Borne of his occadonal
10,1708. He was educated at Winchester and addresses on miscellaneous topke were fbnner-
at Ohristchurch, Oifbrd, where he aoquired ly popular, but bia oratorical prestige was ao-
oondderable repntatitm by his poetical abilidea ^dred piindpally by hia professional efforts at
snd esteem by his personal v&taes. In 1708 ue eriminal bar. Fw some years be was re-
he pnblisbed a bnrleeque poem entitled " The garded as the leading coQnsd at the Old Buley.
Splendid Shilling," waloh was so well liked After the alteration of the bankruptcy laws He
that in 1706 ha was urged to compose a grato- was appointed by Lord Brongham, then Imd
lato^ poem on the battle of Blenheim. His chancellor, to the district ooort of baukniptoy
" C^der," in two books (l'!06), is an imitation, at Livenxxd, whence in 1880 he was tranter-
of "Virgil's Georgics. Bs verses are generslly red to the insolvent debtors' court in London
well constmotea and plesdng, but he closely as one of the commisdonera, a pomtion which
copied Milton, without poeeeming the genins he ooenpied during the remainder of his life,
which makes imitation pardonable. It has As an uithor heis bestknownbybis "Becol-
been nottoed that in every one of his poems lectlonec^Onrranandsomeof hisContemporn-
except "Blenheim" he takes occadon to praise ries" (8 vols. 8vo., 1816), of which a 0th edition
tobacco. iqipeared in 1667, and by a volmne of speeches
PHUJSTIKES (Heb. Pei«Afa*n), a tribe published in 1817, one of which, in the crim.
which gave to the Holy Land the name of con. ease of Gnthriew. Sterne, went through
Palestine, though posseaang only the portion several editions. In the early part of his
on the B. coast bounded by Ae hilly eonntries career he published some pieces of verse, and
of Ephrdm and Jndah uid extending S. W. to at various periods of his life pamphlets and his-
the confines of Egypt. Their ori^ Is on- torical aketcbes. Bia latest efforts in the last
known, although many modem scholars sap- nameddepartmentw«re"A]i Historical Sketch
pose that they came origfaially firom Orete. of Arthur, Duke of WeUington" (1^9), "Ka-
They were eariy settled in f aleatine, and ftvm poleoa HI." Q-^Si), and " Vacation Thoughts
fear of war Moses did not lead the Israelites upon Owital Pnniamnents" (1806}.
through tiieir country, which was the most ^- KBILLIPB, Gsoxo, a German historian, bom
rect route. From the time the Jews passed In KAnigaberg in 1804. Hia parents were
over into the Holy Land, they were engaged in English. He was educated at Munich and Ber-
a perpetual conflict with this warlike tribe, es- Ibi, and subsequently went to England, where
pmdally during tiie time cf tbe later Judges, he passed some months in the study of tiia
Saul, the first Jewish king, fell In a b^tle Anglo-Saxon laws. Upon his return he i«-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PBIUJFS 248
iMimeed Pwtertmtlgn, and became an ardent uncle, and aeoompgnied Um in the amvej%
defeadu- ofthe Roman OathoUoohuvh, main* made for the preparation of a aeriea of geologi-
laining that it was Uie ba^ of all the inatitn- cal sectionB and oonntj maps. About 1S27 he
tioDs of GermaDf, and had of light an abmlnte was appointed keeper of the mnaenm of the
ropremacy in all things over tbe <»Til power, Torkahire philosophical aooiety, and doliTered
In 18S3 he was named profbosor of oi^ lav oonraes of lectorea in Tarions porta of England
at Hanieh, and afterward rojal connsellor at on geology, general phjrica, ohemistry, n^ner*
Landshnt ; but he never pwfonned the duties alogy, and natnral history; After having cmc-
of the latter office. In 1849 he aeoented the oeaaiTelyoocnpiedtlieohairofgeologyinEing'a
prt^bsaorship of canon law and of l^u history oolite, Lendon, and in tlie university of Dnb-
it Imuprnek, which he exchanged two yean Hq (1644), be naa appointed in 1866, c "
later for that of l^al history at the nrnvenritf death of Br, Bnckland, professor of geology in
ot Vienna, wbidi poritton he now holds. He the nniversity of Oxford. As assistant general
hta pnbliuied worxs on Anglo-Saxon, English, secretary of the Britiah assomtion since 1B33,
and German laws, his moat important work he has arranged and edited the nnmeroas tdI-
b»ng£VreA«nn>!At(470lB., Ratisbon, 1846-'01). nmes of reports, inclnding the proceedings,
PHILIJP6- I. Jons', JJLJ>., an American reoonunend^ons, and transactions of the as-
merohant and scholar, bom in Andover, Mass., sociatioa. In 1368 and 1869 he waa elected
Dec. 18, 1719, died Jn Exeter, N. E., April 31, president of the geological society. He has
ITBa. He waa graduated at Harvard college, written varions works on geology,
gtndied theology, and preached for a time, but PHIIXTPS. I. Biohakd, an English chem-
nbseqnently eng^(ed in meroantile afildrs. ist, bom In 1778, died in London in 1861. He
The wealtlk thna acquired was devoted In large was a pnpU of Dr. George Fordyce, and
measnre to the promotion of edncation. He one of tne fonnders of the Askesian society
endowad a prof^Morahlp in Darbnonth college, tor the disonssion of philosophical subjects,
and contributed liberally also to Prinoeton established in 17S9. fie was sncceeeively leo-
college. He gave to Phillips aeadamy at Ando- tnrer on chemistry in varions pabUc schools,
Ter (31,000, beside a third interest in his ea- and in 1839 was appointed cnrator and ohem-
tate ; and founded PhiUtps academy at Exeter ist of the musenm of economic geology, now
ia 1T81, endowing it at flret with $60,000, and the musemn of practical geology, which of'
■olnequently mam(^ other donations, and a fioe he held till his deatlu In 1881 he be-
beqQ«ettoit,Amoontmg in all to $84,000 more, came the conductor of the "Annals of Phi-
n. SiMuxL, jr., nephew of the preceding, bora losopby," and upon the incorporation of that
in Sortli Andover, Mass., in 1761, died ia An- jonniaJ with the "PliiloBophiottl Magarine" ho
dover in 1808. He was graduated at Harvard waa retained as one of the editors. In 1822 he
college in 1771, was a member of the provin- was elected a fellow of the royal sodety, and
cig] coogresB for 4 years beginning witn 177Gj daring 1849 and 1860 was president of the
1 member of Uke oonstitutionsl convention ot chemical society of London. He discovered
1779, a state senator for 80 years following the the presence of phosphoric acid in nranite, a
adoption of tixo oonatitntion, and tor 15 years &ot which had eso^ed the attention of Berze-
pieaident of the aenate, a Jadge of the conrt of Una. IL Wnxujc, en English geolo§^ elder
common plena from 1781 to 1798, oommlssion' brother of the preoeding, bom in London, Hay
er of tiie state in Shays's insurrection, and lien- 10, 1778, died at Tottenham Green in 1828.
tenantgovemor at the time of his death. He He was one of the fonnders of the Aakedan
vu also lai^y engaged in faming, mann&c- society, and in 1801 contribnted to its prooeed-
tnring, and mercantile pursnlts. He planned, ings a commnnication on the divining rod. He
foaaded, and iffganizea Fhillipe academy at was an early member of the geological society,
ALdoTsr, the first inooiporated academy in and in 1837 was elected fellow of the royal so-
Uuaachasetts, and one of the earlieat in the olety. lOneralogy and crystallography are es-
coimt^. The theological aeminary at Ando- pecially indebted to him for a la^e number of
TOT, vhii^ grew out of this academy, was a exact measurements of crystals by the refleot-
detelopment of his plan. He gave the acad- hig goniometer of Wollaston. Beside contrib-
CDny some lands, and procured endowments utmg a number ofpapers to the " Transactions
for it from his &ther, ancles, and cousin, to of the Geological Society," he wrote commnni-
the amount of $86,000. At his death he left cations for scientific periodicals, and published
to the town of Andover a ftibd of $6,000, the works on ndneralogy and geology, wnich had
income to be naed fbr Hie pnipoae of aiding the great influence in popularizing those branches
profnsional acquirementa of female teadhers in of science.
tbe town, of exteikUng tite aminal terms of PHILLIPS, Wespbll, an American aboli-
iogtniction of its common sdtoole, and for the tionist, bora in Boston, Mass., Nov. 29, IBII.
porohaw and grstnitoos distribution of oertavi He is a son of John Phillips, first mayor of
^■eQJed books to " poor and i^oos Ohrirtlaiis." Boston, was graduated at Harvard college in
PHILLIPS, JoHK, an £^i^U) geolooist bom 1881, and at the Oambridge law school in
l>eo- 26, 1800. He is the nephew of William 188S, and was admitted to the Bufiblk bar in
Bouch, the "l!alher of EngUan geology," and the following year. It waa at this time that
in 1815 beoune the pupil and assistant of hla the excitement resulting from the agitation of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOOgIe
260 FHILO JUDiSCS FEILOP(EUEB'
the Blaverj qaestion bad spread thfoogbfttit of EiDgiL^ppa he was allied ta the roja]
the ooimtiT', rbmg to an. unparalleled degree boiue of Jndjea. He appears to have lived to
of intenaitr, and colmmatiiiK in ISSQ in nnmer- old age, although no account ia ^ven of Ida
ona outbreak! of mob Tioleoce. A witaesa death. Fbilo belonged probably to the sect
of the Boston mob of 1SS5 (eee Oabbesoit, Wn.- of the Pharisees, bat departed tridelj from
LUK Llotd), Mr, Phillips joined the abolition- tbe methods of that sect in big ajstem of mter-
ista in 1 S36, relinquabi^ bis profeasional prao- pretatioii. While be held firmly to Uia law ^
tdce in 1839, from unwilliitgneeB to act under Koeea and to all the Jewish traditlonB, he vas
bia attorney's o&th to the oonstitatioiL of the a Platonist in his ideas, and endeavored to
United Btatea. He made bis first n>eecb iror- reconcile tbe philosophy of the Gredan aage
tby of mention in Deo. 18S7, on the occasion with the records of the Hebrew lawgiver,
of a meeting of citizens in Faneoil ball, "to The inelbod which be adopted of allegorizing
noUoe in a soitable manner the recent mm^er, the saored history had already been tried in
in the oi^ of Alton, of the Kev. ELijab P. the schools of Alexandria, but was carried ao
Lorq'oy, a native of New Enaland, and citizen &r by Fhilo that it became in some sense a
of the me atate of Illinois, wno fell in defence new science. His general parpose was to show
of the freedom of the prees." At a moment that tbe Kosaio revolatjon contained in germ
when the purpose of the meeting seemed like- all that was afterward developed into tho
ly to be daeUed, and ite resolutions rdected, various forms of Greek pMlosopny. He finds
by Qi» omiDdtioii of Attomey-Oeneral Anstiii, the [imcdpal doctrines of the stoics and the
Mr. PliiU^ who was among the audience, in Eleatica, not lass than of the Plstonists, in the
anontborst of indignant eloquence, at once re- Bcriptures of the chosen people of God; and
baked the attorney-general for the Bentimeota In hia oharacteriBlio doctrine of the Logos and
he had uttered, and secured the passage of of the ideal and archetypal world, he antici-
the reaolntions. Since that time he has been pates the specnlations of the Gnostics. The
a prominent advocate of the doctrines of the writinga of Philo, which are numerous, are
Garrisonian school of abolitionists, who, be- mostly on subjects connected with the narra-
lievin^ the constitution of the United States to tire of the book of Genesis or the Levitical
be an immoral compact between freedom and law, or suggested by some incident in that
slavery, and the Union resattio^ therefrom the record. Some of bis treatises are polemic and
nudn prop of the slave system m America, re- ^ologetic. They are of great importance, not
fiise to awear to support the former, and ooa- only aa showing the state of opinion among
seqaently abstain from voting, and labor for the Jews in that age, but also aa illnstrating
the dissolution of the latter, as the best^ if not the Christian and apoatolie history in their
the only, means of effecting emancipation, allusions. The beet edition of the works of
Mr. PhiJlipe is also identified with the prog- Fhilo is that of Thomas Mangey (2 vols,, Loa-
Fees of the temperanoe and woman's rights don, 1742), hut additional treatises were dis-
movements, and wiUi efibrts for the ameliora- covered by Cardinal Mtd (1618), and others
tion of the criminal law. He is a frequent exist in Armenian versions (Venice, 1828).
public lecturer on misoellaneoaB snbjecta. As The only En^sb translation of them is that
an orator, Ur, Fhillipa ia ranked among the by Mr. O. D. Yonge, in Bohn'a " Ecdesiaatical
very foremost that America has produced. library " (4 vols. 12mo.).
His lectures and speeches have never been col- PHILOLOGY. Bee LAiiOTri.aB.
lected, bnt may be found in the ^|gea of the FHirX)FCEMEtr, the lest great general of
Boston " liberator" and the New York "Anti- the Greeks, bom about 263, died by poison in
Blaven^ Btandard." Uessene in 188 B, 0. His father, Crangia, was
FHU.0 JUD^^nS, a Jewish philosopher one of the most prominent men of Uegdopolis,
of Alexandria. The place and time of his and belonged to a noble family of Arcadia;
birth are unoertain, but from indications in but dying early he left bis son to be brought
some of his writings it may be inferred that np by his friend Oleander. The studies of
he was bom in Egypt a few years before Ghriat. Philopcemen were chiefly literature, philoso-
He was of the priestly tribe, and was honored phy, and war, the last of which he considered,
with important politioal tnista, among others according to Flutarcb, "the most important and
with the obarge of the embassy sent to Calig- useful occupation of men, and despised those
tda, after the maseacre of the Jews in Egypt, who were not versed in it." As soon as ho
to defend that people gainst the calumnies of became old enough to enter the military service,
Apion. It is stated by Eusebius that, on a sec- he eagerly participated in the incnrsions which
end embassy to the emperor Claudine, Fhilo be- were at that time often made into Laconia.
came aoqaainted with the apostie Peter at Home. He first appears prominently in S28, wbeii
Witii the exception of a visit to Jerusalem to Oleomenes Ul. of Sparta having seized upon
which he alludes, nothing more is known of Megalopolis by night, PhUopcemen with a few
his history, except that he lived and taught at others made a roost determined resistance. The
Alexandria, enjoying great personal ponolar- following year Antigonus Doeon, king of Mace-
ity, and exercising by nis writing a wide in- don, coming into the Peloponnesus to the as-
fluenoe upon the opinions of his Jewish broth- siatanoe of the Achaaon league, PbHopcemeii
rat. By the mamaga of his aon to a daughter Joined his army with 1,000 foot and a detach-
jy Google
FHILOPCEUEN' FEXLOBO^OAL AKATOITT jtti
mant otoKraSrj; uid contributed m^nlf to the Phflopcemen, ai Btratwas, marohed into I^ioo-
Tictorj ot Sellasia, where be refused to le&re nia. Sparta anbtnittec^ and was treated with
the field, thooffh wonnded in both sides b^ a great rigor. The walls of the <atj were razed,
javelin. In titis batUe his generalship and the exiles were all restored, all inhabitants
conrage bad been bo conspicnoos, that ^tigo- brought in or enfranchised by Nabie ware ra-
nos offered him a oonunand in hb armj ; bnt quired to depart on a fixed day, the laws and
Philopcemen, who hoped to eeoore the nnitj- institutions of Ljcnrgno, which had Bubaiated,
and independenoe of Qreeoa by means of the either well or ill observed, for 7 ceutnriea, were
Achraan league, declined. As peace prev^ed abolished, and the citizens were obliged to
at home, however, he went to Crete and as- adopt those of Aohaia. Of the disfraaobised,
listed the city of Lyttua in its war against 8,(K>0 reftuing to leave the ooontr;' were aold
Oaossns. Aratus, the founder of the Aohcean as slaves. These serere measures offered an
league, having died in 313, Philopixinen on opportonitj to the Romans of agun interfering
hia return in SIO was made commander of who oompelled the granting <a a general am'
the cavalry. Aratua had gained hia ano- neatjand tiiereatorationof thep<ditJoalexilea.
wsses by toeans of Uaoedonian mercenaries; In 188 PhUopoamen was elected str^egna tot
but Fhilopcamon infiised a love of military the 8th and last time. Uassene now disBolred
{dory into the Achtean youth, and truned its eonneotion with the league, wherenpon the
them to the nse of arms. In 209 he acoom- Koman ambassador, Flsmininns, wrote to Pht-
paiued Philip, the sucoeesor of Antigonos Do- lopismen, dedring him to call together a meet-
aon, in the expedition against Elis, and in a ing of the Aoheans to disouas the aAira of
battle near the river Larissna defeated the that city. This he declined to do, and oolleot-
.Stolione and Eleaas, and slew their leader, ing a detachment of cavalry hastened forward
Demophantna, with his own hand. A war to reduce Meesene, bnt being repulsed was
broke oat between the AohceaQS and Uachani- thrown fiivm his horse and fell into the hands
das, tyrant of Bparta, and in a battle fought at of the enemy. At night an exeontioner was
Uantmea Fhilopcemeu totally rooted the ene- sent to him with a cup of poiscm, and hearing
mj, himself lulling the Spartan king. He was that the troop he had led had retired in safety,
hailed as liberator of Greece, and so seriously he s^d : " Then we are not altogether unhap-
did his plans conflict with those of PhOip of py," and drained the cop. The news of hia
Hscedon, that an unsucoesaM effort was made death exolted great indignation in Achaia, and
by that prince to have him assassinated. In Lyoortas at the head of an army immediately
SOS Kabls, who had snooeeded Uachomdoa in entered Messonia and ravaged the country us
thegovemment of Sparta, seized upon Uessene, and wide. Dinocrates the Uessenian leadw
and Philopcemen, being unable to persuade slew himself, and his aooomphees in poisoning
I^ppus, then general of the league, to take Philopcemen were stoned to death. The body
tbe field, coUectod a body of armed men him- of Philopcemen was burned, and the ashes put
ulf and drove the tyrant back into Loconio, In an nm were carried to Uegolopolia by the
and the following year, having been elected historian Polybius, in a solemn prooesdon of
■tntegUB, defeated hia army at Scotitoa with the army, and statues to his memory were
much slanghtor. Being succeeded in the office erected in almost all the cities of the league.
by a partisan of Philip, he went to Crete a see- PHILOSOPHICAL ANATOMY, a dei^
end tune and took oonunand of the forces of ment of anatomiosl science, based on date fnr-
Ihe dty a! Gortyna. Returning in 194, he nished by descriptive and comparative anat-
foand that Nabis had renewed his hostilities omy, embryology, and histology, to which are
■gainstUegalopoliSibat thatbothheandPhilip applied the phUosopLical principles employed
had been defeated by the Bomans nnder Fla- is mental and mord science. It is also well
miniiins, who had formed an alliance with the called transcendental anatomy, as it seeks a
Adueaos. No sooner, however, bad Flamini- fundamental unity in all the forms of natnre,
QDs left Greece than Nabis began the war and, in the usual restricted signiflcation of tbe
■pain, invaded Aohma, and bedeged Gythium, term, aims to esteblish a primary plan or ar-
lo relieve thia town Philopcemen fitted ont a chetype of which all skeletona, at feast of the
SMt, which however failed to accomplish its vertebrate, are modifications. A brief sketch
poniose; but marobinx against Bparta, although of the various systems from Okeu to Owen
ne fell into on ambush, he defeated ike enemy cannot fail to render more intelligible the true
vith terrible slaHghter. Shortly after his return character of the human skeletons, external and
Babis was murdered by hia jEtolian auxiliaries, internal, by presenting the primitive type of
frherenpon Philopcemen hastened to Sparte which they are the extremely modified forms.
sndiadaoed that city to join tbe Aohffianleegne. Referring the reader to the conolnding part of
In 189, however, the party hostile to him gun- the article on CoMPABiTiv* A»Aro«or for the
edthe snpreme power there, and the oonneo- main features of its origin and progress, it will
BOQ with the leagne was dissolved, SO of Phi- be sufBcient here to say on these points that it
^xMien's friends being put to death. Both was studied careftilly by Oken and Oorns in
ndeg appealed to Kome. An ambignons answer Germany, by Geoffrey St. HUaire in France,
Vasretomedby the senate, which the Achieans and by Owen in England. Presuming that the
■atarpreted in their own &vor, and in 188 reader has a knowledge of anatomical terma,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
262 PHIL060FHIQAL ANATOUT
wUhoat wUdi all tliese ojttBna will be nnln- lung, the tongae the end of the intestliie con-
telli^blA, we mar at onoe Introduce that of ver^ into muHcle, and the salivarj glands the
IiOroiz Oken, who indisputably etands at the liver. — The poet Ooetha first snggested to anat-
Iioad of philosophical anatomiato. Aaeorlj-as omists the idea of repreeentui^ the raatnal
1807 he made 8 oraniiJ vertebne, which ho relations of the bones by fignrgtiTe diagrama ;
Oalls those of the ear, jaw, and eje, proceeding ho had conceived the idea of the cranial verte-
trom behiad forward j the aaditory nerves trav- brn as early as 1790, bnt did not make it pab-
erae the 1st, the tri&oial the 3d, and the cn^ lio until after Oken'e inangnral diseertation in
tic the anterior or 8d ; the petrous bone he 1807. In his essays on comparative anatomy
considers a senae capsnle of the ear ; he recog- (1810-^20) he made 6 vertebra in the minims*
nizes the vomer as a 4th rndimentair vertebral lian head, 8 on the posterior part enclodng the
body, with the laiWymal bones as laminffi or " cerebral treasare" and its delicate subdivi-
nmrapopiytei, and the nasals as eplnoos pro* rions, and 8 anterior communicating with the
oessea or neural spines ; the palate bones he external world ; these vcrtebrte are the oedpi-
regards as the ribs of the head anchylosed; tal, posterior and anterior sphenoid, pala^,
the sqoamona portion of the temporal bone of upper jaw, and intermaxillary. Dom^ (Ma-
ipjirnmfiT. and the tympanic of birds represent gatiti eiicyelopidigvt^ 1808) showed the anuogy
the soapola and ilinm of the head j he recog- of the cranial segments and their mnacles to
nixed the arm, forearm, and hand in diffitrent the spinal vertebne and mnacles ; he regarded
parts of the npper jaw, and the corresponding the bam-ocdpital bone as a vertebral body, the
bones of the posterior hmba in the lower jaw ; condyles as oblique processes, the ocdpttal
the clavicles of the head were the pterygoid protuberance as a epmons prooeaa, and the
bones. In fust, the head was to him a repeti- mastoid as a transverse process. He conaid-
Ijon of the whole tmnk with all its syst^ns ; ered the body of the sphenoid as perhaps a Sd
he even goes so far as to state as a fimdamen- vertebral centre, bnt rather inc'med to the
tal principle that the whole osseoos system is opinion that the head consisted of a single huge
only a r^>etidoii of a vertebra. This system vertebra, with similar form, nee, and mnscnlar
was at first scoffed at, bnt the striking charac- attachments as a spinal vertebra. Spix(£^«pAa-
terof some of his homologies opened the eyes hgenaU, ISlfi] adopted the nnmber and com-
of hia ooontrymen to the new hght ; after va- position of the cranial vertebne at Oken's sye-
rioDB modiflcallona snggested by other observ- tern, only giving them new names. De BMn-
ers or the results of Ma own researches, in ville(18I6}taughtin his lectnresthat the bead
1848, in his " I^ysiopbilosophy" (Ray society conusts of a series of consolidated vertebrte,
translation, Loudon, 1847), he pursues bis era- developed in proportion to the nervous system
nuJ homologies HtiU further, always regarding contained within them, with simple appendages
the head as a repetition of the trunk, adoctrine (ribs), or compound (jaws, limbs, Ac); this ia
■treonouBly combated by Owen. The present farther developed in his OttiofrraphU (19&9)
article will not permit any extended eipori- BnASutoiredeiecieneetdeVorganiiatimilBW),
Hon of his theory, which is detailed at len^ Bojanus (/lit, 1818) made 4 oranial vertela^
in the work jost quoted, pp. S18-422. His the 4th being the nasal, whose neural arch he
cranial vertebra are : 1. The occipital, con- determined, and the ribs of the tympanic ; he
slating of the body, S condyles, and crest of named the vertebrffi acoustic, gustatory, optie,
Uiis bone; this is also the auditory vertebra, and olfactory.— Geoffiroy St. Hllalre (JnnttlM
as it encloses the auditory bones, and cerebel- dv mvefum d'hUlmrt naturtlle, 1807, vols. ir.
Inm which gives off the nerves of hearing, 2. and x.) recognized the homology of the peoto-
The parietal oonsiating of thebody of the poa- ral fins of fishes with the anterior extremities
tenor sphenoid, the greater wings, and the of birds, of the bony apparatus of a stemom
parietal bones ; this is also the lingual verto- and its annexes with these parts in higher ver*
bra, the maxillary and lingnal nerves passing tebrates ; ho attempted the determination of
throDgh the wings, 8. The frontal, composed the cranial bones in the crocodile, dividing
of the body of the ant«rior sphenoid, orbital or them into those of the month, nose, eye, ear.
lesser wings, and 2 froatals; this is also the and brain, regarding the sknil as a kind of
opticvertebra, theopticnervespasstngthrongh house with ohamI>ers for the lodgment and
the orbital plates ; it also snrronnds the cere- protection of the brain and organs of ssnacL
bnim. 4. The nasal, conusting of vomer, eth- but he did not at that time appear to have had
moid, and 2 nasal bones, cont^ing the ol&c- the idea of cranial vertebra) ; he showed that
tory nerves. The skull contains, tiierefore, a the craninm of birds was composed of the
vertebra to each sense ; the sense of touch is some bony pieces as that of man and mammals,
disseminated over the whole body, and its ver* recognizing a unity of plan of organic compo>
tebrn are 86, 15 in the neck and chest, 6 in sition in all the vertebrata. His Phihtepkia
the abdomen, and 15 in the lombar, sacral, and anatomigut (2 vols. Svo., Paris, lB18-'sa) d»-
oandal r^ona. This system ia normal oidy in veloped nis ideas on the homologies of the ver-
Ue human type, animals being irregular men. tobrate skeleton ; in the Mimoire* du mvafmn
He s^s the pectoral and abdominal muscles d'Aittoire natureUe (vol. ii., 1838, pp. 78-119)
are ennobled In the muscles of the face ; the he has given hia ideas on the structure ana
month is the stomach hi the head, the nose the typical form of the vertebra, and a representa-
UigmzOQbyGOO^Ie
FHILOSOPEIOAL AKATOMT S58
lim ia8g.lL In the Annale$ ie» teimeu no- out, pennanent or deddsiHU, and rrarodnoed
tunUa (nO. Ul, 1624) he explains In a Bjao^ bj the ooagnlatiDn or oaloffioation of ui«integ-
de table (plate 9) the oompoeition of the bonf nment. The Bplandiuoflkeleton is alao In^
beadofnUknaadTertebrateB; he makes 7 ver- rior In rank, oartdlB^ons, but cftpahle of nn-
Ubns, a* fi>Uovn, from before, badnraid: the dergoing bonj transformation in the higher
Utdsl, naaaJL ooolar, oerebral, qnadrigeminal, animals ; tracheal rings, brancUal arches, and
■nikalar, ua esnbelUr. He Btadied the bo- teeth bdong to this skeleton ; the nennwkele'
molones of the hamal arobn more oarefbUr ton isfonnea as indicated in the ar&le Bonk.
than his predMeBSOTs; he made fl i^ecea in He divides the oerebral mass into 8 portionB,
each TvtMn&i ocaubining, however, some of oerebellnni, oerebmm, and optie lobes Detween
tltapirta<tf the extenial or dermal skeleton to them, with 8 pairs of gan^a in fhmt; the
whiut the vertebral theory does not ^^1/; he epioal ganglia, in man, are 80. He constructs
ngirded the branchial arches of flshes as the tae akueton on geometrical priDci|ilea, starting
homologus of the tracheal rings of terrestrial from the boUow sphere, donble cone, and ojHa-
Ttttabr^eiL With all his errors GeoStof Bt der; heinakeawni^hecaUsproto-,deiito-,and
MMin nve a great inqietos to the sto^ of trHo-vertebne ; the Ist (rUm) enveloping the
ptiUoiopMoal anatomj in Fnnoe. Ss most body and its vieoera, in relation with vegeta-
powuM and oonstant antagonise was Cnvier, live life ; the 2d {vertebra) proteoting Uie
irbo treated with lidioole and contempt this nervons^^Btem; and the 8d (limbs) becoming
tbnn of Gwmaa philosiqthT ; these two anat- the osseoos framework which snstmB the mns-
omiib eiuried on thrir dkonssioDS, both bj onlar and locomotive organs. His 8 prinoipsl
lectaru and wiittngB, with all the eagerness cranial vertebra oorreapond to the 8 oereln^I
■nd cAen the IMiemefia of a partisan spirit ; nuusee, and are Hie occipital, oentricipital, and
aUHtf ted biilUancv were on the nde m On- aindpital ; the 8 fiidol vertebne form the nose
Tkr, bat troth and the more philosophical and its oardlages, and tiie 8 intervertebra, he
trabnent ot the snbjeet were iritb Qw&<ij names aodltlve, optic, and olfsctorf. It haa
SL Hilalre. Thus opposed to each other, the been fonnd, however, that it is impossible to
uienoe Of {dtiloecwtiuial anatomy, instead of expl^ the vertebrate homologies bj his dia-
makiBg progress m France, at tne death of gram arche^pe ; for this the r^er is referred
these two ccdleagnee bad mllra into a verjr to the work above dted. In flshes we find the
thaotiii ud nnaatis&otorjr condition. — Cans first development of the nenroekeleton, as dis-
ofDnedenYiraS) was the most snooessM col- tinKnished from the splanchnic and external
tiTitor <^ philoeaphieal anatomy irfter Oken ; skeletons, bnt at its lowest stage, being cartila-
io his Onutiaagt dtr wrffUiciMden AntUvmis ginoaa or partiallj osaeona ; it is of inferior
*Md PhgtMogit (translated into French by vitality, and the component parts are imperfect
Joordan, Brnwl^ 1888) he givea &lr credit, in finm and number; in tbu class the eexnal
thoorit slight mentioii, to French anatomists, o^sns predominate. In reptiles the nwro-
ud UTS great strua npon the rteeaTches of skeleton is for the first time bony; the qilanch-
Germms b thia direction ; he says indden- nlo skeleton Is trnly oartilaglnoaB, and tiie ex-
lallr fbiC j^dlosophio osteology owes noth- tenal truly oomeons; the abdominal rerion
ingto the IfrtgH'* and Italians, an aasertiint or the djgesdve mtem predominates, fouida
daee eootndiated 1^ the aniekrance of the the fhorudo re^on or teq^ratory system jve-
works of iUobard Owen, who, if any one, dominates, extniding even into tae oarittes of
nuy be aaid to represent the present opinion the bones and fbatlisrs. In mirnmnJa the ora-
ot the sdantifio world in matters of philo- nltun predominates and the nervons system;
H^iUoel anatomy. Oanu "iftinf^t'nf that Hie the nenroakeletonbdng the bluest developed,
Mme lelaUoD edsis b^ween tlie8 oranialver- wtth a corresponding inferiority of the extOTnal
tabna and the 8 cerebral masses pertaining to and splanchnic skeletons. Oama divided tlie
the Sgtestaeosorlel nerves (of hearing, vioon, vertebra Into 8 portions, and the Aeleton gen-
aod smell), aa between each ntoal vertebra and wally into this number or lbs multiples, while
tha nnguoAlo awelling of me «ord which it Oken adopted the number S.—- Meckel did not
eamlopes. Hegavethenameofdermatoskel- materially aflbot the promss of j^osiqihical
Btta to that wbloh in solidil)1ng separates sn anatomy, bnt he oonfirmed many previonspriu-
. uiaial fhnn the external elementary Bnbstsnoe^ dplessnabomologieBbyhls minute andaocnrAte
tlr or wster; this external elementary snhstanoe deearipUonsjbialmowledgeoflndlvidualformar
i1m peuatratea within the animal, requiring a tions, and his history of devdopment.— ProC
incre or less solid Hndtation internslly, in the Owen has given the Kreatest extendon to the
^mtaryand resplrvtory systams, oonstitut- sdenoe of pnilosopMcal an atomy in various vrrit-
iog the ipUnohnoskdeton ; the nenroskeletoa Inga and lectures since 1888, among which mar
istliat which limits and proteote the nervous bementionedhia various "HontetiiuiLeotnies,''
■yiteM, being peculiar to the vertebrates, the "Let^otes on Oon^iarative Anatomy" C^tvert*-
■Bost perfto^ developed and in prcnMirtion to brates and fidies), " On the Ardhetype of 1^
the nervous system. 'Hie derm^oudeton is 8keIeton,'"'OntneKatiireofIJmbe,"and "On
ua first snd lowest in the animal kingdcnn; it thePitedpslFonnaoftheBkdeton and Teeth;"
■Ppssn as homy envelope, shell, scales, oasa- the last is the most pcwnlsr, and haa been re-
ou plates, and skis ; it is moreased from with- {ointed thnn "Orr'a Oh^ of Sdenoes" st
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FHHOBOPHIOAL AKATOUT
anatomy ia to diaoorer the original Idea which bat when the central organ of eircalation is
predded at its oonstraction, or the archetype placed within it, the htemal arch is lately
to which all the modifloations of the verte- aeTeloped, as in the thorax, There the plenra*
brftte series oan be referred. The archetype pophysee (nbe) are mnoh eiraigated, and the
retbra principally to tba nenroskeleton, which heemiipophyses (ooatol oartjlages) ar« remored
alone appears to have any typical pattern ; be- from Uie oentmm and placed on the end of the
ride the other skeletons already defined by ribs, the bony drcle being com|deted bj th«
Oama, and of which good examples (of the hsmal spine or sternum ; the nemvl qoie is
dennatoakel^on) maybe fonnd in the plates the eqaivalent of the soperior spinona process,
of the sturgeon, crocodile, and armadillo, and He shows the tallacy of OoTiers definitdDn ot
the carapace of the tortoise, he mentiona a a vertebra ; the latter mdntained that Tfa-te-
aolerosk^eton, or bones developed in teadons, brn have a special nnmber at pieces arranged
ligaments, and aponenroses. In order to on- in a definite manner, looking more at t^eir po-
derstand his terms, and to oomprehend his aition in the series t^en at their oomporitioi) ;
orchet^ skeleton, it will bo aewil to stady his prejndioea agunst the vertebral theory led
bis typical vertebra, here given : him Into many ontenable and contradiotorT
statements and definitions. Onvier divided
the bones of the head into cranial and facial,
making 8 annnlar segments of the former; the
ant«rior comprised the frontal and ethmoid,
the middle the parietais and sphenoid, and the
posterior the occipital, the temporals bdng in-
tercalated between tbe occipital, parietal, and
sphenoid ; he does not ttpplj this to the lower
vertebratea, in which it is most evident, nor
to tLe fboe, or he would have fomid that theae
divisions do not inclnde the same bones in all
male, the same being in one a cranial and
anoth^ "
in anoth^ a facial element; this again in-
volred him in many Inaecnraciea and oomtra-
dictions. Owen divides tlie endoakelettoi of
the hmnan head into 4 asfpaente, as fbllowB,
beginning behind : 1 . Oodpital or epeneephalio
bi the above figure the iLames printed in Ro- vertebra, with the followim composition : oeu-
man letters are the anb^^ons elements, or tnun (c), the bara-oedpitaf portion of the oc-
those which are ordinarily developed fr^m di»- cipital bone ; parapopbyses (p.) and nenrapo-
tinct and independent oentres ; the names in physes (n.), coalesced into the lateral or con-
Italics indicate ttie processes which are con- dyloid portions, the former maiked by tbo
tinoationa of some of tlie {veoeding elements ; ridge tor the rectut lattralU mnscle ; nenral
the latter are the diapephi/tti or snperior spine (n. s.), the proper oodpital hone ; pleora-
transverse prooesaes, and the tgifapcphy*e* or pophyaes (pi), the scapnhe ; diverge append-
obliqne artictilar processM of hnman anatomy, ages (d. a.), IJie bones of the npper extremis ;
The aatogenons elements enclose generally hsmapophyses (h.), tbe ooracoid prooessea of
foramina which form canals in the vertebr^ the scapnla ; and hnmal spine (h. s.) deficient,
chain ; the most constant and extensive oand The clavicle and first segment of the stemnm,
is that marked m, above the central bo^, ibr which complete the mBmmalian scapular arch,
tbelodgement of the spinal cord ornenral axis, are the hfemapopbyses and hnmeu ^line of
composed of the laminte hence called neurapo- the atlas or first cervical vertebra. S. Tho
fhyte»; the second canal, marked h, belowthe parietal or meBencephalic, with c, the basi-
oentnim, is more Irregnlar and intermpted, sphenoid or posterior part of the body; p.,
lodmng the central vessel and the great trunks mastoid prooasses ; n., greater wings of sphe-
of we vascular system, and is formed by the noid ; n. s., perietal bones ; pi, styloid pro-
lameUn hence called hmmapophy»e$. On the cesses ; d. a., greater comna of hyoid bone ;
aides of the oentrmn, most commonly in the h., lesser comaa; and h. a., body of hyoid.
region of the neck, is a canal circumscribed 8. frontal or prosencephalio, with c, anterior
by the plewrap(^kye» or costal prooessea, the body of ^henoid ; p., external angular pro-
fOTapophjjut or inferior transverse prooeesee, cesses of frontal (p05t-ih>ntalB of ashes); n.,
and the itojKfpAyass or snperior transverse pro- lesser wings of sphenoid; n. s., frontal bone;
cesses. Thus a perfect or typical vertebra, pi., tympudc portion of temporal; d. a. defi-
snoh as is fbund in the thorax <^ man and most dent; h., articular portion of lower jaw; andh.
of the higher vertebrates, and in tbe neck of s., dental portion of same. 4. NasJ orrhinen-
many birds, with aQ its dements, |n«eentB 4 oephalio, with c, vomer ; n., <wm plana of eth-
oamds around a common oentre; in the tail moid; n. s., nasal bones: pi., palate bones; d.
of most reptiles and marnmals the itmoKpo- a., pterygoid and malar bones, with aqnamov*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHILOSOPHICAL Alf ATOKT SW
■kS^rgonuUopoittonBOf tempwal; h., nn>»- bnnohloHt^ rajv ; of the first spiiul T«rtebn
TtfyTHt^H^T*™"*; "^ ^- "-1 firtiffBiiiililttrfaa. the ideorapmhyns is abort and simpla sndOw
Tha itJanolmoakdeton of th« head ooniiBts of !iBtii^»oph7ns is the daviole ; in the abdoniiiul
thep«tnMalaitd«arbonea,th«tai^Btedbone8, segm«iita me plearapophysee support eimpl*
tmd the teeth; the external skeleton conEdats raja as direi^g appendages, and the hamal
of the laohi^inal bonea. These 4 cranial Terte- arches are fibrous ; the hEemapoph^sia of the
bm,aooOTdiiigb>theDrgansofBeiise, vonldba: pelvio seKment is osaifled into an iaohiimi sne-
1, RDditorr, related to the organ of hearing; taining the ventral fins or posterior limbs, In
i, gnstatory, irith the oivan of taste^ vhMe eoroe iostanoes nnited to a rib ; this petvio uoh
nerre (gnaiiiorj or triEaoi^) pieroea the nennd ia moat remarkably changed In position, being
inbes of tJda segment or pamea between it and as above mentioned in the so eslled abdominal
the frontal ; 8, optio, with the cvgan ot virion flihet (like the salmon, herring, and pike), or
b«tweea this and the nasal segmokt ; and i, joined to the acapnlar arch ss in the thorado
orpaaseab-
the frontal ; 8, optio, with the cvgan ot virion flihet (like the salmon, herring, and pike), or
b«tweea this and the nasal segmokt ; and i, joined to the acapnlar arch ss in the thorado
lAbctorj, with the cvgan of nttell alw^s ia fishes (like the cod and perch families), acoord-
i — 1 k 1_ i-tiefirstvolmneofWaPwf- ins u the isohiom is Joined to the ooraoold I7
Iff from the fact that the ce- a Icmger or ahorter development The bony
trmli. AjjaaatSiintiLefirstvolmneofhisiVw- ins as the isohiom is Joined to the ooraoold I7
KaifemMt, argtdnff from the fact that the ce- a Icmger or ahorter development The bony
phalio extanrion of the ekorda tlortaiii ia ai^ and fibrons parts of the hiemal arcbea contract
nstad in the embryo fish at the region of the rapidly beyond the abdomen ; the parapopbyses
petter sphenoidal wings, maintwned the " ex- increase gradnallj, curve downwa^ and com-
istenoe of only one eraiual vertebra, the ooeipi- plete the aroh as in the cod, or the pIenrq>o-
tol, the rest of the head remaining fbreign to physes contribute to form it with them as in
Am T«rtebral system ;" this ia reftited by Owen, tmidottmu, or the sroh is olosed by the former,
and probaUy its anthor doee not now adhere to with the l^ter anohylosed below and diverts
it Owen also combats the idea of Oken that at the points, as in the tmmy. The bodies c^
the head is a repetition of the whole tronk ; he some c^ the terminal s^iments in typical osse-
mmntains tbat the jaws are not the limbs of one fishes are consolidated ti^ether, and sop-
the head, bnt are the modified hnmalarohes of port several neural and h»mal arohes and
the 8 anterior segments ; the anterior limbs are i^nes, which form the more or less expanded
direimng qtpenasgea of the oodpital aegment, base of the oandal fin. The icm^, aiud, and
>adtaeposterioT<H the pelvio segment irith its oandal fins are folds of the skin supported on
hnmil Hoh, both varionsly displaced from their ^>inea between the neural and htemal spines to
timnsl ardiefl in difibrent vertebrates. The di- which the fin raya are articulated ; they form
veiging qmend^es of tlM ribs of fishes, rep- no part of the tvpical vertebrate skeleton, and
tales, and birds, arising from their posterior are pennliar to nsbea. As compared to Ms ar-
edce, are eaaentially limbs, rodimentary arms cbetype figure, the fish skeleton departs tram it
ana le^ tluragh they never become each ; in in the exoeee of development, prinoipally ia the
Ibis view angels' and Oupid's wings, and the diverpng appendages of the craninm, and in
arms of the myl^ioliwical firiareoa. are philo- the arrest of develofiment in most of the other
SDphioal posribiimea from tiie develt^ment of segments ; the prindple of repetition predomi-
one <a more of these divergent qipendagea, nates, and the seements resemble each other
IhOD^ sool^oal n<»idesoripts. As the era- more than in the higher classes. In the reptile
aial s^ments are in nnrober aooording to the skeleton, the tuemd arohes of the anterior %
cranial nerves of sense, so the development of cranial vertebna, the Jaws, are more developed,
the vertebral bodies and neural arohes in the while that of the parietal is feebly so, and they
trrmk depends on the jnnctdon of the nerves are more or less displaced backward ; in the
with the n>inBl cord ; tlie condyloid foramen oodpital segment the heemal or soapnlar aioh
rf the oottjntsl bone gives passage in man to ia still farther displaced backward and entirdy
^ hypoglossal nerve. The cranial bouea of separated, to it is attached an additional ringle
Babes are exoeedin^y oompHoatod, and have bone, the hnmems, and the divisions of the
taxed the ingenuity of most comparative anat- terminal segments are reduced to 6, a number
onuits, and tried to the nbnoat the patience of not surpassed in tmy of the higher vertebrates.
ilieir readers ; those who wish to try the ex- A part of the body of the atlas is developed
perimeot are refnred to Owen's " Comparative separately, and ia united to the Sd cervical ver>
Aoaton^ of Fishes" and " Homohwiee of the tebra, forming the odontoid process ; the 9 s^^
Vertebrate Sk^ettm," where Uie anUtor labors ments after the craninm are cervical vertebra
nry hard, and not alwayB very satisfitotorily, movably artionlated, the htemal arches not be-
to reduce every thing to his archetype. Itwm ingosnfied, and the pieurapophyses feebly dc
he intereetiw and instmotive to ^ve a few of veloped, bat free or floating ; the 9 to 12 fol-
the most atrtbng ebaraotOTS lA the Aeletons of lowmg are dorssl vertebras, uie elongated ribs
the dlfilgrrat classes of vert^rates, aooording with the hsmal arch oompietlng the cirde, the
to Owen. In the flab not only the jawa, bnt pieces of which are movable: the next 8 are
the anna and lege, may belong to the skull, the lumbar, without ft«e and bony ribs, bnt
which aooordingly is developed out of propo^ with hnmal arohes ; the next 2, nnited, form
ticn to the rest of the body ; thedivei^mgBj>- the aamom, bearing the pelvic arch, conristing
pendages of the frontal vertebra are the oWn et pleorqraphysas (ilinm), hramapopbyscs (is-
of (qieronlar btmes, and of the parietal the dtium aiM pubis), with ue divergent ^pen-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
SM PHnX>80PHI0AL AUTATOUT
itgx of the poBtericff Ilmtis, a hl^er derdov- bone fonna psrt of the oruiial vails ; the ot^
m«nt than in Bshtm ; bejond the soomm all the oipital u Ai^nlated to the etlas bj zjgt^tH
vertebnB are caudal, in which tiie plenrMtopIi^- physes or ooad^les developed ftoin Qie neural
see become gradoal^ ehorter, a few of toe fint ardiee, and the hnmal ot BOf^nlar arch is gen-
attaohed to diapophyseB, and the hcein^iophj- erallf &r removed from the ekoll ; the luwia-
sea artionlAtod between and to 2 vertebral bod- poph^Bes of the atlas, or clavicles, vaij inn<^
ies. In Uiis dasa we see for the first time re- in extent, degree of oasification, and even in
giona of the bodj. In the bird skeleton the their presence ; the plenrapophrsea of the oer-
ppainmrillfti-y is mDch more develqied than the vioal vertebMe are verjr ahorl^ aod are ^eneraUj
maziUary, &e reverse of what is seen in rep- united to the other elMoents, drounaorilniig the
tJlea ; Uie greater Tolmne of tbe bndn requires foramen for the vertebral arter;-. The nomber
an increased cranial cavity, which Is obtained of the cervicala is 7, exoq)t the alleged 6 in tbe
by the ezpaimonofthe neural orohee and Bjanes manatee and the 8 or 9 in the 8-toed sloth ; this
vitbovt uie addition of any new bonea; tbe nomber depends on the exiateoce of tbe di&-
cervical segments have short and free plenrapo- phragm, &o., determining the nnmber and dis-
physes or riU, which are early united to tbe tribntion of tbe pura of cervical nervu ; in
neural arches, forming nnmerons simple verte- stxne whales and armadilloe they are more iX"
brie, and giving len^^ and flexibility to tbe less consolidated. In the dorsals tbe [denruio-
neok ; tbe detadied bamapopbyses of tbe atlaa physea or ribs are movable, and the anterior
are nsnally joined together at their extremities onea are articnlated between 2 vertebra); the
forming a thin osaeona arch, the fnroalor bone : bajmwophyses are tbe ooetal cartilages, and the
in the thorax the latter are osrified into sternal bamal ^inee are generally a distjoct cb^n of
liba, the pleorspopbyBes b^ng tbe vertebral bones, in tbe highest cmsolidated Into a ster-
ribs, bearing diverguig appendages, pointing nam; toward the loina tbe plenn^|Ayaee be-
baokward, whliA serve to mute the ribs and to cotAe ahorter, and are attached to their respeo-
render tbe thorax more si^d ; the homal ^linea tive vertebral oentree and to the diapopbyBes ;
of the atatwior tborado SMmenis are developed tbe bfemwophysea beoome shorto*, uid finally
into tbe broad stecnmn <£arad«ris(io of birds, free and floating. The caodals vary mnoh in
witb its keel on tbe median line laige in pro- nomber, sise, and form ; tbe abort pleorapo-
portion to the powers of flighl Tbe sacral ra- physea in tbe anterior ones are developed at
gion is greatly developed, both tn the extent tbe end of di^Mnihysee, and tbe bnoiat arch,
and in the nmnber of bones firmly nnited to form when it ezista, is artioidated directly to the
it, and in its enormoos plenr^topbyses, eepe- bodies. The limbs (ezeept in oetaoesns, wbere
oially tbe iliom : tbe sacmm inclndea some of tbe posterior are wanting) are mneh alike,
the last dorsal, the Inmbar, the sacral, and even whether adapted for flying, digging, swimming.
some of tbe oandal vertebm as limited in the running, or climbing, aa wilT be seen under
reptile skeleton : after the sacmm come S or S tbe homotypes below. In the flsh and rep-
cand^ more or leaa united, the last compresaed tile the vertebral oolnmn b strai^t or nearly
iatwalb^ and directed npwnd. Ihepelvisbas so; in tlie bird the sknll forms a rigfat angle
only S nnm^kcphysee, tiie pnbia and tbe isobl- with the neck, tbe latter having a rigmc^
nm,not nnited on the median Knei exoept in curve, and the ttul bent npward; in the spring-
tbe ostrich for the former and the nandon ing niamiwin^ uke tbe camlvora, there ia a
(ri^j for the latter, the mle being that tbe pel- ciKiVflrReiioe of tiie spinons prooecMS toward
via of birds ia open below. The divwging op- the lltn doivol, and in moat thei* is a dmr
pendages of the scqiolar and pdvio anJies, or ilar oonveigmoe toward the 4th oervioal, these
the anterior and porterior limbi, agree in bav- two rei^ons bedng the centres of ipeoial movo-
ing only 2 hemes in tbe oarpns end tarew, and ments of the ooWm ; in bnlky fmrr-slis lib
S united in the metacsrpna and metotarsns, snp- tbe elephant, which move with ■ rigid spine,
porting in the fbrmer the 2d, Ed, and 4tbpbalan- these processea are all inclined a little badk-
ges, titat of tbe 8d very rudimentary ; in tJie ward, as in crooodiliana. In man the nAie
metatarsns tbe 8 bones are, except in tbe pen- bas several sii^t and graceAil eorvea, denned
gnina, nidted for tiietr wbole lengtb, incIndiDg to prevent shocks to the nervons i^stem ftran
also the S tarsal bones; the radimenta^ meter- movements incidental to tbe erect poaiticui; the
tarsal of tbe great toe is not anohylosed, and is oorvatnre of the aaomm and coccyx an greal-
direoted bai^ward, aopportin^ tite bmd toe est compared with the nnmber of vertabne,
with 3 phalanges ; tbe 2d toe has 8 piialan^es, and the anterior and posterior diverging ap-
the 8d 4, the 4th 5, tbe fitb or little toe being pondages reach the maximmn of developi — "-
wanting ; by the nomber of phalangeB we know es)eoially the latter as compared to the It
that, in the Airican ostricb, the external or of the sfdne; the thumb, the least ocastaut m
shortest toe of the 2 hj its S joints is tbe 4tb, the rest of Uie cbua, becomes hi him tbe most
and the internal the Sd, longer than the other, important, oonstitating a hand proper; in like
thoogb having only 4 joiata. In the mammal manner tbe great toe, tbe first obliterated in
akeleton tbe cranial cavity ia expanded, aa in other mumTimla, is oharscteriBtio of the gains
birds, chiefly at the expense of the neural Aomo, as onit depend i^noipally the ereotpoe-
spines, frontal, parietal, and occipital; bnt in tore and b^wd ^tof man; even the highest
most the squamons portion of the tempwal monkey has a posterior Uinmh instead of a
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PHnx>eoFmoAL ASATOTTI 267
great to«. In the data at serial homolo^e^ the aanaa of tatrte la a delicate modification of
or homotypea, may be mentioned the homolo- the sense of tonoh, placed for protectiYe pnr-
gj of the Boapnla with the ilium, the hnmerus poses at the oommenoement of the allmeGtary
with the femnr, the ulna with the fibula, radi- canal; it is absent in many of the lower ver-
ns with tibia, oarpns with taraas, metacarpas tebrates, and has no more claim to be reckoned
with metstaT8ns,nngers with toes; inthesknll, among the special senses than similar modifl-
the baai-occipital, basi-Bphenoid, pre-aphonoid, cations of the sense of toaoh in the wing of the
and Tomer are the homotypes of the vertebral bat or in the genital mnoons membrane ; the
bodies ; the coraooid, sapenor maxillary, clav- origin, development, and mode of distribntion
iole, pnbia, ischimn, chevron bones, sterna! or of the gnstatory nerve, which is only a branch
abdominal ribs and cartilages, and tendinous of the Gth pair, moreover are not such as be-
intenectiona of the reelv* abdominU, are all long to special sense organs. There are also
homotypes and hcemapophyses. This system of only S sense capsules in the head, the petroas
homotypea is far more natural, satisfactory, and portion of the temporal bone, the sclerotic in the
intelligible than that of Okon, Spix, and Oarus, eye (as in the tunny), and the ethmoid for the
who apeak of the scapula, ilinm, femnr, hnmer- sense of smell. As each vertebra of the trunk
na, Ac., of the head, regarding each part as a corresponds to a spinal nerve, there ought to
repetition of the whole ; an idea whiui Ouvier be, according to the view liere maintained, 8
combated in the most scomftil manner. — This pairs of nerves In the head ; excluding the 8
is a &ir representation of the principal points special sense nervea, the 1st pwr of cranial
of philosophioal anatomy, aa^ven in the writ- nerves would bo made up of the metoraa oeuU'
ings of Owen ; in many points it is fery un- rum, pathetic, external motor of eye, and the
satisfactory, and he labors very hard oftentimes facial (or the Sd, 4th, 0th, and 7th} for the
to make ont his homologies and to refer them motor portion, and the Bth or trifacial for the
to his archetype. With snch soarcea of error sensitive portion ; the Sd pair of cranial nervea
and room for vsriation, it wonld be useless to baa the gtussopharyngeal and spinal accessory
expect perfect agreement among authors ; from for its motor portion and the par nagum for
the nature of adaptive organization, it must be the senmtive; the Sd pair of cranial nerves is
difficult if not imposmble to reduce skeletons the hypoglossal, which, though all motor in
and their parts to unexceptionable laws; or- man, in reptiles (froga) has tlie secacry gan-
ganio systems will not be bound down to any glion of an ordinary spinal nerve ; in the same
such narrow and clearly defined rules, and ore manner in reptiles the Tth is seen to belona to
constantly presenting to naturalista instances the 1st, and the glossopharyngeal and spmal
of inexplicable departure from what have long accesaory to the 2d series. We have, then, 8
been considered natural laws; the common cerebral vesiclea, S special aonses, 8 sense cap-
fisllacy that an exception proves a law plainly sulca, and S pairs of cranio-spinal nerves,
■howB thatmanyof our mostflrnilyestahlished. which would seem to indicate 8 cranial vorte-
prinoiples in natural science are but approxima- brie, with a rudimentary nasal or other verte-
tions to and figments of eternal truth. Phil- hral bodies in front, wiQiout nerves belonging
osophical anatomy will probably always be an to them, corresponding to the coccyx poateri-
ODcertain and ever changing study, assisting orly. There is no regularity in the manner in
bnt not constituting the acience of anatomy, which the nerves, both spiusl and cranial.
Admitting the 1 cranial vertebras of Oken and coma ont of the vertebral canal ; the 2d cranial
Owen, there may still be recognized with as nerve comes out at the jugular foramen, be-
mnoh propriety other vertebral centres in ad- twecn the occipital and parietal vcrteDrn;
vance of the vomer, analogous to the coccyx some of the nerves of the 1st pair make their
at the other end of the column, with no nerves exit from the cranium hj tho JbramiTia rotun-
belonging to them. The usnal reason for mak- diim and tnale, and some by the sphenoidal fls-
ing4 cranial vertebrae seems to have been, both sure, tliat is, both through the Sd and between
with Oken and with Owen, the existence of 4 the lat and 2d; in the human spine the nerves
organs of sense in the head, auditory, gusta- come out between the vertebno, but in the
tory, optic, and olfactory; on this principle dorsals of manymammals they pierce the mid-
there would seem more reason for the admis- die of each vertebra. As to the hicmal arches,
aion of only 8. In the first place, there are 8 Prof. Owen finds it very difficult so to di-
cerebral vesicles, oorreaponding to what be- vide his tympanic series as to get the hyoid
come cerebellum, optio lobes, and cerebral arch and lower Jaw as appendf^s to the 2d
Iiemispheres, or according to some anatomists and 8d vertebra ; there is considerable doubt
the mednlla oblongata may be substituted for aa to whether the diverging appendages of the
the cerebellnm; in the next place, there are cranial vertebra) are as yet properly determin-
only 8 special sensesinthehead, hearing seeing, ed. Admitting 8 cranial vertebne, with am-
and smelling, taste being a compound sense, dimentary 4th or nasal centrum, let the occi-
made Dp of amell and touch ; the flavor of snb- pital segment claim the scapular arch; the
Btanoes we get from the sense of smell, as the tower jaw may be appended to the parietal
reanlt of a common oold in the head and of and the unper jaw to tiic frontal segment, the
artificially preventing the entrance of air by hyoid arco, as Oama and others maintain,
balding the nose sufficiently show ; the rest of behig placed with the tracheal ringa in the
TOL. zm. — 17
UigmzoQbyGOOglC
268 FHILOSOFHIOAL ANATOICT FHILOSOFHY
BpUuialuioakeleton; or, leaving the hjaii aroh tho ethmoid for oenlnmi, frontal for neiml
in the endoBkeleton (which Is probably niore ordi, uid uuaU for rib and BtemDm. The
oorrect), and. pertaining to the parietal seg- lower portion of the hjroid bone with the
ment, tJie upper and lower jnwa tavj be made greater comii is the sternal quantity and rib
the donble nsemapophjBial appendages to a of the atlas, the thyroid cartilage of the axis,
mngle rib, as the ischiiun and pnbis are to the the oriooid of the 8d cervical, the tr»cheu
ilium. There are some facts fsTomig the lat- rings of the 4th, fith, and 6th, and the daviole
ter view, enoh as the development of both jawa of the 7th cervical. He makes ont these 0
from a nngle sich ; in the cydostome nshes cranial vertebra also from the disporatlon ot
the month is an arch, in which it is hard to the nerves ; as in the spine a nerve parses be-
say which is npper and which is lower jaw ; tween 3 adjacent vertebra;, and'6 nervea would
in myxiiis there is no under jaw, the inferior correspond to 6 vertebree, he findi Q cranial
portion of tiie month being made np of the an- nerves for his 6 cranial vertebrie; the lat nerve*
terior part of the tongue bane. Not to mnlti- is the olfactory : the Sd, a gronp containing
ply instances of other -donbtM and debatable the optic, Sd, 4tn, and 6tJi nerves, motor and
points, these will snfflce to show that philo- sensory, pessing through tbe/<»rafn«n laeerv»;
«ophica] anatomy has not yet reached a posi- the Sd, branches of the 5th passing throngh the
tive And nnasiuilable fonndation. — Tfaongh foramen ovale; the 4th, the auditory and acial;
Owen's -oouclosions are accepted by most anat- and the fith, liie par vagnm, glossopharyngeal,
omistB a* coming nearest the tmth,}(r. Mac- &c The fore fimbs are homologons to one
lise, in the Article "Skeleton" of the "Gydo- another and to the poBt«rioT limbs; theecapnia
Media of Anatomy and Physiology" (vet iv., and ilimn «re the homoli^ues of the posterior
London, 18G2), looks at the oaseons framework laminia of a dorsal vertebra, the acromion and
from another point of view, and comes to very inferior iliac spinous processes correspond to
different reHutts, at only a few of which can transverse processes, and the head of the hn-
we glance here. Se denies that there is any mems and femur to the head of a rib.
Bach ent as a typical vertebra, and mtuntains PHILOSOPHY (Qr. duXer, loving, and ao^ia,
that vertebrea are unequal quantities, varying wisdom), the universal and absolute science,
in different regions of ttsu trunk ; according to aiming to explajn phenomena by ultimate
bim, the cervical, lumbar, and sacral vertebrw canaes ■ to grasp tiie natnre of real as distin-
develop icostal appendages as well as the dor- .giiished from phenomenal existence; to system- -
■sal; the first 7 tnoradc oosto-vertobral figures Dtize the forces and the laws which prevul in
4ire complete, -and all other parts of the mam- the activities of God, man, and natore; to re-
malian spinal axis are more or less modified dnce the nniveree to a principle of unity ; and
from this archetype ; the mammalian cervix to exhibit at once the impulse and the goal of
'is not limited to 7 vertehrs, and may contun destiny. The origin of the name is, upon ques-
.from 6 to fl without anomaly, the number de- tionable anlhority, attributed to Pythagoras,
pending on how many have the ribs developed who preferred to be called a philosopher, or
only to the cervical degree ; all the epinal seg- lover of wisdom, rather than a sophist or sage,
jnents of the vertebrata are only as the variable It was appropriated and first populariied by
proportionals of eterno-costo- vertebral arche- Socrates, who made it tbe distinctive appella-
types. The hyoid apparatus oonsista of the tion of his teaching in contrast to tb« arrogant
metamorp'hoaed riba of tbe cervical vert«bm, deugnation of tbe sophists. Originally assom-
and the ventral apparatus (as in the crooodil- ed in modesty, the term did not retain its ety-
ians)of those of the lumbar; clavicles and cora- mological and Socratio meaning, but returned
coid bones he regards, like ribs, as identical to that of ao(f>ui, or wisdom. Among tbe most
parts of the ooBto- vertebral srchotype, and as significant definitions of philosophy are the fol-
belonging, not to the atlas, but to the ?th lowing: " the knowledge of things divine and
cervical vertebra ; in like manner, marsupial bumau" (attributed to Pythagoras) ; " a medi-
bones, pnblc and isohiatio bones are rib-like in tatjon of death" (^Xiti) (omroti), and " a resem-
^eir nature, and belong to the lumbar and aa- bling of the Deity in so &r as that is possible to
oral vertebrte. In Ibe bead be makes 6 verte- man" (Plato) ; " the art of arts, and science of
bne: 1, occipital, the riband stemnm being tbe sciences" (Aristotle) ; "thotpartofhumanlearn-
styloid process and the upper half of the hyoid ingwhich bath reference to thereason" (Bacon);
bone with its lesser cornu ; 3, petrosal, with " the science of things, evidently deduced from
its coBto-atemal quanfity the tympanio 1>one first principlea" (Descartes); "the science of
coiled npon itself and enclosing the bonea of effects by IJieir causes, and of causes by their
the ear ; 8, temporal, having no centrum, but effects" (Hobbes) ; "the science of sufficient
the temporal and parietal bones for neural reasons" (Leibnitz); "the science of things
arch and spine, the lower jaw articnlating like posMble in so for as they are possible" fftolfj;
a rib to the glenoid cavity ; 4, post-sphendd, " the science of the connecting principles of
with greater sphenoidal wings for neural arch, nature" (Adam Smith) ; " the science of truths,
and the zygoma and upper Jaw for rib and BensibleandnbBtract"(CondillQc); "thoscience
sternum; fi, anterior sphenoid, with lesser of the relations of all knowledge to the neces-
wings for neural arch, and palate bone for sary ends of human reason" (Kant); "tbe
costo-stemd portion; and 6, ethmoidal, with sdence of theorigioalfbnnof theEgo,ormen-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PHILOBOFET 350
tal sdf" (&ag, with wliioh that of ^chte mb- the grmmi of its ozieteQoe in thft epedu, Hm
■toDtiallT agrees) ; "thQacaenoe of the absolute, apeoieBin the genus, the genus in Bome br<»d«r
or of ue Absolote indifference of the ideal dsMofication, and so on till an altimate snb'
and real" (Sohellitig) ; " the soienee of reason, stance be reached, from whiidi all Uunge are
in so Ikr OS the latter is the conaoioae idea of dereloped, and wbioh is the goal of philosophf.
muTerBal being in its uecessarj derelopment" The final attunments of the sciences are the
(H^^l) ; " the sobslitntioa of trae ideas, that elementarj data of empirical philoaoph;. Yet
ia,ofneoesaar7tnithsof reason, in plaoe of the philosophy, ia its higher manifestations, has
overdghtsof popular opinion and the errors of not stcoiied from the results of scioaoe, bnt
pajdhtdc^ioal wuenoe" (Ferrier) ; " the knowl- from the snggestions of consoiousness and the
«d^ <^ effects as dependent on their oanses" pratnlates of reason. — Philosophy embraces the
(Sir 'Wmiam Hamilton); "the scienoe of first two departments of psyohologj, which inTe»-
IHiDoiples, thBt,namelT, which investigates the tigatea the faonlUes and operations of the hn-
priniarjr gronnds, and determines the fnnda- man mind, and ontologj, which seeks the na-
mental certainty, of hmnan knowledge gen* tore and laws of real existence. The former
erally" (Uorell) ; "the science of the ultimate deals with the phenomena of oonsoiouaness, the
principles and laws of nature and freedom, as constitiition of the mind, the laws of thought;
also of their mntnal relations" (Tennemann) ; the latter with the essential characteristics of
** the wience of the reason of things" (Alaoi) ; being p«r w, the oonstitntion of the nniyerae,
" the e^IanaUon of the phenomena of the the ^ws of tjtings. The former is descriptive,
nniverse (Lewes). — Philosophy agrees with and the latter scienti£o metaphysics. The
reli^on in revealing the infinite, in regarding transitioa from the one to the ome^ the dem-
indiridnal objeota as produots or shadows of onstration of otjective reality from snbjcctiTe
an ultimate absolute principle. But it requires conception, is the leading phOoaophioal prob-
etidence and logical eequences, while rehgion lem. The aim of psychology ia the description
rests npon mystery and faith, open instinctive and analysis of mental experience. Even when
and fipiritnal certaintj'. The one aystema- oombined with logic, it can fiimishaknowledge
tizes tjie totality of things in the dom^n of only of phenomena and relations. It jnarks,
knowledge, the other in that of feelmg. In first, the changing facts which pncceed each
the order of history religions are the prelndes other in the mind ; secondly, the faculties or
of philosophies. The former divinize phenom- permanent powers to whidi these facts are
ena, the Ialt«r establish between them relations severally related ; and thirdly, the afiirmation
of canae and effect. Faith grasps the substanoe, of personal existence and identity. Tbe mulli-
reasoo Inmishee tbe form. The mode of con< plicity of facta are all manifestations of powers
oeption and atat«ment in the two are entirely of thought, feeling, and volition; and these
different. Philosophy gives aiplieit« the ab- powers are the diverse operation of a simple .
stract ideas and tendencies which are in- personal principle wbioh we accept aa an ax-
Tolved vaplieiU in the oonoeptiona of religion, lom of conscionsness. Cogito, ergo turn, the
Poetry or art ^so, like philosophy, is a revela- Oarteeian proof of personality, of tbe distinc-
tion o£ the infinite ; bnt its ideal is beauty, tion of one thinking being from every other,
while that of philosophy is truth. The one remains true, though the mind be regarded as
moves according to principles of taste, the other a colleotioa, not of fboultiea, bnt of sensations,
by lo^c ; the law of the former is the imagi- aa by Oondillao, or of impressions and ideas, as
nation, that of the l^tcr the reason. A com- by Ilume, or of categorioal laws, as by Eunt
plete pbiloBophio system may have an nsthetio The phenomena of oonscioosness, however
cbaraoter, and a finished work of art may be clasMfied, are nsaally distingoished as Bandtive,
analysed as philosophy analyzes the universe; intelleotim, and voUtlonal. To the first class
bat if each .were perfect, the former would be belong sensations and emotions, the former an
abstract and absolate, the latter would be con- affection through tbe body, the latter throogb
Crete, an imitation, bnt not an explanation or the mind. To the aeoond class belong percep-
a jastificstion, of nature. Philosophy, as the tion throngh the organs of sense; conception,
sdeuoeof oltimate principles, differs itom spe- when those organs are not concerned; memory,
oial sciences whose objects are finite phenomena which la conception with individnal reoogni-
and proximat« causes. It transcends them, tion; imagination, by which conceptions are
and neals with objects only in the lieht of the combined in a different order from any in
absolute. Even the whole circle of thenntnr^ which the originals were perceived; belief with
edences does not constitute a system of pbilos- or withont evidence ; and reasoning, which is
ophr, which, if empirically es^blished at all, either contingent or demonstrative. To the
conld only be so by combining the results of idl third class belongs only the act of wilhng, but
departments of scientific inquiry as the basts as this may be exerted in the control of other
of a higher generalization. Each particular mental operations, there results a new class of
science seeks a principle of nnity, a force and mixed intellectaal and voluntary operations, aa
law wbtoh will acoonnt for the ptienomena in attention, attraction, comparison, claauflcation,
its own realm. This principle becomes an ele- generalization. The term ontology, which by
ment in universal scienoe or philosophy, which present usage means the same as the ancient
seeks after absolute nnity. The individnil has metaphysics, was first introduced into philo-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
S60 PHIL080FHT
BopUcallangnagebrWolftodeBignstethejiri- latter Tisnall; precedea the former, famishing
mary department In hit qnadruple claasinca- the preconceived hvpothesis wliich guides ona-
tion of philosophy — MycoologT, oosmolo^, lytic researches and whidi is conflnnod or cor-
and theology being tne other three. He m- reeled hy them. Boldness in synthesis has
tended by it the science of abstract (not abso- been more common than precirion in analysis.
Inte) as distinguished Jroni real being, the "With regard," says Samuel BMley, "to th©
science of tlie possible, of the neoeesary and philosophy of mind, nhich must always con-
contingent, of quantity and quality, of sob- etitnte the foundation of non-physicsl science
stance and accident, &c. It exponnded ra- of evei^ desoription, I venture to repeat the
tional laws, without reference to whether any prediction that no great progress will be made
thing actual obeys them, or to the laws of in- by those who prosecute It, and that diey will
tellect by whieh we believe them. Eant con- continue to move in a circle, until they consent
demned under this namethe whole theorythat to do what sncceaafnl physical Inquirera do,
oar sabjective ideas imply real objects, verita- namely, to dismiss all figurative statemects of
ble existences, corresponding to them, and par- fact, all fictitious entities and occurrencea, all
ticularly confated the ontofoglcal proof of the abstractiona except as mere forms of eipree-
divine existence. From his tmie ontology baa rion, all hypotheses except such as maybe prc^
been opposed to psychology, and comprehends fessedl^ put forth in the character of tentative
investigations into every reol exiatenee, which, guppositions ; and to confine themselves to
without being a direct oljeot of consciousness, real objects, actual events, literal statements,
may be deduced from the possession of certain and rigoroas conclusions." Garos describes
feelings, (tr principles, or faculties of the hu- the history of philosophy as " the natural hia-
man soul. Its three objects are the soul, na- tory of tbe human reason, its pursuits and pro-
tare, and God, to which correspond Kant'a ducts." It presents a genealogy of Bystems,
three ideas of pure reason, and the three de- and shows the progress of reason throagh ab-
partmonts of rational layohology, cosmologj^ stract Bchemos like that of the soul throng
and theology. Its goal is an organic system of successive religions and dvillKations. — It is K
tiie spiritaai and moterial universe, an Intni- pecnliarity of Eidian roeculation that it esteems
tion of unity. The whole modem philosophy life the greatest of evus, and looks to annihila-
of the absolute is ontological, while positiviam tion as ttie highest bliss. To extingaiah indi-
deniea that we can pass beyond the phenom- viduality in absorption, to close the circle of
enal, and Sir William Hamilton denies that metempsychosis, to he finally lid of being, is
we can be scientificallv certain that our fao- the goal to which both reli^on and philosophy
cities adequately represent objective realities, point. The orthodox and probably oldest
— Every system of philosophy is the speculative gstem of Hindoo philosophy is that of the
development of a principle, a coherent chain Vedanta or the Mlmansa. It embodies tradi-
of thoughts, whose first member is accepted as tions of Brshminigm, interpretations of the
an axiom, and whose last is the remotest oon- Vedas, and resulta of speculation. The second
sequence resulting from it. Between the two Mimansa, which is specially called Vedanta,
lie all the phenomena of the universe and of develops the idea of Brahma as at once the
human life. Systems develop progressively operative and material ground of the universe,
what the reason contains as a possibility and both the principle and the result of creation,
dmnands as an ideal. The adherents to the both immanent in the world and transcendent
method and tendency of a system constitute a above it, both the source and destiny of sU
aohool of philosophy. Tbe system is developed things. Betnm Into Brahma and blissful ex-
by analytical or synthetical processes, accord- tinctiou is the desire and goal of all souls,
ing as the goal to whioh it tends or the axioms Unable to dotennine the relation between Brah-
from which it proceeds were first apprehended ma and the world, abstract essence and con*
by the mind, A principle being ^vea, synthe- crete nature, being and becoming rest and
sis unfolds it till it tikes in the totality of movement, unity and multiplicity, Indian phi-
things In its consequences. A result beinf losophy divided into two schools, which respcc-
assnmed, analysis considers the road which tivelymaintained Brahmaand tbeworld as the
must he followed and the preraiseswhichmast only real existence, each excluding the other.
be framed to justify it. The order and direc- According to the Vedanta, the worid is s do-
tion of ideas are diametrically oppodte in the luaion, a phantom, like the ima^e of Uie moon
two procedures. If the thought be analytical, on water ; the senses are deceptive, and Brah-
tbe guiding point la a problem, a goal hover- ma alone exists. The phenomenal universe la
Ing before me mind to be attained at all events, the mistake of our own eyes, end our snbjeo-
Iftbe thought he synthetical, the gniding point (ive conception of self or of any distinction
is an axioniatio premise, and thecourseof ideas between tne person knowing and the thing
is but a series of legitimate conclusions. The known is in liEe manner false. The wise man
former method is that of solutions, the latter escapes fi'om the snare of this distinction, and
that of deductions. They are counter-process- fi'om all unreal appearances, and ri»es to nnim-
a correcting each other, analysis being prop- passioned repose, pure contemplation, tran-
y the foundation and synthesla the concln- scendent freeaom, to union with Brahma. He
donofphilosophioal thought Historically the beoomesoonaoiousofhimselfonlyaBthechonge-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
leas, otenul, and radvenal Bralima, sad th« In the 8th ctakary B, 0., liBO-tse and OoufodnB
wliold dide ot individoal life, birth, old age, booamQ the chie& of opposite schools. The
aoA death, ia to him but a phantasm. Asceti- fonner, from the hypothesis of a primordial
warn b the etbioal result from this theoi?. The umt7, explaina the ori^ and destioy of beings
SanUra phfloeophj, Thrae mjthioal foonder ij a aoheme of pantheism ; the latter, avoiding
waa S^ila, is tiiie ralionaliem of Brahminism, punlj Bpeoolatire quesUous as inacoessible to
and itailfl from the dnaliam of spirit and mat- the reason, sooght oiAj a practical phQosophj
ter, nnBke de Yedanta, which identifies sab- as a meana of moral perfection. Pref miaent
ject and otjeot It r^arda spirit not aa the among the disciples of Oonfticiiie was Mencios.
pervading aoBl <it the world, hnt aa an infioi- fiis precepts were fonnded on no theory of tIt-
tode of mdividoal sonb, which from the be- tne, and had no reference to a divine power.
^lUiig have aoted in nnion with natore. Every A school of Neo-Oonfacianism was formed
sonl, wh«t it has ouoe penetrated the mask of ahont the 10th oentnrj, the founder of which
matorial things, and dtsooTered its own atrao- was Tohen-lien-ld, and the chief Tcha-hi, which
late indepeaaence, attains a pnre gnosis, but treated spedallj of cosmology. An original
may oontinne to enst thonsh itsend be gained, principle, naving both active and pasaire modes
sa a wheal may still roll alter the impalse has of being, and generating the 5 elements, fira
left it. Tbna illomined, however, it obtains a water, earth, wood, and metal, from which all
final and absolute liberation from life at the things proceed, is the fondomental conception
death 1^ the material body; hot of ita former of the system. Han is the flower of creation,
condition, whether any oonsoions or nnoon- hot though his eoul returns to heaven after
adooB peiMnali^ remam to it, nothing is said, death, it loses its personality. The whole Chi-
AstheVedantadootrineprooeedsfrom the idea nese philosophy seems but the effort of apro-
q{ ahstraot nni^ and sabetanoe. the Banhhya atuc people to give a light-snd-shadow sketch
proceeds from the data of indimtialconsmona- of the more palpable tkcAa of heaven^ earth,
DOBS, from the antagonism of the indJTidoal Bool and man. — The Persian dualism and the He-
and nature. The former deolaies the phenom- brew monotheism bdong to the history of rell-
onaof this antagonism nnreal and deloaive; the gi on rather than philosophy; and the wisdom
latter deniu an all-absorbing divinity. The goal of the Ggrptians is known to ns ohiefly from
of the eonl, sooording to the one, is abaorp- its supposed infiaance on Greek speculation. In
tion into Brahma, and aoeording to the other, e»- Greece first, says Ile^el, was the light concen-
capo from nature. In either case, the sonl onoe trat«d into the lightnmg of thooght. The first
free is sal^ect to no Airiher peril of existanoe. proUem of Greek philosophy was to explain
Bemde these two prindpal t^vtems, there are the enigma of extenial nature, to account for the
the Nyaya(l(^),theatomigtioYa]ve8bika,and spectacle of the material noiverse, to solve the
the wer Yoga, which aimed to unite with the problem not of the aoul bnt of the world. By
Sankhya theory the idea at aoreatiTe Deity, an imperfect analysis some hypothetical e!e-
Tbe Syaya, ascribed to Oaiitama,thonf^ it oon- ment was attained, which by a nasty syntheus
tains no aocouot at the syUo^sm and is bat a was integrated into the principle of all things.
Bopeifioial code c^ ratiotunation, has had an in- The Ionic and the Italic schools, which on oppo-
flneooe on all the schools of India corresponding site aides of the 0reek peninsula opened the se-
to that of the Organon of Aristotle on western ries oi Hellenic speculations, embodied this ten-
pbOosophy. The Vai^esbika regards the u
composed of eternal atoms, which It first of the Ionic philosophers, made water the
redncefl to 6 categories, 9 snbstanoes, 24 qnali-
ties, and 6 movements. The To^a is a system agent In creation and movement. He thus
of mystioism, inculcating the muon of the
J , The whole Indian philoaophy has u.
connection with its ontological doctrines a psy-
ohotogy of remarkable snbtlety and obtenrity.
denoy. Tbalesof Miletosfabont GOO B. 0.),the
primal and universal principle, the fdndamental
formed to the poetical tradition that " Oceonns
dividual with the infinite sool in contempbtive is the father and Thetis the mother of things,"
bnt has the merit of advancing from a mytm-
oal to a scientific representation. His disciple
Anazimander assumed as the original e
oot^er country has the struggle between an ethereal principle, filling space, which by euc-
matter and spirit, sense and reason, been more cessive combioationa constituted the oniverse.
strikingly oharaoterized. Spirit and reason tri- He seems only to have given a phUosophioal
nmph, eat only to eztiogaish every finite per- expression to the conception of chaos in the old
sonality fa <me infinite life. — The ba^s of OhI- cosmogonies. Aaaiimene^ the third of the
nese philosophy is the hook of principles (T- Ionic sagea, made air the ori^al element from
Kmg, " Transformations") attributed to Fn-hi. which by rarefaction and condensation he de-
ThefiDeawhidhheissappoeedtohaveiasoTibed rived sH things. Thns water, an original cha-
on the baek of s ^agOD are abstract categories otic matter, and air were the three substrata to
of the ethical and physioal worlds. A oontin- which Ionic speculation attmed as the ultimate
aoas str^ht line represents the heaven, and a prinoipleB of unity and goals of philosophy.
broken line the earth, and their combination The Italic school, represented by Pythagoras
according to a namerical law explains all things. (640-610 B. 0.), advanced from a sensnons to a
The saaea thus triumph in the efforts of tne symbolical principle. Nomber is made the es-
reason, makhig a ^st«u of linear symbolism, sence of the mental and material universe. The
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
262 PfflLOeOPHT
oootdt relation of immben ia tbo kejr to phllo- i> derired from iinpronioiii oa Um senaee by
Bophioal sttidnmcmte. Thebannon;rof theooi- inugea that etnanate from external olAectfl.
Terse and the mndo of the Bonl are the higbest "Farmenidee, Heraditos, aod the atomlstB,"
objects of knowledge and onltnre. Tfana the aaja Hegel, " all aovght for the Abstract uui-
relations and harmouiea of existence take tbe veraeL Parmenides found it in being ; UeracU-
plaice In ItaUespeoolatioQ-whiob had beeaoocn- tns in the proceu of being per u; and Uie
fiied bj robstaooe and canse in the Ionic The atamiMB in me detenninatiou of being per u."
Btter, alao, limited itMlf to pbrsical natnre, The atomic BTsten) was more complete thas any
while the former redaced tlie moral and ma- that {areceded it, and ma; be called the perfeo-
terial worlds alike to a principle of rhjthm. tion of a purely mechanical ezplanation of na-
iLSother step in advance was taken by the £le- tore, idnoe all anbeeqaent atomists have onlj
atics, who, transcending both a senanoas and a reported its fondamental aonceptlons. Anaxa-
STmbolioal ultimate principle, conceived of one goras (bom abont COO B. C.) rose above any
sole Bobstance as tbe only true being, and pro- materialiatic philos<n>hy of nature, and tcook-
nonnced the phenomena world an empty ap- nized by the ude of matter a superior world-
pearance. An immntable and eternal principle forming intelligence, working f^«ely and by A»-
of JDtelligeniie waa thns attained. " One and sign. " Whenj*' aays Aristotle, " be announced
all," was the motto of Eleatio speculation. Its tbat in nature, as in men, there was a mind
ritheistio character, incompletely developed causing the arrangement and order of the uni-
Xenopbanea, who conceived of the Deity as verse, he seemed alone to have preserved hia
eymbollaed by a sphere, was perfected by Far- resBon amid the follies of his predecessors." H*
menidee (460 B. O.), who reprewnted the abso- rainier postnkted than developed the doctrine
lote being as affected by love, yet witbont rela- of mind as the superior and vital energy of ua-
tion to space or time, divisibility or movement, tore ; and Plato therefore complains that h«
and who therefore conld not account for the gave a mechanical instead of a truly teleolo|^-
phenomena of multiplicity and change. Uelis- oal view of the origin of being, hitrodncing
BOS and Zeno continued this tendency, and in only a dtm* «e macMna to explain effects for
the interest of pure bong eaorifloed natnre and which no other causes appear. Yet a Bpiritual
all finite exiatenoe. The tranntion from abstract prinoiplo, apart from matter, was now attaine<l
to concrete b«ng, frt>m tbe Eleatio principle of as the result of the effort to conceive bow the
unity to the world of phenomena, was attempt- cosmos began and conijnued to more. A
ed byHerdclitus (about C30 B. 0.). "Every breach was thus effected between the subjective
tiling flows." was hie motto, and he thns intro- aod the objective ; the soul no lonoer sought
dnced a pnnoiiJe aMn to the Glermaa oouoep- the truth abroad, but in itself; and tne sopbiste
tion of becoming (u«rdm). Ao original energy were able by subjective dialectios to deny ob-
was subatitnted for the Ionic original matter jective reality. Though tbe sophists were, ao-
and for the Eleatic universal but abstract being, cording to tirote, a profession of teachers and
The flux, which constitutes the world, ia the not a sect of theorists, and thoQ&fa they bad no
product of ooniiioting opposites, of Uie One body of common doctrines, yet tLe general tea-
warring with itself and harmonizing with it- denoy of their speculations was sceptical. With
self^ like tiie accord of the bow and the viol, tbe motto of Protagoras that " man is the meas-
An all-peryading fire is the principle of forma- ure of all things," they developed the priuciple
tion and dissolution. The attempt to account of suMectivity to tbe destruction of tbe anthor-
(br perpetaal flow and movement gave rise to ity of custom, law, and religion, the validity
new theories of the origin and principles of na- of reason, and any solid foundation of truto.
ture by Empedocles (440 B. Oi) and tbe atom- While they tended to overthrow the whole edi-
ists. The former, a thanmaturgic naturalist, fice of thought which had been thns for built
originated the theory of the 4 elements, fire, up, Socrates (4^0-899 B. 0.) created a new
inr, earth, and water, which dwelt together by epoch in philosophy by directiog observation
the principle of friendship, till strife broke their on man hmiself for the purpoee not of deoi^
onioi^ and oocauoned tbe formation of the but of affirmation. Tbe eubjeotivity wbicb
world. Thus in oonneotion with the elements they regarded as empirical he made absolute ;
he introduced two moving powers, combininK and henceforward the study of mind became
the love of Parmenides with tbe conflict of the prime and central object of philosophy. He
Heraclitus. Tbe soul he re^iarded as formed avuled himself of self-consciousness to eatab-
from the 4 elements, and having its seat chiefly lisb, as they had done to destroy, a true object-
in the blood. Lencippus and Dmiocritus (about ive world. Hegel has remarked that in pro-
400 B. 0.), who represent tbe atomic philoso- nounoing Socrates the wisest of men tbe Pythia
phy, supplanted the 4 elements by an unlimited virtually abdicated ; irata that time oracles for
number of conetitneiit atoms as tbe ground of tbe conveyance of troth from without should
things, and the moving energies of love and be silent before the power of inward reflection,
confliot by nnconsoknis neoeesity. Atoms, of Oonflning bis study to human as distingubbed
like quality but unlike tortn, moving eternally from divine affairs, be sought to establish the
in ■ vacnom by an absolute law, conatitute tbe notions of moral and religions obligation, and
nuiverse. According to Demooritus, tbe soul left the single positive doctrine that virtue is
oounats of globular atoms of flre, and thought knowledge or wisdom, a foundation atone in the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHIL060FET 908
einenttfio treatment of ethlos. Ho gars to of notlil^, he wea tbe preadi«r of immortal
philoaophy deflnidon and indnotion as its b^g. Bis Uidories have reappeared in spe-
mettioi wlf-knoirledge as its point of depart- oial power whenever the homan mind has
are, uid moral pwfection as its goal. Ss par- lisen from repose or from errors to advaaoe to
tial disoiplea were Antisthenes and the cjuics, a higher stadiam in its progress. — 'Wliile Plato
Apiirtijipna and the Oyreniana, and Snolid and esteemed only abstract types, Ariebotle laid
the Hegarians. Each of these adtnited from etress on oonorete individnalitiea, assailed the
him the priadple that all men should hare one theory of ideas as baseless and fantastic, and
sapreme mm after an Ideal perfection. The proposed instead the theory of causes. Ha
conies sought after a life according to nature, recognized fom- metaphysiia] caneea or prin-
in contempt of customs, srta, Bcienaes, and dples, matter, fQirn, motive power, and end,
even personal wants ; the Oyrenians made it wnioh all resolve themaelvee into the fhnda-
the chief end of man to follow the instJuot of mental antithens of roatter and form. Tfaa
pleasnre, maldng present eojoyment the test of form, whioh b life, being added to matter, to
-wisdom and virtae ; and the Uegarians appUed which also is ascribed an element of dedre,
Eleatio dialectics to ethics. Thwe schoola pre- transforms potentiality into aotaality ; thus a
pared the way resi>eotively for Epionreanism, statue resolts from matter in the quarry and
stoicism, and soeptioism. The interpreter of the form in the mind of the artist, and nature ia
Socratic philosophy, the first who attained to a but an evolntioa of the forms of divine intelli-
eystflmatie representation of the world of ideas, genoe. These forms, unlike the PlatJ^oic ideas,
\naHato (480-847 B. 0.). BeginnioK with the are not accomplished, edf-siibsist«nt, and per-
sodL as an independent existence, ne distin- manent entitiea, but constitute at once an
gnishes in it two components, the divine and eternal energy or enteleohy and its eternal
the mortal, the reason and the appetites, which product. The actnal does not follow but coin-
are united by an intermediate link, the heart oidee with the potential ; the form or essence
(Bi/iias) or generous sentiments. The activity of of uatore Is nothing else than the way tona-
the aoul culminates in the pure (bought of the ture, its realizing activity and also its proper-
reason. To explain its connection with matter, end. The ideal and real elements which Plata
lie refers to its origin. In the be^nning, in had set mait were thus closely boond to-
the choir of gods, it moved happilT around the ^ether. Forma, aa motive principles perrad-
drvine essence, ia the contemplation of which mg the nniverse, have their sonroe in God the-
it delighted. Misled and fallen. It lost its first mover, who is being in perfect activity,
wings, and is confined In the body as a place and bears nothing in himself which is merely
of expiation. Btill, amid the miseries of the potentioL As Platonism cnlminatcd in th&
present life, it sometimes recalla dim reminia- conception of ideas, Aristotelianism oulmi-
cences of its former state, of the truth and nated in that of motion, energy, or life, work-
melody in which it then Uved. All philoso- ing in alt things, and the groond of their ez-
phy is reminiscettce. The earth ia as a cav- istence and development. Beality belongs only
ers open on one aide to the light, in whioh the to particnlars; complete knowledge rcqnirts
prisoners only see the shadows and hear the complete experience ; bnt all possible determi-
eoboes of the voices of the persons without, nations of being are contdned in 10 categories,
The Inminons external renon ig the region of their relation to which ma? be discovered by
ideas. By poriftcation and discipline man rises syllogistic reasoning. The Aristotolian system
throngh opinion, belief, and rational knowledge of logic was scarcely improved until the present
to Uiat pnre intuition which introduces to this century. The ^sterns of Plato and Aristotle are
higher realm. The culture of the sciences, of illnstrions examples of the ideal and real, or
geometry, astronomy, and mumo, ia prelimi- a priori and a potteriori schools, which have
nary ta dialectics, whose ftmction is to distin- existed in every age of specnlation. — The de-
guish what is phenomenal and accidental in dine of the Greek spirit and civilization was
things from what is essential, x>ermanent, and marked by three systems of philosophy, con-
ideal. It tbns grasps beneath the current of oeived with indifference to speculative truth.
phenomena the types which are eternal. The The soeptioiBm of Pyrrho denied the possibility
iugbest idea, and the gronnd of all other ideas, of certitude conoeminK any thing obJectlTe,
is that of the good, at once moral and meta- and proposed a thoogntleae and aimless ac-
phyaioal, which ia the goal of thooKht, as the qniesoenoe in the impnlaea of nature as the law
idea of the beantiftil is the goal of love. The of life. His system was maintuned by the
Deity is the architect of the world, which he leaders of the new academy, Arcesilana and
has fkshioned in his likeness, making it an Cameadw, and anticipated the al^isolute donbt
organism of order and beauty. Uao, also, of ^nesidemus and Bextus Empidciis. Epi-
should aspire after resemblance to God, and cums proposed as tiie goal of philosophy ■
ehonld reflect the divine ideas in his own scheme of morals tiiat ^ooTd inevitably lead
works. Ins polytheistic age and country, Plato to happiness. The mm of his physics was to
adored a paternal Providence ; while his con- rid mankind of the terrors that come from be-
temporaries wasted their euci^es in the sterile lief in Qod and immortality, and the aim of
contemplation of phenomena, he revealed di- his logic was to banish the troubles that come
vine types ; amid thinkers who were certain from error^ The universe ia an a^^gotdon
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^IC
M
264 PHaOSOPHT
of atoms, moring bj ohaiico ; tl)e sotd tennf- oub coDtrorermieE of the fotlieTs of tbe church
nates with death ; and in a remote spaoe the while the philosopherB occupied tbemselvsa
gods lead a changeless, careleaa life, ignoring with commentaries, had proved their cause to
all management of affairs. Plntareh reproach- be desperato, when Ptocius made the last pro-
ad this system with total sterilit; of great men test against the triumphing reKgion. Philoso-
and great actions. Stoicism, on the contrarj, ph^ hod now transferred its seat to Atbena. He
was recommended by its heroes. Fonnded was a type of the Ininrj of mystioiam, and
by Zeno, and developed by Oleanthes and amid the severest asceticism, whUe insensible
OnrysippDS, it eonght to establish a discipline to ontward impression, avowed that his im^-
of virtne in an age of degeneracy. Aastimltig nation enjoyed all the dehghts of sense. Hia
that ^ the materials of knowledge are tuT- system, lixe that ofPlotinnSjConfoundsman and
nishod by sense, it muntained that assent or God, matter and spirit, uatnre and the creator.
die free exorcise of reason is also required to He admitted and admired an original and per-
constitnte opinion, and thns proposed asnb- feet unity, but declared it Bnperior to existenco,
jective criterion of troth. Nature is composed and separated it from reality and life, redncing
of passive matter and active ruling reason, and it to an abstract conception. The origin of the
to live harmonionsly with nature or conform- world he explained by hypoataaes distinct froia
ably to reason Is the moral law. Intellectual this supreme principle. The most eloquent of
or rational existence is thus alone recognized: hicropnants, rather than a philosopher, he has
passions, pleaaores, Emd pains are to be ignored been colled the pontiff of oil religions, and, ex-
and despised.^The Romans, to whom the re- cepting the Christian, ha sang the praisea of all
suits of the Greek schools were made known gods. Greek philosophy terminates with the
by Oicero, originated nothing in the progress closing of the schools of Athens by Jnstinlaa
of philosophy. Spicnreanism was represented in G29. — The period of the scholastic or medi-
among them by Xncretina, and stoicism by reval philosophy has been called an interreg-
Seneca, Epictetus, and Uarcns Aurelius, but nam in the history of the hmnan mind, when
ndther acquired new speculative elements; faith occapiod the throne of reason. Two dia-
the former inspired the lower, and the latter, tinct cnrrenta run throughout scholasticism :
which was an anticipation of the national ge- the one, rigorouslylogical, derived from Aristo-
nina, inspired the higher qualities of Eoman tie and Bo&thins: the Other, wholly mystical,
life. Seeking only a rule of conduct and gov- derived from the Neo-Platonists of Alexftndfia
emment, excelling only in the arts of legida- and Athens through Eteotns Erigena and Aver-
tion, they aimed to apply rather than discover roes. In religious and social influence, in gcn-
principles, and borrowed the ideas not only of eral dominance over the habits of thought and
Greece, bat also, through the Ptolemies and life, mysticism was the leading element in the
Selencidffi, of Egypt and Asia. — In Alexandria, middle ages. After the closing of the schools
wberetheOrientandtheOcciilent, and the three of Athens by Justinian, and the disperdon of
great religions, Judaism, Christiimity, and pa- the philosophers, Arabia and France became
ganism, came into contact, the genius of nn- the centres of phUosophicsl speculstion. Philo-
tiqulty madeitalast efforts in philosophy. The ponus, Damas, and other peripatetic Christiana
leading systems had degenerated into matters presided over the luteUectuol development of
of tradition and erudition, when the Alexan- the ArabTans, and interpreted to them the writ-
drian Keo-Platonic school sought to combine ings of Aristotle. The patronage of the caliphs
In opposition to Christianity the most brilliant Earoun ol Rashid and Almamoun, about the
elements of dassical and oriental speculation, time of Charlema^e, made the Arabians pre-
Hollenio idooa were mingled with a vague sym- eminent for scientific studies. As learned Aris-
bolism, with theories of ecstasy and divine toteliau logicians Alkindi (800) and Alfarabi
nnion, and with the chimeras of uieurgy. The (died in 964} excelled. Al Ashari and blsdls-
result was at once a philosophy and a religion, ciples sought to solve the problem of evil by
an original creation and an eclectic retumS. the synergy of the divine and human wills.
Founded by Ammonius, it continued nearly 4 Avicenna le the principal representative of the
centuries, till with the death of Proclus, in A. physical speculations of the Arnbians, Apply-
D. 489, the golden chain of the Platonic succes- ing to the universe the fbrms of logic and me-
■ion was finally broken. Itschief thinker was taphyEncs, he developed a fiintaatic system
Plotinus, whoso writings contain the germs fonnded on a sort of alchemistic mysticism,
of the whole doctrine ascribed to Orpheus, Certain material abstractions were made the
Pytiia^ras, and Plato, and who was a Pla- principles which by combination and by doth-
tonist in method, a mystic in temper, and a ing thomselves with accidents evolved the
faBthoist in his results. Ho was succeeded by phy^oal world. Algazsali, an absolute sceptic,
orphjry and lamblichus, who sought from and adso one of the moat zealous Mussulman
polytheism and demonology magical powers theolopans, denied the foundation of all phil-
and religions inspiration for the revival of phi- osophical systems whatsoever, and affirmed
losophy, and who made the school the centre that the revelation of the Koran was the only
and representative of paganism on the eve of resource against universal doubt. All of these
the conversion of Constantino. The fruiUess reproduced peripateticism in dififereut [itaases,
career of Julian, the fbte of Hypatia, the vigor- but the oriental mystical tendency prevailed In
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PHILOSOPHT 985
other tblokerB. Thopliall of Oordora wrotn a BoltolaBtio period, extendtBg to the ISth oen-
TomaDco entitled tbe "U&n of Natnre," tlie tcrf, Boseelmns combated Acselm by oscribintf
bero of vbicb rises throngb msii? degrees of to every generic or oaivenMl idea only K ver-
conten^iUlicHi to a anion with the Deity, bal rei^ty, affirming it to be a vain BbBtrac-
Averroee expired the origia of things by lion of the mind, and thus introduced the con-
the doctrine of emanation, each object develop- troversy between the nominalista and realista,
ing ita form &om an inward germ, and distin- which Abelard soaebt to reconcile by the doo-
gniriied ia the Bonl the active and the paasivo trine of conceptnaTism, Hngh and Bichu^
Uitellect, the former of which knows universal da Bt, Victor and St. Bernard mdicated a mjs-
trutbs and is a common snbstance in all men, tical tendency, a reaotJon aednst the reigning
and the latter deals with material phenomena dialectics, while Peter Lombard, the "master
andiBaspedalsabstanceineactiman. Thought of sentenoeB," appealed to poMtive stndiea, ool-
ia a product from the onion of these two ^lO- lecting extracts from the cburcb^bars without
ultiea. Theology he regarded as an ezpres- attempting to solve dlfficnlties, and John of
raon at relative tmth, of vulgar beliefs, while Salisbury ridiculed the carrent abases of logic,
to philosophy alone belonged the province of Thecla^lcalperiodofscbolastidsmwasthelStlL
absohite troth. Some of his doctrines were and 14th centariea in which flooriahed its two
developed by his disciple, the Jew Maimonides. greatest masters, the Dominican Thomas Aqoi-
The ifuBsiilman theologians declared that the nas and the Franciscan Dons Bcotns, in whio]^
pMlosophio schools were of fatal injury to reli- rea]ismwftstriumphftnt,andin'which&e Arabi-
gion, and the philosophers munta^ed agiunst co- Aristotelian system was completed. The en-
all tiie sects the eternity of matter and the tireworkaofAristotlewerenowflrstintrodac«d
limitation of the divine knowledge to the gen- from Constantinople. In discnssions whether
oral laws of the universe. The speonlstions of nniversals existed Jn piiue or in esM, and con-
Arabian scholars transmitted the forms of the oaming human liberty and the groonds of vir-
Aristotalian logic, with which Ohristianitynext tue, theThomists exalted the nnderstanding as
came in contact after its conflict with Neo- the highest principle of the mind, and the 8co-
Platooism- SchoUsticism, a phtloso[>hy of tistseisltedthewlllorthepowerofdeterminii^
dogmas, raaulted from this ejn«Tgy of faith and nniversals to particulars. To this period belong
reason, and dominance of the former. Its ele- Alexander of Hales, Albertns Magnus, and the
tnents were doctrines which the aathority of mystio Bonaventura. Kominalism was revived
the church made indisputable, and which were by Occam, and by diatinguiabing thought from
esteemed absolute troUi ; its slm was to inter- being, and separating the theoretical from the
pret, not primarily man or nature, but the practioali its effect was to ^ve to philosophy a
creed, to give to tiia contents of revelation a wider range and freer spirit. Amid the dis-
BOientafioformianditsmethodoonaistedindraw- onssions of this later period of aeholasticiaro,
ing inferences l^m acknowledged statements, Raymond Lully cultivated a cabalistic natural
and accumnl^ngdistinctionscoaceming words, science, under the forms of a mechanical logic,
Propositions were enbstJtated for the a priori and Tauler and Qetson took refhge from the
numbers, ideas, and forma of ancient philosophy, dispntes of tbescboolBin religious mysticism.
and syllogistio reasoning, fonnded on them aa The frnitlesaness of the scholastic method as a
premises, became the only instrument for the means of discovery, and its inability to contain
discovery of truth. The facts of nature were and systematize tiie growing knowledge of
overlooked in the development of an artificial phyucal and historicaf&cts, was the occasioji
logical scheme, and Roger Bacon alone seems of its overthrow. The transition to modem
to have regarded eiperiment, even in physics, philosonhyismartedbytlireeelasseaof reform-
as fit to precede and guide rather than to follow era, witn respectively ideal, empirical, and mys-
ajkd illustrate theones. The objective world tical tendencies. TothefirstbelongFicino, who
had lost its dominance in philosophy with the revived Plotonistn at Florence, Ramus, an able
decay of the Hellenic life,uie mind was tamed and violent opponent of the AristoteHan lo^c^
hack upon itself^ and the problem of being was and Giordano Bmno, the most interestii^
rvsed under the form of questions concerning thinker of his age, who with the genius of a
the nature of our ideas of nniversals and indi- poet and wit as well as philosopher reproduced
Tidnals. The first period of aoholasticlBm, from the Alexandrian pantheism. To the second
the 9th to the 11th century, represented by belong Telesius, who maintuned that heat
Erigeoa and Anselm, displays a blind but ah- and cold are the only immaterial and active
solnto realism, holding to the oHective reality principles, Pomponatins, and especially Oam-
of generic ideas. Ertgena by nis unrivalled panella, who with mingled Irony and serions-
eiuditicn, which ia supposed to have included ness aspired to reform every art and science,
an acquaintance with Indian spoculations, gave and to give to them a foundation in metaphys-
the impulse, and Anselm by his motto. Credo ics. To the third belong Agrippa, Paracelsus,
vt inCellioam, gave the direction, to philoso- Van Helmont, Cardan, and Robert Fludd, who
phical thought. The latter first proposed the advaiicod experimental knowledge by alche-
ontelogical proof of the divine existence, fonnd- mistic researdieB, Uost of these precursors of
ed on our idea of infinite perfection, which was a new philosophical era were remarkable (br
afterward revived by Descartes. In the second their pas^note and adventurous charaoten
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
269 PHILOfiOPHT
and tlieir pnfonBd eotihiulaflm fat die vonden callj adraaoed, and at laat reaolred itaelf into
•ad worets of nstnn. — ^Modern pMoBopIif u Bcepticism. Acoor^ng to bim, all the sciences,
relat«d to tikat of the noddle affie as the Greek eren morals, politics, and religion, were to be
philosophf WSB to that of the Orient, The on- fonnded on nataral ecienoe, which was thus
«ntal abstract diTinitJes of nature- worship were made the basis of the whole moral world. The
soooeeded in Greece berths cnltnre of indlTida- development of tbis view, the derivation of
si homanily, and the butastic conceptions of moral and civil order from the nataral state of
mediffival m^t^jricB were fitially enpplanted man, was the task of Hobbes, the politician of
br a vigorons omervation of mental processes, the Baconian ^bilosoplij. To gather discoT-
Uodem pbilosoiAj begins with donbt, doubt ery from experience was the goal of Bacon.
BO complete that nothing remains cert^un bat Locke began with inqniry as to the nature of
the donbt itself or the energy of conscions experience, and how It can be attained br the
tboo^ht. Two systems reenltj empiricism and haman mind. The problem of knowledge
idealism, according as the objective world or was thus raised by him. Bacon had affirmed
Uie thinking subject, experience of conscious- that to think correctly we mnst first get rid
nesa, be advanced as the test of certainty, Ba- of all preconceived notions ; and Locke com-
oon and Descartes stand at the besd of tbese pared the hnman mind prior to experience '
Bystems, the development of which in ft donble to a tabula rata, perfectiy vdd of ideas,
lute was the task of philosophy till the time of Prom ori^nal emptiness noUiing can proceed,
Eant. FrancisBaoon,thegTeatestpbLlosopher and hnman cnitnre therefore arises from ex-
of England, holds the same relation to empir- ternal influences. We perceive ontward ob-
iciam that Deso&rtee holds to dogmatic ideal- jects, according to Locke, by sensation, and
ism and £ant to the developments of the critical the consecmcnt action of onr own mind byre-
achooL In an ace of phyaioal discovery, he flection. No idea is posnble nnto ns except
procl^med that^e intetlectoal world like the throngh these two sonrcea. We can therefore
material world should be advanced beyond its perceive only the outward qualities, never the
former boondariea, and that discovery, by intrin^cnatare or snbstance of things, and can
which alone knowledge is increased, should be affirm the objectivity only of the primary qual-
reduced to a method instead of being left to ities of bodies, as form, number, hardness, snd
chance. This method is indnction, the key of softness, and of the cansal connection of pho-
nator^ philosophy, which from a comparison nomena. Thongh not always logically con-
of similar instances ascertains the esseutisl con- dstent, his empiridsm was r^dly earned out
ditiona of phenomena, and thus derivea axioms by his successors, and both parts of the residue
troia experiments. He treated hnman knowl- of hmnan know^dge which be bad aimed to
edge not ss a science, but as an art whose ob- secnre were, one dter the other, abandoned,
jeot is to extend and establish the dominion of Berkeley denied the primary qualities, and
man by the application (^ physical forces to Hume the principle of causality. Thongh the
human purposes. There isno suchapplicatioa philosophy of Berkeley liears the name of
withontdiscoTery, nodiscovery withont phUos- idealism, it belongs to uie family of sensation-
ophy or an acquaintance with the laws of altsm, and has no resemblance to Platonic spec-
things, no philoBophy without natural science, nlations. He agreed vrith his predecessors
no natnral sdence without an interpretation that we perceive not thines in themselves, but
ofnatnre; and this can be accomplished only only theb copies in themmd; bnt he Offered
oooording to the meaanra of our experience, from them by affirming that there are no real
Nature, he muntained, had previously been originals behind the copies, that all seemingly
■ntitupated instead of interpreted ; conceptions objective qualities are mental phenomena,
ondjndgmentshadpreced^actnalexperience; Nothing exists bnt our perceptions or ideas,
and sdenoe hod, tiierefore, remained occupied and thus nature is resolved into a oreatnre of
with sterile speculations. These anticipotions the human mind, and all human knowledge
of the mind he names idols, the ignet fatui of into an empirical self-knowledge. He gave a
sdence, which shonld for ever be discarded, religions character to his theory, and exhibited
He thus substituted nature and observation for in one respect an affinity with Ualebranche,
ideas and lo^c; made ntility instead of theory by aSnning that the Deity originates onrper-
the object of research; opposed efficient to ceptions, which are Uie data to lead ns to Him.
final causes, and individual things to generic The negative tendency of English philosophy
notions ; and denied every thing that would culminated in Home. He agreed with Bacon
render an interpretation of nature teleoLogical, that all our knowledge is experiments! ; with
idealistic, or abstract. Throughout his writings, Locke, that all experience is sensational ; and
experience is taken for grsnt^ ; the first quea- with Berkeley, that scnsaons perceptions im-
tion of all philosophy as to how we know, and ply no objective reality. Therelation between
whether we con Iziow any thing, was not asked objects is as unreal as the olyects themselves,
by him. He gave a new direction to thought, dnoe the idea of caosality is founded on a be-
bnt he neither created nor umed after a de- lief that a certain antecedent has a certain con-
finite philosophical system. The empiricism sequent, this belief on a feeling, thb feeling
which he founded was heightened in its sen- on a habit, which is itself nothmg but an oft-
nalistia and nominalistio tendencies as it logl- repeated experience. Thus even within the
U,9,-„zOQb'yGOO^Ie
FHILOSOFHr 987
' region of pliaiomeiia, to whloh bioTledge la GeaUnox, the ndraonlonfl irork of Ood, who
K limited, there is no perfect oertuntj, but onlf emploTs the will and the object of sensation as
: baibit or probabilit j. Experience, which Bacon ocoasioni of his own agenor. The Deitj is tho
' had presnppoaed and accepted as the inetrn- actual oohm of all mental and phjncal phe-
■ ment of pniloBophj, is thaa broasht into the nomena. His theory therefore beartt the name
foregTotmd as its probletnatio ociject. The of ocoaEdonaliam. Malebranche also oonoeired
effort to ezplua it mtrodnoed a new epoch in that the Bntagottiam is overcome only in God,
speculation, when philosophy passed from dog- hot omitting the notion of miracle he tended
ixiatism to criticism, and aoaght in the tran- to blend the io&iite and the finite spirit, and
Boendental or pare facilities of the hnman mind r^arded all human knowledge as a dlTine
the powers which oonstitate the essence of act. We see all things only in the Deity,
humanity, and which precede and legitimate The tliree substances which had formed eoaen-
experiencsL— The philosophy of Descartes he- trio spheres in the Oarteeian system became
g\as with methodical doubt, to which only one cimeentrio in that of Ualebrenohe. A more
thing remuned certain, viz., &e certainty of important saoceesor of Deacartes was Spinoza,
thought. No one before him had so distinctly He remarked that in Oartedanlsm the wacdote
separated the hnman consciousness from mat- sabstance always remained in the background,
tar, making them independent of and foreign and had been introdnoed as a theological re-
to each other. He rendered the service of con- source, a den* tx maohina, to solve a difficulty
qaering nature, so that it renuuned a problem that presented it^lf in philosophy. The two
of tbonght, but was no longer a power in the finite substances were the aotnu heroes in the
mind. The baaia of his system is the dualism drama of the world. The scheme of Bpinoza
and antagonism of spirit and matter, of subject reduces the three Cartesian snbstanoes to unity,
and olyect. The C<^ito, ergo turn forma a snb- to one infinite original substance, the ground
Jectivo dogmative circle, aroimd which lies the of all things, that excludes from itself aU nega-
objective realm of phenomena. These two tionordetermination, and isnamed God or na-
finita Habatances constitate the aotnal world, tnre. To this belong an infinite nomber of at-
They are opposed, and mutually exclude each tributes, of which two only are known to ns,
' other, and no direct noion of them is possible, thought and extension. Modes are the chang-
Yet man is the synthesis of the two, and ing forms of these attributes. To regard finite
knowledge b the penetration of thought into things as distinct individualities is the mistake
nature. Only as the spiritoal and natural of our imagination ; the reason contemplates
combine can hnman life be conceived of. To them only as the natunt natvrata in which the
ezplun the problem at once of this antagonism natwa Tiatarani is revealed. This scheme is
and this muon, Descartes introduces the abso- ontological, developed &om a priori aziomsi
lute Bubstanoe or God as the copula between and is the most elaborate of aU systems of pan-
splrit, and matter. Onr idea of an infinite sub- theism. While Spinoza escaped from the dn-
stance, a perfect being, could not be derived alism of Descartes by afSrming that there is
from finite thought; it therefore implies and but one subetanoe, of which all things are
represents an external existence ; it is a divine modes, Leibnitz increased to infinitude the
datum iu us. an innate idea, a mark loft by number of substances. The universe is an ag-
God npon his worii, like the monogram of an gregate of intelligent, self-active, immaterial
artist npon his production. With this idea the points, which be i^Ila monads, and which oom-
mind ceases tote certwu of itself eiclasively, bine as elements to form every thing. They
and gains the possibility and principle of oti- are unlike each other, but each follows the law
jective knowledge. The monologue of subjec- of its own being, and cannot be affected by
tirity terminates when the sun of the infinite any thing eiternol to Itselt The soul there-
rises on onr thought and illumines the universe, fore cannot work upon the body, and the rela-
By the consideration of the divine attribates tlon between them is due to a preestablisbed
we determine the trnth of outward things, harmony, Ood having so constituted them in
The test of oertunty concerning ottjects Is that the be^nning that they operate in perfect con-
onr ideas of them be clear and distinct, be- cord though Independently. Our mental ideas
cause snch ideas are innate, implanted by God, proceed pari pauK with eztemid realities,
Kothing is true in nature which may not be thoagh uiey have do oonneotion with each
definitdy grasped by thought. The theories other. Ood is the monai monad^m, the enffl-
developed by Descartes in physics have be^ oient cause of the imiverse, which is the best
overthrown by the progress of science. His one of an infinitude of possible worlds that
metaphysical system was ineffectively opposed were contemplated by the divine inteUigence.
by the Epicureanism of Oassendi, and was The theories of Leibnitz were systematiEed by
modified by Geulincx and Ualebranohe. Both Wolf, and from his time to Eant German pht-
tbe latter admitted the antagonism of the two losophy assumed no new standpoint In pay-
substsncea, and the impossiMlity of their union, ohology Leibnitz prepared for Kant by seeking
Yet it is an in^putsble thoiwh inexplicable the distinctiou between necessary and conUn-
fact that they are determined ny each other, gent truths, maintaining^ that, though no ideas
that the will moves the bodr and seosation are innate, the mind byits own energies, ^wrt
affbets the mind. This fact is, oooording to from experience, generates neoeaaary trnthi
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
268 FHILOSOFHT
ceaonUoR to famate pindidaB. The qwralA- inth«iumocf ill-definedpiiiidideaofcomm<»k
tioni of Jonathan Edwards, th« sreateat meta- sense in Scotland. Kant now discovered tho
phjndan of Amerioa, cMeflT' <hi Qie theologloal critical point of view, and took the same posi-
«nd ethical bearinga of [^osc^ j, belong to lion witb reference to esperienco and knowl-
Uie school of Deaotrtee and Lnbnitz. — Uean- edge that bad been taken bj Bacon with refer-
tims the empirical tendency of Baoon and ence to nature. Ansljnng the pbeoomena of
Lodce was derdoped in Fruoe and opposed ex|>erieDce, be sooght the powers or facolties
fat Scotland. OoodiUao rednoed Locke's two which constitate it, the oonditione wldcb &s
■oorceB of knowledge to one, regarded all ideas necesssrj fonotions precede it, end which he
as trsnstbrmed sensataons, md made metiq>h7- called transoendental. He did not, like the
sica, as Destntt de Tracy admits, a branch of followers of Descartes, presuppose knowledge
Boology. Eib (fttem trinmi^ed over Oarte- in innate ides^ nor like the sensationalists prc-
sianism not so mnob hj fiiTOring obseiratjon snppoee eipenence in mentsl impressions, but
of fscU instead of dednclion fVom ideas as hy umed after the knowledge-forming foonlties
linking itself with so<nal and eocleeiastical re- which precede ail knowledge, and which make
fbrms, oconpTing itself with natural and pnbUo pbjsics, mathematics, and metaphyucspoesihle,
\&w, and eoconra^ng afastrsrot Jnstioe and right The results of his critical examination were :
in politioal orgamsalJona. Helvetina, the mor- that our intellectoal natnre is the product of 8
alist of sensstionaUsm, eateemed self-JOTe tlie factors, sense, imderstaadiiig, and reason ; that
only notiTO of hmnan action. The tend^tor all the material of onr knowledge is fiuiiisbed
onIniinat«d in the reckless materialism and throngb sense in a formiese mass ; that the nn-
athusm of La Hettrie and D'Holbaob, who derstanding reduces this material to shape and
deemed every thing spiritual an iUnaion and distinctness, to the unity of a notion, in accord-
physical pleasure the only worljiy object. In ance with its 13 categories, the matter of ex-
Bcotlaod Beid midertook the refntation of perience thus filling the form of conception ;
Berkeleyand Humeibydenyingthehypothens and that the reaaoo, which rises above finite
of repretentatlve ideas and affirming the an- notions, and has no reference to objects, finds
thority of common sHise. His negation at the nuconditioned principles, the pure ideas,
least called attentimt to ahnaea of language, for the oondidoned knowledge of the under-
and overthrew any meaning of idea in the standing. Now, as the objective world is known
sense of an intermediate image between the to ns only in the form into which it is trans-
object and the mind in the act of perception, muted by the categories of the onderatendiDg,
His affirmation has remained with modifica- as onr knowledge of things is thus purely 8ub-
tions the pecnliority of the Scotch school. By jective, as even the ideas of the reason ore
common eeaae he moans a kind of intdleotual only our own modes of thinking, therefore on-
instjnot We b«^evs by the very constitution tology is scientifically impossible. Eant saves
chT the mind In connection with every sensa- himself from pure Bulyective idealism only by
tion in the existence of some external object sa retreat to bis practical phUosophy. Conscions-
immediately and certainly as in oar own exist- ness reveals to us the antonomy of the will, ex-
ence. The sensation implies the ol^eot, and pressing itself in the supremacy of conscience,
wereqnirenoprooftojustdfythe t«atmiony of which is the categorical imperative. This mor-
our foenltieB. He applied the Baconian method al nature implies freedom as its neoesaary con-
to the mind, and by his analyns of the phe- dition; the existence of a God, as otherwise
nomena of perception cave a new prominence there wonld be a law withoat a law-giver or
to psychology in metaphysical researches. In judge ; and the immortality of the soul, for the
connection with empinosJ truths he maintained completion of onr moral existence. The prac-
the existence of necessary and spontaneoos tical reason affirms the reality of these things,
Jtidgments, laws of mind, inistjnctive principles, not as theoretical dogmas, but as the Qocessa-
a priori intaitionB, trutbs of common sense, ry postulates and premises of onr moral con-
whioh are not derived from experience, and stitntion and action. They lie beyond the
wbioh ore the data of speculative philosophy, hounds of actual science, but sre the undemon-
A more com|Jete analyds of these fbndamen- strable certainties of a rational Mth- The
tal laws or conatitaent elements of homan rea- ablest opponent of the Kantian philosophy,
son was made by Dugsld Stewart, who illns- Jaoobi, took the standpoint of faith in oppod-
trated the system with peculiar beonty of tion to that of criticism in order to ^ve tlteo-
style; but neither he nor his ancoessor Dr. retic certainty to the postnlates of the practical
Brown removed the oharaoteristio difficulty reason. The absolute, which is unattainable
of the school to determine what mental by the reason, may be grasped by feeliog, the
phenomena are native and a priori and what talto mortala of the mind, which gives imme-
odventitions and contingent. The Scotch diate knowledge requiring no other evidence,
philosophy was reproduced in Amwioa, with In his later writings he identified fsitb or in-
some modifications, by Prof. Upham. — Thus tuition with the Kantian reason, claiming for
modem philosophy had culminated in the the latter the faculty of objective knowledge.
formal rationalian of Wolf in Germany, the Fiohte, the direct successor of Kant, introduced
materiafism and soeptidam of Oondillao and the philosophy of the absolute, propo^g a
Hmne In England and franco, and the protest sin^e principle in opposition to the Kuitisn
U,9,-„zJbyGOO^Ie
PBILOaOTBT MO
.slad cad ae poataUted .ottjecttra The •nlgeati're iilMliam of Fiohte, and Qie ob-
-world. AB that ia immeoiatoly trno to ns ia jecti* a idealUm of Bcheiliog, were sacoeeded
onr MnaatloDa, peroqptioiif, and ideaa, the pha- b; the abaolnta idealiam of HegcJ. The abso-
nomeoa of oonaoiooaneia ; and ho theraibre Inte idea, Ic^oaUr aad hj its inherent energjr
made aalf or die Sgo the abaidiite principle, derdofdne itaelf throogh the forms of creation,
iphioh bj ita own deralopiMiit beoMnea the and eom^etiiig the dme of its actiritf ia the
imiTene, nafeue^ tad man, and aweara as a rational Belf-oonsdooBneas of man, is the fcuida-
speetadeonto Uael£ TheindiridnaloonBdoDa- mental oonoepUtm ot negeliauisni. Logic ia
nass is the Banifeetattm of thia absolute £go, the bans ttf the sjatam, the law of ideal evolu-
the pheBomenal dtadow of an ultimate realil?, tioD, the a priori science of the oniverae, the
which is oor owoatlal aelf. The world also Ysrj aobstauoe of beiag. The world ia visible
a but the senalsed material of onr praetioal logia. His absolnte ia neither the Qniversal
life, the means bf which wa plaea bef(>ra ns, sabatanoe of Spinoza, nor the tranaoendeotal
as object, the aim and end of oor ezistenoe. self of flohte, nor the oniTersal mind of Schdt-
Nothing exists but a certain sntgeotJTe addTit^, ling^ but it is the dialeotioal process or law of
of which tfae imiTerse is the apparmt reflex, devdopmeat. Mature ia the idea exteraalizing
and Qod the ideal or law. Thns Fiohte oon- itaelf, the tran^ormalion o£ abstractions into
Bonunatod the salgealiTe idealistio tendenoj. reaUtifls, and its aim is to raise itself to self-
" We Imow ikothing," aaja he, " bat by oon- ooDaaoosneaa. " It ia a dnmb iatBlligenee striv-
BcnoaBneB;eaDaeionsnasat8bntapheaomenon{ ing to articulate." Spirit is tlie iaea having
the images present to ns are formed ot images emandpeted itself from nature, and waked to
and by iau^; bH reali^ is changed into a oooeoioanteas in man ; and it ia bj this awaking
wondrcHis dream, withont a Ufa to dream of that the oniTerae, aa mob, is prodooed, nnoe
draam; tbongfat ia the dream of that dream." lota pUloeophj, in which the oonadoDS idea
The HpeenlatJTB resnlt is thna tithjHit bnt by athuns to mUTeraaUtT, and reprodnoes tetaa it-
his praotioal philosophy tte poatnlated on tlra aeU the whole na^iral and inbeUectoalomversA
authority of laith the coiBtanae of Qoi aa the Ilie attsnle metaphysioa of Heriwrt, the mys-
moral order of the world, and defined dnty as tioism of Baader, the sobMne of Trendelenbiu^
the ftilfllment of individnal destiny, and destiny fomtded on the idea of indiTidnslism andjier-
as tiie realization by hnmanity of the absolute sodbI deetiay, and the pantheism of £nno
Ego, of the ideal itandord of reason. In his Fisdber, are uie more important of the minor
later system he mroaohed the principle of German ^sterna. The tranacendental philoeo-
identi^, regarding ue world and oonsoionsneas phy, unable to attain to the absolute throngb
as boUi abke Hm Image and impress of tiis the oonscioosnesa, was obliged in each of its
divine tiflB. This prino^le waa fidly devek^ed forms to assnme the existence of a principle
by St^dling, who proposed an infinite, aelf- snperiw to oonsdonsness. Some strict psy-
existent, aelf-miAdding mind, from wUch every otHdogista have therefore charged it with rest-
thing else la developed, aa the <Hily abaolnto ing npon and deeoribing pnrely imoginary and
reality, forming of itaelf the real essence ot Wkm^^ mental operations. Ita eai^er r»-
the unirerae. ^irlt and matter are ia it iden- soUa wwe made known and discnssed in £ng-
tieaL Acoordiag to fldkte, the ol^ect ia ere- land by Ckderidge and In America by Jamaa
ated by tbe snbjeot; aooarding to SdtelHng, Uamb.— The reaotko ag^nst sensationalism in
both otiject and anlid^ "^ tmaDatlona of the Franesi whioh nnder the nune of ideology
absolnte, wUiA worka bj a blind impnlae in teaobed ita Intresatta in the pbynological psy-
natnre, oomes to aalf-oonaeionaneat in mind, ohology of Oabanis, the ediics of Yolaey, and
and is evolved by the neoessary law or rhythm the Icmcal dedacti<»u of Destntt de Tracy, be-
ef ita bring throng the whole material and gan with the admlaalon by I^rnnigTiidre of an
mental tinivwsa. Svery mind is a reflection active aa well aa psa^ve dement in the mind in
and exem|4ar of the Inflnite mind ; and there- perception, with the adoption of the Scotch
fore by gazing inwardly on onr own mental philosophy by Boyer-OolWd, and with the
proeeasea we may learn the principle or pro- atreaa laid on the power of the will by Mune
oesa of the divine derelopmeaL The organ of de BIran. Oonun sacoeeded with the system
philoaophy is an ecstidio inteDeotaal lotnition, of eeleotadam. The reeolta of all philosophical
saperior to the laws of otmaolonraeaB, wUoh research, aoowding to him, had been either sea-
immediately knows the abaohvta, and to wUoh aationalism, idealism, acepuoiEiiL or mysticism,
snbjeet and object are iBdiflS»ent. By tUa each at which oontains a troth m excess. The
intnitioa the mmd beoomea absolute and idea- edeetio method [woposed to disengage Uie troth
ticU with the Deity ; tJie prooasa of thinkfaig fkom eadi of tbem, and to ocmblns these ele-
is therefore the aame as that of ereoting: menu in a system which shonld be aharmoni-
thooght uid being are one; and onr logiMl ona expreonoa of complete buth. The capital
dedoctitHiB are the formulas of developmeat qoesUons had been profoundly and repeatedly
in all the forma and re^na of creation. The explored ; all that remained to be done was to
world is thna antimomio, presenting only oondUate the results. The criterion of truth
individnaliBatioaB of a oomniim pmnple. te the imperaonal and divine reason, in whioh
z.o.yGoo^le
okhid, md oonetitntea ths totle of modam Italj. The Sanast developed
noftrath, HiBlAterwrit- what haa been caUed a "pMlos(q>hy militant,"
ogical ByBUm akin to Keo- dedgoed to leoonstract all modem aoienoe and
S70 FHIL080FHT
all rational b^gs ahare, and which ia the of ideas. Oombining tlie aprfariandtiie em-
Bonrce and t«et of absolute ideaa. JovStoj pirioal methode, he made the orlt«rion of trttHh
and Damiran were the principal followers c^ an immediate intaition, which involvea the as-
Oonsiii. Ueantdme an ecoleaiaEtioal and tradi- sent of aU the faculties. His prinohtal mwit is
tional tendencj in philoaophy was illustrated is the methodioal arrangement oi principles
br De Uaistr^ Lamenii^ and Bonald, whose borrowed from all schools, and in directing at-
aim was to snbst^nte fidth &ff knowledge and tentioo to the natural laws wMt^ gorem the
aathority for inTsstigation. Uan as an indiTid- applications of human thoaght. Els character
nal, aooOTding to I^enn^ has no cxiterkin as a philom^faer appears in hia asidration for
of tmth ; bnt the nidverscd belieb of the wlude the tmie " when, m th« heart and mind, ia-
race, the anthoritatiTa traditions of all time, stinct rdi^<»i, uid stienoe shall beoome oae
are to be aooepted as a divine rerelatitai. He and the same thing, when instinct shell be ra-
soaght, therefore, to prore that the Ohristian titHisl, philosophy profonndly religionB, and re-
religion, either in its paritj* or in ofbhoola and ligion perfect wisdom." Gioberti and Bosmini
oonntertNta, had bora muTersallr reoognized have been characterized as the Plato and Aria-
bjthe futh of mankhi* -~' ^.-•— .t- .-^i- -b__i — i._i_ n^ . r ■•
on]^ attainable qrstem ol . , . _,
ings contun an ontological system akin to Keo- designed to reconstract all modem sdenoe and
Flatonisui. Another tendencj appeared in sodet; . Fej^ohologj he pronoonoefl the nmnnoo
the sooialisUo my«lica St. Simon, Fonrier, and of philosophical and rehnoos beterodozj, and
Fierre Leronx. St. Simon aimed to eztingnish the attempt to develop the nniverssl Awn tlte
individnalism In social order, and maintained oontingeot totaUj fnutless. He proelwios Qie
that tree [)hilosoph7 Hhonld be sought histori- intaition, not like Bosmini of passible being,
callj, that it existed in minds rather thsn in bat of real being, of the active Ddtj, as tl^
mind. From historr and not psjohologj he absolute sonrce of existence, and proposes the
derived his law of development, which was to formalaZ'«nfecT«awM<enc«aa the snpreow for-
be at once a system of reU^on, pUlosophj, uid nnln by which every thing is explained. Real
government. Fourier excelled in the anslysb existence in the act of orwtion is the goal <^
of the paa^ons, which alone, according to him, thought alike in met^diyiuca, physic^ ethics
oonatitQte the real man, and inferred that the nsthetica, and politics. Philoao^y is foonded
Newtonian principle of attraction was sfiplioa- on revelation and perpetnated by the ohorcb,
ble to them, and might be made to harnumiae which is the depocdtary of tmth, and whiob
Bodal life. By the principle of oniversal anal- creates civilization. The Italian school is re-
ogy he propoMd theosophic doctrines of cos- markableforitsaj>rwrimethod and itareBpeot
mogony and destiny beyond the possible scope for ecclesiastical and national tradition.— Moro
of indnction. Leronx r^arded individoal man influential at ttie present time than any other
as a mere abstraotion, the whole of hnmanity trr^t^m^'nco that of Hegel are the philosophy of
as the only real existence, tradition as the source the conditioned of Sir William Hamilton and
and organic social Ufa as th» ol^ect of philoso- the positive scienoe of Angoste Oomte, The
phy. — AMonliarphiloBophioalschmdbsaflonr- former adheres to the traditions of the Scotoh
ished in Italy dnring the present oantory, the sohool by afflrmmg that onr oMucnoaaDess in
representatives of which are Bosmini, Maraianl, the act of perception makes as immediate^
and Gioberti. Aooordiiw to Bosmini, the start- cognizant of somettung external and extotded.
ing point of all philosopniool investigation, the (m knowledge is conditioned 1^ onr bcnlUes;
apoaioUcal element of all thonght, the primitive we have no facnltj fbr oomprehendlnB the in-
and necessary intnltion, is the idea of possible finite and absolnte ; and all hnman philosc^b j-,
being. This idea, the first psydiological fact, therefore, treats only of the relative and phe-
being associated with a perception of sense, the nomenal. The whole matter of the absoli^ ia
flrBtontologicalfact,losesitsindet«rmiiiatechar- declared to be nihil eogitahiU, and is trans-
acter, and is transformed into knowledge. The ferred from the province of philosophy to that
former belongs to the domain of philosophy, of religion, from reason to faith. We can know
the latter to that of ^hysiolog7. The nation only finite phenomena, bnt faith assnrea ns of
of time is the synthesis of the idea of poadbia the onoondltioned, though we cannot oonoeive
being with that of the contingent duration of it. That onr feonltiea are inadequate, that ser-
phenomena, and the notions of space, cause, eral of tiie ftmdamental laws of thought are
and aabstanue are similarly formed. Instead of results of the imbei^lity of the mind and not
seoliing, like modem psychologists, his point positive affirmations of intelligenoe, is demon*
of departure in the individnal consciousness, he strable ; but faith forbids ns to admit that the
introdnces an a priori element, a hypothesis mind, though weak, is false. The posiUviem
anterior to all mental experience, as the ab- of Oomte develops the lUftative, and denies the
stract condition and foundation of thought, poulive side of liiisoompodt« system of science
which has only to be developed and applied in and faith. It afflnns that we can know nothing
connection with sensation to constitute all in- but phentnnena, their resemblances, ooezist-
tellectual acts and a system of the universe, ences, and sucoessionB; that psychology, the
The aim of Uamiani was to demonstrate a dog- pretended self-contemplation of Uie mini^ is an
mado philosoi^, to prove the ott^eotive leali^ ntter illouat, and oltjective facta alone can be
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FHILOBOPHT TEIPS 371
observed ; that the endeaTor to p
ontology M ho^Ms, the knowledj , ^ .
■ad Msuea being bejood our posnble scope. Xartt jtuqu'd Hegel (i vols., Paris, 1846-'Q);
There «w three eras of hmnan development. Debrit, SittoWv im doetrinat pMlotophiotui
In the finl^ theologioal hypotheses were pro- daturiiaiieeontemporaine(Far\a, 186B); Ttuno,
posed to enilAin ^leaomeDa ; In the second, £et phUotavhet Franpait rzu XIX' ti^u (Fane,
raetiphjucal hTpotheaea ; hot in the third the 16B0); and Morell, "An Historical and Oriticai
fuiilitj' of both is perouved, and maskind, oeas- View of the Bpecolstive Fhlloaophj of Europe
lag to make oatologloal inqiiiriea, accepts all in the leth Oentnrf" (3d ed., 9 vols., London,
&ct8 as mere phenomena, and olasdfiea them by 18G7 ; repnbliahed in New York). The most
the relatione of cnocesaion and dmi]!tnddwhi<u valnableofolopndiaaof phUosophj are: Emg,
they bear to «uh other. The perfection of pod- EneyeltipSdUt^-philoiophuche* Zadtm (6 roh.,
live sdenoe would be a complete view of all Leipaio, 1827-'9); andFranok, Itietiomuiire da
;^enomena in their relationa. This STstem is mmim* pAtlEWOpJU^UM (6 vols., Paris, 1844~'S2).
XMnted with modifications, in England, hj The pruicipal periodical devoted entirely to
Stoart Uiltj Q. E. Lewe^ and Herbert met^bjucs is the Zeitiehr^ J^ Fhiloio^U
lencer.— Th« winoipai general histories of und tpeeulative Theologie, vhich hafl been pnb-
ulosophy are : Bmcker, Hiitoria CriHea Phi- liahedin Gennany ranoe 1687.
philosophj
Q«ut ier ipeeuIaMwn ThUcitjihie (6 vols., opar.
Marbnrg, I791~'7) ; TeaBemann, GeieAiehU dtr FHIPPS, OoaBTurnHE Johk. See Uttl-
PMowpjUf (II vols., Leipsio, 1788-1819; an qsavk, Buson.
^^gl|■^ tranaUtion of an abridged edition was PHIPS, or Pbippb, Bm 'Williak, Kovemor of
made by Arthor Johnson, Oiiord, 1832,and HCassachnsetts, born in Woolwich, Maine, Feb.
revised by J. D. Uorell, London, 1862} ; Win- 2, 16G1, died in London, Fab. 18, 1696. He was
^aolimann, DU PMUmphit im Ibrtgang dtr one of 26 children, was at first employed as a
Well^eKkieAU (3 vols- Bonn, 1827-'82); He- shepherd, and at the age of 18 bonnd himself
g«l, OetchiehU der Philimphie (3 vols., Berlin, to a ship carpenter, and snbseqnently went
]Bg3-'0) ; Bitter, Oetehiehte dtr PhUoxmhia into bosineBfi on his own acconnt, although his
(13 vols., Hatnbarg, 1833-'6S{ partly translated early edaoation had been so ne^ectfld that he
brMorrison,4volB., London, 1888); Bohwegler, was imable to read or write. These defecta,
Qa^ifJiU der Philciophie ^tntt^art, 1S48 ; however, he soon repdred to some extent A
translated by Seelye, Kew York, 1866); De few years after coming of age, he went to Eng-
G^sndo, SitCoire comparie da tf/itlma de land in order to procure means for an ezpem-
pMlotepkU (2d ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1622-'8); tion to recover a Bponish vessel, loaded wltii
CaasaL,Cowd«philoKphiamcrah(lMO-%l)i treasures, which had boon wrecked near the
Enfield, " History of Philosophy" (3 vols., Bahamas. With a national vessel furnished
London, 1701); and Lewes, "Biographical him by Uie admiralty he made the expedition,
History of Fhiloaophy" (London and New but did not snooeed in his search ; but a seo-
York, 1857). The best special history of oo- ond attempt, in which the means were snp-
ddental phUosophy is by EOth, Oesc&iehle plied by the dnke of Albemarle, was crowned
viuerer abendldaditchen Philotcphie (3 vols., with sacoess. He recovered from the wreck
Uannbeim, ISM-'SS). The principal special treasure to the amonnt of £6CN},D0O, of irhioh
kocounta of ancient philosophy are: Zeller £16,000 was given htm as his share, and in
Die PhilMopkUder OTieehen(lQ.hiag^'a,l'Sii); addition he received the honor of knwht-
Matter, BitUire de VeeoU d'Aliaandrie (Paris, hood, and was appointed high sheriff of New
ISiO) ; Jalea Simoa, Siitoirede FecoU d'Aldt- England. In this capacity he returned to
artdrit (2 vols., Paris. 1840); Vacherot, ^u- his native country, and remuned for some
Wr« eritiqve de VkoU ^AlexandrrU (8 vols., time in Boston ; bat disagreeing with soma
Paris, ie46-'51) ; and W. A. BuUer, "Lectures other ofBcera, he went back to England. In
on the History of Ancient Philosophy," edit- 1690 he commanded the fleet which cultured
ed by Thompson (3 vols., Cambridge, 1866). Port Royal, and in the same year a mnoh
Specialworkson the scholastic philosophy are: larger one sent agslnst Quebec, which failed
Bcmaek^t, Studa *ur la philoiophie dan* le of success. He arrived in Boston in Novem-
neyen Sge (3 vols., Fsria, 1840-'42) ; Caraman, ber, and was made a ma^strate of the colony,
Hiatoirt de* ritolittions de la philoiophie en bnt soon departed to England in order to
■ftan« (3 vols., Paris 1W7) ; and Hanreao, induce the government to send another expe-
Bitloirt de la philc*ophie tekohutique (2 vols., dition to Canada. At this time the agents of
Fsria, 1860). The pnncipal histories of mod- Massachusetts were endeavoring to obtain from
era philosophy are : Kuno Fischer, QaehvAle King Williamtherestoratlonoftheold charter;
der nciwm Philotophie (8 vols,, Uannheim, but not sncceeding in this, a new one called
1854-'60) ; K. L. Michelet, OachiJAte der leU- the province charter was granted them in 1693.
lea SipUme der Pkihmtphie in Beuttehlattd (3 Phips was a mem))er of the North chnroh of
wis., Beriin, 1887-8) ; Chalybflne, EiUuieie- Boston, of which Cotton Mather was pastor,
IvigigeKhiehte der PhikiopMe (translated into and was noted for his leal for Puritanism ; and
EnglHh, Bdmburgh, 18S4) ; Btotosat, Be la ont of deference to the wishes of Increase H»-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
JW2 PHLEBITIS PHLIAfilA
thor, tbe agent of MABeaohoaetta in England, he Atx^ In the conrse of the diaeass abBoeaaea
fraa appointed captain-geoeral and governor- m&jTnake their appeartmce at different points
in-cluei of the provinoe, and arrived in Boston in the snbcntaneons cellnlsr tissue, or one or
Haj 14, 1692, In ISM he was snnimoned to more of the Joints maf become distended with
England to answer complainta which had been pna. On examination after death pns is often
brought against Mm; bat while there, and fonnd In the veina, with nomerous (raaltiplo)
when it seemed that the difficulties would be abscesses in the parenchyma of the limgs or
settled ia his favor, he suddenly died. He was liver. The disease is abnost necessarilj fatal,
a lover of hia ooimtr}', and aimed to discharge and medicine can do little to retard its prog-
the duties of hia office Jastly; but the violence reas; to support the system of the patient by
of his temper led him conetactJy to commit appropriate food, b/ quinine and stimnlant^
acta which weakened hia Influenoe. He waa. Hems the principal indioation.
aays Bancroft, " of a dnll intellect, headstrong, FHIXBOTOMY. Bee Bu}ot)I£ttikg.
and with a reason bo feeble, that in politics PHLEGMASIA DOIJaJS, or Phleotiabia
he knew nothing of general prinaiplea, in re- Albi. DoLsna, an cedematous swelling of one
ligion was the vicUm to superstition." He Is or both of the lower eitremitjea, conunonlj
strongly eulogized by Cotton Mather, with called milt leg, attended with pain, and oc-
whom ho cooperated in tbe witchcraft deln- curring soon after childbirth. The disease waa #
eion. (See " Life of Sir William Phips/" by first noticed at the commencement of the ITth
Francis Bowen, in Sparks's " American Biog- centory. It was for a long time attributed
rim^," vol. viL) to depoeita of milk in the affected leg, and
PHLEBITIS (Gr. <^«^0X(^ot, a vein), in- afterward to obstmction of tbe lymphatics, *«.
flammation of the veins. Phlebitis isone of the In 1S28 Dr. Davis of London and Dr. Bouil-
uumerous diseases which modem observation laud of Paris both published post-mortem ex-
haa added to the domain of medicine. First aminations of cases of phlegmasia dolcns, in
noticed by John Hunter in 1^84, numerous which the femoral vein in the affected extrera-
isolated cases were soon after pnbliebed, and ity fss found Infiamed and obstructed bj
in the early part of the 19th century tbe dis- fibrinous deposits. A few years later Dr.
ease was folly illustrated by the labors of the Bobert Lee traced the inSammation from the
French pathologists. Phlebitis is of two kinds, femoral to the uterine veins. It would seem,
adhesive and suppurative. Adhesive phlebitis then, well established that the disease ia nm-
is a local disease, ocoanonod generally by some ply as adhesive phlebitis, having its ori^
mechanical injury done to the costs of a vein, generally in the nterine veins. The attack
orbysomesonrceoflocalirritation in its neigh- comes on commonly within 2 or S weeks after
borhood. It is marked by a duU pain in the delivery, with pain in the lower part of the
part, by swelling, hardness, and tenderness of pelvis, extending rapidly below Pouport's lig-
the affected vein, and, when this is a main ve- ament in the course of the femoral vein, or per-
noustrnnk,byaadema of the parts whose blood hajis commencing in the calf of the leg. The
is returned by it; phlc^nuasia dolens is thus pom, which is commonly attribnted to rheum'
properly a phlebitis. The effect of adhesive atism, is soon followed by swelling. This may
phlebitis is to determine the formation of fibri- be moderate in amount and confined to the 1^,
nous clots which adhere more or less strong^ or it may be enormous and involve the whole
to the walls of the vein, blocking np ltd coll- extremity. When the swelling is great, the
ber. Alter a time the adhesions become looa- limbis white, bard, hot, and does notpit on prea-
ened, the clots are absorbed, and the circula- sure. The inflamed vein can be commonly
tion through the vein ia reatored. The disease, traced below the groin as a hard, painful cord.
«xoept where the blocking np of amun trunk There is fever, loss ofappetite, and sleeplessness,
may cause embarrassment to the circnlntion. The disease is ordinarily without diuiger, the
ia not a serious one ; rest and perhaps the swelling gradnolly subsiding efler a time,
application of a few leeches along the coorse though more or less cedema is sometimes per-
of the affected vein are all that is necessary for raanently left. Best, the application of a few
its cure. — In suppurative phlebitis the local leeches along the course of the jnflamed vein,
symptoms are often so little marked as to and on unirritating4iet are all that is necessary
attract no attention, while the general symp- for the cure of the disease,
toma are of the gravest character. The latter PHLIASIA, a division of the Peloponnesus,
ordinarilyoommencebyaniarkedchill,andtbis bounded N. by Sicyonia, E. by Cleonte, 8. by
Is repeated at irr(«nlar intervals, in some oases Argolis, and W. by Arcadia. It consists of a
several times a day, throughout the disease, small valley, 900 feet above the sea level, and
Thechiilaarefollowedbyheatof skinandgreat is enclosed by mountains. The river Asopns
frequency of pulse, and these terminate gener- flows through the middle of tbe pl^n. In an-
ally in a profuse sweat. The vital powers are tiquity this territory was renowned for Its wine,
commonly early depressed, and the patient com- The only place of importance was the city of
plains of great witness. The appetite is to- Phlins, which was a Doric state, and osually
tolly lost, the tongue is red and dry, sometimea goremed by an aristocracy, although once sut>-
eordes of the teeth and mouth are present, and Ject to the tyrant Leon, a contemporary of
•cHuetimes there b copions and offenuve diar- Pythagoras. It sent 200 aoldiera to Tbermop-
jy Google
jls Bod 1,000 to Platoa, and dnring the Felo- cedonlau gsniBon, and anbseqoentlr wiUi A]«-
ponneaian war waa the faithAil ally of Sparta, ander, wm of Poljepercboii, who waa besieging
Ailerward a diTinon arose in the citj, and tbe Kioanor, Qn the retom of the Allienian exiles,
friends of the Looednmonians were banished ; and the restoration of the democratic govern-
bnt in SS3 B. C. the Phliaaians received &om ment, he wsa compelled to flee to FoljqienilKSk
Iphicratee BO severe a defeat that the; were in Phocls^br whom he was sent back to Athena
forc^ to admit a Lacedtemonian garrison for for trial. With 4 others he waa oondemned to
then' defanoe, whioh however did not restore drink the hemlook. He charged his son not to
tlie exiles. ^ 860 and 879 it soatained from hold evil memory of the Athenians, and it fa
Agesilaiu, at thehead of « ^artan army, a sie^a sud was called upon to pay for his own execn-
of one yesr and 6 months. Having Boirendered, tion, inaamnoh as the poison having been ex-
it renuuned faitlifol to Sparta dnring the Theban faaasted Che gaoler refused to procure any more
war, was governed by tyrants after the death of without compensation; whereopon Phocion,
Aleisnder, andanbseqnentlyJoinedtheAchsan borrowing 12 draohmee, remarked that it was
les^e. PhlioB was the birthplace of Fratinaa, very hard a man could not even die gratia at
the inventor of the aatyrio drams. In the Athena; Shortly after Caseander obtunedpoe-
present kingdom of Greece Phliaraa forma port seadon of the city, the olimrohical party regain-
' of the nomarchr ctf Achaia and Elis. ed power, and celebrated Phocion's foneral obse-
PBL0OI3TOH. Bee OatMaixz, yoL t. p. onies at the pnblio ezpMise, erected a statne in
S4. his honor, and pnnished his aconsers, Fhooion
PBOOIOK, an Atheman general, bom about was a man of great courage, a good general
402 B. C^ pnt to death in 817. The son of a and above all free from the least suspicion of
pestle m^er, he stndied nnder Plato and Xeno- personal oormption. By his repetation among
crates, and first distingaished himself in the the Athenians for this last qnality he aoqnired
naval victory gained at Naxos in 876 by the in great meaanre his influence with the people,
Athenians nnder Ohabrias over the Laoedsmo- so that be was elected the nnparelleled nnmber
niaas, bnt fw many years after waa not promi- of 4G times to the office of general of the city,
cent in pnblic life. Sent into Eobiea aboat 8oO without having solicited the position or having
Ht the bead of a small force to assist Plutarch, been present at the choice. Although not a
t jrsnt of Eretria, he was betrayed by the latter, profe«^ orator, hia brief end powerful speeches
and for a time was exposed to imminent dan- and his sarcastio manner exertod ao great an
ger ; bnt he finallf gained a complete victory inflnenc^ that Bemosthenes, on seeing him rise,
at Tamynsa over the party of Philip. In 840 once said : " Here comes the cleaver of my hb-
he was despatched with a fleet to the relief of rangnes," In outward manner ho was severe
Byzantium, then closely besieged by the !Uaoe- and surly, although sud to be kind-heuied.
donians, and was enabled to force Philip to re- He had a contempt for the people which he
tire from the Ohersonesns. Although so sac- never afikited to hide ; and once, when to-
cesafol in war, Phocion was always an advooato moltoonsly applauded in a public assembly, he
ofthetomporizing policy of the peace party, and turned round to a friend and inquired: "What
thus stood in direct oj^osition to Demoatbenet. folly have I uttered, that these men applaud
When Tbebe^ on the reported death of Alexan- me t" His probity was never shaken by the
_...,...., Phifip, and afterward by Alexander, who en-
giving them assistance, and occupying the pass tortained for him a high regard. Bnt he did
of Thermopylffl. A little later ha advised com- Kratnitously for the Macedonians what others
pliance with the demand of Alexander that the aid for pay, and lent the inflnence of his nn-
10 leaders of the anti-Macedooian party should doubted patriotism to that temporizing policy
be given Dp, which proposition was indignantly whioh ultimately involved Athens and the other
r^ected ; bat he neTertneleaa beaded the second Grecian states in a common rnin.
embassy, by the agency of whioh the demand PHOOIS, a country of central Greece, boond-
was waived. After the death of Alexander, ed N. by the Loori Spicnemidii and the Locri
Phocion attempted to discourage the effort of Opuntii, E. by Boeotia, S. by the Corinthian gnlf,
the Greeks to free themselves from the Haoe- and W. by Doris and the Locri Ozolce. At onfr
donian yoke. Wlien the effort proved nnsuo- time it also comprehended a port on the Bnboean
cessfnl, bewaaoneof the envoys sent to Anti- sea, called Daplmus. The principal city of Pho-
pate^ and only succeeded in concluding a treaty ois was Delphi. The next in importance waa
on the hard conditions that the Atheniaoe Elatea, on tbelefthank of the Oephiasns,.oom-
should pay a sum eqn^ to the whole eoet ot manding the road leadmg from the north of
tbs war, shonld surrender the anti-Macedonian Greece to Bceotia and Attica, Beside these,
orators, riiould receive a Jfacedonlan garrison there were several other cities of importuice,
in M unychia, and should abandon their demo- such as Oirrha, the port of Delphi ; Antioyra or
CTatic conjtitntion, and disfranchise their poorer Antioirrha, renowned for its preparations of hel-
dtizena. Be was now at the head of the Mace- lebore ; and Absa, distinguished for its ancient
donian party in Athena, and while in that posi- oracle of Apollo. The lar^st river is the Oephia--
turn was inspected of oomplioity with Nloenor, ena, whioh nows through thenortbam portion of
the ^neral of Cassander, commander of the Ma- the country, and falls into Lake Oopais ia B<ait~
TOL. ZIQ.— 18
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
J
874 PHtEBDS FOCSSICIA.
ti& Th» ooimtrj is exoeedini^r momitaiiunifl. Bee between the hiDs of FalesUiw and die
The FamBBBos raagt extends orer the greater monntuiu of STria on the £. and the Ueditar-
portdoD of it, the soathern branch of the ciialn nuean on the W. B7 the Phtsnidans them-
oalled Oirphis toaohin^ the Oorinthian ^olf be- eelves their ooontij waa called Ouiaan. lU
tween Oirrha and AndOTra. Below this rai^ norUiern bonndarr in a political aeiue was near
are several fertile TaUejs, of whit^ the largest Aradns in 1st. 84° G2' S., and itseonQieni near
was the celebrated Orissnan plun. Between Joppa in lat, 82° 2' N^ and its length abont SOO
Famassos and the Loorian monntains on the IT. m. The breadtb never in any part exceeded
is the valley of the Ceptussns, wbioh embraoee 19 m., and was generally mach less. The to-
a few fsrtile diongh narrow plsins. The oUaf tal area therefore was less tliaa 2,000 aq. m.
importanoe of Fhoois Is dae to the fact that the From Aradns to Tripolis the coast fonoa a baj-
orade of Ddpbi was wltbin its bonndaries. into which several rivers fall having a short
The Pbocians proper, who inhabited both banks course from the monntains. Tripolis, now
of the Cephissos, formed a confederation, which called Tarablns, stands on a promontory ^ m,
assembled at Daolis in a building called Phod- broad and extending a tnile into the sea. A
oiun. This oonfederaljon nudntained its ft«e- ohun of T small islands running out to the N.
dom, althoQsh frequently attacked bj the Theft- W. protects its harbor from the prevalent
salians; and the latter, at tbe time of the inva- winds. S. of Tripolis a low range of chalk
sion of Xerxes, led the Persian troops into bills borders so closely on the sea that>here is
Phocis, and destroyed 12 cities. Originally the no room for a road between them. Porthor
temple of Delphi bad been in their power, but B. they recede a little from the sea, and on a
tbey were early deprived of it by the Delpluans, narrow strip stands Batronn, the auciMit Bo-
who beld it till 460 B. 0. It now came ag^ trys; and still farther B., on a bill by the
Into the bands of the Fhocisna, and both Lace- shore, stood the city called By bins hj tbe
dtemonian and Athenian forces marched into Qreeks. A little S. of Byblns is the river
their territoiT. the one to attack, and the latter Ibrim, the ancient Adoius, which was aaid to
to defend. They held possesnon of the tenqile be annnally changed into blood, and whioh
nntil the peace of Nicies (^1). having been dnr- still assnmes in sammer a red color derived per-
ins tbe Feloponnesian war firm alTiea of the haps from the ferm^ons sands of the moon-
Athenians. Bat by the terms of that peace, tains from which it flows. A few miles fnrther
the Delphians reaumed their sovereignty over 8. stood Berytns, now Beyroot, on tbe most
the temple, which remained in their bands un- projeoting headland of the coast, with the monii-
til tbe saorad wsr. After tbe battle of Lenotra tun itn^ of Lebanon in fall ught acroas a plain
in 8T1, thePbocians came nnder the domimon of laxnnant fertility. Berytns, though not moch
of the Thebans, and remained in that condition cdebratedinpro&nebistory, wasoneoftheold-
nnttl the death of Epaminondas, when they as- eat of Phcenician towns. The plain in which it
terted their independence. For this the The- stood extends sontbward 10 m. to the moetli of
bans persnaded the amphictyons to enforce an the river Damonr, the Tamyras of ancient geog-
old edict ordering tbe Fhocians to pay a fine raphy, beyond which tbe bills agEUn press doee-
for having oocnpied a tract of land near Cirrha ly on the sea for several miles. There, on the
belonging to the temple of Apollo at Delphi, slope of a small promontory, is wen the site
Their refosal gave rise to the sacred war, whioh of Sidon, the oldest and one of the most ftmoos
lasted from B6& to E4S B. 0., in which tbe Pho- of the cities of Fhcentoia. The plain of Sidon
oians maintained themselves by despoQing the is prolonged as far as Sarepta, the Zarephath
temple, and were only rednced by the strategy of the Old Testament, 8 m. to the sonth. From
(^Philip of Macedon. A decree was herenpon Barepts the plain again widens and continnea
issned by tbe amphictyons that the towns of as far as Tyre, with an average width of abont
Phocis, nnmbering 22, shonld lie destroyed with 8 m. ; near that city it widens to S m. ; 8 m, S.
the exception of Abo, tbat the inhabitants of Tyre it terminates in ^e Vbite promontory
shoold be scattered into villages, that no village rinng perpendicolarly from the sea to thie
shonld contain more than 60 dwellings, and height of 800 feet. Tbe road here, which in
that the inhabitants shonld repay to the temple some places bangs over the water, was cnt
the treasnre they had taken, contributing each throngh the rock, it is aaid, by Alexander the
year 60 talents. The operations of tbe war Great. Originally it appears to have been
which Philip afterward carried on ag^^nst the ascended by steps, and was therefore called the
Thebans and Athenians were princmally in Tyrian eZtmoz, or staircase. Abont 80 w. still
Phocis, and its people fongbt at tbe battle of Airtber B. Acre or Aooo, the Ptolemais of the
Oheerooea on tbe side of Greek independence. Greeks, stands on the N. prelection of a bajr
Phocis and Fhthiotis together now fonn a which is abont S m. across and is terminated
nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece, their pop- on the B. by the promontory of CarmeL A
olatjon amoonting in 18SS to 91,944, and thor few miles southward is Dorce, anciently a town
oapital being Lamia. of considerable magnitude, next to which at no
FHCEBUS. See Apoixo. great distance the important city of Ossarea
PHCENIOIA (Gr. ♦ou™,, from i^cwf, a was in later agee bnilt by Herod the Groat.
Ctree), the name given by the Greek and At Ja&, tbe ancient Joppa, 80 m. sonthward,
sn writers to the narrow region which the Phoenician territory terminated. ThoTidu-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie-
PEOmaiA 876
t^of duinis afEbeta the oosst of Fhcanlda raetir or indireotly embraced the whola known
even u fitf N. aa Tjn and Sidon. The set of vorld. Bj meaiu of the Red sea and the Per-
the onrrutB oames regularlj to the eastward nan golf it oommnnioated with India and tha
ihe allnvial matter which the river poan into E. cowt of AMca ; on the K. ita Teasels foond
the aea. and deporits it on the ooaat, ao that their war along the Enziae to the frozen bor-
to«nn»inerl;' maritime have become inland, dare of SoTthia; bejond the strata of (Mbral-
and harbMS which onoe reoeived fleeta of ahipa tar ita ahips or thoae of its colonieB visited the
are now filled np. (Fortheelimateandnatonl British blee for tin, and perhsfta penetrated
hiAoiTofnuBiuoia,aeaFAL»Tm,aiid8TB[A.) evenintothe BalUo in search of amber; aoA
— Thoogb the n(enii»a]uq>p6ar to h&ve dwelt it is probable that tbev had several oentnrias
on the aeft eoaat of Bjria at the earliest djiwn before sailed along the Atlantio coast of Africa
of histofj, tiiey alnaTS considered themielvee beyond the ereat deser^ and had disoovered
as ooloniata ana not as aboriKinea. Hwodotna the Oaaary ialaDds. Beside oarrying on ooio-
aaya they came frran die ErTOraanaea, that is, meroe on a large aoale in fleets and caravana,
thatpartof the Indian ocean which waahee the the PhmnicianB af^iear to have traversed the
Bbores of Arabia and Perria, to the Uediter- interior of Spia and Palestine aa peddlers, re-
ranem, " and liaving aettled in the country t^inc the gooda which they had imported or
irbich th^ now occupy, immediately nnder- mammctnred from house to house, and par-
took distut voyages ; and, oarrying oai^oea chasing at the same time tha domestlo prodnots
both of Ecpttan and Asejrian goods, visited, of those ooontries. It was on the sea, however,
among other plaoea, Aitait," In the Soriptores that the Phcenicians were eminent above all
th6yaraalw«ystwmedOaiiaanitea,andareolase- othernations. For their abippiDo Lebanon af-
ed among the dcflcendants of Ham, They were forded inezhanstible sapplies of timber, and
of darker comfJaiioa than the other Syrians, fi'om Oypms they obtained every thing else
and tbeGieek writers frequently speak <} them that was neoeesary fbr fitting out a veeseH Si-
ns Ethkqtians. The moat probable theory in don among their dtiea appears to have ei^oyed
regard to than ie that Mhnologioallr they were the hi^est rqntatioa for naval sldlL Of the
Anba or cixmeated with the Arabian fiuiUy form or tonnage or rig^ng of their vessels
ofnunldnd. liketheArabs tothisdajontho nothing is known, except that they were
■bores ot the Indian ooeaiL Otey were at onoe equipped for war as well as ibr trade, and
firatea and merohaots. Kidnapping and bar- their discipline was so good that even in
ter were practised indi&rently oy the crews Athens, the first maritime state of Greece,
of their slupa. Homer represents them as oar- Xenophon cites a Pbceoician ship as the best
rying off and selling fi>r slaves those whom they example of order and skUM arrangement that
ooold get into thdr power by force or fi^ud, could anywhere be foand. The Fhceniciazis
Bat thon^ Europe soj&red from their piracy, were the first to apply oatronomy practically
it la oertam that from tbeir visits she received to navigation, and they had noticed the atm-
Ihe mdimenta of her civilization and imbitwd a neotion of the moon with the Udes, with which
taste for the deganoes of life. The nsa of al- they had become acqnainted in their AtLmtio
phabetical cbaractars and also arithmetio has voyages. — Of their mannfaotares, the most
been deariyd^ved from Fhcenicia by every famons was that of the purple dye, which they
anient Enropeaa nation. The choicest works prepared from a shell fish found on the coast.
of art known to the earlier Greeks oame from Thongh a similar purple was prodnoed at vo-
Bidon ; the produce of its looms fbmiahed the rioos places on the cosats of Greece, Italy, and
most costly offering to the gods; and its trinkets Africa, Pbtsnicia, especially the ci^ of Tyre,
adorned the persons of tiie Grecian women, always maintained its pre^ainence in this psr-
They traded where trade was profitable, and ticulor. It had the adToatage of an inexhaus-
ocmoealed frwn others the oonrse they pursued tible snpply of the shell &bd, a brilliant son-
to reach the distant countries to which their light, and probably some knowledge of chem-
trafiui extended. Thus, thongb they bad sup- istry by which the native color of the liquor
plied tin and amber for several centariag to tha was heightened. As Tyre was celebrated for
Gree^ Herodotoa, who bad visited Tjre itself, its pur^e, so Sidca was noted for its glosa, the
eonld obtain only very vague ooconnts of the invention of which was attributed by the an-
coantriea in wliich they were produced. The cients to the Pbmnicians. The Sidonians used
master of a Phcanician merchantman bound tor the blowpipe, the lathe, and the graver, and
tbe land which produced tin, perceiving him- cast mirrors of glass. They were also aoquaint-
•alf followed by a Roman ship which bed been ed with the art of imitating precious stones
sent to learn the way, ran bis vessel on the rocks and of coloring glass by means of metallio
to lead the rival croft to destruction ; and on oxides. They excelled in the manufkcture of
his retnm home the government remunerated drinking vessels of gold and silver. Hiram the
faim for the loss he hod patriotically incurred. Pbisnioian king sent to Solomon to aid in build-
The commerce of Phcsnicia appears to have inz the temple, an artist, "skilM to work in
reached ita height about the 8th century B. 0. gold and in sUver, in brass, in Iron, in stone,
£zektel (chap. xxviL) draws a vivid picture of and in timber, in purple, in blue, and in fine
the commeroial splendor of Tf re at the end of linen, and in crimson ; also to grave any mau-
the 7th oeutory, at which period its trade di> ner of graving." (3 Ohron. iL 18, 11.) ThePhce-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
sn PHdonoiA.
niolans vere ealebrated also for the mannfao- served in hia fleet refbeed to engage In hoBliU-
tare of perfiuaefl. Their skill in mJning and ties sgaingt tho OarthafiidBiu because thej' re-
metallorg^r vbb apparently greater than that garded them as their ^fldren. On the other
of any other aacient nation, and their mining hand, the colonies aided the mother conntrf
operations in Spain were earned on npon & with ships and soldiers in her wars, hnt they
atnpendons scale and by verjsoientific methods, seem to have been entirely independent in all
— A chief Bonroe of the power and wealth and other respects. — From the earhest period of
extensive commerce of the Fhcenicians was which we have any knowledge the dtfeg of
their ejBtem of colonization. The progress of Phcenicta were governed each by a king. Snch
tiirir settlemente natnrally divides itself Into was the condition of Canaan when invited by
three snoceaBive eras, dnring the first of which the Israelites. Every town with itB adjaoent
they ocdonised the shores of the eaatem Medi- territory constitnted a sovereignty. The mon-
terranean, inolnding the .^geean and the Eux- archy wsa hereditary wherever we can traoe
ine ; dnrmg the second the central part of the its descent, bnt the sanction of the people waa
coast of N.Abioa; and during the third the re- necessary to the snocession, and to them the
muning ooaets of the Mediterranean westward right of election devolved in case of a vacancy
into tiie Atluilic. Their settlements in the of the throne. In Tyre, and probably also in
flret and second of these areas have no definite Bidon and the other principal cities, a powerftl
chronology, and can only be traced throngh the aristocracy existed along with the monarchy,
clouds of mythic legends transmitted to ns by thoagh we have no precise knowledge on what
the Greeks. It is probable, however, that they the diHtinction of nobility was fonnded. Tlio
were expelled ftam the islands of the Mgieia chief nobles seem to have held to some extent
by Uinos three generations before the Trojan the functions of a senate. At T^re, whem the
war, and we may infer that they then settled throne was vacant, the place of the sovereign
in Sicily. At an eariy period they ocenpied was supplied by elective magistrates called
Cyprns, Crete, and Rhodes, where their pres- »o^«tt orj"^^*- ^ ^irge part of the popola-
enoe is attested by a mnltitnde of inscriptions, tion of Phcsnicia was composed of slavea, who
(^ioia, Lycia, Caria, and other parts of the were bronght from all parte of the andent
coast of Asia Minor were colonized by them, world, and whose nnmben were ench in Tyre
and their settlements at Thebes and other places that on one occasion they rose in insnrrection
in Oreece nnder Cadmns gave rise to some of and expelled the free population. The dties
the most noted legends of the Greeks. The of Phcenicia were never united nnder a single
next great step in the progress of Phcenician monarch, bnt generally the enpierior power of
colonization seems to have been the settlement some city, at first Sidon and afterward T^re,
of promontories and islets on the coast of Bid- enabled it te exercise that controlling power
ly. Malta or Melita was one of their earliest over the others which the Greeks tem^ hege-
Sossesfflons in this region. The island of Sar- mony. The three principal dties, Bidon, Tyre,
inia is mentioned by Diodoms as one of the and Aradns, had a place of Joint meeting, tha
places to which the Fhmnicians sent colonies town of Tripolis, wnere measures of the nigfa-
after they had enriched themselves by the est importance were dedded by a representa-
silver of Spun. On the Spanish peninsula tive assembly, of whose eiact nature little is
their first settlement was Gadiro, the modem known. The chief defence of the PhcenidAna
Oadiz, which they colonized about 1100 B. 0., was their naval power, and In later ages, when
the fint date In their history to which we are the rise of the great monarchies on Uie Tigris
abletogiveadefiniteposition. But the greatest and Euphrates threatened their safety, their
andmoetmocesaMof their colonies were those reliance was on mercenary troops whom their
inlf, Afrio% where Itnke, by the Romans called wealth easily procured, chiefly from AfHca.
Uldca, was fonnded about the same time that The narrow extent and liioited popnlntion of
Oadiz was settled. In the same vicinity more their own land made it unposaible to raiee na-
than two oenturiee later Oarth^e was fonnded tive armies able to cope with the Assyrians
by & colony from Tyre, although there is some and Babylonians, or later with the Persians and
reason to suppose a mnoh earlier settlement of Macedonians. — Of the religion of Fbcenieia we
the site by a colony from Bidon. It is certain know nothing except from incidental notices
however that it was to the emigration from in the Greek and Ltdin writers, and in the Ho-
Tyre, abont the end of the 9th century B. O., brew Bcripturea. From them we learn that poly-
tbatOarthage owed its rapid rise to power and theism prevailed among tho people, and that
opulence. The history of these colonies is in the chief deities were Baaland Aebtoreth, who
most cases too obscnre to allow of our defining are supposed to represent the sun and moon ; a
the relation in which they stood to the mother deity whom the Greeks called Cronos (Saturn),
country. Their connection was very slight, bnt whose Phcenidan title is not certainly
and was maintained rather by filial piety tnon known ; Moloch or Melkarth, the especitd
by political dependence. The tutelary god of god of Tyre. Satnm and Moloch were wor-
T^ was also the chief god of Carthage, and shipped with bloody sacrifices, in which large
the latter city annually sent offerings to the numbers of inf^ts were somedmes burned,
parent temple. When Oambysea tfireatened alive. When great dangers from war or other
t4> make war on Carthage, the Fh<»nidans who evils menaced the state, the supposed anger of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie«
ra(ENiaiA 277
the <M&M wu thon^t to be averM bj sseri- the PbceDMnu oontribated Uie naval fones of
fioiiiR on their altarB the noblaet and moat be- the Ferdan monsrchg. Dnring the reign of
lorea ohildren. Onr knowledge of the Phoe- DariiiB Oohns, Sidou, which hadnow taken the
nidan religion, however, b derived almoit lead among the Phcemcian cities, rerolted^d
wholly from tlwir enemies, and is merely ex- after a desperate struggle waa betrayed ^Ten-
teniaL Of the a^toal or moral ideas of nes Its king to the Persians in SSO B. 0., and
the peiq>Ie ire know nothing. From the was ntterly destroyed with all ita inhabtlnntB^
dosbUU fragments of Saoohoniathon it may be exoe))t a few who were absent, and by whom
inferred that their BpeoolatlTe philosophy was the city was snbseqneutly rebnUt When AJex-
atbMSlao, and Uiatth^had no belief in afQtare ander invaded the Penrian empire, the Sidonians
life. — The ininidpa] Hiceoician dtiea, Tyre and anbmitted to him readily, but Tyre resisted,
Kdon, were founded, aoooiding to the state- and after a siege of 7 montliB was token by
nMnt of Herodotna, abont 3700 or 8800 B. 0. treachery and redoced to aaheti, part of the in-
For aereral iooeeediag oentnriea they porsaed habitants being sl^ and the rest sold as slaves,
s proStabU oaraer of oonmerdal activity. Bat Alexander reboilt the city, bnt it never re-
it unotnntil thetimeofSolomonthatwehave gdned ita former importance. Fhceniciawas
any eertainhiatorical knowledge of their affiura. incorporated into a Macedonian province with
Hiram, king of Tyre, and his predecessor Abi- Syria and Oilicia, and ite commerce again floor-
bal, are historical personsges, a&d from them ished as in former ages. It afterward fell under
we have a regotar saooesuon of Idngs with tlie dominionof theBelenddce. Aboat65B.Cl.
dates of their reigns. The friendship and al' the Romans oonqnered the oonntry, and from
liaooe of ffiram ud Solomon, and the voyages that time till now Phoanioiahas sliared the fate
of their Seats to Ophir, are recorded in Scrip- of Syria. Dnring the cmsades I^e was a port
tore. OfHiram's sncoessors the most noted of consequence, bntmidertheraleoftheTorks,
waa P^inalian, whose ^anny aboat the end and especially since the commercial changes
of iba Ml oentiuy B. 0. drove his sister Glisaa conseqaent npon the disoovery of the passage
or Dido into exile with a large body of follow- to India by the way of the Cape of Good Hope,
era, bv whoia Oarthage was foonded. Subse- it became what it remains to this day, " a rocli
qaenuy the i^>preasion of Tyre prodnced a re- for fishermen to ^ead their note npon." — The
volt in Oypnia, which was Joined by Sidon and langoage of the Phoenicians bore a very close
■ever*] other cities. The rebels were assiated affinity to the Hebrew, as is abundantly showa
by the Aesyriana nnder Shalmaneser, who over- by the unanimoiiB testimony of the ancient
ran Phcenida, bat made no permanent oon- grammarians and the fathers of the chnroh,
qnest. He afterward made a second inroad, who frequently speak of the languages as near-
and beneged Tyre for 6 years without anccesa. ly identical. Knmerona words preserved as
Sabeeqnently Phcsnicia became involved in Phmnician or Garthaginian by the Greek and
war with the Babylonians, whose king Nebn- I«tia writers correspond exactly with the Ee-
ohadnezzar took Sidon by assanlt with dread- brew, sa Baal, Adoni, Ualka, Soffeta, Gadim,
fbl oam^e, and invested Tyre, the siege of Sosa, Alpha^and Tar; and theonlysatis&otory
wbiob, tme of the most celebrated in history, resnita in mterpreting the Phcenioian monn-
lasted for IS years, though its issue ia strangely menta and coins nave been obtained by muHng
enoogh altogethw tmoertain. It seems proV the Hebrew the key to their e^lanation. Oat
able, however, that the part of Tyre which of 9i words in the recently discovered tablet
was bailt on an island related all the efforts of Marseilles, 74 occur in the Old Testament,
of the beaiegera. AAerthe siege there seems to Beside inscribed coins and stones, there remains
have been mooh internal distorbance. Judges a curious monnment of the Phoanician language
or aoffists took the place of kings, and there is in Its Oartbaginian branch in the Ptmvivt at
some reason to believe that to a certain extent Plautus, in which one of the characters of the
l^re like the rest of the Phcenician cities ac- play, a Carthaginian, utters some sentenoes in
knowledged the sovereignty of Babylon. TheHoll his native tongue. In 18S7 Gesenius published
of Babylon before thearmsof the Persians was hiaSoriptiiraiLingwequePhienieiaMoTmmenta,
followed at no long Intorval by the submiswon containing all the extant remuns of the lan-
of the whole of Phoenicia to Oyms or his snc- gnage then known, to thenumbM'of about l.OOO
oeMor Oambysea. Under the Persian men- words. Additions to the vocabulary have sinoe
orchy the Phoenician navy was a re^n>^ and been derived from ancient Oarthage, Sidon, Jfco,,
very important element of the imperial power, and much is expected fr^m 'K. Renan, who is now
Bat the internal oonatitntiou of the cities does exploring Phcenicia. In its original form the
not seem to have been disturbed, and the no- literature of Phixnioia has wholly perished, and
tivo line of kings continued to reign under the little has been preserved throu^ Greek trans-
protection of the PerMon sovereign, whom they lation. Its oldest productioua appear to have
acknowledged as their liege lord. The com- been philosophical and theogonioal, and the
merce of the dties flourished by the rioh traffic Greeks attributed to the Phoenicians Soncho-
of Arabia and tha East which passed through niathon and Uochns a greater antiquity than
their hands, and their manufactures of purpde that of their own oldest writers. The othw
and glaaa were In fbll activity. Thronghont writers of Phcenicia are all known to ns under
the long straggle between Greece and Persia Greek names, aa Theodotus, Hypsiorates, PM-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FHONOaRAFHT
lostratoi, THoB, Uenander, utd Eiaroiminu. A & wUqMnd Kmd, the seoond a mb-Tooal, in
long tsinat from Dbui relating to the inter- ttkeUttarthemiuNdeaof thelaiTiixbdngeeUed
MOTBe between Bima ■iid8ol<»t<Hi Is^reii bj into aetion. The Mme princ^>Ie is i^t^oaUe
Josephns. who also qnotee from Uenander, by to the remainder of th« pairs. T and i ar«
whom the hiatories of the Phtenicdan dtles represented bj perpendlouar marks, the oda
were written frmn their looal reoordi. The thm, the other thioL : and they atand ibr tlua
most considerable of these extracts is fivm the (whispered and thiok (nriwed) eoanda. Tako
writings of Sanohoniathon^reeerred bf Ense- theflrat sonndsof tinandtfin; experiment will
bins in his "Eranirelical reparation." (See show that the ortioiilBtitau are unUar, th«
SAK0H0iiUTH0]r}.—Ihe principal modem works bmgae coming in contact with thereof of the
on Phfflnicia are Uovers's J)i« Phdituur ; Ece- month near the roots of the npper frcait teeth
ren's " ^storioal Besearches," vol. iL ; and in the prodnotion of either soond. The third
Kenriok's " Phcemda" (E^mdon, 1866). pair, ca and j, are also made by arUcoladcxia
PH<£NIX (Gr. ^otn£), a faboloDs Urd to reaembling each other, as obaerred in the first
which TDKOj marrellons qnalitiee were attrib- aonnds of eAest and jest. The same is tnie of
nted b; ancient authors. Aooordlng to one le- I and hard p, as in £ite, pate ; of /and « in
gend, it lived in Arabia, reaemUed an eagle, with ,^ne and eine; of the pur marked th, whis-
wingspartlf red and parUj gtdden, ud npon pered as in tAin, vooalized as in tAis ; oft and s,
arriving at the age «tf 600 yean bnilt itscdf a m teal and teal ; of «& aodsA, intnreandMnre.
ftmeral pile of wood and an»natic gams, and. It is to be particalarlr observed that the pow-
ll^^bting It br the fanning (tf its wings, was con- ers of these letters are refbrred to above, and
anmed to ashea, ont of wntdi arose a new phcfr- not their names oi pe,'b«,U,de,ia,^,ii6, Ao.
fix. The mTth is nndonbtedlr of eastam on- The following is a table of the single oonao-
nn, as similar stories of marvdloua birds oconr naats:
m the literatnre of Persia and India, By poeta unADans.
and imaginative anthors of every aga the phce-
nix has been rwarded as the emblem of im- \ \ | | / / *"" -~
mortality. The fathers of the chorch employed
it to Ulnstrate the doctrine of the reBorreetion ;
and several of Uie Roman emperora used it on
ooins to typiiy their own apotheosis, or the re-
tom of the golden age nnder th^ mle. M6- V.^^ C( )) _J ^
tral'a work, i« jjA^w!, *« Voittau dv tohil ^
(Paris, 1824), contains b. riiumi of all that hai
been written in andent or modem times npon
the anljeot.
PHCEKIXVIII^ a manafaotaring town of
Chester oo., Fenn., on the SchnyUoll river, at
^e month of French creek, and on the Phila-
delphia and Beading rulroad, 28 m. from the
formerandSOm.from thelBttcr;pop.inl860, The vowels are represented by dote and short
^488. There are mines of iron, copper, and dashes, which are made heavy and light to rep-
lead In the vidnitj, and it has extensive iron reaent long and short vowels. The 8 long
mano&etoriea, producing great qoantitiea of vowels are :
railroad iron and nuls. A rolling mill, snp- s & ah an 6 M
posed to be the largest in the Umted States, >■ ■ ■ -i .
employs from 1,300 to 1,500 men. TheSohnyl- | '| I I H J
killnavigation company's oaiud passes throogh * "
the town. Phcenixville has a lyoenm, a newe- ** " j^
pwer offioe, and several churches, •" ^^
PHONOGRAFHT (Gr, ^^r, voioe, and The short voweb are ;
Tfu^, to write), ft system of shorthand invent- j g i S ft Stt
ed by Isaao Pitman, of Bath, England. It was
first published in 1887, and has once been 'I 1 1 H J
greatly modified. It professes to be based npon ^j,
an analysis of tlie sonnds of the English Ian- m an ns oa ap loot
gnage, and fix>m this fact was at first called .
eonnd hand. The consonants ore represented By a change of portion, the heavy dot is made
by stral^tlinee and carves. The first Ifl in the to represent 8 voweb; the light dot, 8 : the
table below are in pairs, represented by light and heavy stroke, 8; the light stroke, 8 ; in all, 18.
by heavy strali^t lines ai^ curves, correspond- They are placed respectively at the beginning,
ing with their near relation in eonnd. Tfaos middle, and end of a consonant. The nprigbt
the first sonnde in jAa and Inn ore made by stroke to which the vowels are placed in these
the same artionUtlons, the lips bring first oom- examples is no part of the vowel sign ; it is
pressed tfwether, and then thrown suddenly the phonogruihio sign for t, and is employed
Bpart by the expnlsion of breath. The firrt is merely to bidicate the pOKitions of the vowel^
r ^ I
ooiLnotNTS. w "^ r ^ UKAtrm a ^
utaaafy, lit, Sd, md M pUm. The dipb-
tboBgil glides SM thus provided for :
1 1
J
S7»
Hm above is tiie lAiwogn^e alphabet propor.
For greater flidlity in writmg, however, several
series of SibbrevuttdoQah&va been adopted. Tbe
following is a
Th» Boonda in^oated b7 ts and y hold a middle
plaoa between vowels md consonants ; that is,
thej are less open Uun vowels, and less ob-
■buctad than ocnaonanta. They are K»netimea
caDttd ooalesoents, becanae tbejr are never need
ezoept inimediatelj preceding a vowel with
wtdoh tbtij oloaely coalesce. By prefixing re-
apeotivelj the simple sonnda of w and y to the
Bmi^ vowels ^ven. above the reader wUl have
ttds series, whioh is represeuted as followa ;
•I •! J
J _
TAB TAU
L r 1-
JMT jtim jvd 7*wii joka jma
7and y are also fttmlahed with single forma,
as seen in the table of consooanta. 'Die briefer
sounds^ as heard in yet, yam,yond«r, tec., are
indicated hy lighter marks. WtmA y prefixed
to the diphthongs I, oi, and oa are thus repre-
sented:
wi lwi»e
Iqudt wov-i|w(Mnd
The aspirate A ia never used except imme-
diatelj preoeding sn onobstmcted or vowel
aonad, and is Hlmply on initial, andlble breath-
ing through the portion whioh the votial and
orticnlaliDg oigans sssnme to pronoonce ai^
given voweL This nnobstrncted whisper a,
ttiongh it has as many different powers as there
are vowels, still, beiog thus nniforml^ use^
is fittinglf represented bf a small dot plaoed
immediatelj before anj vowel, thus indioatin^
Uiat tite vowel is to be preceded bj the sspt-
rate. The stroke sign for A is employed when
a vrord consists of a vowel and aspirate only,
as in hay, hut, Ao. — 8, the most freqnently oo-
onrring consonant in the langawe, is repre-
sented by a circle, whioh is made somewhat
Qiioker for i. The circle is joined to strai^t
letters thns:
■V r /° w s, I / ^
Vben joined to carved letters, the direction of
the curve is followed, thus :
Vo ^ C Oi v_? /^
fe If tlB mi M 1*
Wlien occurring between two consonanta, It is
written in the shorteit direction, as :
X- -f T -f -^ -T-,
\
"■ \
- N
" \
\
1
" r
" 1
" J
(
« r
•• 1
" J
/
en, y
™ /
CO y
/
" /■
" /
" y
—
KL e_
sa e —
n — =
—
01. ^.
o> c-
on —,
>-
n, «^
" •^
" V,
V.
" ><
V. '^
'« >..
(
™ c
™ ■)
". c
(
™. c
™ ■)
"' (,
)
S "
n 0
° 3
)
Z "
za 0
- i
J
•^ J
-' J
"J
J
^J
.u. J
•^j
r
u. /"
B /
"^z-
■--
MP /^^
WK e-^
m ^^1
-
mr <;^
S is also represented by an additional sign,
namely, a sitmting np-etroke, which is alw^t
written and joinef in an upward dlreotioiii, thus :
Consonantal diphthongs In which 2 and r are
used in ooi^nnction with all the other oonso-
nonts are of very frequent ooonrrence ia ttke
language. These glides b^ng uttered with al-
most as little effort as simple somida, they are
appropriatel][ Tepreaented by a sli^t modifioa'
tion of the Bimple letter. (See the 2d and 8d
oolnnms of the table above.) From the pf
series of double consonants a treble series Is
formed by making the Look into a circle, thua:
■X
1 /
•N
8 is prefixed to a consonant of tite fl buIm
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
180 PHOKOOBAFET
. j^ ue made b7«(MDdiiiioiiB line doable Qwtaigtli
>s, "f J X. of a nogle ooDBoaaot. — Witii the eioepdon of
nppia Httie anddja dukis oItU certuu prefixes, sffises, and Bbbreviatea words
5 or E IB oddod to the n series by m&khig the termed grammalogaes, which it is nnneceflsa;^
hook into a circle, thns : to present, the above is the first or oorreepoad-
_^ ^^ ing style of phonogrq)hr, according to the 9tb
J- J- J- J- ~"^ ^ edition, A 10th edition, however, has been
tone loBM tea tenw ezpeuH Imtows pnblifihed in England, in which the vowel scale
The drde is enlarged for ti*a, thoe : taa been changed to Uie following order : ah
" ' a, i; d,i, I; as in aim*, ail, eet; at, tf, eC.
J ^. J~ ~'^ "'°-^ '^ '^ ^ "'>'■ been adopted by anthora of
, . " text books or b j students in this oonntry, it haa
™. ^^ „'™T r^,,. f'™?' , not been followed in thlaaooonnt of the aystem.
iK u written by a loop half the length of a K will be seen that phonographio spelling har-
Btrright consonant, as: monizea with the pronunciationofwords. Each
v^ ^ U -s. tTN ^^ o. »onnd b represented by a special character ;
therefore to write any given word phonogr^ihi-
i^ut lesn tout p»t itoun itiug iton oally, its several soiinds must first be asoertain-
A larger loop or oval repreeenta the treble con- ed ; the stndent should then write the phoso-
•ooant $tr, tnna : graphic letters which compose them. — While
11^ j^ v' phonography is Btriclly a system of shorthand,
**■' -f^ '^ each letter being made by a wngle motion of
fsutac LdKMtcr mmUt poriw muter the pen, the facility it affords for abbreviation
These loops may be added to the /w series of renders it peculiarly adapted for reporting por-
«onsonants,aiid to the n hook when final, thus: poses. The large ontlines of the consonant
, -V, 9- signs, as compared with the dots and abort
="" ~~o -7=> \i "b dashes which are naed to represent vowels,
■tokn udk icaloit pmutar iplMter ^"11 be likely to snggest the word of which
A final* may be added by oonthming the stroke they form a part, even though the vowels are
of the loop, thna ■ omitted, aa will be seen by a few examples :
f*MU orirt. Ilrt. diuten pimMert •"'"T ""^ t«mlii.li™
A hook made by -oontinning the « cirde to the "^^ principle of position is hardly of secondary
«ther8ide-of the consonant adds ii»i,aB: importwice. Three positions for words are re-
cognized, corresponding with the three vowel
^ /Vj 2- Nt, podtJotiB. Words which are to be indicated by
^„ . ll„ „ the portion Uiey occupy are written as follows:
polti™. cTPo-tioa tr«»iaoa c«np«.«lon tho^T whose a^nteS syllable contains a first
^ °^r^^ consoDant written twice its nsnal j^ ^„„^i ^ ^^ g^ position, or above the
length adds Mr, as: g^^. containing a second place vowel, npon
theliue; containiugathirdplaoevowel,throQgh
or below the line ; as :
V. ^
OKitbin' saltliiir fttbcr foMhtr
The vowel sign for w may be prefixed to ^ r
(upward), m, and n, thus : ." • jg^m tr-v mia» j»li»
^1' *^' S^ i^ — £^^ f^"' ^^ "^^ some previons examples, the dotted
^ line indicates the line written npon.) In the
■windy Wednudiy wMlUir -work -worfh reporting Style, borade this principle of ebbre-
A find Irook on the right hand side of atrdght yiaiion, a great many phrases are written with-
conaoiiant signs repreeente / or r ; the termdna- ont lifting the pen, and are called phraseograma,
tion (wft is expressed by a larger sized final the employment of which is generally necessary
hook : Jn ^naWng verbadm reports, EVom fl to 10
ti I. 'j- a words are sometimes embraced inaphraseo-
u t \j \j' ^ gram, and it is generally conceded that they
■trlfe tanih dtaf edltton aUttoa natloii grg niore le^ble than the same words written
Halving a consonant adds t ord, according as separately, on a like principle that somerala,
the consonant is thin or thick. (See the last which mibrace a sm^er space and are taken
Golnmn of the table.) The general role for in more readily by the e;re, are more easily read
writing consonanlB is to write them from top than when the nmnber is spelt ont; as for in-
to bottom, and&om left to righL L, howeve^ stance, 1661 is read with greater &<^^ than
when standing alone, is written npward; «A eighteen hundred and sixty-toe.
may be written upward or downward, ita is ,j-h — ■ 'Cv— , v'\o
most convenient! when two -strM^l oonso- "- \._
naats, snob as JI2), jtt, follew each other, titey i am Mttam. i think yon nuf TooirfUpoMtn.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
™''T^iaao^r^ky dUten from other BTBtema of OTaterali^ oddned vtth fnlphnr, andmanr
ei: BhortbABd chteflj in Its more extended phonetia cnemioal preparations and other minorBlg, the
''^basis, and in tJie aimpUaitr of its alphabet, the class of bodies possesEing tbia property heing
' ^'^aimplwt geometrical eharaoters having been named pfaosphora or phoaphori. Thus, under
f ^''adopted.— Sinoe the Inrention of phonography' the dngle t«nn pboBphoreaoenoe, are gronped
'— : its dinemlnation has been Tory rapid. It is the at the least 6 diadnct kinds of phenomena,
'' ^stem generally adopted bj reporters in tltis agreeing in the fact that the light and the <nr-
ooontry and in Great Britain. It is also nsed ownstanoes prodncing it are peculiar, and ^tat
by prcrftoidonal men, hy ministers for writing the rays emitted are, bo for as experiment can
their sermona, and hj lawyers to take notes of yet detect, Inminons only, or at least deetitnte
evidence, its lability rendering it pecoliorly of accompanying heat, tie.: 1, light of insects
adaptod to these pnrposes. Four monthly pe- and other animals, dae to feeble combnstion
riodioals in phonographio obaraoters are pub- of matters prodnoed. within their organism and
lished in England, one in Anstrolla, and two in dnring the living processes ; 3, tbe same, doe
the Uoited Btatea. There have been 800,000 to direet evolution or vital action, and so anal-
copies of the system sold in England and the ogoos to the production of electricity, and the
British colonies, and probably aboat half that nervona and mnscnlar forces; 8, evolved in
Dumber in the United States. Inelnding the wars similar to the two foregoing, by plants;
yearly volomes of the phonetic periodicals, 4, dne to slow oombnatlon, attending decay,
aboQt 100 volnmes of engraved phonographio of organized materials; 6, dne, in mineral
literatnre have been iasned np to 1861. bodies, to an agitation prodnced wiUtin tJheir
PHO8PH0RES0EN0E (from resemblance substanco, dnring eiposnre to an eitraneons
to the light of phoephoms when slowly oxi- sonrce of light, and radiated with lessening
diied, or directly from the Gr. ^i, light, 0rpu, intensity, as each agitation decreases, down to
to brin^, alnmmonsness or lignt, nsiMliyfabit, the point of extinction. It will be proper to
andemittedoontlnnonslyratherthanbynashas, consider ftirther, in this place, only the last
bnt dniing a time varying from a small frao- of these cases ; the first and second being
tion of a second to several minutes or even treated of in the articles Fiskflt and G-low-
honrs, by certain orgomzed bodies, living or wobk, and the others being less important,
dead, and lUso, after expoenre to ertraneons In the articles Light and Oolob it is shown that
Bonrcea of light^ by a large nnmber of mineral an illuminated body is in reality one that Is
bodies in the solid state. The phenomena tiiat mode secondarily or temporarily Inminons, by
have ordinarily been inclnded under Hie term reason of the falling of light from some other
phosphorescence ore in reality widely different, aoarce npon It. Most frequently, the color of
and they require to be properly discriminated, this temporary luminosity sgrees with that of
The light pven out by certain iuseota has been the whole or some part of £e rays exciting it.
observed from very early times. The audent Some bodies, however, change tbe character
B were fiuniliar also with the lumi' of the rays before refimission; thus, violet
metimea appearing on the surface of ligbt, etrildng a colorless solution of sulphate
bays; and these ^pearancee they of quinine, is emitted blue. (See Fldobbs-
uipeaT
. jo.'*^ ] . . , - .
stanoes, the hnman body is sud to have ap- ordinary Ulumination oease the instant the
peared lominoua, as have also certain plants, rays of the exciting Inminary cease to be re- .
W especially their Sowers. Several ftingi oeived npon the body. Bat the truth pro1>ab]y
and agarics are said in this way to emit light. Is that no body ceases to be visible the instant
Ur. James Dmmmond describea species of it ceases to receive light. The luminons agito-
agario, growing on the trunks of banksias, tion and secondary emistion persist after with-
Dcar Swan river, which gave at night a light drawal of the illuminating rays; bnt, in liquids
eoabling him to read ; and cert^n rMzomor- and gases (save oxygen and common ur), in
Shoos fungi growing in the ooal mines of Dres- black bodies, and iu ail metals, such perfiistenoe
en have lon^ been celebrated fbr the illnmi- is so brief and ibgitive, that it has tnns for es-
nation,feeblemdeed,whichtheythrowaronnd caped detection. In other solid bodies, the
them. The flowers of nasturtium, orange lily, nersist«nce of light-cdving after cessation of
African marigold, snnflower, and others, tJl light-receiving is either, as in diamond and
of orange hue, are sud to show an intermit- flnor spar, of snch duration as to be examined
tent light daring warm annuner eve^ngs, to- at our leisure, or, as in a still larger propor-
word twilight; bnt Professor Allman'auggests tion of those bodies, so brief as to have been
that this may be an optical illusion. The In- unsnapeoted nntil tested by very ingenious ex-
minonsoess of pntreffing flah, shell flab, or periment. Now, this continning secondarily
other animal snbstances, and (tf decaying wood, emitted light b phosphorescence, in the last
is well known ; the latter Is the appearance of the 6 forms named above. This view agrees
vulgarly termed " foi fire." Diamonds, es- substantially with that pot forth by Prof. J.
peoally the yellow, exposed for a time to the W. Draper, of New Tork, as the result of oh-
solar raya finsoMed), when carried into a dark eervations undertaken by him as far back as
place, emit for some time a light which pales the year 1840, and renewed since that time,
gradually nntil entirely extinguiahed. So of Amoi^ the condnaions arrived at by him are^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
tlul a pluMphoreeoent, eren at its nuximiun Rleam, white, bine, or great, he., dving awaj
of glow, lias not perceptiblr ohanged its toI- mto a portion totmj aiek. Thus, m this ap-
nme ; ttiat tbero U no atteodant derelopmeut paratos, tiine ia ezpressed to tlie e;e in Bpoce,
of eleotrioit; ; that the iotriniio hrif^htness of and bo meaaured. With it, U. Becqnerel found
a phosphor is very smalL the Tn»TTmnTn of a that time is consnmed in elsTating the phoe-
fine epecumen of ohlorophane (a variety of phorescence of an? substance to its rnaximam ;
flaoride of calcium) being bat -j^rr P'*'^ ^ '"* ^^t, generallj, the phoapliorescence is less
t^nse as the flame of a small oil lamp; and brilliant than the incident light, exoeptiona
that some phosphors are excited to greater la- being that it b in manj bodies best excited by
minoutjbjlightfrom the sky, OT that throngh the feeble violet, or even by the dark raja
a violet kIbs^ than by direct Btinlight. If we beyond the violet; that, generally, its inten-
adopt t£<s view of U. E. Becqnerel, this is eityisindependentof the duration of exposure,
probably becaose, when the tempenatare la bat is a f\motion of the intensity of the eidt-
raised, as it is by tlte direct sunbeam, the ingraya; that both intentdty and color depend
pbospnoresoenoe is more r^idly expended, mnch on certain phyuoal modifications that
and even during insolation. Other ooncln- can be produced by pecniiar modes of prepar-
sioiu of Draper, among them that phosphores- ing the substances examined, and on tempera-
cence of thu form is attended with slight ia- tore — the sulphiuet of strontiam, for example,
crease of sensible heat, are rendered question- obtained by reaction of S on 6r above aboat
able by results of the later and extremely 600°, emitting a violet glimmer at low temper-
polient researches of Becqnerel, whose ezhaos- atnres, blue at 40° 0., greenish at 70°, greenish
tive paper on this subject occupies the entire yellow at 100°, and orange at 200° ; tiiat the
snmber of the ATmale* de ckimU et de phy- total action is greater and the gleam longer
tigve toe Jan. 18D9. Thb physicist eianuned as the temperature is lower, w^le, with Uie
in order the mineral and orRanio sabstancea same Bubstanoe, the color may vary at different
citable of being rendered sdf-Iuminons after periods aft«r ezposare ; that, however, the
some momsnts'msolation, oreiposureto other phenomeua are not due to cbemical canse;^
Buffictent light ; and he greatly fadlitated his but consist essentially in a physicBl change, or,
investigations by the invention of an iostm- as the author expresses It, depend on variations
ment which he has termed a phosphoroscope, of equilibrium in the molecular condition of
In this, a cylinder of wood, aboot 1 inch in bodies. By prosecuting the subject from the
diameter and 7 incties long, is so placed in a point of view thus obtained, Bocjaerd has die-
prtijecting angle in the aide of a black box, covered more brilliant phosphors than any
that three fourths of its surface are, daring before known; especially the snlphurets of the
any revelation, outside the l>ox, and in the alkaline earths, barium, strontiam, and cal-
darkened room in which are the spectators: cium. After these, in order, he places most
the remuning fourth iwing in the box, and varieties of diamond, and the fluoride of cal-
illuminated by the voltaic light, and the eecape oium ; then, many other bodies luminous only
of this about the edges of the cylinder being for a few seconds or part of a Bccood, including
prevented by properly attached strips of blaoK other compounds of eartiis and alkalies, the
velvet The cylinder can be tamed at any alkalies themselves, succinic and oxalic acids,
speed up to 800 revolntions per second ; and borax, &o. Among organic bodies, dried paper,
, by added meohaniam the actual velocity can silk, oane sngar, T"ilV sugar, teeth, Ac, are
be indicated. The cylinder is coated over prominent. Mi. Fhipson has lately found that
with fine crystals or powder of the body to be milk sugar, as well as cane sugar, becomes In-
tasted. If, then, the persistenoe of light be minons upon concusdon, or on fracture; while,
but ^ of the most rapid revolution named, to aeoure a brilliant phosphorescence from the
after illumination has ceased in consequence of nitrate of uraniam, it is only required to shake
the surface leaving the source of Ught within, briskly in the dark a bottle containing a cer-
so that its duration is bnt the ^^ part of a tain quanti^ — a pound or more — of m& oirs-
seoond, sttll the phosphorescence wiU come tala of this salt. It was previonaly known that
into view along the emerging side of the oylin- the human epidermis possesses this property ;
der without, and saffidendy to be visible, the hand, for example, if exposed to the sun'a
The rate of revolution being known, and the rays, and then immediately withdrawn into a
part of the onter surface of the cylinder Aurk room and held before the eyes, being
that becomes lighted up observed, the dura- visible for a short time after it lias ceased to
tion of the phosphorescence for any given receive the light. So, again, if a piece of the
sulMtanoe ana modification of substance is mineral apatite, or of fiuor epar, be heated, it
readily determined. The cylinder, if coated will while yet &r below redness emit a ^ow
with an ordinary phosphor, and rapidly torn- of increasing intensitj, and so has become by
ed, appears in the dark room luminous all some internal change a source of light origi-
over. If the body be very briefly phosphores- nated in the way of phosphorescence. A
cent, a velocity is readily found at which the similar effect is observed when two pieces of
light shall show along the emerging side of the quartz are rubbed together in the dark. IL
cylinder; and then, tnrmng faster, it spreads Becqnerel fonnd that heat acoeleratestbe phos-
over half or more of the exposed surfsoe a soft phoresoence of any body, rendering it more
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
intoiuA, ftnd, after remond of the ezdting vM nude evident that flooroeoenoe is a pbos-
oanae, oorreqwndin^ mora brief; and alac^ phoresoenoa sooompanymg the action oi the
that to lome extent the color of Uie emitted exoiUnf; rajg, and on tiieir removal almoat in-
ligU depends on the molecolar condition of stantlj Mling to inaotirit;. In some of the
the bod;; that this oolor, *. «., the refrangi- eiperiments^ os^gen gas and common air,
bilitr of tite emitted light, is generall j lower, throngh which the electric onrrent was passed,
and hence the wave length greater, than that retted distinotlj for some time after its oes-
of rajs exciting it ; while, in apol jing the dif- aation the phosphorescent state. M. Beoqnerel
ferent rajs of the apeotmm to show the phe- apprehends that these researches most tend to
nomenon, the reanlt was nssall; an increase of eInoid^« the manner in which laminons vibra-
brillianej nnder the aoUen of tdie more refraa- tions become modified in consequence of the
nble rajB, and greatest often above the violet, entrance of the rare within sabstanoes of ^'-
tttoogh there were also at different places in ferent kinds, thns leading toward an explana-
tha Bpectram bands of no action ; that the tion of the phenomena A oolor. He regards
lower bands of color in the spectnim oiten them as sapportinK tbe nndolatory thtorj ot
nentraliaed, whoUj or in part, the effect of the light; and he is lea to the general conoloraon
upper ; and that, Qevertheleaa, different bodies that iDininoiu vibrations, transmitted to many
ftre often sosceptible of ahhung onlj within bodies, perh^M to an; bod;, compel its mole-
different limits in the spectrum. Aragonite, onles to vibrate for a time, and with an ampli-
loaland ^ar, and glass give vivid light doring tnde and wave tengUi dependent, not alone on
16 to SO seoonds ; ohiorophane and some dia- the chemical oonstitnlion of the mass, bnt also
monds, though less lotninoos, shine for more on its phjdcal condition.
than an hoar. The electrioal light admirably PEOaPEOBUS (Or. 0<i>r, light, and ifnpai,
excites phosphorescence ; best ol all, the vio- to carr;), an elementary bod; represented by
let arch formed between the poles in tnbes the symbol P. Its chemical equivalent is 82;
containing rarefied air. With the electric spark, specific gravity 1.7T, and that of its vapor
the time required to iudooe a peroeptihle glow 4.306. It was discovered in 1S69 bj Brandt of
is not greater than Tnlnrr o^ ^ second ; bnt to Eamborg in the solid ingredients leit bv evas-
reach a TnaTimnm ^j^ct, the time is greater, orating nrine. For 100 years this was the only
finally, phosphorescent light was not fonnd to known sonrce of it. The prooeee of obtaining
affect the thermometer, nor to occauon chemi- . it was expensive and understood by a few only.
cal change. A practical ooneeqaenoe of these In 1680 Robert Boyle's receipt for making it was
investigations, of nngolar oharaeter, was ar- published In the "Philosophical Transactions of
rived at ; namely, that the flint glass prisma the Roval Society ;" and at this time a chemist
and lenses of opiioal instromenta may oe ex- in London, named Eanokwitz, prepared it to be
pected to phosphoresce, or act as lominons naed for igniting gnlphur matches, a little piece
eonrces, the new light mingling with that which of the phosphorus being made to Inflame by
ie transmitted, and modifying the image or rubbing it in paper. In 1769 Oahn and Schema
vision accordingly. Perh^is the most inter- foond that it was an ingredient of bones, and
esting of Becqnerel'a discoveries is one yet to made known the method of separating it.
be stated. Sinoe the electric light, if trans- Afterward it was found in varions rocks, espe-
ittitted through glass, loses mamly the rays cially in combination with lime in the mineral
which excite phoephoreacenoe, the experiment apatite or phosphate of lime. By the deoom-
of pasung the former light over fragments of position of the rocks cont^ning it, phosphoros
the body examined, in the rarefied sir tube, passes into the soil and is thence taken np by
was resorted to; bnt here it was frequently plants, of many of which, especially of the
foond that a glow upon these fragments, usu- grwis naed for food, tt forms an important ele-
ally differently colored from that of the eleo- ment. Thus it is received into the animal sya-
trie light at the time, and which lasted during tern, and in this is an essential ingredient in the
the electric illamlnation, gave place after the composition of the brain and nerves. Phoa-
enrrent was out off to light of a different color, phorus is a semi-transparent, nearly colorleaa
and which persisted for a longer or shorter snbatance,flexible, and sosoftthat it oan becut
period ; in other words, flaorescence snd with a knife, and then exhibits a waxy lustre,
phoaphoreseence here occurred in snocesaton. It is tasteless, but exposed to the air it emits &
Hence, Becquerel inferred that the two phe- vapor having an odor like that of garlic. This
nomena are essentially one, and different only v^wr, as also the phosphoms itself, is lumi-
in the time dming which in the two oases the nous in the dark. It melts at 111.6°, and, if
excited condition lasts. Experiments with the beneath an alkaline liquid, may If tmdistarbed
phosphoroBcopespeedilyoonfirmed thisconolu- remain fluid when cooled. It takes fire in a
sion. If, for example, the cylinder was oov- warm atmosphere, and is conseqnenUy most
ered with fine crystals of nitrate of nranium, safely kept nnder water, in which liquid it is
iterevo]irtJonB,atanymoderatereloaity,bioaght insoluble. Even at ordinary temperatores it
no light into view ; at very high rates of revo- slowly and inaensibly oonsnmes and at last dia-
IntioD, it appeared along the emerging side ; appears. If this process takes place in a bell
bnt it could not, by any speed practicable, be ^ass over water, oxygen is found to be ab-
made to oover the whole cylinder. Thus It sorbed as in ordinary oombnBtaon, and the ^(h
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
284 ^ • PHOBPHOEUfa
cess ceases if iha snpply of o^gen Is Insoffi- sepanted from the Insoluble Bolphate of IIm«,
oient for complete combnBdon. PhosphoniB It is then evaporated to the ooneiatencj of a
boila at 664°. and it maj thea be distilled, and drop, and being tniied with one foorth itm
thus be obtained in paired form. Great pre- weight of powdered charooal is heated and well
oautionB, however, are requisite in the arrange- stirred until it becomes adiy powder. This is
ment of the apparatns on account of its read^ placed in an earthen retort, which is Inted on
inflommabilitj, and the sereritj of the bums the ontside with fire olaj and borax to render
caused b^ it. The solvents of phosphorus are it less poroiUjand the retort is gradually heated
ether, naphtha, diohlorlde of Hnlphnr, and hi- to redness. Thesnperphosphateof linieiaiiow
enlphiiret of carbon. From its solntion it majr decomposed ; the basic phosphate is reprednced
be obtained orjstalUzed ia rbombio dodecalie- by the escape of the excess of phosphoric acid
drons. Bever^ allotropic forms of phoBphorna and water, both of which are deoompoeed aa
are known, of which that described by SchrOt- they come in contact with the Incandescent
ter (Annalet de chimie nil], xiiv. 406) bj tbe charcoal, and produce phosphorus, carbonio
name of the red amor^ons phosphoras pre- oxide, and hydrogen. The baaio phosphate re-
sents some striking differences from the ordi- mains in the retort. The other prodncta paaa
nary stick phoaphcms, and onght especially to throngh a copper tnbe into a receiver contain-
be familiar to those engaged in the m^tnfac- ing water, in which the pho^honis condcmsea
tnreofmatehes, for which phosphoma is largely in yellow drops, while the gaseoae bodies paaa
employed, inasmuch as it is entirely free from off throngh an open escape pipe. Almost a
tlte poisonous vapor which renders the use of poond of phosphoras may bo obtained from a
the common article extremely dangerons to the qnart retort filled with the materials. The
health of the workmen. This variety is formed phospborns is pnrified by faring it under warm
by keeping stick phospborns several hours at a water and then squeezing it throngh wash
temperatoro between 446° and 482° in a retort leather. It is moulded into the form of sticks
fflled with hydrogen or carbonio acid, neiUier by introdncing a gloss tnbe, slightly tapering,
of which exerts any action upon it Distilla- into the melted snbstance, and oansing thia to
tion takes piece, and both sorts of phosphoras ascend by snckicg. Wlien sofficiently ftall the
are obtained. They are separated by treats opening at top is dosed with the finger, and the
ment with bisulpbnret of carbon, which dis- tube is drawn out and plnnged into cold water.
solves the ordinary phosphorus and leaves the •'Wben the phosphorus aardens it is pushed out
red in an amorphoaa powder. This is then of the larger end of the tnbe with a rod. An-
fused and afterward solidified. It is bard and other method has been employed by which the
brittle, not so lumlnoafl nor so highly inflam- melted phosphoms is made to flow into hori-
mable as the other kind, and has not the same lontal glass tabes, of which one end is kept in
Twisonons properties. It nndei^oes no change water heated above 111" and the otber in cold
m the Bxr and emits no odor. Its specific grav- water. Out of the cold end the substance may
ity is 2.14. At abont 482° F. it takes fire and be drawn almost in a oontinnous stick. — An-
bums with dazzhng brilliancy. If prepared at other method of making phosphoms is recom-
as high a temperature as it will bear, it may mendedin the "American Jonmal of Pharma-
acquire the color of vermilion. It has been oy," vol. xxiv. p. 167, by which the caldnatioa
manufactured in England npon a large scale of the bones is avoided. These are digested
with a view to its substitution for ordinary for several days in dilute nitric acid, and from
phosphorus in matches; bnt its preparation ia the solution acetate of load throws down tha
attended with considerable danger, and its use phospborns in on insoluble phosphate of lead.
involves increased expense. Common phos- ThiB,being washed and dried, is heated red-hot
phoms is prepared from calcined bones, which in a crucible, and is then mixed with charcoal
are composed of carbonate and a basic phos- powder and distilled in the nenal way. The
fihate of lime. Those of the sheep Wnish the bones deprived of their earthy matter may be
drgest proportion of phosphoras, and are most tised for the manoioctnre of glue. The shav-
eaaily acted on by acid. Xho bones being pnl- ings of born are well adapted for Qua use, as
verized are mixed with two thirds their weight they contain twice as much phosphate of lime
of strong sulphuric acid and 6 times their as ordinary bone. From the residue a nntri-
weight of water, and the mixture after behig tions jelly may be obtwned. — The manafactnre
well stirred is left for 24 hours. The carbon of phosphorus is carried on chiefly in France,
ate of lime ia decomposed, the lime being con- Prassia, Baden, Bavaria, Austria, and Sardinia.
verted into a sulphate ; and the basic phosphate. In 1844 all that was consumed in England was
losing twothirdsof its lime,i3converted intoa imported from the continent of F^ro^ and
aoluble acid phosphate known as the snper- within the memory of those now living its coat
phosphate, which retains all the phosphoras. was 4 guineas per pound, while now it ia worth
The change ia exprrased by the followuig for- less than 8*. The consumption, however, does
mula: not appear to have largely increased in that
A. uv. saipk. udk. country, notwithstaading ^le manufiu:tare has
. . ^ . been thera introdnced. The importation ceased
,.... + nH0,BO,)=SHO,c^Po.+i(C^B0^ altogether In 1860, and other materials are
By filtering throngh a linen bag the solution Is largely substituted for it in the maonfaoture
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
of mfltches. tlie production of Enriand and used In medioine in combination vilL soda, and
France together in 18S6 irfts estuDat«d at also with Ucae, and egun with iron. Its name
abont 800,000 lbs. The oonsamption is al- is derived £rom the metliod of preparing its
most wlioilf for matohes. It is nsed in med- combination with soda hj applying heat to the
icine, acting in amaU doaea as a general atimn- rhomblo phosphate of soda. The first, known
lout. ThB form in which it ia administered is also as metapoosphorio acid and glacial phos-
generallT its eotatioa in oil, an oanoe of al- phom aoid, is mnoh emplojed m processes
monil oil taking up 4 gruns of phosphorus, of connected with dyeing, calico printing, enam-
Tfhich fi-om 6 to 10 drops are nven for a dos«. ellin^, and the purification of Bome oils and
It has also been given in cod liver oil, and in fats, m prefereooe to other adds that have been
chloroform. Bocentlj a preparation called nsed for the same pnrposea. It is obtmed ij
pyrophosphate of iron has come into extendve digesting finely gromid bone ash with diluted
use as a tonic and alteratire, in which phos- oialio acid and ev^torating, Nomeroos nat-
phoras in the form of pyrophosphorio acid is nral oombinations of phosphono aoid wiUi
an essential ingredient In many oases where bases exist among minerals, the most impor*
death has become imminent &om exhaustion tant of which is tiie phosphate of lime or apa-
of the vital forces, as in the last stage of tite, consisting of pbosphorio acid 42.36, lime
all severe continaed fevers, aach as typhus, 60.00,andfluorina8.77. Ximestonesthatcontain
ydlow, and other fevers, phoaphoma reanl- it in considerable quantity make valnable mar
mates the vitality, and forniahea natore with nnree ; and the bones that are osed for the aome
the mesna o( effectually reustii^ the disease, purpose derive their fertilizing qualities chiefly
eliminating by the nataral excretory outlete mm the phosphate of lime. Guano derives a
of the system its material causes. It is useful large share of its useful properties from tho
in all acute eruptions when the disease bos re- salts of the same aoid. What is called the super-
treated from the snrfiioe, as in measles, small phoeptiate of lime is an acid phosphate pro-
pox, erysipelaa, &o., as well as in malignant dnoed by treating ground bones with ooe
pustule. It is often sncceBBfollT used in many fourth tiieir weight of sulpbnrio acid. The
chronic aStetions when attended with much triphosphate is converted mto on acid phos-
debility, as gout, rheumatism, paralysis, ex- phate, and the mixture consists beside of anl-
ceesive debility, amenorrhcea, sterility, impo- phate of lime and the gelatinous portions of
tenoe, blindness, deafiiess from paralyrts of the the bone, all of which possess fertiUzing prop-
nervea of dght and hearing, &e. The hom»- erties. ^^
opathiats reverse almost sU these indications, FHOXniB, patriarch of Oonstantinople, and
and use it in many acute fevers and inflaroma- reputed author of the Greek schi^n, died in
tiooa, espedaOy in inflammations of lungs and 893. The place and time of bia birth are not
of the female breast, in cronp and hoarse mentioned. He was related by the marriage
coughs. Fhoephoms, bein^ a component por- of his nnolea to the patriarchal and imperial
laoQ of the nervous tissue, is as useflil in many houses ; and in 867, when he first spears in
nervous affections as iron is in diseases of the hiatory, he was the secretary of state to the
blood. Taken in anbatanoe into the stomach it eastern emperor. He had made himself neoes-
Bcts as an irritant poison, for which the proper sary both to the emperor Michael IH. and to
antidote b a meedy emetic. Oopious diangnts his minister Bardas, A qnarrel with the par
ofwatershouldbeswaUowedincaseof solutions triarch Ignatius, who opposed the forcible re-
of phosphorus having been taken in large quan- moval of the mother and sisters of the emperor
tity ; and magneda added to the water would to a convent seemed to require a change in the
serve to neutralize any acids produced in the occnpanoy of the see. Ignatius was sent into
stomach. It ia also recommended in combine- exile, and though he could not be persuaded to
tion with 8 timeaits weight of chlorine water, resign his dignity, his place was declared vacant,
The vimor of phosphorus, to which the makers and Fhotina was installed as his successor. The
of matdiee are exposed, causes a disease of the election was irregular in several particulars.
jaw bone which becomes carious, so that it has It was made by the will of the Ceesar and not
etmielimes been removed as the only means of by the authorities of the church : the candidate
saving the life of the Bufi'erer. (SeelfATCH.)— was a layman, and moreover already a Bchi»-
The compounds of phosphoroa with oxygen matio,adhering, ssitwassaid, tothepartyofthe
are 4 in number, viz. : phosphoric acid, POi ; Sicilian bishop against the Byzantine primate.
phosphoroaa add, FOi ; nypophosphorous acid. These formidable difBculties did not, neverthe-
PO ; and oxide of phosphorus. PtO. Tbe first, less, hinder his promotion. In 6 daya he passed
which is the mmt important, is obtdned in the through the vuious nades, and was ordained
form of a white, flooculent, very deliquescent patriarch, his friend Asbestas of Syracuse, the
powder, by bnmmg phosphorus in oxygen or enemy of Ignatius, predding at the ceremony.
atmospheric air. It has a great affinity for The consent of the neighboring bishops was
water, and may be obtuned combined with it with difSculty obtained. Deceived by a strata-
in 8 diffwent proportions, severally known aa gem, they became the enemies of the usurper,
the proto-, deuto-, and trito-hydrate of ^os- while they seemed to uphold him. The timely
phorio acid. The second of these (SHO, POi) embassy which Fhotius sent to Bome with the
Is Qie pyrophosphorio add named above, and llilse Btotemeot of the voluntary resignation of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
S86 FHOmra FHOTOGBAFHT
IffiiKdaB, and with BBaertiora of the ortliodt^ Hut Tatioan. An exocUent monognph cm tlw
<S the Dew incumbent, gained over for a time life and inflnence of PhoUos, by the abbS Jager,
the pope, Ntoholaa I. A cooncil at Oonstan- waa pnhlislied at Paris in 1B46, and has pa^«d
tinople fk 818 biahops, in 861, confirmed the tliroiigh eevend editjons.
election, deposins Tgaeiitia and condemning PHOTOGRAPHY (Qr.^i,lig]it,andv^0«,
him to degradation and exile. Thia deoree, to write), the art of depicting oUeots dt the
however, was soon annnlled by another oo&ndl agency of light, sometimes termed die photo-
which was called at Bome by the pc^ in genio or heliographio art. The earliest obeer-
vbioh Photins was anaihematiied in tom, vaMons on the chemical changes produced by
and ordered to ndinqnish his olaim. Photina the agency of light were doubUess those of the
at first treated tbii sommons with contempt, fading and bleaohmg of vegetable colors. The
and called at Ocmatantanople still another ooon- delioate tints that may be obtuned fh>Di the
cil in 867, in which he ezoommnnioated the parts of plants are osually so unstable or fii-
pope, and aoonaed tbe Roman cbnroh of hereey. gitive, as it is termed by paintera, that they
On the death of the emperw IGchad and the are unsuitable for the porpoaes of permanent
acoeedon of Ba^ to the eastern thTon& Ffao- dydng. Soma are' so sendtiTe to light that an
tins was banished and !^natins restcwed ; and exposure of only a few momenta is sufficient to
in a council held in 86S the acts of the imlawfiil injnre them; others resist for a longer time the
council held by PbotJua wvn solemnly abro- conjoint action of sunlight, an:, and water. The
gated aud its records burned. After anezile oldpTooessofbleachiQg,asconduotedinble&ch-
of 8 years, Photina was allowed to return to fields, was strictly a photographic operation.
OonataDtdnople, where he speedily regained fo- The doth to be whitened waa exposed on ihe
Tor ; and in B76, on the death of Jgnotiiu, he fields to the sun, b^g occasionally moistened
obtiuned Uie consent of both emperor and p^ with water. Oxidation of the coloring matter
to his assumption of the patriarchal place. The it had ori^^nally contained by degrees took
promise which the pope required was not, how- place, aud after a certain period of time the
ever, fblfilled. Photios opposed the restora- fabric beeame perfectly white. It was noticed
tion of the Bulgarians to the Latm church, by the alchemists probably aboat the 12th
and did not reoant his own heresiea. A new century, that the chloride of silver blackens by
ezcommmiloation came from Borne, the sen- exposure to the son, though when first prepar-
tence of the former Bcmian council was re- ed it ia as white as snow. This darkening is
affirmed, and in 886 Photins was finally ban- in a general manner proportional to the bdght-
Ished by the emperor Leo to an Armenian con- neas of the light It does not occur instantane-
Tent, where he died. — Fhotdns has importance onaly, but in a regulated way, a ^ven quantity
in history as the founder of the Greek schiam, of li^t being apparently necessary for the pro-
' " ' ■" "" dnction of a dennil - ■ ■
, IS a philoRC^her, and as a liter- dnction of a definite effect As experimental
Though he did not oonanmmate chemistry waa cultivated, the list of enbstancea
the separation between the Greek and Latin thns influenced became greatly extended, so
ohurchea, he created a division which was that at the time when Berzelins published his
never liealed, and after him no confesalon of work on chemistry, several scores of bodies
supremacy could be wrung by the pope from were known to b« changeable by tuminons
the Greek patriarch. Be drew np ohorges agency. Some of these were elementary bodies,
against the Latin church, that they shortened and some were componnds, derived from both
the season of Lent, refiued to allow married the inorganic and organic groups. Perhaps the
men to enter the priesthood, denied to priests first germ of photogra^j as an art is presented
the right to admimater the chrism, and above in on experiment of Priestley's, who caused
sU that they tanght the doable procession of some chloride of silver to be deposited on the
the Holy Spirit. Of his numerous works, the side of a glass bottle, and then putting round
most important is tiie £ibl4ctheea, which con- the bottle a piece of dark paper out of which
tains fragments of nearly 800 Greek prose letters hod been cut with a penknife, the ar-
writers, most of whose works are lost, with rangement was exposed to the sun. All those
critical remarks thereon. Editions of this work portions of chloride upon which the light had
have been pablished in Augsbnrg (1601), in &]len, through the spaces where the paper bad
Geneva, with a Latin transtation (1611), and been removed, tamed black, but those pro-
in Berlin by Bekker (1824). He also left a tected by the dark p^ter retained their white-
" Lexicon" (Leipsio, 1608; London, 1822): neas nnimpaired. A snn print or sun writing
the " Komoconon," a oolleotion of canonical was thns prodnced. Attention having been
decrees, epistles, and statutes conoeming the thus drswn to the changing appearance of
chnrah (Paris, 1616); a collection of 248 let- ohNnicalsnbBtancesthronghtheactioDof light,
ters (I«ndon, 1661) ; theological tracts, con- Soheele, a Swedish philosopher, who shares
tinned in Combefi'a supplement to tha Siblio- with ftiestleythehonorof discovering oxygen
tt«a Patrum; end a treatise on "Oonsola- gas, made some very instructive experiments
tion," edited by Rittersbnsfus (Nuremberg, for the pnrposa of determining whether it is
1601). Some additional fragments of his writ- some spMiaUy colored ray of hght, or light in
ings are contained in the collection published the aggregate, that produces the result He
by Oardinal Hai in ISSS-'T from the USS. in caused a btam. to enter a darkened ohamber
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PHOTOaBAFHT 287
through a hiAt In th« vindotr dnttter, aa In onbddaofflieredaiidb^<HiAt&eiddbl»1iiiiIU
UTewtoa'i experiment for the d«oompoBition of of the Ught the thermoni«t» stood fai^iest <tf
light, ud, intercepthiff the beam hj means of a all. Ho other interpretation oonld appsrentlj
glass I^am, diapereed it into its oonatitnent be given to saoh on experiment than that the
raTs. The oolored speotrnm thna prodQC«d wae heat and the li^t are altogether indepen-
receired on a shoet of paper painted over witii dent agents, and aistribnted ver^ difTerentJj in
chloride of silver. It was thonght that if the the ipectmm. It is to be remarked that this
laminoQs agent sots in the aggregate, the conolnaion contained, hotrever, a most impor-
blackening ahonld commence in the jellov tont error, whioh was perpeta^ed nntil a later
r«^on, because the jellow is the brightest period in these discoveries ; it overlooked the
space, and from this toward the extreme red in phTsiologioal pecnliaritiee of an organ of vldoa
on« direction, and the extreme violet in the like the hnman ejo. When those peenUarittos
other, the darkening shonld gradnallj dedine, were dnl; considered, it was penrodved that this
and bejond the limits of vimbUity shoold alto- hjpothena of the phTeical indep«ulenoe of Ug^t
gether cease, the chloride retaining its white- and heat was very &r from having been estab-
ness. Bnt Scheele fbnnd that, in^Mad of the lished by these experiments. Oonnt Bmnford
action being at a ma^dmmn in the yellow as he made several ingeoions experiments with a
had enmcted, the case was allo^ther difi^utt, view of determining the mode of action <Mr the
The buckenuig began in the mdigo or violet snnlight in prodn<£ig ohemical cha^g««, and
region, and ei^ended in tlie more refran^ble came to the oondtmkin that it answeied veiy
direction, bx beyond the Undts of visibility, closely to that whioh is observed in deoompo-
In the other direction it stopped short in the ntions by heat at a very high temperatore.
bine apace, so that the ^'een, t^e yellow, the Bnt the first attempt at applying these prind-
orange, and the red exhibited no kind of action, pies photographioaJly, that is, for the delineft.
I>om this it would ap^arthat asonbeam does tion of ezteroal forma, is to beattriboted to
not darken the chloride of silver in virtne of Mr. Wedgwood, who by imbuing leaUier with a
ita light, bnt that the decomposition is brought solution of nib^te of ^ver, and exposing it
about by some other principle contained in the nnder the imagce of a magic lantern sude, sno-
beam, conjoined with the light, and found to ceeded in obtaming what would now be termed
the greatest degree in the more refrangible end negatives. Sir Humphry Davy made some at-
of the apeotmra. To the rays thns reoo^zed tempts of a similar kind ; but as neither (J
as oocaaoning the changes the designation of these experimenters conld fix the images thej
chemical rays was givea, to distinguish them had thus obtuned, their results were altogether
from the proper rays of lizht ; and as it was abortive. But little was done tVom this time
subseqaenUy discovered Ihat the chemical in the vraj of a eystematio examination of the
operation commonly accomplished by them phenomena of the ohetnical rays nntil about
swering to deoxidation, tbey like- 1886, when I)r. Draper commenced publishing
red the epithet deoxidizing rays, in the "Journal of the Franklin Institnte" a
Theae experiments of Sdieele gather very great series of papers on the subject. The facts in-
interest when compared with some made by Sir vestigated were chiefly in oonnection with the
William Herschel, the astronomer, on thedis- influence of light upon crystallization, the effect
tribntion of beat in the spectrum. In observa- of colored absorbing solutions upontbecbemi-
tions upon the son with reSectiog telesoopes, cal rays, and the interference and polarization
he had been obliged to nae colored ffan of those rays. In these experiments, bromide
screen^ for tbe purpose of diminishing the ex- of silver, and other compounds much moresen-
ces^va brilliancy of the light, and had aociden- ^tive to light than any that had hitherto been
tally noticed that the heat transmitted throngh used, were resorted to. In 1889 popular at-
these colored glasses was very far from being teution was suddenly directed to thesnbjectby
Sroportional to tbe light. A gloss oolored the announcement in France of Dognerre's in-
eeply enough to ateorb a large portion of vention for the fixation of the images of the
the l^ht rajs, might nevertheless transmit an camera obsoura, and Bimultaueonely in England
unexpected proportion of the beat rays. He of that of Ur. Talbot. In the former of these
therefore prepared a solar spectrum after the the material employed was a metallic tablet of
manner of Newton, and set in each of its silver-plated copper, in the Jotter paper. With
c<^ored spaces the bulb of a delicate ther- these inventions the art of photography prop-
mometer, expecting, as Scheele did in the par- erly speaking begins. — The process of Dagnerre,
allel ease of the chemical rays, that if the asdivolgedto the French government tn conse-
brightest ray was the moat effective, the ther- qnenoe of a pecuniary reward given to him, ia
UKHneter in the yellow space would stand as follows. A tablet of silver-plated copper is
highest, and in the others in a declining way corefally cleaned, by means of pumice, rotten-
toward eaohendof thespectmm. Bnthefoand stone, or other suitable powders, ih>m all ad-
tbat tbis was very far from being the case, bering imparity, and is broug:ht to a perfectly
Startingfrom the violet anddescending through reflecting and mirror-like snrtoce. Thesnooess
the indigo, the bine, green, yellow, oran[^ and of the sabsequent operations turns upon tlie pa-
red, the thermometer stood higher uid higher ; rity and perfection of this surface. The tablet ia
nay, even, what was altogether unexpected, thenexposed tothevaporofiodine,riBingattbft
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
288 ESOTOOBApar
or^nuy ten^ratnre of Hie air, and in Boooee- answer re^eotiTelj to the ghadovs and lights
aion it pasaea throogh a aeries of brilliant tints ia of the original ; while in a poratire tbe lights
the following order : pale lemon ;eUow, brigbt correepond to lif^hts, and tiia shadows to £ad-
Sellow, orange, red, blue, Bteel gray, clear metal- owe. It had this advaotage orer Daguerro's,
0 witbont color ; then again yellow, rod, &c, that it was capable of multiplication ; for £roia
in the same order. Of these tints the first and sDoh a negative, if ^plied face downward cm
second yellow are the most sensitive to light, senutive paper, many positive copies oonld bo
the others comparatively slug^ah. The plate snccessivel; obtained by ezpoenre to the eon.
is therefore only exposed nntil the first taU The dagnerreotype, however, had a snperiorit^
yellow is reached, and then willi a careful ex- nnapproached even to this day by any odier
elusion of light it is deposited ja the camera process ; its Images were exquisitely defined and
obsonra, so as to receive tlie image. Here it sharp, and ^ven with microscopic minutenesa.
remains for a period dependent os &e bright- The reason of this soperiority is obvioos. The
neas of the light, the length of which the op- dsgnerreotype is formed on a midliematical
erator learns from experience. Screened from surface j the photograph in a translucent sab-
the chance access of light, it is now removed stance, m which the light can be diffosed, and
from the camera, and if it be critically exam- therefore the oontomfl of objects are never
ined in a dark room by the Ught of a feeble optically sharp. — At first photography was lun-
t^er, not the slightest change or action of any ited to artificial views and interioni. It was
kind is perceptible upon it. Nevertheless there found nnsoited for the reprodnction of laud-
is an image concealed, which may be easily scapes, the green color necessarily predominat-
evoked by exposing the plate to the vapor of ing, which acts on the ulvor salts employed in
meroary at a temperature of about 170° F. a very sluggish way. The great and reallj
After snch an exposure for 8 or 4 minntes, valoable exten»on of its capabilities was that
the pioture comes forth, the camera image of taking portraits from the life. This ia due
being reproduced nearly in its proper order of to Dr. Draper of the nniveraity of New Tor Jc,
light and ^ade. This accomplished, it merely who snoceeded in it very shorUy after Da-
remains to dip the tablet in a solution of hy- gaerre's prooeas becsme known m America,
poeulpliite of soda, which instantly removes and who pnblished the first complete aoconnt
the yellow film or tarnish npon it; and after of it ia the "London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
being copiously washed in clear water, the Philosophical Magazine" of the following year,
photogr^h is insensible to any farther action To so great a degree of perfection was thia
of light. In this operation of Daguerre's there branch of the art immediately carded, that it
are ^erefore several successive sta^ : 1, (he is eaii that some of the portruta obtamed by
cleaning of the plate; 2, the iodizmg; 8, the that chemist have not been since excelled,
exposure in the camera; 4, mercurializins or Thisgreat improvementwaaacooinpliehed at a
development; 5, fixing. These are terms which time when the inventor of the dsguerreotfpe
became of oorrent use in the art. It does not himself had given it ap as impracticable. Two
appear in what manner Ds^erre first became other improvements on the c^guerreo^pe pro-
acquainted with the relatjons of the iodized ceas were soon after discovered. The first con-
film to light and the vapor of mercnry respeo- sisted in more perfectly fixing the pictnre and
tivelj. Probably it was the result of soma deepening its eliades, ij the nse of a salt of
chanoe observation in an attempt to bladken gola. This was doe to M. flzean. The second
the silver by iodine, and to whiten it by mer- oon^sted in the use of a mach more aenaitive
curial vapor. As was aeen from his first pab- preparation, the bromide of silver. This ^-
lication, he was altogether nnacqniunted with Duniahed the time of eipoenre in the camera
chemiatry, and Bpoke of the decomposition of to about one thirtieth part of what was for-
the elementary aabstancea he was using as if it merly required. Theoiiginal process waamod-
had actually taken place. By profeaaion he ifled in tne lodLdng part, the tablet bemg first
was a punter of dioramas. He hod been asso- exposed to iodine unw it became yellow, then
ciated previously to this successful result with to bromine vapor ariring from brtanidetM lime
U.Niepce, in on attempt to obtain photographic until a faint rose red was reached, and then
images by the action of light upon resins and back again to iodine yapor for a few moments.
bitomena ; and tiiough it is said that the latter The other stages of Uie operation were con-
had carried his operation to snch perfection dncted without any modification. As vas
that etchings of camera images had been pro- shown by Dr. Draper in the paper referred to,
cured, and even pictures prmted from them, and others subse^^nently published in the" Phil-
t!ie operation was either so tedious or so doubt- osophical Magaime," there is no iodine dlsen-
ful that it nerer came into use, — Ur. Talbot's gaged from the silver plate during the period
invention of the oalotype or photogenic draw- of Its exposure to lighL The white portions
ing, as he termed it, consiated essentially in of the r^ulting image consist of a compound
covering a sheet of pi^er with a changeable of silver and mercury, a white amalgam of
salt of silrer, en>osing it in th% camera, and diver, while the shadows or dark parts are the
developing the latent image by a solution of pure silver unchanged. In en examination of
gallicacid. The result waa a negative; tbatis, some of these papers by Sir John Herschel, an
a photogrqih in which the lights 9nd shadows opinion was expressed ttiat the colors displav^
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FBOrtO&RAFBY S89
by a dBgoBRW^Tpe itlate, snd th» pecoHaritr tli« prodnotion of BQdi podtivM a vaj nmoh
(^ its imagw, depend on the thiokiieea of tlie shorter period of time la required in the oamert
film vhloh hu been sffeoted ; but thia opinion than for & n^a-Hn. SometimeB, through in-
c«D ackreetr' he ooireot, eiiioe it is possible to adequate exposure to light or a want of eenn-
oop7 a dagnerreotTpe by eleotrotTpiug copper tiTeness in the preparations, the result obtained
upon it, or even drjing upon it a flbn of isin- as a negative is not snfBcientlj dense, and it
glass, nie explaastioti given hj Dr. Draper, beoomes desirable to strengthen it in order to
thatitis a dotted or stippled snrfitae, the dota nseit for printing. YarionB methods have been
.tnnaiaKng nf ^n ^^Tl^alg^lTn nfMvnr^ U Urmhtlnait reOOnUCended for this intonrnfying, as it iS
correct. To Sir John Hersdhel pnotographf is termed, but br far the best hitherto pnblished
greatlr iodabtMl, both as a aoivnoe wd aa an is that of Dr. Henry Draper, whioh simid; oon-
art. He GonunDnioated aeveral elaborate me- sists in applying to the collodion pictnre before
moira to the royal sodetr, irMoh wero pui>- it ia dry a solatioo of the protocMoride of pal*
liahed in its " TransactiDna." These not only ladiom. This instantly [o^noes an in^ black-
refer to tite optiaal and oheraieal detaib of the nesa in the dark parts, and affects in like man-
sobjeot, bat tuso extend it to the caae of new ner the shades in the order of th^ gradation,
componnds^ partkolarly the coloring materials It imparts no stain nor impority to the proot —
of Soven utd plants. — Bnt the greatest im- The operation of printing from a negative is
provement in the art of photognpny ia dne to thus conducted. Paper of very nniform conr
Hr. F.SoottArcher of£ngland,ivaodlsoovered sistency is coated on one aide with athinde-
tha collodion {nwMas. Of thia the advantagea posit of chloride of sUver, conveniently pio>
ara bo great, that the dagaerreotype and oalo- dnced by soaking the paper in chloride of am-
tjpeprooesBBS have become almost obsolete. It moninm or chloride of aodinm, and then laying
oonsista essentially in coating 8 dean daasiJate it on the sorface of a solntion of nitrate of
wiHi a sedation of gon cotton In alcohol and sili "" ' " ■ ^ . :> . _
ether, conti^ning aoipe solnble iodide. Ycry nei .. ..
commonly the ic^ide of ammonimn ia employed, ann. The light transmitted through the glass in
After a jooinentary exposure to the air, the its transparent parts prodocee blaokueaa in the
collodion is fbnnd adhering to the glass as a paper, but those places corresponding to the
delicate film, the ether and alcohol having in black portions of tne negative remain white in
part eri^Ktrated. The plate is now soaked in the proo^ the Intermediate shades being of
a Bolntiofl. of nitrate of ralver, technically called course interme^ately affected. When the
the nitrate bath, in which there mnst have been change has taken place to a snfflcient extend
previonaly dissolved as much iodide cf silver as the paper is removed from beneath the negative
the solntion wiQ take np. Under these circmn- and soaked in a eolation of hypoanlpMte of
stances the iodide of ammonium in the film soda. Thia dissolves out all the unaffected chlo-
becomea iodide of ralver. The glass Is now ride of silver, and leaves the picture wittioat
tmnsferred from the bath to the camera, en- any liability to ftarther change. But as the tone
olosed in a snitaUe soremi or shield to protect or tint of color that it presents is commonly
it from extraneous U^t. The exposure is then regarded as unpleann^ to the eye, it is laid in a
made as in dagaerreotyping, and the invirible b^ containing chloride of ^Id, whioh after
inoage Is developed by poaring upon the film a while imparts to' it a delicate violet hne.
either a aolntion of pyrogallic acid or of pro- Toning baths, as they are termed, of vaiions
tosnlphate of iron. Too great activityin these ingredients, and capable of imparting shadea
sabstAncee is prevented by the previous addi- of a sepia and brown tint, are recommended
tion of small qnantities of acetic acid. The by different operators. They are too nnmer-
image eomes forth as a n^ativc, and it now ons to be here described. — The follovring for-
remains to fix it. This is done by either soak- mulas for the collodion process have been
ing it in hyposulphite of soda, or pouring upon recommended: 1. For the collodion: gun
it a solntion of wanide of potaeemm ; the film cotton, 4 to 6 grains ; mlphoric ether, sp. gr.
iathen thoroughlywaahed with water and snf- .Y20, 6 Said drachms; alcohol, ep. gr. .8S5, S
fered to dry. From this n^otive proob on flnid drachms; iodide of ammonium, 4 to 5
paper may be printed, it having been first var- grains. 2. For the nlfavte bath ; water, 1
nished with amber vomlsh or some other suit- flnid ounce ; nitrate of silver, SO grains ; as
able material that will not soften in the son. much iodide of silver as it will dissolve. 8.
Bnt if Uie solutions nsed in its preparation have For the developer : water, 1 flnid onnoe ;
been mnch weaker than is necessary fbr the pyrogallio add, 1 grain ; aoetio acid, 10 to 20
pradDotionofsachan^ative,ai>dtlie<taaDtity minims. 4. Or tms': water, 1 flold ounce;
of iodide at ammoidam smaUer, a poative on protosnlphate of Iron, 12 to 20 grains ; aoetio
daaa nuf be in the first instance obtained, acid, 20 minims. 6. For the fixmg sololion :
varioQS names have been g^en to such pori- water, 1 fluid onnoe ; cyanide of potassitnn, %
tives, aoeordhig to the manner of moonting to 30 grains. 6. For the flxing eolation (an-
them. Thns if the plate of glass bearing the other formnia) : water, 1 flnid ounce ; IiTPO-
image be Joined to another plate by means of salphite of soda, \ onnoe. The following for-
Oanada balsam, and viewed agunst a black mnlas may be usdU in the printii^ process:
sor&oe, it is designated an ambrotype. For 7. For the salting solution : ohlonde of am-
VOL. xm. — 19
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
390 FH0T0GBAPH7
iboidtan, MO eFdns ; ynbet, 10 onsceB. 8. implj' the oandnoliBg of am experiment nXtta
For the senmtMng solntiou : nitrBle of ulver, than the makfaig of an obBervstion. ThonKh
flO grams-, vster, 1 Said oimoe. 9. For the th«7 msj aiuwer well enough ui the haads
fizuig Bolatdon ; hjpoaulphiteof Boda,4oimoea; of ao aooompliidied ohnniet, thojare nnsnit-
water, 8 ooitoee. 10. For the toning Bolntion : ahle for the oommon operator. Among them
ohloride of gold, 4 grains ; hTpoBolphite of mar be mentioned the KalTano-photometer of
soda, 4 ouDosBj water, 8 oonoes. If the paper JA. Becqaerel, and the oblorine and h;drog«n
prevional^tob^ingaenaitized has been imbned photometer of Dr. Draper. — Owing to tha
with albnmen, tha reenlting proo& (albomen want of dnrabilit? of photographs obtained by
proo& aa tbej are termed) have a glossy and the aid of aalta of ulVer, attempta have been
mnob irapror^ appearance. It is of oonrse to made to sobatitDte for those componnda others
be understood that a print as veil as the ori- not liable to change. Among each maj be
ginal oollodion most be thoronghlj washed in daaaed carbon, which is altogether nnalterable
olear water after the process for fixing or ton- in Uie ur. But the carbon process, thongh
ing has been completed ', otherwise it will be not without merit, ia very fiic from havins
Uable to a spontaneous fading awaj. — Among resohed a degree of perfection that would
the recent applications of photography most bring it into competidon with the older meth-
nct be omitt^ the interesting one of the store- ods. — ^From what has been said respectiDg vis-
Oflcope. StereoBOopio photographs ma; either nal impressions and photographio rip'eeenta-
be made by a purposely constmcted camera tions, it will be perceired that the agent whioh
with a pair of lenses, or by a single camera accomplishes the lattor is not ^^ and th^
set BQocesaively in two different determinate therefore the term photography is in trath a
poaitdons. The illnuon of the stereoscope misnomer. Among those chemiate who have
gathers force from the truth of the photogruin, examined the scientifio connectJons of this aab-
and such pictures, from the air of sohdity uiat ject, differences of opinion have preTailed re-
thay present, giro a very striting result, not n>ecting the relation between the principle
only in tite case of portraits from the life, but tnns involved and the luminous and calorific
also in landsoopes, and especially in architeo- agencies. These differences of opinion have
toral oMeots. — Thongh photographs as now led to different designsliona fbr the rays dark-
produced by the best artists are of very great ening the silver preparations. Borne of the
oaanty, they are nevertheless very imperfect, earlier experimenters spoke of them as de-
Theydonot critdc^y represent the ezaot order oxidizing rays, some as chemical rays; others,
of light and shade ; and what is a stUl greater in aUnuon to their position at the more re-
defect, titey do not represent the order of Inmi- frangible end of the spectrum, as violet rays ;
nosity, as dependent upon the coloration of the others as tithonio rays ; but the term that has
■oldect. To the eye the yellow is the brightest met with most general acceptance is actinism
oolor, the intensity of the light declining as or actJnio rays (Or. onw, a sunbeam). This
we go to the violet end of the spectrum on one designation mnst however be considered aa
side, and to the red -on the othec But in all very inexpressive, and therefore ill chosen.
the silver preparations in use among photog- On the undulatory theory of light, aQ these
ruihers, the indigo ray prodnoes the greatest discosnons and designations are needless. The
effect, and therefore may be said to possess essential difference in the colors of light lies in
the greataet illuminating power, and from it the differences of their wave len^ha. The
the intensity dedinee toward the ^olet on one red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
aide, and oesaea on the other before the yellow violet arise from undiOations that are smaller
is reached. The efibct of this in a photograph and smaller in the order of the colors as they
maf be eanly nndwstood. If two pieces of are here named, and in such a proportion that
paper, 'One punted light yellow and the other the wave len^ of the first red light that the
deep indigo, be'Oxamined bythe eye, the for- eye can perceive is exactly twice that of the
merimppesseaaamostvigoronsly, and we speak last violet The most brilliant part of the yel~
of it as b^g bright in 'comparison with the low stands intermediately between these limits,
other. But if a photograph of these two and has therefore a proportionate wave length,
ineeea of p^>er be taken, the deep indigo will of one and a half. From these &cta it there-
come cat white, and the light yellow com- fore follows, that waves of heat are greatest in
pletely black. So the real order of their vis- their length and slowest in their time of vi-
nal intnnsitT is reversed in their photographic bration, and that as we ascend in sncceesion
r^iMseDtation. It ie 'for thia reason that thus through the visible Bpeotrnm, from its less to
ftr photdgraphf has given snoh muatiafhotory its more refrangible end, the wave length is
results in its'appliostion to the delineaticm <^ diminishing, the rapidity of vibration increas-
landscopea.— Kothing would tend ao quickly ing. The cause of any uiemical decompoaition
to the improvement of f hot<^raphy as the in- by a ray is that the parts of the changing snb^
vention of some means for die accurate ad- stance are thrown into movement by the im-
measurement of light; «. «., some instrument pinging vibrations; and so long as those vibra-
that would answer for the luminous agent, as tkms are too slow, the movement and there-
die thermometer anawers for heat. Thua &r fore the decomposition cannot take plaoe.
the oontrivanoei that have been reoommended But a oertun rate of speed being reached, mo-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
^OTOOBAFHT FHRENOLOOT 291
tion oooon ud deampodtlon «iinies, Jort m anqmided magnedo needle, or cf the index of
ft str«it«hed gtring maj be made to vibrate S7m- the wiiLd gauge, enppliee the place of an ever
jrathetioallT by a Ronnd in oniaon vith it. wBtchfdl observer, and gives ns trostworthr
Tbeea exjuanatlonfl, thongb not bo eaaUy nn- reota^of the temperature and preamire of tho
derstood u tiioae fonadM on the theory of ^, of the vaiiationa in terreatrial magnetifim,
the aniadon of light, poaaesi a eoientifio ad- and of the motions of the abnoapliere. Bnt
vant^e. The nodiilatorf theory does not re- peiiiaps of all the soienoM, botany is destined
quire an admisdoQ of many different coexisting to be most dependent for Its adrsnoes on dis-
prinoiples, bnt XMOimta for all the flwts hj ooveriee oonneoted with the chen^cal infln-
difierenoes of movement in one homogaieona enoes of ligbL The very grovth of plants is
and nniveraal ether. — ^From what has l>een stud determined hj the jellow fsts, and, as was
respecting tike dlatrlbntaon of ehwnioal r^s in proved bj Dr. Gardner, their movements hj
the solar speotrmn, it will be nnderstood that the indigo rays. It is throngh the power <a
optical inatntcoents fbr photograplilo porpoees these that leave* and flowers offer themselves
mnst be itf the most perfect kmd, and provided in a determinate direction toward theeolar
with the necessarr meana for depiotinK a per^ beams, botdtng roond obstacles to prescmt
fbct image of the objects to which they are themselves most favoral:^ to the liKht Each
directed. Thej most therefore be not only of the colored and indeed each of the invisible
aohromstic in tlie common acceptation of that n^ seems to discharge a definite dntj in the
term, but also achromatic photoKraphicallr, economy of plants. — On the fine arts the effect
and litewise have adequate provitoons aeunst of photography has been important, and every
spherical aberratfan.^The applications of pho- day is increasing the number of its triplications
togr^hy have been so nnmerons, that it Is to artistic porposes. Soon after the discovery
DOW followed as an iodnstrial porsoit in the of the oollodion jirooesa the fiidUtiea afforded
United States and other eoontries by many by it for the mnltdplicalion of copies attracted
thousands of persons. . It also possesses a very the attention of poblishers. lb. 6. P. Pntnam
eitenarve literatore, fixim the Idghest scientifio of New York was the first to iatrodnce it prao-
investigations, inserted In the transtictions of tioally by the insertion of some photographic
wiooa ieamed societies and special treatises views in the " Homes of American Authors"
in many instances of considerable siie, to pe- (New York, 180S). In France and Qennany
riodicaia weekly, monthly, qnarterly, and an- many splendid books have been illastrated by
nnsL Beside uiose who practise it profession- the same method, as the sttperb memorial edi-
ally, it finds amatenrs everywhere, sometimes tion of Schiller now pnbtishing with photo-
among the most eminent personages. There Rraphe fiom the original drawings of eminent
is BO mnoh aolivi^ among its cultivators, that living artists of Germany. For the representa*
in the United StatM, England, France, and Ger- tion of scenery or the copying of old paintings,
many, phctt^raphioal societies are well sos- drawings, &&, it is eqcally available; brilliant
tained in msny of the large towns. The gen- and well known spedmens of its powers In
eral popnitui^ which photography has thns those departments ar6 Frith'a "Scenery of
attttined is fonnded not only apoa the realized Egypt and Palestine," Fenton's "Views in
perfection with which it can pei^tnate ex- the C^lmei^" Raphael's cartoons, Bembrandt's
temal forms, bnt also npon the anticipated ad- etchings entirely reprodnoed by photography
vantages hereafter to aocme from it in several ttt Paris, tm. Its latest osesare for archssologi-
(rfthe higher departmeots of smence. Already cal porposes. The most andent Greek 1&
ils apidioalion as a register of celestial phe- of the New Testament, discovered at Monnf
nomena indicates the benefits which it will ffintd by'nschendorf.is now bdngphotograi^-
preaent to astronomy. It has been employed ed in 4 large volmnes folio, at the expense of
for the pnrpose of permanently recording the tJie emperor of Russia ; and the British govern-
aspect of the moon and the eclipses of the smi, ment is perpetnating by the same process the
and it only needs the nse of some more sen- great Anglo-Norman record, the " Domesd^
sitive materia] to enable it to give ns repre- Book." On the art of painting, the milimit-
sentotions of the planets, and even the con- ed supply of photographic studies, combining
figuration of Uie stars. To the microscope it breadth of effect with □store's own minuteness
has likewise been enccessfbUy applied, nzing of detdl, is produdng the most marked resnlts;
the enormoosly magnified images presented by while, should the progress of photography keep
that instmment with a perfection and beanty pace with its past achievements, many of the
altogether ooatti^Bable by the hand of man. laborions and expensive enterprises of engraving
In this msnner qnestions of the otmost im- on steel and copper will soon bo entirely snper-
portance in pbysiolt^^ snd the sciences of seded. For instance, the publication of Kaul-
organization, which have long been indispote, bat^'sillastrationsofShakee^areibegnninoop-
have recwTed a final solntiou, and permanent perplate engravings (Berlin, IBSe), is now oon-
repreeeotations have been obtained of trandent tinned in photographs.
phenomena occnrring in living organinns. In PHOTOUETEB. See Lioht, vol. x. p. 617,
met«orol(%y likewise, a coil of senriUve paper tind Photoobapht, vol xiii. p. B60.
receiving the shadow of the meronry in the PHRENOLOGY (Or. ^mr, mind, and luryot,
thermometer or la the barometer, or of the discourse), a system of philosophy of the hnman
UigiiiZOQbyGOOgle
298 PHBEKOLOOT
mlad, founded on the fhjtiohgj of the brun. from before haokvard, to tiie Ariatotelian fio-
Aaa ajBtem, it bu iUorigpn in the ideas and olties,JDdgmeiit, imagination, and meinorT. Ln-
reaearohea of Fraoi Joseph Ga]], a German dorico Doloe, in a work on ttke memor7'(Veii-
phjaioian. Fjnrt: announced b; him in 1790, it ice, 1S6Q), drew a chart of 9 regionB of tin
D^an to attract attention in England about the brain, answering to as manr mental powen.
year 1816. It was first distinctly introdnoed Willis, and in 1TB4 ProohaAa, eapedaUj ad-
into the United States through the labors of TOcated the doctrine of a diviaion of the brm
Dr. Oharlea Oaldwell of Kentnohj, who atndied into organs of different mental facnldea, thon^
nnder Qall in Paria about 1820, and who, be- they did not attempt to looallie sadt organs,
tveen 18SI and 1682, wrote and lectnred on the The extreme diTeratty of natural talents early
BDljeot, forming phrenolodoal sooietiea in New impressed the mind of <3aU. His first special ob-
York, Fhiladdphia, and oUier lai^ cities. The Mrratton seenu to have been that of a promi-
nmnber of its adherenta was amall, bowever, neooe of the eyes in all his achooUUlowa who
and tlkeee mdnly of the medical profession, nn- werenotedforlingDiaticprofidencyandmemory
til the period of Br. Spurzheim'a lectnres, ofworda. Following out the himsthoaobtain-
diiefly in Boston, in 1889, and the oommraice- ed, ha arrived nltim^^ly, as he believed, at the
ment of a series of lectures and cranioeooplo fOnction and location of S7 organs of mental
examinations by the brothers O. 5. and L. N. faculties, which he naturally enourit nam^ in
Fowler, in 1S84. The leotnrea of Mr. Qeorge view of their action, or in many Stances of
Oombe in 1888-'40, in various dties from Bos- the eztrsTSgant aod perverted action under
ton to Washington, contributed mnoh to the which, in their extreme development, he often
general and favorable introduction of the new fonnd them ; hence, such tenhs ea Instinct <k
system ; and still more the " Constitntion of murder, vanity, Ac Of these all hot one were
Han" and other well known works of the retained by his pupil Bpnrzheim, who found
brothers Oombe. Since that period the Hum- reaaona for incladii^ in one the two supposed
ber of the advocates of phrenology appeara lo powers of language ; and who then added to
have been greatly inoreased, though many of the remaining uumber, first, hj Aintingnfahing
ita princ^es, both theoretical and practical, inGall'sfkaDlt7ofthe"senBeof tliii]gs"thetwo
are still nnder discussion. — Fhrenoli^ty aims to powerBofindividnalityandevantnaUtj;andaeo-
be neitJier dmply a science of m^nd nor a the- ondly, by disoovering the office and seat of con-
ory of the functions of the brain, but a ^stem sdentionsness. hoj>e, wonder, aze, weight, tame,
Inohiding the elements of both mind and brdo, order, and inhabitivenese. In iLr. G. Oombe's
with their relations, and with consequent i^i- enumeration, the last named faonltj was re-
plications in respect to the development of the placed by conoentrstiveneas ; and he added the
mental faculties, to the condnct oi the Individ- looalitiea of love of life and alimentiveneaa, the
nal and sodal life, to education, l^alation, the probable existence of which had been admitted
arts, morals, and reli^on. Hence, its sntgect oy Spnrzhdm. The latter set the example of
matter embraces, first, a theory of psychology, naming the ftonltiea with reference to thdr
and secondly, an organology, or view of the re- tj-anqiul manifestation and supposed normal
lationa of cerebral ports or organs to the men- character ; and in followii^ ont thia prindple
tal faculties; this, agun, being divisible into he introduced an almost entsrely new termirad-
organology proper, and physiognomy in the ogy, The names and order ad<^ted by each of
broadest sense, or the knowmg of the mental these writers ^pear in the mibjdnea t^les ;
^obaracteriatics through eigos, including cranio- the figures following names in the second r^tr
scopy (dgns learned by examination of the era- to the oorreqwnding faoultiee in like firat :
nium), temperamenta, the features, and atti-
tudes. It aaanmes that the value of all these,
as dgns of character, is based on a necessary
correspondence, for every individoal, first, be-
tween mind and brain, and secondlr, between •-■ •
the brain on one hand, and ofter parte of the % SSiV^SfS^'"
phyncal organization as well sa the habits and t. saus ornfhtdrptimartT.
conduct, on the other. lie belief in a plnrality J W^Sa&rS^.
of mental faculties baa been the rule in the w. cmt^— — * — '-^* -■=--— —
various schemes of mental philosophy that have
been proposed, though the number and nature ,„ „,„ „ ^._™.
of the faculties aasumed have varied greatly. U. S«nMotwoid>,M_
Agfun, our own oonsclousnesa, as weU as obser- ^ ^ rfSK" "^ "^
vatlon, indicates the brun as the seat of the it. Bona of tuna.
Blinking prmciple; and while the inteUect had !?■ 1*'"^"''?™? ''"™'*°^l.^«_
nauall/leen l<icat;d In this organ, the senti- Si ^^K'ST^t'™'""'""^
ments and passions were more commonly, up "- MeuphrilMl tilrat, puMtnttia.
to the time of Gall, supposed to reside in cer- ^ p^tm uient
tain viscera, as the heart, liver, apleen, Ax. m Good nUDn, eonpMitan. branolaw
Albertns M^us, hi the 18th century, divided g ^T^^^^^^"''^'
the cranium wo 8 redone, appropriating theac^ sT. Utiumm^ moMuot, pwMTtnnat.
H of tUIv^ •dotBbdi^.piSMtbiii^,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
YHESSOUXtY
II. Hi>pa.
The airtuigemeiit adopted in OomWs " System
of PhnDdogj" (4Ui ed., Edinbargli 1686) b
sabstantiaUy aa followi:
Ou«i L Fi
t, jibliopnmi-
; 81, lo*^^— cagnliiiMt of ^aMi *Dd rf
, .. , — , „, of MMIMlOll «al
dinUoB ; M, ttm*— angnlnsa <a BNlodr ud hunwnr ;
•• 1 1 ^g^ vmet lO dgu of th<NW><
or te-
ll wora lncl>d«l, pown of iiijiumIiiii
HTB Oaoup: M( nnwUtr— ooanlnpoi
nd tt tOMmtf, ar Bu nUtlMi <it <
OlBEB n. iMTKLUnOU- FltODUO*.
Onui IL Pncvrnn FAonLTtii, notlDK udataiw* nf ob-
iKti rnM»d feom M tdltlonl: uTuHllTldull^ ; »,
bm ;)I riM ; «. wMfht: 1^ <id<Bli«.
GrDu III. Pcumrm Faohltus, aottnc obrloai nla-
Umanfabjcrta: ST.Isc^tT; tt,DBmbar; », ordariM^
(inlalln: 81,tliM; ^mn<; n,l>Btuc&
Otnu IV. SxpumTB FiuicLnn : 8^ oompulwB ; SS,
Dr. "Vimont, Robert Oox, J. T. Smith, and other
trEtns-Atiaiitlc writers, have criticized portionB
of both the scheme of faonltles and the location
of orgflM, and have proposed neater or leas
changes. The broUters Fowler admit still other
faculties, Increaaing the nnmlwr to 48 ; and thej
have changed leus seTeral of the names. The
foUowiDK is t£eir most recent clasBiflc&tion
(IBSO) c? the faculties and oi^ns which thej
renid te ascerttuned (the definitions, for the
lake of oondenaation, Ming slightlj modified
ia aoma instaoces), tlie whole arranged in 4
^ops of affeotivs and 2 of intelleotnal faool-
liw, as follows :
« lEQpolH ; A, oiin]q(d[lT'-U>< palriv fuHne^ uduln
■T* it om; 1, panDtalloTe— lora d oapTlq(, lor* of
f<iac,*tf pais; & MnUdp— tbi 0*01100* or natal
■Ufuih itttMmMBt IB friHia: 4, lnl»GltlnB«~ ' —
£»» tad eaantir, dadre to loeato, ntriottam ;
HMRr-^oriitance of amotion dr of tSotubt, ■!»
„*l*>riMnlDo»thlK ~~-v<-n
9-)HnnB euuT: K UtaUtuiMi— loro (ad
life, Irad of umaini^oB ; 1, onrntoHwiiMi
nht lat uppnrn loiliitni 111. «Dni(o; T, dosti
-™aum to Inilkt pala. to dottoor, or to u. ,
"yMTiac; & illiii*ntlT«iMi»— ippetiU Ibc tood; F,
""■"«■■» -laBdimi tbr waUr w otter beranfea; t,
■MoUaruca— dMiro to hmhw ud on, ImiHilM ofnt-
UuHdbimdlu; IOl HontlTnua^BuW i< iMatT*
W "•doa.sauUl.PCllV; II. CUtioiWMM-NBM of
W|*i»*i11,darii* of td^, vMakfDlaoM ; la,mro-
"HTUMB— tore of uworal or of pnlx, low at dlndir.
•<>>■ <it npnlalloii. uuUtiaii ; IS, Mif-oilMm-WBM of
*l^mneluionud■aI^nipaetdIiBltr, )nid>; l4, Una-
mm Umrity ofvlll tnd poipoM, ptnaranno^
___UllMMj'Of
•eat— tmpulH to
. . . dMtrooanseai
duetiuji or to eTfannlmtir,
(1) BanmiiTB Q
poidene^Md « _.
tdontltr ud dutntne*, dliabiiliiitlDii, power of u^rtt
■ndof orltlolBB; 0,kDDunutiii«— dlioemiDeBtarebap-
HiiiAirm, udtolw'lnjrmpetlir vUhlhcea^atDOe.
It is not pretended that dther the analysis or
oliwaification of the mental facoJtiee has jet
been Batisfaotorily accomplished. Dr. Caldwell
appears not to hare introduced any important
cnanges into the dsasiScation or naming of
the cerebral oi^ans. Dr. J. R. Buchanan of
Cincinnati has tan^t siQce 1&43 a "System
of AnthropoltM^" (published at Cincinnati in
18G4}, which departs is many partioiilars from
the received system ; espeoisJly in snbdiriding
die brain and moreaeing the nnmber of faoidtiea
to a mnch greater extent, and in recognizing
and claiming to localize, by the ud of certdn
Bssomed principles of impressibility, and chiefiy
in tba ouder sorfacei of the brun, facnlties an-
tagooistio to nearly or quite all those which
may be termed the nseral or noble — thns ad-
mitting regions of vice and crime, as well u
of virtae and excellence, and snppoeing snoh
positiTe elements of mind as hatred, antagoniz-
ing lore ; baseness, integrity ; sensibility hardi-
bood ; ooarseness. ideality ; servility, pride, Aa,
Dr. W. B. Powell, of Kentnotej, has also pro-
posed oertsin modifications of the scheme, claim-
tDg, among other things, to have established
a threefoM division in the cerebellnm and
its factions, namely, into : 1, a faontty of mo-
tion, iododing impnlse to and regolation of
moscnlar movements ^a function specially in-
usted on by pIiysioloEUts) ; S, amatireneM, a>
impnlse merely; S, Uie sensnoos dement or
feeling, active in tonoh and in careering. Dr.
Canis, of Dresden, has published a " New Ora-
niosoopy" (Stnttgart, 1641), in which he di-
vides the brain into a small number of f^oni,
rather than into organs, Ur. John B. Hittell
has published (New York, 18C7) a system of
phrenology, which differs traax that oommonly
reoeived, chiefly in the rejeotion of anoh faonltiea
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
294 FHBKHOLOaT PHBTGU.
u toim. color, imiteUon, hope, acqulsHiveiieii, aiUiii«I« ; among the former were maiqr of per^
&0., 1? in fdl, and msoy of vhioh most be re- BOUi of marked pecoJiari^ of character. (Edin-
ffBTdedaeamong the moat clearly eet^liahed in bnrgh"Phr«iolo^cal Jotimal,''Tol.xiT. p. SS.)
UiewtaloKne. AmoDgtboaeintheCnitedStBtea The remark Uatmad«qipliea also to the coUeo-
who hBTe become known for the advooooj or the tion of Messrs. Fowler and Wells of Hew Tork,
popnlarinng of phrenolo^cal principles, ehonld which, thongh it haa ooittribnted largety to rim-
also be mentioned Kr. X S. Orimea, Hr. J). P. ilar oabineta in Boston and Philadelphia, etill
Bntler, Mr. Nelson Sixer, and Dr. Levi Renben, nmnbera abont 4,000 pieces, inclnding abont 8O0
the last of whom contends that, in a combinsi- hnman skulls, 200 of anirnaa^ 600 casts or busts,
tion of the fmita of mebqihTBioBi atody, fomish- and 8,000 portraits and drawii^. Br. Timont
ing as it were the physiology of mind, wttb a of Paris oocompaniedhia memoir for the Frencli
tme scheme of elements, or anatomy of mind^ iustitnte (1^^ among other spMimena, with
phrentdogy can slone become a complete and 2,600 crania of animals, of 1,600 of which ho
sati^etory body of mental science. — Many of had stndied the habits. Dr. S. O. Uorton of
the reoeiTOd phrenological elements are allowed Philadelphia had collected in IBil above 1,000
or antidpatea by certain of the metaphysical crania, more than one half of which were bn-
writers; though, in respect of others, therdi' man, of many nations, and supplying munly
verge widely. As now developed, phrentuogy the materials for his craniologicu works. Dr.
preaenta these leading priciples : 1, mind ana Thomas Laycock has attempted to answer the
body are in this life inseparable, a concrete gnestion necessarily arising as to the mode of
tgc, Bod jnost be investigated together; 2, the interaction of the facnltiee through the cere-
brain is the immediate organ of the mind, all bral organs, by arguing that all nerTona action,
the operalioDS of the latter arising along with indadinx the fauctions of the brun, is anto-
changes in the substance of the former; B, the matic. In its application, phrenology professes
brain is a double organ, the halves of whidi can to find its ultimate results in a doctrine of
act sinolyj but nsuulj do act ttwether ; 4, there psychology, and as art of reading chartict«r.
are individually distinct mentu elements, but Supposing the faculties chosen and the organs
bound together in a unitary cousdonsnes^ placed aright, the difflcnlties arising from nae-
whioh reooguiies all as of itself; B, power of qud thickness of bones of the cramnm, from
mind, or of any faoolty, other things being unequal size of the frontal sinuses, Ac., are mi-
equal, will be aa the size of the brain, or of the nor and partial, though they moat introdnee a
corresponding organ ; while among those other measure of uncertmnty into the judgment ob-
things, quslity of organization and tempera- taiued. Respecting the question of the ten-
ment, as well as states of health and disease, denoj of phrenology to materialism, its advo-
ara of greet importance. Amona the leading cates are divided ; though the opinion that
proofs of the system are adduced Uie successive mind, aa an organizing force, dominates in real-
manlfeetations of inherent abilities iu the same ity over the material conditions cxpresdng it,
mind ; the diversities of natural talents ; the has its firm snpporters. But the system, if com-
varied, partiality, and transmissibility of ge- pletely established, will, it is contended, earir
nluB ; and the phenomena of dreaming, of par- with it a new edncatioiml, social, political, and
tial idiocy, monomania, and diseases and in- theoWical science.
juries of the head and brain. Whether the lo- PBKYGIA, in ancient geography, a province
caUtiea of the bcnitiee in the brain have been of A^ Minor, whose houndnries varied mate-
properly found, is still aa undecided question, riolly in different stages of its history. Under
especially in view of such facts as that, first, the first Roman emperors it was bounded K.
while we descend in the scale of vertebrates, it by Bithynia, E. by Galatia and Cappadocia, 8,
is the human, the moral and intellectoal powers, by Lycaonia, Rridia, and Lycia, and W. by
that T^idly disappear, while at the same time Oaria, Lydia, and Mysia. In the 4th centn^
the anterior lobea of the cerebrum remain uu- the Bomana divided it into two provinoea, call-
til the last, and the posterior and then the mid- ing the eastern portion Phrygia Salataris and
die lobes are the first to shrink and be obliter- the western Phrygia Faoatiana. Before the
ated; and secondly, no distinct separation of invafdonof Asia Mmor by the Gauls it extend-
orgaos in the cerebral hemispheres, correspond- ed as far E. aa the river Ealys. Most of the
ing to the prominences on the cranium, have larger cities were ntuated in the B. W. part
yet been niade out. It is asserted, however, of the province ; the most important were Ce-
that strong eonflrmatiou of the Oalhsn system lens at the source of the Meander, ftuned for
ia found in the examination of crania of noted the mythical contest between Apollo and Mar-
oharaoters and of criminals, as well as of the syas ; Apamea Cihotus, founded by Antiochns
aknlls of ■nimnia ; and extensive collections of Boter; Colossal, where a Christian ohurdi was
tliese and other specimens have been made, establiahed, to which Bt. Paul addreued an
That of Dr. GbH eont^ned of human crania, epistle; Laodioea, the seat of anotber Christian
4c, B64 ; _ the Edinburgh museum has 463 nat- chorch ; Hierapolis, renowned for its mineral
nral spedmens, and 880 artificial, the former spring ; and nearer the centre of the province
inolndmg crania of various nations. Mr. De- was Dooimenm, the marble of which was in
Tille of London accumulated 6,460 pieces, high repute. The principal rivers were the
9,460 human qwaimens, and 8,000 orania of Mteandu- in the W. and uia Sangarioa on the
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FBRYISE FHT8I0AL GEOaKAfHT sgS
K. bcmBdarr. The oonntrr ts b U^ tablfr* irUob, folded up and plsoed in & Bmall leathar
land, the soil in the S". and W. beii^ fertile, box, was vom bf the deTOnt prindpally on the
bat oovered with salt marshea and lakes in the fbrehead. As need among uie modem Jews,
8. — lie PluTgians were regarded as one of the thej are attached to the head, to the arm,
most ancient nations of AsiaHinor, the most and to the door posts. VeiT" fine- vellam Is
luntnidictory pinions existing in referenoe to employed, and the writing traced with great
their ori^. By lome they were considered can, while the case in whiol they are eDoloaad
as Thraciana, by others as Armenians. In is made of several layers of paiohment or of
early times they seem to have been governed black calfiUa. According to Lightfoot, the-
by kings of th^ own. They were ooumiered Savionr did not condemn the wearing of phy>
by Crcesos, Idng of Lydia, and along with the lacteries, bnt the widening of them bo as to
rest ofhis dominions became a part of the Per- cain a repntation for piety. — Among theearlj
nan empire, in which it was included in the Ohrisldans, a phylacteir was often used as an
third satrapv. After the overthrow of that amulet, a pcaotioe forbiddep by the oonndl of
empire by Alexander, Fhrygia fell into the I^odicea.
hands of Antigonns, and dter his death it PHY8I0AL eZOG-RAPHT, tlM depart-
formed a portion of the Syrian empire foond- ment of the sdenoe of geography wliich treata
ed by Selenons. Afterward the territories of of the physical condition of the earth, deserlb-
Phrygia were oircmnscribed by the formation ing its diaracter- and relations as one of the
of Galatia and the exteosion westward of Lj- members of the solar system, enlaiaing its
caonia. WboQ Antiochns Uie Great was de- great natnral divisiona of land and water, th»
featedbythe RomansafUagneuainlSOB.O., atmosphere which covers them all, and the-
Phrygia was given to Enmenea H. of Pergamns. great movements, as- of oceanic and afiridl ciir>
InlSSB.O. it fell into the hands of the Romans, rents, which are ever going- on, varionsly af-
and, with the exception of a few years when feoting and modii^ing thee» features. The
it belonged to Pontna, remained a part of their forms of continents and oceans and of all theip
empire. It now forms a part of the Tarldsh enbdiviaons, the heights and ranges of moon-
empire. — A conctry called Lesser Phrygia Is tains, the phenomenaof deserts and plains, and
described by the ancients; and althongn its aU the varying outlines from the hignest monn-
bonadsjies are not distinctly defined, it seems tain snmmita to the loweet depths of tBe eea,
to have extended along the Hellespont, and to are among the first objects of its conndera-
hare been inolnded in Uyria. tion. The geological stmotnre of the earth
PHRYNE, an Athenian httaira or oourte- and themetcorologioal phenomenaof rBio,ftig,
san, of the latter part of the 4th oentnry B. 0., dew, hail, frost, iScc., belong to the broad field ttf
born in Thespias, Bceotia. She was of low its investigations ; which moreover comprisea
origin, and originally gwned a livelihood by the natnral prodnots of the earth, vegeteUe
gathering capers ; bat aha fonnd the traffic in and animal. But wide and comprehensive aa
her charms more profitable, and by this means is tiie range of this sdenoe, it enters not into
acquired eo much wealth that, after Alexander individual descriptions of phenomena, looaU-
destroyed the walls of Thebes, she offered to ties, and species, bnt is concerned chiefiy wtth
rebaild them, if she conld be permitted to pnt general laws and principles, as they are mani-
np the following inscription; "Alexander de- feated upon a grand scale, and in the orgado
stroyed them, bnt f^ryue the comlesan rebuilt kingdom with the edatence of races and &ieir
them." Among her lovers were some of the distribution in certain zones of habitation or
most distingni^ed men of the age of Alezan- stations. The relations and adaptations of or-
der. When she was aocosed of atheism, the ganic and inorganic nature to each other are
orator Hyperides secured her acquittal by un- specially treated in this science alone. Itsnlti-
veiling her bosom before the assembly. Praz- mate aim, as stated by Humboldt in his Km-
iteles modelled from her the Cnidian Venns, met, the work which first gave to phyrioa]
md the picture of Apellcs called " Venus Ana- geography a place among the sciences, " is to
djomene" is stud to have been taken from reoognizennityinthevastdiversityof pheuMO-
Phryne. She once wagered that she could sub- ena, and by the exercise of thought and the
duo the virtue of Xenooratea, but failing in the combination of observations to discern the oon-
Bttempt declared that he was not a man but stancy of phenomena in the midst of apparent
a statne. She had lovers late in life, as ft was dianges." — The first writers on physical ge-
deemed an honor for any one to bear that tifle, ography were among the earliest geographers
PHTHISIS. See OoNsiTMPnoif. and writers on physical science, referred to in
PHTHRIASIS. See Epizoa, toL viL p. 354. the articles Eabth and Gboloov. The broad
PHUXUAN. See Hirft. views advanced by Aristotle, Strabo, Pyth^-
PHYLAOTERT (Gr. ^uXaimjpio», from .*i" eras, and others of the ancient philosophers,
'Kaaaa, to guard), a name given to auy amiuet entitle them to be regarded as the first cultiva-
or cham worn by the ancients to gnwd them tors of this science. In modem times its prhi-
igainst danger and ^sease, or, as among the ciples were treated with great originality and
Hebrews, against transgression. Amongthelat- ability by the Jesuit Jose de Aoosta, ii his
ter it was a strip of parchment, upon which SitUtria natural d« la» India* (1690). In
were written passages from the Scriptures, and 1660waspnblished the first edhicm of the work
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
996 FHTBIOIAN AND SUBGEOK
of Ysrenlni, flntidad Otopvphia OmeralU, in festdon ■waa required bf I&ir. It tab vdSibt Um
ftfa^j^fwiwt Gentrale* Teilvru ea^lieaMvr, Christian emperora probably that phyriTiitHiH
vhiob, Hnmboldt e&je, " in the true sense of were first required to undergo an ezAmioatioii
the words, is a phyaioal descriptiott of the by competent pewone before they were permit-
eirUi." A part of this the anthor styled Geo- ted to practise. There were two kinds of ar-
fffigAia ComparaUva, which is the term now chiaters ; the first were attached to the honee*
generally applied to works on physioal geog- hold of the emperor, while the second formed
r^iby; and the leading subjects disoDssed by in every city a kind of colI«^ charged ivitli
him are those of the most recent treatises, the care of the public health. They ezammed
The great ftdvanoe made of late years in the all who desired to practise, and licensed them
anziluTy soienoee friniiBhed matemls fbr more if competent; if any practised without ench
extended generaUzations and a more complete license, they were heavily fined. These archia-
" delineation of comparatiTe geography, which ters were ]>aid by the state and attended the
was drawn to its fiul extent, and in all its re- poor gratuitously. Under the Christian em*
lations with the history of man, by the skil- perors too, abont the year 400, we first finJd
All hand of Oarl Bitter" in his Brdhwid« im mention of a class similar to our apotheeariea.
Vari^Hmm m*r JTotur vnd kit GetehiehU det Previously physicians either prepared their
Mmtehefi, Oder aUgemeine vergieichend« 8eo- medicaments themselves, or had them prepared
grapKie ("Gleogrwhy in relation to Nature by their pupils or servants. — In the general
and the History of Man, or general Compara- barbarism following tbe fall of the Boman em-
five Oeography'^. The principles of the ptre, medicine as a science was completely lost,
•eienoe were ably illustrated in the " Phys- snd the estimation and rewards of those who
foal Atlas" of Alexander Keith Johnston, practised it must have depended upon their
first published in 1848; and they have been own good fortune and the rtuik of their patients.
expounded in the writings of Sir John Hersohel, Internal medicine gradually came to be practised
lira. BomervUle, Arnold Ouyot, and numeroua exclusively by the clergy ; and, as they were
ottier physioists, some of the most valuable con- forbidden to shed blood, operative surgery fell
tribntions of whom came from those devoted into the hands of an inferior class. In this
to one or a few special departments of the manner rose the fraternity of barber nu^eoos.
adenoe, as geology, meteorology, &o., and also Still in France a small number of lay surgeons,
from the most i^tinguiahed among modem under the title of the surgical college of St.
travellera and explorers. In this oycloptedia Cosmas and Bc. Damian, carried on an obstinate
tiie topics connected with this science are stru^le on the one hand with the faculty of
treated under their own separate heads, aa mediune and on the other with the barber
Oloitdb, Dbw, Hah, HuitBiaAHK, IfounrAiiiB, suiveons and the bone setters. During the
as also under the more general heads of Eiath, middle ages indeed the general practice of sur-
Oboloot, Metbobolo&t, &0. gery was rednc«d to the lowest ebb. In Ger-
PHYSIOIAN AND SURGEON. In all rude many, according to Spreugel, no artisan took
nations priests are the physicians, and this was a young man as apprentice without an attoata-
the case amoDg the ^yptians and Greeks, as it tion that he was born in marriage of honest
isnowamong theAmraicanlndiuu. InGreeoe, parents, and came of a family in which were
however, medicine early rose to the rank of a found neither barbers, bathera, nor skinners ;
distinct science, anditspraetitionerswerehif^ily yet these last were the only surgeonaof moat
honored and well remnnerated, although t£ere of the German towns. Very Rradnally a bet-
Hipeara to have been an inferior body of prac- ter state of things arose in the large cities, the
nbonera, the slaves of physiciaiia, who prac- barber surgeons acquiring knowledge and skill
tised on men of their own degree. In the in the school of experience. The progreaa
earlier days of Rome, medicine, like alt the of anatomy had its IiiSuence on surgery. In
liberal arts, was despised, and its practioe was 1616 the college of St. Cosmaa was mdted with
eonflned to slaves and persons of inferior sta- the university, and thenceforth the barbers
tion ; and it was only after Grecian arts and before th^ could exercise surgery were exam-
letters were cultivated at Borne that physicians ined by a pbysidan and two surgeons of the
obtained a more honorable standmg. The first king. Thus gradually the contempt with which
OsBsar gave medical men practising at Rome they were regarded gave way before their in-
the honora of dtiienship. AugustUB, having creased attidnments and their Importance to
been cnred of a danceroos illness by Antonioa the community. In Pranoe me^dne, after
Unsa, rdsed him to ttie rank of ^UM or knight, having long been separated from aorgery, was
and in his honor exempted phyricians in future reunited to it In 1766, upon the reorganizatioD
ttara taxation. The Roman armies daring the of the medical schocJs. In England, on the
empirawere attended byregularsurgeons, and other hand, the surgeons, incorporated with the
many of the stamps with which they sealed barbersinuietimeofEenry VIII.,onlyreceived
their preparations have been found in England a separato charter in 1?40, and the two colI^M
and on the continent While the science of of phydcians and surgeons renuunperfectiy dia-
modicine was thus rising in honor and impor- tinot. Uostoftheuniversitieahowevertbroiigh-
tanoe,itwaB long before any guaranty that a out tkeworld.likethe Psrisscbool, giveacom-
phyakian was competent to exercise his pro- mon degree of doctor of medidne and surgery.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PH^SIOUN ASD BUBGBON raTBIOaNOlCT £97
— In nndottiftliig Qm toMtuHot of s padent of dronnupeotioii.— Where bo Btatntorj pro>
the pb jridu enten into & lenl obligation and hibition interrenes, all regular and iiregrilar
aasDiDW kpl UaUUliea, whicii, though seldom praotilionen are to bo placid on the same foot-
It nil Milf flJatowd, are jet, in the ^iprehenuon ing. LeaTlng out of comdderation oaaes of ez-
of tite law, fixed and oertain. Tbo lav holds praas malice, which would haidl:r be included
that beeontraeta fiv the pOHeaaion of that Tea- muter the deaignatioQ of malpractice, onrtoide
Monoble degree of learamfc skill, and ecperi- is rednoed to those oaaea in which the chaim
enoe whioh the memibers m his protaaion or>- is founded opon gross ignoraooe, groes n^u-
dinarUjpoMeaa. Thoee also who, like oonUsts, genoe, or gross n^meee. With partjcolar ref-
anriata, or deiditta, oUm to be partloolarlf erence to Qte charge of mansUoghter, the law,
oonTeraant with and skilftd in the treatment of eqiedally in ^England, is that "Lfim& whether
tl)ediaeuMofsingleort^is,mnBtheheldtoft a medical man or not, profws todealwUh tha
pecoliArre^om^w^. TheBtmeistroeofi^j'- life or health of anc4ber, be is boond t
mdaiwofmatprotendonstnlargemtiesaflQam- competent skill and suffideDt attention ; and if
pared wi£ those redding In ranote and thinlv he oanse the death of the other throogh a
ibi nnSertali' • ■
so eonbaota that he will appljtha of manslaoghter;" or as an eminent American
lepoasessea, vhatererbeitsd^Cre^ authority, lir. Bishop, states the law: "The
table and ordinarr diligence and oarelesHneaa in a mescal man whicfa, if death
aettied dliCrieti. Ja nnidertaking a case, the gross want of either of these, he will be ^ultj
phjsiolan also eonbaota that he will c * "
■kill whb^ he poasessea, vhaterer be it
wititi natonable and ordinarr diligeuee'and oarelesHneaa in a mei^cal man whicfa, ii
care. Eztraordinarj care is no more implied follow, will render him liable for pianslaugh-
than extraordinarj' skill ; ncv is the praotition- tw, is gross carelesBnesB, or, aa it is more strong-
er sapposed to guarantee a onre, Ouingb he tj- expressed, the grossest ignorance or moat
msj-if heehooseflcontraottoeflbotaooT^and oiimiual inattention." — Oriminalmalpractdoein
then he mnst aniwer &a & bQmre. The phTsI- relation to in&ntioide is oonsidered under the
dan's skill in a ^ren case will ordinarily be title PnxoKAKOT.
required to embrace those phases and phenom- FHYSIOE, Phqip Stito, an American pbT<
ena which usnallj characterise tiie dominant atoian and soraeon, bom in Philadelphia, Jmj
diaeaae; and an/ mischanoe which oi»neots 7, 1768, died Uiere, Dec 16, 1887. He was
itaelf immadiatelT' with theae will inrolre the graduated at the nniversitf of PennsylTauia in
question of skilL Els dlligenoe and care will be 1786, afterward studied medicine, and in 1788
exondsed is watching for and guarding against went to London, where he became the private
the nnmerous accidental influences which, if pn^ of John Hunter. In 1700 he was admit-
orerlotdced, may del^ or even prevent the res- ted as bouse rargeon to Bt George's hospital ;
toration of the patient, such as latent predis- and oiter rending for a jear at Edinburgh, he
positions to certain diacMses ; a lack of vital or returned in 17S9 to Philadelphia, and there
recuperstiTe power in the patient ; the effects began the practice of medicine. In 1805 he
of melanoholj and of other passions of Q>e was appointed profbeaor of surgery In the uni-
mind; the eflisBtofthe want of pure air and good versity of Pennsylvania, in 1816 was transfer-
fbod, of csreAd attendance and nursing ; the red to the chair of anatomy, and in 1621 was
neglect of the patiwt to follow the phyrician's elected pretndent of the Philadelphia medical
advice or to tiLe the medkhies whMi he pre- society. He wrote for medical journals ac-
Boribea. If he hare biou^t wdinary skiO and counts of caaea he had treated, or of procesea
eare to the treatment of Us esse, the physidaa or instruments he had invented. Ha has been
is not reqHmslble for want of snoQeas nor for called the &ther of American snrgery.
mistakes in oases of real donbt and uncertain- PHTBIC8. Bee Natckai. PmLosopar.
ty. The same is probably true of errors of PHYBIOGNOMY (Qr. <^i(, nature, and
Judgment ; though tiiere is a late ease in the ymtrKu, to know), the name given to the ho-
Maine reports, where a verdict of heavy dam- man countenance as indicative of the character,
ogee against a phyi^ciaa for alleged malproc- or to the art or science of disoemingtbe char-
tice in a case of amputation was snstained on aoter by the oast of the features. The daim
appeal, though the court expressly admitted of physiognomy to be considered a science reata
that the Terdict was fbund against the defen- upon the assumption that the habitual ezercisa
dant on the ground of his error of judgment in of aaj fading will leave upon the &oe a oer-
not removing more than he did of tne ampu- t^ mipresdon by enlarging, streugthening,
tated limb, the phyridan's ItabiUty in oases and rwdering permanent in position the
of matpractlce is ordinarily only a dvit one, mnsoles asso<dated with such emotions. Thus
and the Iqjnry he does can naually be oompen* to a certain extent every man is a beUever in
sated t^ damages. But, in esMs where death the science, beoanse every man forms some
has followed ua treatment, and it has seemed opinion of those he sees, espedally for the first
to be the direct conseqnenee of the teeatment, time, by the expression of tiieir conntonanoea.
there have been, not uid^uenUy, charges of The first elaborate attempt to etevate phymog-
criminal malpractice preferred against the med< nomytothe rank of a science was made by
leal practitioner. To constitnte a crime, thers levator in lT75-'8 ; but no special application
mnst be a malidons or criminal intent. This can be made of the general rules he hss fbr^
intent may exist In an actual de^gn, or the nished, on account of the number of exception*
law will infer it ftom gross rashness or want al cases aridng from aoddents of eduostion,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
SM raCTSIOLOaT
from thatraasmiflraon of feBtOTMfhan parents of thephyriologtoaltdoMofaaige.— TLetiwo-
to children withoat the tranBmiHlon of dispo- ries of the prindple of li£a mtj be divided into
rition, and from vttrions other (uraaniHtanoeB. 8 groups : 1, thoee which coionder th« bo^ an
Bedda Lavater, others have written on the inert maaa, into which an T-nimaHug prinofpU^
samo Boltjeot, as Bpnrxheini id his "Phrenolo- called hj TarionB names, haa been Introdaoed;
gf In oonneotion with FhTnognomj" (Boebm, 2, in which life ie explained br phfgieal laws;
18S4), and J. Oroaa, antbor of "An Attempt to 8j whioh recognize spedal vital prc^Mrtiea or a
estabush Phjaiognomf apon Scientific Fnnoi- -vital force. In the let belongs tne ancient the-
plea" (Glasgow, 1817). or^ of animism, according to which the world
PHYSIOLOGY (Or. ifiuirit, natore, and Xiryor, is vivified by a soal or spirit everywhere dif-
dootrine), atriotlf speaking, the doctrine of fosed, a portion of wliich gives life to man,
nature, embracing a fcoowledge of all the pbjs- «niirm1a^ and plants. The anoiont philosophers
ioal and n^nral sciences, but now restncted compared the hnmau microcosm to the maero-
to the science which treats of the vital actions cosm of the nniverse, and recognized the same
peooliar to organized bodies, whether animal motor forces for organic and Inorganio matter,
or vegetable ; including histology, which treats Hippocrates considered unintelligent nature as
of the elementary tissnes as distinct &om the the mystarioos agent in the vital prooessea.
organs which they compose, bnt exclnding Plato and Aristotle admitted 8 animating spir-
Esthology, which concerns the vital fonotions its, the vegetative in the plant, the vegetative
I a state of disease. These distioctions, how- and sensitive in the animal, and in man an ad-
ever, are arbitrair, as physiology cannot be ditional intelligent and reasoning spirit, nobler
dinooiated &om histology, nor be separated by and purer than the oUiers. Paracelana, in the
adeSnite line from patholo^, since itia im- 16th eentDry, pretended toexplainthefimotionB
posnble to determine exactly where health of life by chemical and cabalistic arts, attribnt-
terminates and disease begins ; some writene ing to sidereal spirita and the plauete a direct
nae the term biology, as comprehending the action npon the Dody, the snn apon the heart,
doctrine of life, whether in health or duease. the moon npon the brain, Ac. Van Hehuont
Comparative ohysiolc^T' discnssea the phenom- afterward personified the vital principle nnder
ena ot life tnronghont the whole chain of tbe name of arehtfut, a name previonaly em-
beings, their differences and relations ; physi- ployed by Paracelans ; this power was sittiated
ology is general, special, or human, according at Uie cardiac orifice of the stomach, and pr&-
ae it takes np the subject in an abstract man- tdded directly over digestion by the agency of
ner, as applied to a single species, or to man. — the gastric jnice ; the pylom*, another digni-
Ijving bemgs may be oistingoisbed from inor- tary of the organism, the doorkeeper of the
ganio matter by the peculiar srrBngement of stomach, opened or shut the passage into tha
their heterogeneons parts, solid and Said, mn- intestine nnder its control ; this dunrnvirate
tnalty acting npon each other, by their d^nite had its subordinates in each organ^ which exe-
form, and determinate hulk ; by their origin cnted the special orden ; health reigned during
from parents in the form of germs ; by their the peacefbl and orderly stat« of tiie nrfAoua,
powers of drawing sustenance from the ezter- bnt its auger, fright, or irregularity produced
nal world, of eicretion, and of growth; and diseases — an allegory under which we perceive
by the phenomena of disease, la 6gai end tbe dimlv shadowed idea of the sympathy and
■eeda the vital properties exist, thongh in a mntnai dependence of organs now nniveraalljr
dormant state. Even presupponng the exist- recognized; by the ud of a chemical ferment
ence of organized structure, it is impossible to the arelMui could organize matter directly,
^ve a precise definition of life. The ancients without the intervention of an egg. StahL
held to the opinion that there b an indopen- early in the 18th century, though educated
dent entity or vital principle, whose union with in the chemical school of physiology, found eo
the body causes life and its separation from it many vital phenomena iuezpUcable by physical
death. The modems, however, regard life as a laws, that he sought for a new ba^ for the
aeries of phenomena in organized beings, de- physiological edifice; inustinp on tbe inertia
poident partly on stroctuTe and chemicat com- of matter, oi^anization to him was nothing
poailjon, whose various properties are brought without the rational soul, at the same time
mto play by external stimuli. According to that the latter could do nothing without the
Bich^ " life is the sum total of the fnnctions body which was created for it ; all physiologi-
which resist death ;" Treviranus makes it " the oal acts were established and directed by toe
constant uniformity of phenomena with diver- soul in order to preserve the integrity of the
sityof external infiuenoes;" and Beclard calls it body, by which it is brought into relation
" oi^anization in action. Physiology, there- with the external world; most of the taaa-
fore, presupposes a knowledge of the structure tions were destined to prevent the decompo-
of the tissues (whether molecules, cells, flbrea, sition of the soft solids and liquids of the body,
or tubes), and their properties and natural stim- and all the movements were voluntary. De»-
nli, including organic cnomistry, and must be cartas, early in the 17th century, put an end
the basis of all Inst conclnsionB in pathology, to the theory of Van Belmont's arehm; not-
tberapentics, and hygiene, whose avowed prin- withstanding the immense power he attributed
dples and practice are alw^s the refleotions to the soul, this philosopher's theories led to
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FETOIOLOOT aw
the MlrtUiTimMitof the dwmtoil mdrnwhan- remit of the frMaon of tho Uoed gtobtikB
ioal fldiooli of T^Triology ; he fitvorad the Bgtiiut each other and aguost the walu of the
former br introdiuiDg fennenta, additf, alka- minute Teuek. £leatrioit7 was at one time
Imity, and efbrveeoenoe of the hmnon, among oonsidered the aotive agent of the vital tano-
tbd notritiTe fimetiixu ; and he hiflaenced the tbma, and oertain analo^ea indeed favored this
Iatt«r bj «iplaining the aewetiona bj the view; eleotrioUr dethrmied the vital prlnoiple,
roanid, enbio, or ^nunldol fbmu of themcde- and the barrier erected with so much labor be-
oolaa, and Um fonotiona of relation by a Tibra- tweeu Uring aitd inorganio bodieji was again
torj morement exdted in the nervei hj exter- thrown down. Glisson, in England, toward
nal impreadowB, pnqtagated to the pineal gland the middle of the ITth century, while the phya-
in tha brain, ud tenninatiiiK In the cerebral ioal theoriea of life were in vogae, aaems to
fibres on which tt left matwialtnuMe. SrlTiiu have been the first to abed light on the path
of Leyden, in die last half 4^ the 17th oentwy, in which modem phjaiologj' haa ainoe ao ri^
explained aU the fhnotitau of the body hj the idly advanced; he maintamed the activity of
ofl^rreseenoa and fenaentati<Hi of the nnida, , matter, and that all the ftinotiooa of life depend
exoloding entirely the aoUda from hia phyrio- on a propwty of living animal anbstance which
logioal aebeme ; food fermented in tike itiwuuh he oalla irruabili^, entirely independent of
imder the inflnence of the gastrio floids, and phydcal or mechamoal forcee — all parte of the
digeatioa waa p^feoted t^ ue aetionB eatab- body, even the bonea and the fioida, poaseanng
li^ed by the aadition itf the bile and the pan- thia propoly. This theory was completely
creatie Mcretion ; the movMuent of the tdood forgotten until toward the middle of the ISUi
in the heart was doe to the efforveacenoe aria- centnry, when varioos aatbors made nae of
Ing fh>m the meeting of an oily volatile aalt of the tenns oontraotile force and tonicity. Hal-
tbe Ule with a aaowarine aou ot the lymph, ler (1747) admitted two properties, initabili^
prodadng at the same time the animal heat ; and genvbility (dm innttt and eu lunrvea) ; hu
the vital qiirita, entirely material, were pre- irritabilityis the property.ofoontractirig under
pared in the brain by distillation, having mnoh stimnll (the will for ^e ordinary mnacles and
of the propertiea and nature of alcohol ; all dia- their eontenta for the hollow ones}, now styled
eaaea were oaraed by the predomlDaaoe of thia eontradility, dlstin^ from and more powerful
or that ehemioal dement in the floida, and to than elaatMi^, independent of the nervoos
coanteract a anppoaed addity very powerful force, end improperly called vital inaBmnch
cbemicalpreparationa were raahly adminia- aa It is manifested after death ; his sensibility
tered. Vnile Bylvina tangfat Iheae doetrinea is tiie power of perceiving the impressiooB de-
Dpoa theoontinant, Willie promnlgated rimilar rived from eontaot. This tlieory gave a great
ones hi Great Britain ; he made also the chyle impolse to physiological science, which before
efferveeoe in the heart tmder the inflnenoe this waa in a very confosed state. Barthe^
of salt and snlphor, which took fire together in the last half of the IBth century, adopted
and prodnced the vital flame. According to the phrase vital principle, which he regarded
Haller, even the great mind of Kewton waa aa distinct from the boiu, and as Laving its own
led astray by Bach vagaries aa these. Many proper existence and its motor aod setuitiva
L principle,
Haller, even the great mind of Kewton was as distinct from the boiu, and as Laving its own
led astray by Bach vagaries aa these. Many proper existence and its motor aod setuitive
of the popular ideas of peccant htunors, for forces, the former residing in the mosdes, the
which a mnltitnde of empirical remediea are latter in the fluids and especially in the blood;
continnally eztoUed and exhibited, date baok this system met with great favor. Bichat, a
to the ebMsioal theories of the 17th century, quarter of a oentnry liljier, reduced the vital
Boarhaave and his school, early in the leth propertiea to two, contractility and senaibili^,
century, aabstitnted mechaoioal far chemical each divided into the animal or volontary and
fbroes in ph^t^ogy, ezidaining the phenomena the organic Brown, a few ^ears before tbi^
of lifi>ontheprin<$lesofmeohanioBandmathe- had elevated the jiropert^ of mcitabihty in Uie
motica, according to the ideaof Descartes; the tissnes into the vital prmciple; according to
then admitted doctrine of Harvey of the dron- him, all diseases are either sthenic or asthenia,
lation of the blood and the dkooverles of Gall- the vital force being increased in the former
lao bvored the progress of thia aohool. Food anddimlnishedinthelatter; this doctrine gave
was redneed in the stomach to minnte par- rise to the oontra-stimnlant practice of Riuori
tides by tritnration; the oiroolstion was a and others. Blumenbaoh, toward the end of
coimilete hydranlio machine, and the heart a the 18th century, attributed all the formative
perfect sneking and forolng pomp ; the weight aotions to a force which he called nitm/orma-
of the blood and the loss of its motive power tievt. Bronsaaia, early in the ISth century,
from friction in the vesaeb were ezactiy oalcu- made pathology a branch of physiology, and
lated, nd the force <tf tiie heart's contraction gave to his system the name of physiological
estimsled at 180,000 lbs.; the difitarences in doctrine of disease; his celebrated theory
the secretions were ezpldiwd by the diameter, plaoed essential fevers among the inflammations
folding and nnmber of the Avidons of the of the digestive tube, aa forma of gaatro-entcri-
veasab in the aeoreting organs, and by the dl- tis. Qerdy admits 17 vital prindples, or so
verse forms of the molecnlea, some of which many diatinct series of phenomena inexplicable
wwe admitted and others ezdnded by these by physioal laws, a list which on his pnnciplea
kinda ot organic sieves; animal heat was the n^nt be very greatly and inconveniently ez-
u,9,-„zoQ by Google
PHTBIOLOflT
ner, B^u^ Carpenter, and Toddand BowniEm, B. The fonotionB of ornnio life liaT« for tiieir
recognizea that manj of the ohangea which tale o^eotthe nutrition of tne organs ; most of tbar
place in the living bod? are effected bj the organs are of iiregnlar shape, do not oommnui-
■ame forces which act in the inorganic world cate with the brun, are independent of the
and ont of the bod? ; bntbende these ohemituLl, will, and act withont int«miption from tha
mechanical, and eleotrioal foroes, there remuns moment of ooneeption nntil death ; the^ are
a principle peonliar to life, or the properties digestion, absorption GTmphatio and Tenons),
Inherent in the varions forms of organized circnlation, respiration, exhalation, secretion,
stmetnre — as mooh a part of them, and equal] j and reprodnotion (with the secretions of spermi
inexplicable, as are gravitation, magnetism, and and muk, and the phenomena of mena^natioD,
eleotrioity, properties inseparable from inorgan- eonoeption, and gestation). — The factions ooo-
io matter. The harmony and mutoal adapta- cemed in these vital processes will be fonnd
tionof tha phenomenawiUiinliviuKorgBnlRns, treated nnder AneospnoM, AnarnniiD^ Adi-
as well as those manifested in tne external posb, Aok, Auuknt, Ajsoiai^ Anoui. Emmi-
nniverae, mnst alike be attribotod to the infi- citt, Aniual Heat, Anthbopoloot, Btu,
nitawisdomandpowerofthedivlnemind. The Blood, BDKE,BBi.Tir,Oi.pn£ASTYxsBBiA, Oab-
term" vital principle" shonld not be nnderetood tilaob, Ozll, Chtlb, OBmtx, Oiboiilatiox,
as intimating the existence of a separatA and Ookpasativs Akatout, DtRnnoii, Dmrsncs,
unknown canse of life, like the animism of the Dioestion', Embbtoloqt, Qluid, Hbast, Hn-
old writers, bnt be nsed simpij as a convenient Toi^aT, Hukobb, Kidnbt, Livz^ Lmcos^
erpiression for " the sum total of the powers Ltuph, MnsoLi, Nmrons gram, KtTTErnojr,
which are developed by the action of the vital Pesspibation, Bsspibatiok, Sbobetioit, Bkhi,
properties of organized stmctnres," stimulating Voigb, Sco. Bemde the anthora above named,
instead of checking inqniry into their canses. reference may be made to the writings of Ada-
Life, which it is the province of phTsiolt^ to Ion, Sir Oharlea Bell, Bernard, Brown-Siqnard,
study and explain, inTolves the idea of constant Flourens, lielng, Longet, Hagendie, Wb"J"^-1|
change in the tisenee composing an organism ; Hall, Ui^ncd, Faget, ^dierand, Boget, Ra-
the vital actions of the parts of a living body dolphi, Serres, Simon, Valentin, Verddl, and
are mutually dependent on each other, and all Kobin, la Europe ; and in America to those of
are barmonions, dnring health, in the mainle- Balton, Draper, Dnnglieon, and Paine, with the
nance of the life of t£e organism as a whole, nnmerons references therein named.
These actions are asaociated into groups called TIACESZA. (ana. Plaeentia), a eity of Italy,
flmctions, which ooncnr in effecting certain capital of the former dnchy of Panna and of a
lurpoees, such as respiration and circnlation, province of the ssme name, ntoated In an ez-
" > fiinctions may be divided into the organ- tensive and fertile plain on the right bank of
vegetative and the animal, according as the Po, about 3 m. £. ftom its Jonotion with
they are concerned in the development and the Trebia, and nearly equidistant fW)m Pnrma
maintenance of the body, or render the indi- and Milan; pop. 81,408. It Is fortified by a
vidnal a conscious and moving being ; in the citadel and old earthern ramnarts and ditches.
former belong those of digestion, absorption, It has a cathedral, buHt in ue 12th centnry,
assimilation, drcalaUon, nntrition, respiMtion, and other chnrcheB ; a podetUria or town
secretion, and reprodnction ; in the latter those house; a library of S0,000 volumes, Ao. Oot-
of sensation and motion. Though the organio, ton, mlk, flreaniu, dEo., are mann&etnred. —
animal, and reproductive fanotjona are inti- Placentia became in 819 B. 0. the seat of a
mately blended in the higher animals, as we Bomsn colony, and the next vear the batde of
descend the scale the animal or nervoas time- the TreUa between Hannibal and Semproniua
tions gradually disappear (first nind, then vol- was fought in ita neighborhood. It remained
untary motion, and finally sensation), until in ^thM to Borne at a later period of the war,
the rimplest animalcules we find nothing but and withstood a protracted siege by Haadru-
an absorbicg membrane capable of reproduo- bal, bnt in 200 B. 0. it was oaptnred by the
tion. To show at a glance ijie scope of physio- Gauls. The ;fltinili)in way, oonstmcted not
bgioal science, the following brief notice will many years after, originally terminated at Pla-
be serviceable ; A. The Amotions of the animal oentia. In the war between Uarius and Sylla,
or iut«llectn^ life are concerned in establishing Lncullue, the general of the latter, defeated
the relations of animals and man with surround* the partisans of Oarbo in 8S B. C. in ita vicim-
ing objects ; they constitute essentially man as ity : and here also the mutiny in CiesBr's camp
a moral being, suppoee an intelleotual prindple, broke out during the war between him and
and their organs are symmetrical and corre- Pompey. Dnring the empire Placentia seema
rnd by means of nerves with a central brain ; to have been one of the most fionrisbing towns
I life is sul^ected to the law of sleep, is iur of Gallia Oispaduia, and the desolation which
fluenced by habit, begins with birth, and be- overtook the whde of that province in the
eomes gradually extinct with age ; these ftmo* barbarian irrupliott did not entirely destroy
tions are sensations (vidon, hearing, t«uoh, its importance. In 1126 it became an inde-
■nell, and taate), the intdlectnal faculties, pendent republic, and in iaS4 aatjeot to lords
G
D,o,.^oob,Google
FIACENZA FIASOFOBXE (01
of tb«flanl£ea<rfPBlIaTH!iiio,BootU,SBdl4]tdI, long inaiiitained Its plaoe, b^ogextmded from
and nbeeqnentir to ths Viaoontis of Vilaa. itoat least 6 ootvraa, and often harlng donbla
In 1447 it ravohad, but tbb retaken tbe aama strbig* ; while into some of ita inq>roTed forma
jrear 1)7 the Mjlanese under the command of were introdnoed pedals, and «vea arrangemeDte
Franoesoo Sforza. In 1&19, after the battle for tranqiotdng the mnaio b; aUfting tho action
of Ravenna, it oame Into the hands of the Of tha beys to difierent seto of stringe. The
popes, and in 1646 Panl III. preeentod it to hia moat distiiignished harpsiohord maker of Loq-
son Pietro Lnigi Farneae, along with the dnoh^ don, from aboot the 7ear 1740 to 1775, waa
of Parma, of which from that time it formed Bniokhardt Tschadi, whose son-in-law, John
a part. In Jnne, 17SQ, the French were de- Broadwood, was one of the earUeet piano
feated near it bf Bnwaroff. In 1860 it waa makers in En^and, founding the firm atill
anneTsd to tbe kingdom of Sardinia. represented in London nnder this name. The
PIA0EN2A, Ddxiof. BeeLKBKCT(,OKABiJts tranaition tivm the iostminenta now named to
Frah^^oib. tbe piano appears to have taken place aboot
PIANOFORTE (It«L piM», soft, and /ortt, ISO yean ^oe ; and jet, nnleaa we maj rely
lond), a moncal instroment^ the t^mes of which on the article by Ifaf&i in the Owrnah w lit-
are eliinted by means of the blowa of email UraH i'ltalia ^enice, 1711), we most ngnd
hammers npon a seriee of tightly stretched elaa- the place of this important invention and the
tic BtriDgs; tbe bammers being caused, through toventor's name as oDsonre, or even lost, Th&
certun conueotiona, to rise xypoa strikina the invention baa been oljumed in tmit by Italians,
correspODding keys of a finger board, and the Germans, French, and English. By some wii-
tcmea being Htrenglfaenod and rendered melodi- ters it is aaaerted that tbe first improvement
oQS by ttie reeiprocal vibrations of a proper* fkan tiie spinet and harpsichord consisted
ly prepared Bounding board, over and near to merely in the introdnction into the Isjter d
which tbe strings are sti^tcbed. In bis recent hammers, formed each of a leather bntton on
history of &6 pianoforte, Dr. Bimbanlt traoea the top of a short stont wire, taking the plooe
the first principle of the instmment, tfie of tbejst^ These hammeEs oonld not readify
stretched string, to the ancient lyre ; and from enongb qnit tbe string after striking, and ita
t>ii^ be shows a oonrse of gradual modification tone was in this way aeadwied. Such a change
throogh the forms of tlie harp, the psaltery, the wonld form no maiked improvement on thoaa
dnleimar, &«. The first marked t^proaoh to instrmnents. Bnt the artiole of Haff^ tUx>T«
the pianoforte ^ipears in the transition ftom mentioned, which is fhll and q>e(nfio, and ao-
the dnloimer to the olavidtberiom (keyed d- ootnpanied with a ont, and which is translated
thara), which was a small obl<mg box, holding a at length in Bimbanlt'a work, deaoribes, as bar-
series of strings in triangle form, and stmck dt log been GOnatnict«d by Bartolommeo OhristO'
£^«e£ra of quIlI attached to the inner ends of &&, a harpsiobord mak«ff of Padna^ an instrn-
e keys. This application of the keyboard to ment in which the strings wwe vibrated by
stringed itutnunents Is believed to have been bammerH, and eaoh throogh a oomplez meeh<
first made in the 12th oentnry. Next foUowed anism, the parts of wlu(£ were & key, lever,
the clavichord, which continued in favor for movable ttnigue acting on the hammer, tha
aboot 6 oentniies, thoogh in part giving plaoe hammer, Jta rest of dlk etrinss, and a dampar.
to varieties known as tbe cymbiu and mam- Bnob a mechanism wonld allow (rf the rapid
chord. It is remarkable that the damper, a stroke and sodden reoedenoe of the hammc^
contrivance allowed to fUI or rest npon the leaving tlie string free to vibrate onllt, by !«•
string, so as to arrest its vibration when the tearing tbe key, £e dunper shonld be allowed
key has been released by the finger, wasintro* to cheek its movement i and thos ft wonld ao-
dnced at an early period into (£e davidiord. oomplish in a manner all that waa aimed at in
An improvement upon the keyed dthara, called the earlier " ootions" of German and English
tbe virginal, was very popular with Queen Eliza- makers. If thla aooonnt be gmnine, it satties
beth and ladies of her time. In thiathestrian, a long eontroveny, and provM Obriet^Ui (be-
of catgnt, were at once stmok and pnlled by fore 1711) the reu inventor of the pianoforte,
pieces of qoill fixed in the upper end of short, In 1716 Uarias, a Frendi maker of hstpd-
nprigbt jacka npon the inner ends of tbe keys, chorda, eabniitted to the academy four forma
Ilia spinet, of about the same period (1600- of insbnments of which he claimed to be the
1760), was a larger box of triangular form, hav- invmtor, and termed by him oZoessuu d matt-
ing sometimes 40 strings, some of steel wire, let* (hammer harpriohords). In some of theee
andalsopb^edonbymeansof ajackandqniu tbe bammeTS were hi a degree detached from
(«ptfM). The body of Uie so called square pi- the keya, A third daimant to tbe invMition la
anofoite. which is oblong in fbrm, is evidently Christopher Gottlieb SehrOter, who asswted
copied from that of the davidiord ; while the some years later the &ot <tf his having devised
almost triangolar arrangement of the strings as In 1717 an arraogemoit <rf keys, sprbgs, and
cleariy has its origin hi tbe form assumed by hammera which others were ab«adyem^oying
the strii^ of the spinet. The harpdohoid waa withont one credit. He is believed by some to
sabstantially a horizontal harp, played by means have snggested tbe present name by his itate-
of keya wilfi Jacks and qniUs, It was monnfao- meat, in a pnblisbed acoonnt in 176B, that on
tared in Italy eoriy in the IStti emtnir, and his instmments the performer "at pleasnre
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
80S HAXTOFOBTE
might plaj farU or j^toio." At the outset, theae, the upright Ib tbe form most eommon in
however, the Inatmment mu not a|>prectst«d, EoglaDd, the square in the United States. In-
a &ct thftt inaj Aooonnt for the obecority rest- deed, the square pianos of the United St&tes
ing over its ongin. Silbemuuin of Freybnrg prohablj surpass m workmaitship and perfeo-
flrst became somewhat popular as a msnnfao- tdon of tone those of eitj other conutrf ; bat
torer; and it ia known tliaC in 1747 Frederic the grand piano is that adapted to the intro-
the Qreat was so pleased with some pianofortes duotios of tbe best mechanisia, and hence it is
of his, tliat he pnrohaaed the whole stock, 16 in always chosen in cases where, as in a concert
ajl ; bot these were >tin so impo&ct that the:r instrument, the greatost power and brilliano;
vera idlowed to fidl into dianse when, in 1761^ are required. In the ^rand, all the octaves,
the Unc reoeived an improred haipdohord save about two lowest in the scale, have for
tcota l^adi of Ltmdon. Of these German in- each note 8 strings attuned in unison and stmck
ftnunenta, which it would appear were of the at once bj the same hammer ; from 4 to 7 of tlie
sqoare fbrm, the striags were double, and the lowest strings maj be sinele, and through about
compass not more tlian 4^ or 6 ootaves. Thej another ootAve and a half two strings to each
were adopted, however, b^ Hajdn, Gluck, and note are often need. The largest of these in-
other composers of the time; one made for strmnents are known as full or oouoertffrandii;
Otaok in 1772 was 4^ feet long hy 3 broad, the a medium uze, as semi-grands ; a size still less,
sounding lioard at one end oaly, and the strings as parlor grands. The square piano was, until
mere threads compared widi Uiose now in use. the ^iplication to it of meohanism somewhat
The first piano known in England (about 1767) timilar to that of the granda, a verj inferior in-
was made by an English monk at Rome. About stjmment. The upright was at first a grand set
1760 manj German mechanics arrived In Eng- cm end, and raised on legs ; tJie hammers over
land, two of whom, Viator and Backers, be- or in front of the strings, striking them at Iheir
oame known by their improvements in pianos, lower ends. In other forms, the hammers are
In 1767 the piano was introduced on the stage almost invariahlf below the strings. The first
of Govent Garden theatre as " a new instm- patent for an npright spears to have beea
ment," according to a playbill bearing dat« granted to 'WiUiam Stodart in 1796. In 160T
H^ 16 of that year, now in possession of the William Southwell of Bnblin reduced the di-
Uessrs. Broadwood. About l7C6 the poet Ma- mensions of the upright, before very unwieldy,
son had invented an action for the piano ; and replacing it by the " cabinet," in wl^ch ^so
altboagh this seems not to have come into per- the frame was lowered, and b j means of long
manent use, he has bv some been clamed even slender slickers the stnngs were struck above.
as the originator of me instrument In 1774 a In 1811 Robert Wornnm introduced the " cot-
patent was granted to Joseph Uerlin for a oom- tago" upright, 4 to 6 feet high; and in 1837 the
pound harpsiohord, having hammers on the "piccolo,' rising not more than 81 feet from
plan of the pianoforte. A more positive claim the floor. The compass of the scale of piano
aa the part of English makers is that oonoem- keys did not at first exceed 6 octaves, from FP,
ing the first invention of a grand aotioD, it being or the F below the lowest of the violoncello, to
admitted that atuut 1772 Amwicns Backers, a F in alt. It was next extended to 0 above;
German asdsted by John Broadwood and Bob- then to F yot above this, making 6 octaves; hj
ert Stodart, all in the employ of Tsohndi, to- a third extension, to the G below ; and then, by
gether suoceeded in applying en aotion, similar an added treble atrmg, to G. Thns its compass
to that then in use in pianofortes, to theharpsi- came to be from OGO (corresponding to about 64
ohord. The aotion devised by them is esaen- ^gl6vibratlonsperaeoond,andtoan(^enargaD
tially the same-as that still used by the firms pipe of 16 feet length) to G, Si ootaves above.
at Brondwood and Stodart in London, early llanos of large size are now commonly made
adopted by FIotcI and by HorE in Paris, and with a compass of 7 octaves, the base reaching
known among European mechanics astheEng- to about Abelow GCG, and the treble being ex-
llsh aotion, in this oonntry more commonly as tended also by one or more string In the
the Pleyel action. It is marked by simplicity, London exhibition of 1851 was a piano of 7i,
efBcieucy, and durability, whence it is called and another of 8 octaves. The corresponding
also the direct action ; and its improved form is enlargemeut of the instrument, and especiallj
substantially that now used bj[ Messrs. Chiok- of the sound board, ^ves an angmented volnme
ering and sons of Boston, in their square pianos, and force of tone ; but the deficient qnality of
From the time of this change the barpucbord the uppermost notes has led good judges to
makers rapidly became piMio makers. The qnestion whether any real advantage is gained
earliest enby of a ^ono on the books of Broad- by exceeding 7 octaves. — The making of pianos
wood and co. ooenrs under die date of 1771 ; ia conveniently divirible into 4 parts ; 1, the
of a grand piano, 1781. Further &cts in the framing and sound board ; 2, the stringing ; 3,
history of the instrument will bo better under- the keys and action; 4, the ornamental or other
etood after some aooount of its oonstruolioD. — case, (1.) In pianos of foil to largest size, the
The piano is now made in three distinctive sum of the tensions of the strings, when prop-
forms : the grand, the square, and the upright ; eriy stretohed in attnning, is not less than frcna
in Uie first two the strings mn horizontally, in Q to 12 tons. It follows that the filming, or
the third vertioally or obliquely upward. Of those parte within the case which serve as t,
^oQbyGoO^Ie
Btrot or atretciher between tlie ends of tbe to tlie part. The itring plete end imst plank
Btringa, end whioh are to resist this enormons are seotired bj bolts and otherwise to firm tim-
polL must be made oorrespondinKl^ strong and bers beneath them ■ the whole being received
rigid ; nnce bj anj gradnsl jdelding nnder the within the ports of tlie case. Bnt the cdiief
poll id the strings, tAeir lengths and tensions, parii of the strain of the etrings is borne, tn
and bmee tbeir tone, mnst nnd^^ pro^r- erends, bj means of several strwg iron or sted
tionate change. In the earlier instnunents^ bars ridng above the Btrisgs, and mnning par-
having smaJl strings, the tnme vaa of timber allel with tltem, and in sqnaros b; one or two
only. Builders then sought only trathftdness snch bars, these being formerly, and in Karope
of tone, depth and power being out of the qoes- still in most instanoea, oast separately, and then
tion. With the progress of metallnrgy, and the fiimlf screwed down to the iron plates at both
grodnal introdnotdon of Iron etmctores, this ends. Two important improvements in conneo-
metal oameto beasedfortbepianoframe ft'.s., tion with the framing and arranKement of the
for the platform or parts reoeivtop the stnugs^ strings are dne to Ur. Jonas Ohiokering of Bos-
which is not to be oonfonnded with the case), ton. He was tbe first to introduce the plan of
This frame was cast in a few parts, which were easting the entire iron fruning with the par^d
united hj bolts or screws: and tliia plan ia bars, in one piece. This plan, adopted by bim in
still followed in London, and indeed in Europe 1888, and cited hj Bimbanlt as " the American
eeneraUf . In pianos of all fonns^ the scale of plan," is believed to have added greatly to the
tengths of snccessive strings required to yield solidity of tiie instrnment and the permanenoa
tite notes throogh tbe compass of the instm- and pnrity of the tone, and to have facilitated
ment remits in a series of strings conveniently the addition of strings, thns enlai^;ing the r^
grouped in a fbrm identical with or spproxt- sonrcea of the keyboard. Ur. Chickeriog also
maliflg that familiarly known in the harp. In invented, and first nsed in Nov. 1846, the oir-
glands, the Inner or remote ends of the strings oniar scsle for square piano^ now generalty
mo in a carve representing the cnrred side of employed by mannfacturers in America and
the harp, the treble strings lying to the right Enrope. This oonsiats in giving to the row of
hand, m sqoares, nsnally, the oarp cnrve is ttmioe pins and the wrest planks, previonsly
reinesented by the ends of the strii^ toward straight in these inatrnments, a carved dispoai-
the right hand side of the performer, and lying tion, answering nearly to an arc of a circle ; tha
nearer to him. The ends of the striogs corre- advantage being that the strings become lest
stonding to the straight nde of tlie harp thns crowded, larger hammers and a more direct
he, in grands, in front, tennioating in this case, blow can be seonred, and the tone is botik
however, in a leas marked cnrve; and the like strengthened and improved. This improve-
extrenuties in the squares, whioh ontil recently ment was not patented, the inventor preferring
always terminated in a straight line, lie to tbs to regard it as one of the things of whioh all
left hand and back of the mstmment. It is makers shoold have the use. In grand pianos,
near to this part of the strings — at the remote the framing and sound board are severed acroaa
ride in squares, and in front in grands — that In front, to allow of the rise of the harnmeni,
the hammers are always made to strike, the this part being strengthened by arches of metal
proper distance of the point of striking being and otherwise. The system of metallic bracing^
abont i to J the entire length of each string, first generally introduced by the invention of
The parU of the framing and conneotions of Thorn and AUen in 1620, was brought nearly to
die atriuM oan now be understood. Always Its present form, Incloding the tension bara
at the enas, which are arranged in what we above referred to, by Pierre Erard of Paris in
have called the harp onrve, the strings are 183C. The soanding bosrd is a sheet of thin,
permanently fixstenea to pins or studs, now carefully prepared board, nsoally made of the
made to enter and pn^ect directly from the best Swiss pine, and free from knots and fiaw^
iron plate. About each one of these, called strengthened on the under side with smell
the hitch pins, a striog is in some oases bent, transverse riba, and now made to extend aoroea
so aa to return to the other side, correspond- nearly the entire instrument, beneath the
ing to two single wiree ; in other oases, each strings. Its edges merely are grasped between
sit^^ wire is scoured to a pin by terminating parts of the frame and ease, and sometimes at
in a loop. In either case, the strings termi- particular poiatg only, so that the middle per-
nate ia ends at the oppomte (answering to the tion is left free to vibrate. On its perfection
straight) side, and uch is here wound abont the quality of the tones must depend in a hi^
a larger movable pin, by turning whioh it is degree. (2.1 At the first, steel wires were uwd
that tlie tnner increases or relaxes the tension, for the treble notes of the pianoforte, and brass
The plate in whioh stand the hitch pins is for the base ; and as all th a wires were short,
termed the string plate : that receiving and those for the lower notes were wound or ovei^
giving sapport to the tuning pins (wrest pins), lapped by wire of less thickness, for tiie pnr-
tbe wrest plank ; and this, owing to the greater pose of iocrea^g their wMght, and this to a
•onorousness of wood than of iron, is almost geater extent than is now required. Mr, Ool-
iDvariably a wooden strip or plank, though in brd introduoed in 1827 the plan of bending
vbHodb ways let into and supported by the iron each wire abont the hitoh ^in, as now eon^
castings which fnmisli the required strength monly praotised, thus obviatmg the tendem^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
804 PXANOTOBIB
(tftbevtriwtojiaMjtwbLor Ireskiineoiiaft- oftUstrastomwdUixildiie. ToreHMclrflMM
qoenoe of t£e noose foiMM st tti« cod. Steel defe()ta,LoiiRmui and oo.tDtoodi]oed tbahc^
wire WM also inbodooed tlmmglioiit A few per or KraaHiiopper, iavoited in 1786 bj J<^
of tiie Lower string are fltJU wtmnd, ttteopper Gleb. This hopper took the plaee of the lifter;
of tliese vrl& soft iron, the lower with copper : it was a jointed nprigbt pieoe which, when the
and this l^t^g is now with finer wire, and kej* was pressed down, engaged in a notch on-
vNj close. The length of the Tibrating port der the hammer, and jost before the instant of
of each string is detemuned by the places of sMking slipped past the end of (he hammer,
two bridges, over or through holes m which allowing this after the blow saddenly to CslL
the Btriogs are stretched. The bridge nearest With this was employed also a second or onder
Uie hitch pins is npon and attached to the hammer, mnltiplTUiK the vdoeitj of the fini^
BOtmd board, to whioli it dda in coramnnioating on the priw^te of Uie oomponnd lever. Thia
the vibration of the strings; the other nma mechamsm was tha donble action, atill anbetan-
aloDg the edge of the wrest plank or plate, near tiallj in nse wiUi many makers in npririrts And
to the timing pins. Beyond the bridges at either squsica. To this was afterward added ttie Iriah
end, the string is known aa dead wire, and any damper, the invcntioii of Sontliwell (lTB4-'8),
Intmering vibration of this part Is prevented whloh wBsnmplyBniipr^trod,withapieca(^
by interladog these ends with stent tap^ or in soft doth abov^ wUch the k^, so long aa U
other w^B, When both sopports determining ramuned depressed, lifted offthestring. &tUl,
the -ribr^jng length of the rtnog were bridges the hammerB wonld sometiinos rebomid ftvm
merely, the blow of Uto hammer from below the string with snoh force as to retnm npon it^
tended slightly to elongate the string and to lift checking its soond. To remedy this, a small.
It from the neor^ bridge, and so altered the inclined, ron^ rar&oe of felt was so fixed <« a
tone. To prevent this result, S^bastien £rard wiresopportastoberabbed bythebeadof the
invented in 1808 the plan of pasrfng the strings hammer in its deecent, and ums nadnally to
at the end stmok by the hammers throng destroy it« vdodlr ; thb was called the liiotk.
boles pierdng the bridge or rim pn^eoliog from The EngliA grand action, so called, already al-
the wrest plank, and ao nha^ng the latter that Inded to as that of Backers, adc^ted by Broad-
from these holes the strings slopedireotly up- wood, Stodart, and others, constated of a key,
ward to the pins. The effect of this important a Jade (lover, in place of the hoppw), a bntton
improvement, termed the npward bearing, is so placed as to regulate the sweep w the Jack,
tut the string is no tooger lifted or ai^reoably a spring pressing to restore the Jaok to its plaoe
lengthened by the blow of the hammer, since after the movement, a hammer on the bnt of
to this the Btreia of the etring is now directly which the Jack acted, the check, and a damper
opposed ; and its length remuning constant, its arrangement, of which varions forms conld be
pitch is equable and its tone stroDger. An im- employed, ^th rails and sockets oimneotmg <a
Srovement called the d grafft was also intro- fixing the needM pt^nta. Bnt in this arrange-
oced at some nnknown date, in which the ment it was siiU a defect that, after a stroke of
bridge jost spoken of is conveniently replaced the hammer, the lack ooold not reengage it nn-
by a atnd or pin for each string, pierced with 3 til, by release of the key^tbe parts had retnmed
or 8 holes for the wires, and made feet below to their fint position. This required time^ and
in the wrest plank. This we have seen in a any note ooold not be rapidly repeated. Th«
Swiss piano many years old. (8.) By tlie ao- d^ect was first remedied by sn Inventicm fA
tion of the ^aoo is to be noderstood tJte mech- Silustien £rard in 1831, improved in ISST,
anism, ccoststdng of several small interposed turned the repetition action. This was an im-
parts, by which tbepressnre of the finger npon provNnent npon a previous action of his, which
each key is to be transmitted in the most effeo- as now modified, nnder the name of the French
tiTO manner throogh the hammer to the corre- addon, Is still m nee with many makws in
spending string. The oldest of the adaona ^^erioa and Enrt^e, and the oripn of whitdi
which have beoi (in modified forme) retained, is believed to be dne to Fetsold. In die repe-
are those of the square piano. In the originid tttlon action, oonilBting of an arrangetn^t of
of these tJke key had npon it near its inner end levers and efnlngs too complex to be described
a lifter of stont wve cu)ped with a soft leather here, the hammer is canaed to be, through its
btrtton, this striUng and elevating the hammer ; whole sweepi at the oommaad of the player, eo
while still beyond this rose a sticker which at that the note can be reproduced at half strokes
the same time lifted fi«m the wire a damper » at any fraction of an entire stroke. To se-
above it — a lever having a bit of soft cloth at cnre this result, when the hammer recoils from
the end ; on releasing the k^, this dsmper re- the strhig, it is, by means of a roller, lever, and
tnmed npon the s^ing, ohecldng its vibraticm. ^ring^ nphdd so long as the key is not entirely
This arrangement formed the rinde action. Its released, and in such a way that it oan neither
fsnlts were that the tone was win and wiry ; return to the string nor fall ; and while thos sna-
that in playing very piatno the pressure on the pended near the string, its blow npon the strii^
key did not always cause the hammer to reach may be, by (^ of an escapement butttm, le-
the string; while, if the luunmer rest was peated at the pleesnre of the player. ThA
brought too near the string, the hammer did Friudi repetition action is thus complex and
not qnit the latter soon enoi^h, and tiie effect ddicato. Broadwood retained the English
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FIAKOfOBTB Kfi
granduliMiiftppljiDgtoitdlreeflrareMtJtioii Uanfaarp, A rindlir ^tet !■ prodnoed Inr Qu
sdftpted from ra« F^mmIi hj BoiithweU, prolH noUan sttaehnicot iiiv«nt«d bj Vr, Obed
a% in 1637. Tito vaa sooomt^ialMd by pass- Ooleman of Banutoble, Uue^ about 1848. la
ing throngb the bammer bM a block or bar, a " InoisporiiiR pianofortes," the keyboard and
Bpriogpresai&g npoD this 10 tbatwhen the jack aetion, or the atrings and framing, oaa be
passee the notch it is oaogbt hj tbia bar, and Alfted lateral^, so as to oonse the hammera
tlie bammer Is snstained ready to repeat the to strike a different set of strings, thus traoa-
bJov, antil, aa before, the key is entirely r»- porii^ the mouo, aooording to the arrange-
leased. The eaca^ement Initton aiao wpeus la ment, a half or irhole note, or Beveral uotest
tbisarraantnent, and a eeo(»id spring detennin- upward or dovmrard. Uelographio pianos, or
ing the het^t at wiAeit the hammer ehall rest uoae whiob, by added meohamsm, shall regb-
The varieties of mnd aotirai are very gnat, ter and proaerve the improvjaations of a eom-
those used in the United States being all baeea poser, hare been attempted by many, dating
on eitber the Enriiah, now deeoribed, or the from the time of HohUeld, who, at tlte angge^
Ft^ch c^ PetEoId and £rard. The Messre. tion of Eoler, eaaared tiiis in IfSSL Probablf
Ohickering hare employed several grand ac- the most soeoevftd attempt of tbia kind is that
tions, the chief of whiob are three. In the of M. Deb^ trfParis, exbi]»ted in 1861. (4.)
Srst, munly tbeir own inTwtion, an under It i» mmeoeanry here to detail partiimlarB
hammer ia aoatained for the repetition move- conoeming the case of the piano, or oono»ning
meot by a apHng lifting It bom a epnr near the the Tariona woods, ntetala, and other materials
foot of the jack, tmtil the latter falls by nlease fonnd to be beat fitted to enter into ita otHt-
of the key ; in tbe eeoond, tbe Howe acticn, stmotion. The manafaatare of the inatnuiMnt
repetitifxi is aecnred by acting direotly on the gives employment to a great variety of artiaao^
hammer, witlioat nnder hammer or lever ; the among whom the work of the several parte ia
thirdisamoAflcatJoiiof£rard'H. Their eetab- miontely Prided; these are the key makers,
liriiment fbr the mannfaetnre <^ pianoa is the hammer makers, hammer laatherers, string
eecond in importanee of tlioae now exiatiiw; mak«n, striwra, oaee makers, fisishetv, Ac
the order being aaf<dlow8:6roadwoods,0hiek- The ooDstmaoon is a slow prooesa, and o '
eringa, Oollarda, Plmre), and Sruds. Stops v«U be berried ; a grud piano OBiially reqnir-
were eariy introanced into the piano, bnt, save Ing to be 6 montha in malting.— A few words
in parts of eontinentd Enrope, they have been reqaire to be added in reelect to oertain other
abandoned ; aeveral pedals are there also naed, modifloationa introdneed mto the oonatmotion
bnt in England and uds oonntry only two, one of the piano in the United States. Mr. F. 0.
for /arte effeetaLthe other for piano. Tbe/orte Lighte of New York has patented a peonUar
pedal is quite eS'eotnd, aod bMide not injinioaa eoDatmotion of the iron frame boldmg Un
to the inatrmnent The earlier piimo pedal, wrest plank, by means of which he oonsidws
paMing the aetion to one atriog, is straining to the at^n of the strings to be more firmly and
tha eentres of the hammers, and apt to distorb equably aoatained than in other grand puuJos.
the toning of the mtlsona — the atrfxtgs intended Another patent of Mr, Lighte eovera the ^[dir
to jrEeld the same note. The j«u MetU, a later eatioa about the earewa bj whioh the frame ia
pedal amngnneat, obviates tbeae defects. In bolted down, &0., tit collars or washers of nib-
this, tMigaea or atmpa of soft leather or wool her, or other yielding material; by tbia meana
are so held, that by pressure on the pedal they he belieTOs that tlie tendetu^ of the iron frame
can be r^aed bMwe«i the atrings and the to eontrd the vibratory parts of the inatro-
bammen, tbos softening the sonnd. Thte, of ment la obviated, and the metalUo character
late somewhat conteetM, we have seen in a of the tones •omettmes imparted by the iron
paiao of FetBold's, marked 183S ; and in the frame overcome. Many makers employ what
some slao the long or full soaad board, anppoaed ia called the overatnmg base. This ia an ai^
by many to have been more reoently mtro tangement by wbLoh at leaat two of the low-
dneed, Is foond. It should be added that the eat octaves are rused, mnuing diagonally in
hammers are of wood, the heads covered, ac- respect to the other strings, above them, aod
cording to size, with one wmwe layers of thick bamy clearing them where at the striking end
ood firm Mt. This material, soft wooQen, Ac, the hammers rise. Who first introdaoed the
areiDtrodnoedinmanypartaalsotopraventthe ovantmng base maynotnowbe known; biA
click or rattling which wonld otherwise attend it Is foimdln a Bnaaian piano now in Kew York,
the movements. Tarioos oontrivaness have made at least IB years nnoe. In aqoares, one
l>een resorted to for the pnrpoae of seonring advantage oflbred by this plan is that of greater
snst^ned aonnds in the pianoforte; avery good length for the base stringa than oonld oHier-
extunple of them was Hott's toUin&uU piano- wise be obtained ; bnt In grands, apace enough
forte (1817), in wbidt the oamtJnoed tone was is obtained without this dbaoge, and It is donbt'
attained by oommonio^ng the vlhratloa of the ftd whether in ttiese it affi^ds any advaubuo.
itnnga to iSSk threads and skeins arranged in a In any oaae, the two Beta of strings are difler-
peCTiIlar manner. The median attachment of M. ently ciromnatanosd ; and in conaeqneoce an
'soard constats in canring a cnrrent ct air, snp- apparent break or ineqnality of tone is npt to
illed by a bellows, to act on the string, thos occor in passing from one to the other, whldk
>roIon(^Dg its tone on tlie i»1nc4^e-of tne »o- it is difflonltftir the maker or the player whoUj
VOL. niL — ^20
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
to obriite. Mr. focoeer B. Driggs plaoed in wUcb the ie^t Act npcai the strings, Eri-
the Hew York eihiDition of 1868 & pimo whiob dent^jr, the aotton of the piano, wHoh continnes
lie ol^ed to poBMU some pt^ta of pemiliar that of the fingers, Bhooid h&ve a dolicacj and
«xoell«ioe. He oonstmoted the Mund board power u nearl; as possible answering to that
doable, an npper and a lower, each firmly s»- of the hand of the plajer ; and not onlj wUI
«nred at the edgM, and the atrengthening ribs tiie tonoh of each performer be chsrooterla-
bwns diq»ett8ed with in the npper. Thna he tie, bat beside, for the same perfoimer, evei;
obt^ed a sonn^ng ohaniber and walls hav- varitilJoa in the action will occasion a corra-
ing some of the obarscteristioa of thoee of the spending difference in the tones and sosceptibil-
Tiolin ; and a marked Tolnmo and sweetness itj of expression of the instmment. Fmal^,
«f the tones of the Instrument are s^d to have bf oontribnting to refined eiyojineDta, and at
been the result. Ur. Dri^s olsims more re- home, the piano takes rank in so^ importance
nentiy to have invented a new scale for the before anj other mnriosl instniment.— For far-
arrangement of the stringa of the pianoforte, ther information respecting the history sud
In this he discards the harp ahq>e, so placing oonstraction of the pianoforte, the reader U
tiie ^(tges that, fh>m tiie treUe to the base, referred to Hschhof s Vermeh einer Oetchic&t^
eaoh strtsg,ifor whide or half note, is exscQy d« CUnifr-BoMet {8vo., Yienna, 1868J ; Pole's
doubled in length for its octave below. He "Unrical Instrumenbi in the Exhibition of
beKevea tliat thaa the scale is made not only 18C1" printed for privato circulation); and to
matkemstictllj correct, bnt aconetioally trae ; Bimba^t'a "nantuTorte," Ac. (4to., London,
s view, however, which ippeara to c«iflict with 1860). In respect to performing toning, Ac.,
nlattoM estaUiued In the natnre of mnsio be- see works published In England bj Gzemy,
tween the intervals and their octaves. In the Ealkbrenner, end Ohaolien, and vaiioof other
London exhibition (18B1), ICr. .Ilneon of Kew popalar manuals on the subject.
York displaved a dmible grand pianoforte — two PIABIST8 (Lat pint, pious), or FxTBiBa
graods in a laiaeoblMigcaae. the players utting Q{xotii.ab Clbbxb) dv tsx Pious So&ooLa, a
&dng ead oUi^. The earliest makers in the religions order in the Boman Catholic church.
United Stated are believed to have been Kr. whose members tske, in addition to the three
Osbom and Vs. J, ITknrsttat ; and after these common monastic vows, a foarth, to devote
Ur. Stodert, from the Londtm house of that themselves to the gratnltoas instruction of
Statistics of the maanfactore of pisnos jouth. The order was founded at Rome by
in the United States are at thepresent time St. Joseph Calasanza (bom In 1GS6, died in
hardly aooeaablek The Hesars. Ohickering, es- 1648), a Spanish, priest of noble birth, who,
taUiuied in 1838, have now reached (March, in 16S?, in union with three other priest^
1861) the nomber of 38,800 pianofortes man- opened a free school, which was soon attoided
n&otived by them. The Messrs, Collaid of by upward of 700 children. In 1617 Pope
London sold during SO years, to 1851, about Paul v. conferred on the corporation of teaclt-
83,000 pianofortes ; the Heascs. Broadwood, era the rank of a religions congregation, and
during the same time, 40,863. In 1863 the in 1621 Gregory XV. gave them all the privl-
production in all England was estimated at leges of a reli^ons order. The same pope in
1,000 instraments per week ; of these not 1622 confirmed thdr rule, and appointed Oar
qotte 10 per cent, were grands, a like pro- lasanza their first general. The order was
portion Bqoarei, and the remainder uprighlk — suppressed by Innocent 2. and reestablished
Some degree of error prevails in regard to the by Olement IX. It spread rapidly through
modC'Of seonriiig force of tmes, in peribrmiog Italy, Germany, and Poland, and became emi-
on the pianoforte. Londness of bHie b not nently popular. It even, to a large estetit, es-
doe to the fbroe or momentnm with which the c^)ed tne opposition to which in the 18th and
key is etruok, bat to the time that is ocenpied IBth centuries many other orders had to sno-
ia d^resring the key, ^ «., to the velocity oumb. Thus the Piarists suffered less than
I^VM to the Qammei^ If in onecaae the time any other order from the reformatory decreea
eOBsmaed In patting down tlie key can be of the emperor Joseph IL of Austria, and were
made but half what S, -fras in anothec, the vdo- exempted from the general snppreBaion of ooa-
city of the hammer will be doubled, uid the in- vents in Bpain in 1886. More recently they
tensttyof the blow and of the tone will be cor- were equally favored in Sardinia (18€5) and in
respondingly augmented. Hence, in perform- other parts of Italy (1860). In 1860 they pos-
ing, it is easy to waste much strengm to no aeeeed S6 honsea in Italy, 88 in Germany, 82 in
purpose; and tamh of the gesturing, and even Hungary and the dependent countries, 14 In
of ue action of the hand and arm in playing, Poland, and about 80 u Spain. They have been
is rimptj of this diaraoter. Still it is true, as recently reintroduced intoOuba- Their coneti-
Thalberg has sud. that the touch of the keys tntion is similar to that of the Jesuits. At the
of no two [dayera u alike ; and tliat differenoea head of the order is a general, who is elected
of style and degrees of ezoellenoe in playing by the general chapter for 6 years, and retidea
depend very largely on this oatue. Between together with a procurator-general end two
the ntind of the pl»er and the strings there is assistaiits at Rome. Every province is gov-
a double meohaitiosl action : first, that of the emed by a provincial, and every college haa e
player's band and flngers; leoondly, that hj rector and 'rice^rector.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FIABT, ft PoHsh husbandman of Ernuwiao lermo, vhere throngti liia labors and under hia
on Idke Qc^o, vho, according to national I&- direction en oboeryttorj was built and finishad
genda, wta elected ruler of Poland, at a time ta 1T91. To obt^n the inatnunents for it, he
of acann^ and dissension, about the middle travelled to Franoe and England, muHng the
of the fth oentniT. Historians regard Mb eon acquaintance of Lalande, Delambre, ^ullj,
Ziemowit as the founder of the drnaaty of the L^endre, MaskelTne, Hersohel, and othera.
Piasts, who r^gned In Poland for more than On Jan. 1, 1601, he disoorered Oares, tbe Srst
600 joars in the male line (86O~I870), the last of the aateroida known to exist between Ibe
being Oasimir the Great, In thednobjofUaao- orbits of Jnmter and Han, In 1808, under
via down to 1696, and in a part of Bileaia down the title of SuBarvm Intrrantium Poritiontt,
to Jits, beooming extinct with George WU- he pnhliahed a oatal<^Q of 6,748 Btara, the re-
llam, dnke of UepiltR (See Polavd.) suits of the obserrotionB of 10 jears. In 1814
PIABTER (Span, and Itti. piattra). a silver he published a aeoond oatalogne embrwung
coin and money of aooonnt, nsed onieflT' in 7,6^ stars, of which the 7th annoal report (h
Turkey and the Levant, and called in TurUah the London astrcmomioal aooiety aays ; " It
gh^rth. It ia of very variable value. The exceeds every thing of the kind whidt pre-
piaster of Mocha, an imaginary money of ao- ceded it, and shows more powerfnllj Uiaa
count, ia worth St. 8id. sterling; that of Oon- words con express what may be effected bv
atantinople, a ooin abont the sixa of a half the talents and aaddnity of one individnaL^
dime, wat rated, onder the new eyatero of In 1617 he was called to Naples to take charge
coinage promulgated in 184S, st 4.8 oents; of the new observatory erected ou the heights
in 1S31 it was worth 3.7 oenta. The term of Gapo di Monte. He wrote muiy valnable
plaster is also i^^ed to the Spanish and It«]- works on aatronomy.
lan dollars, and is used in Sonth America and FIOABD, Jaui, a French a(tronom«r, bom
the East IndiesL atLaR^che lnieSO,diediu lft83orl6&4. He
FIAUHL or Piauht, aa £. province of Bra- asristed Qasaendi in obaerviiw the solar eolipsa
zil, bonnded N. by the AtJanlio, E. by the prov- of Aug. 16, 1 846, waa appointed in 1686 hia
iDcesofOearsaadPemambnoo,8.byBchiaand sncoeseor in the chair of aatrontony at tbecol-
<3o7Bz,andW.bvHBranhio,extendingfhHnlat. lege of France, and became in 1666 one of the
S° ^' to 11° 30 8., and from long. 40° 80' to original membwi of tbe academy of aoienoea.
47° v.; extreme length 740 m., braadA 810 His introdnction of several improvements in
m. ; area, 93,000 aq. m. ; pop. in 1866, 160,400. practical geometry greatly increased the exaot-
Oeiraa, me oapital, and tae onlrsewport, Is at neas of sa^enMo obaervations. In connection
the E. month of the Pamahiha. The Pamahiba with Ansout he reinvented the micrometer, was
separatee Flanhi from Marauhao. The snritioe tbe first to applv a teleaoope in the measure-
is geoersllj flat, broken at intervals by small ment of angles, oavisad mettiodB of verification
hills, and riring into mountains on tbe S. and In astronomical investigstiona, made the first
S. K. ti^nttiera. Iron, alnm stone, copperas, salt- exact measurement of adegree of the meridian,
petre, and salt are found. Sugar cane, rioe, and pointed out the two fold phenomena of
cotton, tobacco, and mandioo are cultivated, nutation and aberration, aiterward explained
and varioos spetuea of palm are ahnndant hj Bradley. He also introduced the modem
Large numbers of horses and horned cattle are method of determiidng the right asoension of
reared- Fianhi sends a senator and 8 deputies the stars by employing a pendunm to note the
to the general legislatare. Instant of their meridfonal passages. In order
FIAZZI, Qmrappi, an Italian astronomer, to make the observations ofTyohoBrsbe more
bom in Ponte in the Vaitelline, July 18, I74S, accessible to astronomers, he visited Uranien-
died in NwletLJnlySS, 1826. He entered the burg in 1671 to ssoeriain the latitude and
order of the Theatins, and after studying at longitude of the observatory at that plaoe.
Milan, Turin, and Rome, under lirsbosdki, Beo- He welcomed to France the celebrated Oassini;
esria, Lesueur, and Jaoqnier, became in 1770 and when, through his exeiHona, the observa>
professor of mathematics in the newly founded tory of Paris was established, he saw without
nniversity of Malta. After the breaking up of envy the Italian philosopher promoted to the
that institution, he returned to Italy, and be- directorship of an institntion of which ha him-
oame professor of philosophy and mathematics self was the fother. He wrote valnable astro-
in the college of nobles at Bavenna. Bnt the nomical works.
religions views advanced in his philosophical FIOARDT,anancientprovinoeofN.Franoe,
tliesaa, deemed " too bold for so young a di- bounded N. by the struts of Dover and Artois,
vine," bronght him into trouble here, as they £. by Champagne, B. by lie de France, and W.
had before done at Genoa; and he went to by the English channel and Normandy. It
Cremona, whore he became a priest, and after- was divided into Upper Pioardy, indnding tbe
ward was professor of dogmatic theology at districts of Ami^nois, Santeire, Vermandois,
San Andrea deOa Valle in Rome, where he Thi^raohe, Laonnwa, Boissonnais, Noyonnais,
had as a eoUeagne Father Chiaramonti, who Yalois, and Beaavaisis; and Lower Picardy,
sabseqnmtJy became pope under the title of comprising the j)ayirM«n$ttt«, Boulonnais,Pon-
RuaVII. In 1780 hewas ^pointed professor thien,ana Vimeuz. ThenamaofPicardyisnot
of astivnomy and higher mathematics in Pa- traced further back than the 18th century ; )t
siffi Fiooon:. pioodlqhini
ire8tIi«tsp)dl«dtoBftv«nl<MimttMl)GldlqrvM- fbebled in heami. Willi nmoli difflcnlfr he
ula of the count of Flauden, amd wai dwired saoceeded m prooDring tt*xa Bou^Mite, then
either from the J^X^pkardvt, pikeman, as the first coasol, the poet ^ inspector of munc at
inhabitants were celebrated for thetr skilflil the national oonserratoiy in Paris, which he
handUngof thepike,orfroiii theoldFrenob^ held at the time of hia death. As a mosician
eard, t>oisterona, qoarralaome. The province Picdni is distiiigDished for the pnritj and mm-
iraa snbdaed bjtiie English under the reigns plicity of his style, and for his tiSorta to pre-
In France of Philip VI. and Charles VI., recon- aerve the Bupremaoy of the Toioe in operaUc
Siered Itj Charles VIL, who mortgaged it to compoaidons.
e dnke of Borgnndr, and flnallT' restored to PlOOOLOUIfil, a celebrated &naij of Italy,
the orown in 1468, onder Lonia XL Its capital which oame originaUf f^om Rome, afterward
was Amiens. It forms now the department of settledinffiama,BndBnbBeqnentl70btsinedpoH-
Sommeand parts of Pas^d^-Oalais, Aisno, and sesdonof tbedaahyof AmalS. The most oon-
Oiw. apionons members of this flunily are the follow-
PIOOINL KiooLA, an Italian eomposer, bom ing. L .£rkas SiLmra, who became pope
in Bad, in the Idngdon of Naples, in 1798, died under the title of Hna IL ^e^JBxBiB STLTire.)
InPsssy, near ParIs,MaT7, 1800. AtllTeara II. AueaumBo, arohluahop of Patras, bom in
of age be was plaoed in tbe oonewrstorrof Baa Sienna abont 1608, died iWre, Uarch IS, 1678.
OntAio at Hwles, where he stndiad nnder Leo He wrote nmneroos wwks on natnialphiloeo-
and Dorante for mwaid of 1" — - ^-f
wrote several oomlo operas f<
Kaplesj aft» wUoh he prod . .
nSBiaaAle$i<mdronalP .bdie,AKai(fDMopen, was a man of great diaritr.eipwM^to needy
Kaplesj aitar wUoh he prodnoed at Bone in private onaractar ha waa not blam^ess, but he
tnposed sevi
onaractar h
leof thefinestoTertaresover com- menof lettera He waa one <Hthe mst to ei
, _ _ years later appeared Us fteoUno, ploy the Italian language in philoso^ical
i>r La l»uma fyUvola, ue drama of wbloh, works, m. FeAiroiaoo, bom in 16S0, died in
sing
ft
bv Qoldoni, was fbimded npon Biohardson's Kenna in 1604. He was a follower of PIato>,
"famala." It obtained a popnUrity without and taught philosophy for B9 years in Sienna,
ft preoedent It was ■occeeded by (Htn^iade, a Pemeia, and Padna. He wrote ^nieeraa Phi-
sD^actprerioiBlyBetbyPergolenandotheroel- hsophia de J&rtfra* {fol., Venic«, 1583) and
ebmted composers. For nearly 16 years Ficoini " Commentaries npon Aristotle" (ito.j.Hents,
oontlnned to retain the favor of the people of 1608). Sienna npon his death went into
Rome; bnt bung at length anpplanted by An- mourning. IV. Ottatio, duke of Amalfi, an
fbssi, he retired to Naples, where he rocked Anstrian general, bom in 16S9, died in Vienna
seordialweloome, andinl1'76TiBit«dParisfor in 1 666. At an eariy age he entered the Span-
fiie purpose of writdng for the French opera, ish servioe, and afterwvd went to Qermany as
Glnok, whose Iphigmia in AnUde had jnst cuttam of horae in a regiment which the dake
bean produced wiUi great snooew, was the of Florence had sent to the asustauoe of the
r^nlng tuTorite of the hour, and Marmontel emperor Ferdinand H. agunst the BohemiAns.
and other partisans of Italian mnaio, who were In the battle of Lotzen he oommanded ttw
oi^KMed to the new ideas of the Gcnnan com- cavalry regiment in an enooonter wUh which
posM-, supported Hodnl. then ia the senith of Gnstavxw Adolphns lost his life. He was
nis fiune, with all their infloenca. ' Ihe next 8 treated with great favor fay Wallenetain, bvt
years are &mouB In modoal annals as the when that general meditated tj-eason he in-
poiod of the oelebrtfed war betwem the fttrmed the emperor of the idot, and was or-
"Glnekiats" and Ae"Picclnistfl^'' during which dered by Ferdinand to capture Wall^stein
Paris was convulsed as if by a political revohi- dead or allre. Before he oonld execute this
tion. Uarmootet modemited Qninanlt^ drama command Wailenstein was aaBaaunated by oth-
of Seland, and with Infinite labor w«nt over er hands, bat Pioocdominl received part of his
the whole v<h^ word by word, and passage by estate. During the rem^der of the SO yean*
paassg^ with Pioeinl, who was totally ignorant war he held important commands against the
of the Fr«ioh language. The oomposo', whose Swedes. In 1686 he was sent with a body
ftdlity was attested by the production pvvions of troops to act in the service of the king of
to this time of the enormous number of 800 Spain, and drove the French from the NeUter-
operas, found little difficulty in setting the lands, but was leas snooessM against the Dutch,
words to ^iprogriate mnsia, and, after a twelve- Bis victories over the B vedesled ^ilip IV. of
month of ddays and difficnltiea of all ldnd% Spsinte ask bis services, and he fonght a second
^IsHd was parfinmed with oomplete snooesa thnewithadvantageattheheadof the Spanish
I^coini next produced Atf/t and IfUgMe m forces ^ptinst the French and Dutch. In 1648
titurids, and remained in France nntil 1791, he was recalled and made msrahsL After the
when, having been deprived c^ his pendons 'peace of Westphalia he was sent to the con-
and einploymenta in oonseqneiMe of tiie r«voln- venlion of Nuremberg (164V), with fiill pow-
tlon, he returned to Naples. He impradent era, and eubeequently was nosed to the dignity
exprearion of the politick opinions he had im- of prince of tite empire. He was ohildlesB^and
bi,bed in Paris lea to his arrest and disgrace, his son Max, spoken of in Schiller's "Wal-
«nd in 1798 he returned to Paris poor and en- lenstein," is a poetlo fiotion.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PKMtokU, aiTAiti.«s a XVbdoIi aoldiar, MBfoiiQiKlwtiiarMtonligD, waadtftn^tdbr
bon at Arboia, Fraach« Ooioti, F«b. 16, 1761, tbv people in 1880.
died iB ?Mii, Afiii 6, 16(H. At the us of 18 . PIOKIKOEA, & voloano of the OotdiUeraa
lie tuMmn a totor iit tho laUitarj eoaool at of &mik America, near Qnito in Eoiudor,
Brieme^ whore N^Ktleon Bou^iarte was then 1^B40 feet in height. It ha« two peaJca, th«
* AidMt. H« SOUL enlistad in. tlie arm;-, seir- pnnoipal of wMc^ oalled in the Qaiahna Ian-
ad in the A'"°'^"°" war, and was on the eve gaaga QoagoarPichinoha, is covered with mow ;
<tt fimiodaa when th» rerolatian broke ont. the lestter is oaUed Bacn-Fichincha : the two
Betsraing to his natire ^viuoe, ike Iwoame deei^natdona meaning the old and uie ;oang
liiwiiTiiiil of the demooratu» dnb at Beoanooo, Fiohincha. /
WW dsctedccMainaiider of a battalion trfvtdon- FIOKAWAY, a central co. of Ohio, intar-
taan, jcriued the mnj on the Bbiae, beoime aected by the Scioto river, and drained br
■uff offioer in 1792, soon roM to the ranlc of Darb j, Deer, and Wahrnt oreetra ; area, aboat
brfga£ar-g«ii«nlandtbanofgeDeralofdiTiaioi)j 600 sq. m.; pop. in 18S0, 28,469, It has a
ind in Oat. 179S was promoted to the chief level anrface and a very fertile soil. The pro-
eommand «f that armf. Having; oolj raw re- dactions in 1650 were 2,673,808 bnehda of Ii^
oraMa to oppose to Qia wall trained troops of dian com, 144,877 of wheat, 6G,4M of oats,
Austria, 1m oondnoted the esmpaign bj aldr- 181,261 of potatoes, and 78,088 Iba. of wooL
misbiBg and nrprieee with tobrablo encoesa. There were 6 grist mills, 2 saw mills, S wooUan
la 17M, through the inflnuioe of St. Just, ha &ctories, 8 tanneriea, i newspaper offices, 47
waiplK»edatth«headoftheanQfof thanorth, ohnrchea, and 8,636 pnpils atf«adiiiK pnblio
periupa the wont olad and least oared for, bat schools. It is intersected by the Ohio canal,
the BKMt heroic of French troiqie. Bather hj and hj the Oincinnati, Vilmiugton, and Zanea-
the eaergj at iaa eoMiers and sobordinate offl- rille railroad, which pasMs throng the coital,
een thaa his tacUoa, he worsted the enemy at Oireleville.
Xeaia (April 13), Toreoing (Uar 18), and PICKENS. L A N.7. district of S. 0., borw
Hoo^ede (Joae 10), orossed the left bank of derins on 2f. O. and Ga^ boimded K E. bj the
tlM lower Rhine, drove back the Ea^ah and Saloda, S. V. bj the Togaloo, and S. W. by
DoMfa, altered the city of Amstwdam, Jan. 20, the Ohattoc^a river, and dr^ed by the Eio-
1796, and organized the " Batavian repnUie." wee river ihd ita brandies and other amaE
Sut b«ek to tiie amy on the Bhineand dis- streams; area, about 1,100 eq. m. ; pop. in
cHted with the revolnUonary government of 1860, 17,004, of whom 8,679 were slaves;
FtanM,heIistenedtopropo8Blsmim the prince whites in I860, 15,885; slaves, 4,196. Itssur-
ef Ooaii ta bring aboat a restoration of the lace is nneven, the Bine ridge extending along
moundi;; hewas promised in thename of the the N. and S. W. border. laUe rock in the
fotnre king 1,000,000 francs and an income of K. is stated to be 4,000 feat lugh. Hnoh of the
900,000 franoe par ot"""*, the dnohy of Arbois, loil is fertile. The productions in 1860 were
the eaatle <rf Onambord, sod the govemorahip 684,011 bushels of IhcUan com, 42,062 of
of Akaoe. Ba now permitted hie troops to be wheat, 186,405 of oats, 102,886 of sweet pota-
wersted b; the Aoslaiaos; bnt the aospidons toes, 28,044 Ibe. of rice, 19,^7 of wool, and
of the diniotory being aroased, he wss recalled 1,867 bales of cotton. There ware 3 grist mills,
to PaiM in 1796 and deprived of bis command. 7 saw mills. 12 distilleries, 4 tanneries, 1 news-
^ next year he sooeeeded in being elected paper of&ce, 64 churches, and 866 pnpils a^
to Qm eoimdl of 600, was made its president, tending pablic schools. O^itaL Piokans Oonit
Kid became the acknowledged head of tlie re- House. U. AW. oo. of Ala, bordering onlfias.,
■ctioaary party, irtiioh openly aimed at the and drained by the Tombigbee and itsbranolies;
rtstorsCion of th* Boorbono. On the 18th area, about 1,050 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 22,819,
Fruotidor (Sept. < 1797) he was arrested with of whom 12,192 were slaves. Its surGsce is
a attmbar of tosaolierents, sentenced to trans- uneven and the soil generallv fertile. The
Mrtatloii, and banislied to fiionimari, Oniana. productions in 1860 were 868,706 bushels of
Theooa be sae^Md with many perils, repaired Indian com, 167,687 of sweet potatoes, 82,613
to I«*d0B, and Uien to Germany, alwinB de- lbs. of rice, and 12,806 bales of ootton. There
*yBg planB for the overthrow of the £renob were 8 grist mills, 8 saw mills, 8 tanneriee, S
rapaUo. Betaraing to London, be became weekly newspapers, 44 churches, and 718 pv-
acqninted wiA Oewvas Oadooda!, in oonoert pils in pnblio schools. Oapital, Oarrollton,
iritfa whom hit planned the nnaianinnHnn of the PIOKENS. L Akseew, an American geo-
first emsoL ^th secretly rep^red to Paris oral and statesman, born in Bucks oo., Peaa.,
in ISM; bat the poUoe was on its goard ; Sept. IS, 1789, died in Hopewell, Piekena dis-
CteoTgea was arrested in the atreet, and Piche- triot, S. 0^ Oct. 11, 1817. His femily removed
gm was betrayed for a bribe by a friend, and to Sonth Carolina in his boyhood and settled
mcmrsted in the Temple. A few d^s later in a frontier region. In 1761 he sarred as a
he WM bond dead in hise^. ItwasromM^d volunteer with Moultrie and Marion in the
that fas bad beMidsntatohed by order of B<Hia- sucoeosful expedition led by OoL Grant against
parte; bat the probMiility is that he strangled the Oherokees; and at the outbreak ^ the
Wondf in deniair. A bronse statue that had revolution he declared in &vor of the oolonista
been ereoled mbiB honor on a square at Be- and was made a obtain of militia, from whioh
810 FIOEEKS PI0EEBIN6
porition he roM hj regular ^omotaon to thfl a dMnonstratlon on the part of flertain oilJzMU
Tank of biigadier-generaL With Harion and of tbe state to B«cedo from the federal Union,
Smntor be kept tlie field at the head of a par- was then in progrees, and was advocated hj
tiaan oorpa after the state had been oTemm Ur. Hommono, then governor of the state, and
hj the British. In 1781 he led an expedition other prominent men. Mr. Ptokens voted with
agaiust the Oherokees, whom he completely tha m^oritj against the measore. After re-
sabdned in a brief campaign, bj which Booth maining seTeral years in private life, he was
Oarolina obt^ed a la^e cesaioii of territory elected a delegate to the Kashville sonthem
DOW constituting a portion of the state of oonventdon which met in 18S0-'61 to ooneider
Georgia ; and soon after he defeated and dio- the proper oonne to be pursned by the Sontb
perBedalBTgebodyofloyaliBtSinnderCol.Boyd, nnder the alleged agressions of the Horth,
at Kettle creek. At the battle of Oowpens he In 1864 he ^r^ded over the South Carolina
commanded the militia. For his conduct on state oonrention called to elect delegates to th«
this occasion oougresa voted him a sword. His next general democratic convention, and in
next important service was the investment of 1B66 he went to Oindnnali as a delegate to
the Britiah forts at Angosta, Qa_ which altera that convention. In 1867 he was appointed bj
siege of two weeks snrrendered. After par- Mr. Bachanan minister to finaua, arad npoa
ticipatiag in the nnsaocessfiil siege of Kinety- hb return frcnn that oonotry In the Utter part
dx under Gen. Greene, he followed the retreat- of 1S80, before the state had dedared its secee-
ing eneiny toward the seaboard, and at the sion from the Unionj he was elected governor of
heme of Zotaw Bprings led one of the brigades Bonth Carolina, which position he still holda
of the Bonth Carolina mihtia, Harion com- (I8S1). Mr.PickeDsisaplanterof greatwealth,
manding the other. Here he received a severe and has devoted mnoh attention to the scientdfio
wound in the breast from a musket balL He pnrsnit of agricnltore. As an orator before
was Bnbseqaeatly engaged in the negotiation colleges and literory societies he enjoys a oon-
of a treaty with the Cnerokees at Hopewell, siderable reputation in the southern BtBtes,
and soon after settled at Hopewell, was elected and for many yeara he has been oolleeting ma-
te the legislatore, and became a member of terials for a political history of the country
the convention by which the constitution of daring the period he has been in pnblto life.
the state was adopted. He held his seat in the PICEI^EL. See Pm.
legislatnre imtU 1704, when he was chosen a PICKEBING. I. Tinotht, an American sol-
member of congress; sabseqnently served again dier and stateatnan, bom in Salem, Jfass., July
in the state legiidatiire ; and in 1801 retired IT, 1746, died there, Jan. SO, 1839. He was
from public life, reappearing for a brief period graduated at Harvard college In 1?6S, and eo<Hi
in 1813. H. Fbaboib W., an American stotea- afterward became a clerk to John Higfpnson,
man, grandson of the preceding, bom in Toogai- register of deeds for the connty of Essex. In
doo, St. Paul's pimsh, S. C, April 7, 1807. Hia 1768 he was admitted to the bar. Prom 1770
fiither, Andrew Rck^ts, a lawyer of wealth and to 1777 he served, at Afferent times, in most
ability, was governor of the state in 1816-'18. of the mnnicipal offices in Salem, and on the
The son was educated at the South Carolina committees of correspondence, inspection, and
college. Columbia, and was in 1898 admitted safety. In Ang. 1774, he with other members
to the bar, and commenced practice in Edge- of the committee of correspondence was ar-
field district. In 1832, during the height of the rested at the instance of Gov. Gage, for calling ft
nnlliflcation excitement, he was elected to the town meeting on pnblio grievances; bntinScp-
legialature by the nullifiere of his district, and tomber themagistrate who had Issued the war-
rioou distinguished himself as a debater. At rant for the arrest recalled it, being alannedbj
the age of 26 hewasa prominent member of thennpopularity of hisacL Inl776Mr.Picker-
the Judicioij committee and the committee on ing was appointed one of the judges of the court
fbreign relations ; and as ohairman of a sub- of common pleas fbr tiie county of Esses, and
committee apptnnted in 1838 to consider the solejndgeofthepriee court forthe middle dia-
relattons of sovereign^ and allegiance, he made trict, composed of Suffolk, Essex, and ICiddle-
a report to the effect that sovereignty was a sex. Impressed with the importance of calling
thing indivisiblo, and consequently allegiance the attention of the pubiio to militaiy inatmc-
was indivisible also. Congress, as the agent tion and discipline, he wrote essays on the aub-
and mere creature of the states severally, had Ject for the newspaper, and published in 1T7K
no claim to allegiance and could exercise no "An Easy Flan of Discipline for a Militia,"
sovereignty, t^e latter doctrine resulting direct- which was ordered bythe le^slatureof Mossa-
ly from the former. In 1884 he was elected to chusetts (M^ 1, 1776) to he used by the milida
congress, of which he remained a member dur- of the colony. In tiie autumn of 1776, the
ing the next 10 years. In 1888 he made an army under Gon, Waiihington being greatly
elaborate speech denying the right of congress reduced in numbers, a large reenforcement of
to_ abolish slavery in the district of Columbia militia was called for, and Mr. Pickering, who
without the consent of Manland and Yirginia. then held a commisdon as oolond, took the
In 1844 he declined a reelection to congress, command of the regiment of 700 men fiar-
and was elected to the South Carolina senate nished from the county of Essex. On tlds tour
fhnn Edgefield. The "BlufiHon movement," of duty, which terminated in March, 1777, ftt
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PIOKXSINQ BU
BMDdbnMlc, K. J^ he lud IntnrvUwa with woreter]' of state. Iliupoaitionlkohelddarliig'
QoL Waahiiigtoo, uid in May h« was ioTitad the remunder of Waahington's Adminiatration^
\^ Urn to taCs th» offioe of a^lntant-genend, and for more thui S jaara omder Frieeideiit
wltich ha at first declined, but afterward ao- Adama, who remoTsd hW from offica May 12,
oepted. Li tbia Mi|wdtT he was with Wash- 1800. He now retired to hia wild lands in
tagtoa in the battles of BrandTwine and Ger- PennnylTaDis, with the intention of briosing a
Baotowu. In November oonimaa elected him portion of them into ooltiTation ; bnt his friends
a namber of the oontinental board of war, in ut Mtwaachasetts Joined in the pnrchsse of a
wfakh offioe he aarred until Aug. 6, 1780, Urge proportion <^ his lands, in order to enabla
iriiea oopgrena, br a ananbnoas Tote, elected and induce him to retom to his native state.
hirnqnartannaster-generaLaaBDooeaaortoGen. In 1801 he removed to MassachoaettB, and
Greene, ^oontinned inula station nntilJnlj' aDbsranentl; purohaaed a farm in Wenham,
SS, 1786, irtian the offioe vas abolished. He near Salem. He was fond of BgricnltOTal oocn-
wta present during the riega of Torktown to potions and experiments, and cnltivatod his
1T81, and at the enrrendBr of Lord Oomwallia, sronnds partlj with his own hands. Later in
Ob the return of pesoe he engaged in balnea fife he was president of the Essex agricoltaral
in Philadelphia aa a ooramiaaionmerolunt. In sodety. In 1803 he was appointed chief jno-
1TS6, havii^ been invited to assiat in com- tiee of the oonrt of oommonpleasfortheoonn-
poaing the oontroveny brtwaea the state of tr of Essex. In 1808 the legiala(nra deoted
PennsjlTsius and eertain emigrants from Oon- ]um a senator in oongreaa for the reaidiie<f the
Becticnt who had settled an extennve traot termofDwi^t Foster, who had resigned; and
of land ia the valley of Wjoming, which they in 1806 he was reBleoted for the term of t
dumed aa &lling within the charter limits years. After the oonmienoement of hoetilitiee
of Comeotlont, and at the same time to or- against Great Britun in 1613, he was appointed
pnize the new coonty of Lnzeme, emhraoing a monber of the MasaaohaBetta hoard of war.
tte territorr in dimnte, he removed to WUkes- From 1818 to 1817 he was a member of the
Itarre, with the nnoerstandins that he was an- U. S. house of repreaentativea. In poUtioa be
thoriied to ^ve assoraneea uat the legialatare was a federalist, and ardei^ oimoeed to some
vonld qoiet in thor posseasiona a certain dasi of the leading measures ct the admlnietrationi
of the Otmneotioat settlers. An act waa passed of Jefibrson utd Hadison. In reBg^ he w
f^y, and his efforts as a peaoconBher Unitarian. He pnhliahed several addressee and
a saooesBfhl resnlt ; hnt the legis- reports, and a "Review of the Oorrespondenoe
, 7ved inoonstant, and by first suspend- between John Adams and William Ounning-
isf^ and then repealing the ai^ increased the ham," and oontrihated to various periodicalsi
tensaoay and atrangth of the discontented set- H. Jomi, an American scholar, philologist, and
tiers. Their leader, John Franklin, having inrist, son of tbe preceding, bom in Salem,
been aiTMtedfbrhi^ treason, some of his ad- Mohs., Feb. 7,1777, diedMay 5,1846. He was
herentSgWidt the hope trfobtdninghisreleose, graduated at Harvard ooIImo in 17B0, and
retaliated on OoL Hckering, in the snnuner of soon afterward began to stn^ law. In ^797
ITSS, t^ eotering his hoose at night, and oar- he waa appointed secretary of l^atiou nnder
lying him into the woods, where wey dettdned 'William L. Smith, American miniater to Por-
Um a prisoner for 19 days. An interesting tags], with whom he remuned nntil the an*
ueonntof tbe controversy and of his oi^tivity tmnn of 1799, when he went to London as
i* contained in his letter of Dea SI, 1818, to private Hccretary to Boflu Xing, American
Ui Bon Henry, printed in Haxard's " Register minister at the conrt of Bt. James. In 1801
cf pMinaylvania," voL vii. In 1787 he was the he retamed to Bolem, and was admitted to the
dd^ota frran Lneeme oo. to the Pennsylvania bar in 1804. In 1827 he removed to Boston,
oraventiimfbr acting npon the prmosedooneU- and in 1629 was appointed city solicitor, which
- -eT^efSt ■ * ■■ " -^ ,...., ,,_
its adoption. In 1789 he was tbe decease. In different years be was a represen-
delegate fh>m the aome coonty to the oonven- tetive from Balem in the legislatore of Massa-
tnluMKtf theUnUedState^ and was earnestly office he held until a ^ort time before Ids
in bvor of its adoption. In 1789 he was the decease. In different years he was a rf
J the oonsdtntion of Pennsyl- chnsetts, a senator from the counties of Seaex
Under appdntmenta friHn Pretfdent and Sofiblk, and a member of the executive
ToaUngtMt, he made satiKboto^ treaties with council. In ISOS he was chosen Hancock pro-
tbe Six Nations ooUeotively, and with stone of feasor of Hebrew and other oriental longnages
them severally, fa) 1790, '91, and '94; and in in Harvard college, but declined the office.
I79S he was Joined with Gen. Lincoln and He received the degree of LL.D. from Bow-
Bsraley Randolph In a commiasion to nego- doin college in 1822, and from Harvard oollege
tiata wiUi the noatile Indians N. W. of the in 188S. He was a member of the board of
Ohio; hot the manonvres of Simeoe, governor ovcrneers of Harvard college from. 1818 toi
of OoBsda, prevented a meelai^ with those 1824, president of the American aoadony «f
tribao. In 179S he retnrsed with hb fiunily to arts and sciences, orighiator and first ^resident
FhiladdiAia, having in August of the preoed- of ihe American oriental sode^, and a mem-
iagyearbeenappirintedpoB^iaatcp-general. On her of many scientffic and literary locieties
Jan. 8, 1796, he was transferred to the office in Enrope. Altbongh constantly ecigaged in
of Mcretary of war, and on Dec 13 to that of his proteenonol dnbes, he mode large aoq,nir
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
SIS HOEEBIK0 PI0ELE8
dtloiiB in histoTT and phflolog;. In ISSO he logloel ' ObnmdJonci' on Introdootd Antmnh
oommimioated to the Amerioan aoademr a tod Pl«nta" (4to., Boston),
■olieme for reducing spoken languages to writ- FIGEEBS3ILL, Hkhbt "WnxuM, an Ei^ah
ten fonna, in an " EtaAj- on a Uniform OrthoK- pcalj«it painter, bom in 1782. &i 1830 b« warn
Fi4>Iiy for the Indian Langnages of North eleetod a royal academioian, and oinoe 1SS0 be
America." He proposed that each elementary hu been librarian of the academy. — KetDKBio
■onnd ehould he represented by ita own dla- Biqrabd, also a painter, nephew of tbe preeed-
tinctive character esclnsiTely, and presented mg, bwn in London in 1830. His first work,
sn alphabet formed npon this principle. Tbe "The Brasnt Age," in water colon, was edib-
system baa been applied to the Indian Itm- ited in 18S9. His works attracted litUe atteu'
the Padflo, and some of those of AMca. The " I>esih of King Lear," tta which be reo^ved a
rwolta of Mr. Pickering's atadiea were for the prize of £100 at the exhiUtion at WestBinater
most part made pnblio in pamphlets or in lit- nail Jn 1843. He abo reowred oa» of the 8
erary periodicala. In 1816 he pabli^ed his first olssa prises of £600 for bis eolosaal old
Tocabnlsry of AmerioanismB" (Sto., Boston), paintjng of the " Burial at Harold," porebasecl
Under the <ureoti(»u ot the legidatnre of Uas- for a similar earn by t^s oomnuiracMi appointed
saehnsettfl, he. In ooi^nnction with Charles to ezan^ne the merits of plotnreseent to the
Jackson and Aaahel Steams, revised the gen- Westmlnstar hall competition of IMT, and now
eral atatntes of the state, redndng them to a placed in the new hoosee of pariiament. In
code, which, aa modified and adopted by the 1M7 he was elected sn aesociate of the njti
legialstore, was pnhBahed ta 1886. Bis most academy, and in 18S7 an academician,
important work was his Greek and En^tah PIOKETT, AutRt JuiXEr, an Atnerioan his-
lesioon, which he began to prepare in 1814 torian, bom in Anson co., 'S. 0., Ang. IS, 1810^
(befbre any dmilar lexicon had been onder- died in Hontgomery, Ala., Oot. 38, 1868. He
taken), and finished witli the assistance of Dr. went with his father to Alabama in 1818, and
Daniel Ollvsr and pnbUahed tai 1820. A Sd stodied law. Ho never applied for a lieetm to
edition, much mlarged and improved, appeared prMtise, however, bnt after hie marriage in
in 1820 ; and tbe reviatoa of the 8d, still far- 18S3 devoted himself to litoary snmitB and
filer Improved, was completed by him Jnatbe- thecate of his plantation. Iniseihepahlished
fore his deoeaae. Ajaong his other writings a "History of Alabama" (3 vdi. small 4ta.,
tepamtely published may be mentioned " B«- Charleston).
mwks on the Indian Langnagea of Kortb FIOKL^ vegetahles <tf Tarioos sorts, as
America" (8vo., Fhi^elphia, 1886), and " Ue- small oacamhers, onions, string beans, and cab-
molr on the Langnage and Inhabttante of hage, and also some fmta, soch as melons,
Lord North's IsLind " (4to., Cambridge, 184A). peAchee, India mangoee, ana soft unripe nuts,
UL CsABixa, U.D., an American naturalist, premrved in vinegar to be eaten aa a oondiment.
grandsonofinmothy Pickering, bomin Snsque- Thearticles are stewed or parb<^edia brine
Sanaa co., Penn., In Nov. 1800. Be was edn-. and then transferrea to the vin^ar, to which
oated at Harvaid o<dlege In the class of 182S, some salt is added, snd to give flavor some of a
and was attaohed aa n^aralist to the IT, S. ex- variety of spicas are also Introduced, aa well as
dkwing expedition under Commaoder Charles mnstsrd, horse radish, Axl. East India incUea
Wilkes, 18S8-'43. After the tomination of aie flavored with curry powder ndxed with
that expedition he vent to India and eastern mustard and sarUo. For some artdctes tbe
AfHca, tor the purpose of studying the ohaiao- vinegar is uMd cold, for others hot, and tbr
teristics of dlfi^rrat tribes of thoee ooimtriee, onions pare distilled vinegar is employed in
andpuhliahedtheTceultsof hisiesearebesinhia order that the natural whiteness of these
" Baoes of Uan and their Qeogrq)liical IKstri- vegetahlee m^ be preserved. The uae of
bution" (4to., Philadelphia, 1848), and " Geo- piddes is so general that they are almost mie
graphical IMstribntion of AnimalB and Man" of the common neoessariea of life ; and among
(Boston, 1864). Another work, of long study, Bea&ring men eq>ecially their consnmption ia
on tbe geoRraphioal distribnidon of plants, is said to t>e prodi^ona. On this aoooont it is a
now (1861) in the press. It consiEts of a botan- matter of serioas consideratian, that they are
ical deeoription and oomperiaon of the countries often contaminated with a pMBODons salt of
vinted by the exploring ex^editdotu and hj ooppw, which after aareral reedpts pven in
him on his subsequent ^cnmon to the Indisn the eookery books is intentiouaUy intoodnoed
ocean. About GO cmnparatlve fioraa are riven, Ibr the purpose of giving to the pickles a pleoa-
personaDy examined at ell the prindpaf geo- li% bright green eokr. To obtain this efiiaot
grM)bical positionatu the globe. Frorohintshk tbe viB«gar is boiled in brass or oeqiper vessda,
aacAeot anthoca, nad by oomparisona and oaleu- or copper ecrins are introduced into the boiUiw
latioDs from varioae numbera in history, he is Uquid, md sometimce veidigriB and blue vitriM
ecmfident that be has made tbe disoovery that or the sulphate of oom>ar. This salt i^ faow-
the Egyptian great year oondated of 1,640 years ever, prodnoed by bcriling vimgar which ctm-
of S6S daya eadi, and dut the faUed phoenix tdns Bnlpharia acid in copper vessels, and most
was but a measure of time^ bdng 660 yean, of the 'rinegar that is tned in the pickle £ao-
that is, ^ of the great year. 8ee hu " Oluvno- toriesiiof ^isdiaraoter. Dr. Hanall repcota
PICO DELLA. JOBAHDOIA
amooaUng to S8 in nninber, all ooDtalited QC^ Innai, Gwrge OfaeliBerB, and Bitooii. Tbeir
to soma oztent, and two <r three of them *
tagtrtmB ipuoAUiM. Salphnile seid tiao
per to soma oztent, and two <r three of them kDrnage brae aome Te««iiblwi<w to the Weldi,
in da^«roiiB qoaartitiaiL Salphnile seid tiao mi H wai ~ '
maed ft>r piekfing. Nvmaraiia ftUl oaaes ot tnial rem^na of a riiifndBr diaraoter stiB exist
poiaoafaig are v^brted as haviDg ooenmd from in Tariooa parts of BooUand, and are there
the naa of awdi ploUea. Tlie preeenoe of cop- popnlarl^ called Rots' lioDaea ; and tradttiuns
perina]rbesiiapeotedin«Qi46Ue«ofabr]ghter of a people of that mmie of tmoommon bodily
groMi oolor Oiail the TtgetaUea iiatiiraU:r po»- Mrenrth hare aorvlred to this day.
SME ; and it ia proved whrn a bright [neoe of ■ PIOTS' WOBK DITOK Baa Oatbatl.
iroB immeraed for « diort Hmt la the Hqnid be- - PIEDHOKT (Ital. pit di vimU, foot of the
oomea coated with oopper; or i^ when a bit of Inoimtaan), & divlMon in the "S. W, of ItAl;*,
the pleklea la mlnoea fine and pnt into a Tlal bo longer having a diatinct political eiiBtenoe,
with Mqnid ammonia dilated with an ei^nal boimded N. by SwitKerUU^ S. bj Lombard;
Wnoont of water, the Uqaid bectanaa Une, it la and Parma, B. bj Genoa, and W. bj S^noe ;
owing to the TveaenoaOT copper. area, 11,898 eq. m. It ia enoloeed on S ridea
PIOO DEIiLA UIBAKDOLA. Bee Hkak- by a atnpuidouB mountain b»tier, end opens
IMI.A. (»i the 4tli toward the rest of Italj. It ia
PIOBIO ACID. Sea OABBAsona Aoro. oompletdy dndned by the Po and ifa trlbota-
PIOTOIT, a K E eo. of Kova Sootia, border, riea, of whkh there are 28 on the right bank
iDg aa Northnmheriand atratt, and druoed by and SO on the left. In the intense heat of
seToral smalt rivets ; area, 84C eq. m. ; pop. m sommer the gronnd of the plains toward Lt«n-
1851, 36,608. Ita aorfaca ia verj mnoh diver- hardy becomes ao scorched that crops are only
sifled and tbe soil fertile. It contains exten- saved by a system of irrigation which Is devel-
nve miaes of ooaL — Picroc, the capital, ia slta- oped to great pertbction. Some half a million
stad on the N. shore of an extensive hwbor, ooree an scored with artiSciiU channels; for
near the £. end of Nor^nunberland strait, in the privilege of naing the water a tax Is levied,
lat 45° N., long, 68° 10' W., A4 m. N. E. from Thna diatTiota once waste and oocnpied by B
Eali&z; pop. aboat 3,600. The honses are acantj and impoveriehed population nave been
prioeipally built of wood, and there ia a neat reclaimed and are now the granary of the old
chnroh, an academy in ■ eonnectlon with the Sardinian states. Maize end harley are exten-
FreabytarianohnTeh,agramoiar8ehool, alibrft- rivelyraised; the former is the chief wticle
ry, and a Ughlhoaae at the S. side of the en* of food, and the latter Is ftd to swine. To-
tranoe to the harbor. Plotonia a place of riling baeoo hdng a royal monopoly, Its cnttivatlon
importanoe, and has tooreaaed very mnch since la atrictly prohibited. The mile of I^edmont
the ooal minw and qnairtee of bolldlng atone ia the beat In Italy, and ita silk mmmfkctorea
were opened in Uie neighborhood. EUtfe bnild- are important. Common linens, woollens, and
ingia carried on; sndSi 1859, 49 veaselaof an cottons, hooiery, paper, leather, ontlery, beer
s^regate et 10,108 toaa belonged to the port, and oQim liquors, glass, and iron are mana'
The ^orta coiisIbI: ohieSy of coal, baiMing fhotured. — ^PiedmontflisttoobaplaCBinhistory
atone, oriad fiah, and potatoes. Ihiring the onder thereignof Tonunaao I. of Savoy (IIM^
year ending Bvpi. SO, 18M, 106,698 tons of 13as). It has constantly ehued the fortnnes
ooal were ialpped ; and the valne of the im< of that house, dnring the many wan in whiob
porta was (80,445. In the aame year S86 Tea- it has borne a part in Italy and Europe. It
eelsofBnaggregate(tf04,129tDnBolearedfrom beoame a principality In 14S4, was merged ia
Pietan for ports in the United Btatei. Uia kingdom of Sardinia in 1718, and witb
PIOTS, an anoient pei^ of North Britain, in- Sardhila in the kingdom of Italy nnder Victor
habitingthoeaateniooaatandlowlattdBof Boot- Emannelin 1861.
hod. Theyarefiiatmentionedtak«qiee<A«f^ PIERGE. I. AW.oo. of Vie., bomided 'W.
rhetoriman EnmeDiiu^ A. D. 906, to the emperor by the Bt. Oroix and B. W. by the Hisaisslppl,
Oonstantina OUoma on his return fhmi the vie- and drained by the Bnsh and other rivera;
tory over AOoctoa. After tlua they are freqnent- area, abont 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 4,674.
ly apokmi ol by Roman hlttoifana, and Anunl- It baa a broken anrface covered by prairie anA
nmsHaioallinmsin tbeannalsof A.D. SSSeaya forest, and the soil Is fertile. Capital, Prea-
thattfaey were divided into tlieDio^dotue and eott. II. A 8. E. oo. of Uinn., bonnded B. W.
VectartMtea. Acendlng to the aecoont of tiie by the Minnesota or SL Peter's river and ^
Scottish biatoriana, they were brongfat fai H8 Stone lake, and iDterseoted by the Ohlppewa
onder the dominion of Kenneth II., who thna and Tlpslnah livera ; area, abont 1,686 sq. m. ;
for tiie first time made all Sootiaod mbject to pop. in 1800, 10. It has a rolling snrfaoe and
one kinr. Tb^ name «f JHcti (JMdnted) is fertile soil. IH. AW.oo, of Washington terri-
ani^toaed to Iiave 1>een derived from tbeir ooa- to^ having Paget sound on the W., bordered
torn (rfpaintiDg their bodies. It has bean » B. W. by the Kesqnally river, and intersected by
BDbject ot dlspnte whether they were of Oeltio the Poyatnp ; area, abont 1,600 so. m. ; pop.
or Tentonie deaeent, the latter opinion being In 1860, 1,116. It ia traversed by the Oascade
maintained by Usher, StUlingfleet, and Knker- moontaina. Oa^ntal, SteOaooom.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
814 SKAHKLDT PIEBGE
PEEROE, E^inm, l^Vii piaHtot of tbe not the tiiM for Um to st«p fenmd prani-
ttnitpd Bt(U«a, Iwm in Hillaltoroiigh, N. H^ nentlr on this higfaeet theatre in the land, E«
KoT. £8, 1604. Hia &thv. Gen. Benjamin behud these great CMnbataute doing battle be-
^oroe, a native ot Uusaohiuetts, waa one of fore the ejea of the nation and ragnwaing it«
theeariiwtMttlerainthetownDf Hillaborongh, whole regards. TherewashaidlranaTennetj)
and served sa a soldier and officer throughout reputation save what was oconpied ij one or
the revolntionarj war. He was an influential another of dioae gigantio Sgaxtm." He made ia
demoo-alio politician, in 1837 and 1820 was 1640 a speeoh apon rerolononarT penacaiB, and
eleotedgovemorof the state, and died in 1689 in 1641 another mi the removtJi at perKos
at the age of 81. FrauJdin Pierce received hia from office bj the new whig adnmuatretion,
early education at the academies of Hancock aDdiDl842ruignedhisaeataudretnmedtothe
andfrauaistown; and in 1820 he entered Bow* praotioe cJhia profossionat Oonoi»|d, N. XL, to
doln college, at Bmnawiok, Me. Sis ambition which place he nad removed from Uillsboroo^
at tliia period was of a military cast, and be in 1688. He soon became distingiibhed «■ an A-
was a zealous officer in a coUejge company of vocate, and in 1846 President Folk offered bin
Boldiera in which hia fliture biographer, Ha- the post of TJ. S. attorney-general, vhxh be
tianiel Hawthorne, was a private. Coring declined. He also declined to be ft oa&didiU
one of hia winter vacations he taught a coun- for governor, the nomination to wMch oSte
try school. He was graduated in 1824, and had been ^ven to bim by a democratio fUle
having choeeu the law as a profession, became convention. He stiU, however, continued to
a student in the offioe of Judge Levi Wood- manifest an interest in politics, and vigotooslT
bory at Portamooth, afterward distingoiahed sni^rted the anneiation of Texas in oppos-
aa a U. S. senator and a member of tike caUnet. Idon to a conuderable portion of the demooacy
Kerce subsequently studied for two yeara in of New England. In 1847', when the state <rf
the law school at Northampton, Mass., and in New Hampshire was called upon b> foniisb
theoffice of Judge Porkerat Amherst, N.H. He troops for the Uexicau war, he ennffled him-
wae admitted to the bar in 1827, and b^an self a member of one of the first volonteti corn-
practice at Hillsborongh. He did not at first paoies of Otmcord, but did not long tonain in
succeed as an advocate, aod bis first case was the ranks ; for on ttie passage by ctNngresa ef
a marked failure. He remarked to a friend the bill for the increase of the army he recebed
who condoled with him: "I will trynine theappointment of colonel of the tKhrwjimail,
hundred and ninety-nine cases, if olienta wiH and shortly after waa commismoned brigadier-
continue to trust me, and, if I fail just as I have general of the army. On Hay 27 he embiiked
to-day, will try the thousandth. I shall live to at Newport with hia command, and aft^ a
argue coses in this court house in a manner passage of 80 days arrived at Vera Cmz. Thite
thatwillmortifyneithermyselfnormyMends." weeks later he led hia men to Join the maia
For some time politics diverted his attention body of the army under Gen. B<»tt at PaeUi,
from hia profession. He was an ardent advo- whioh he reached Ang. 7, after several riiirp
cate of the election of Gen. Jackson to the engagements with guerillas on the way. la
presidency, and in 1829 waa himself elected by the battle of Oontreras he waa severely hurt
the town of Eilleboron^ its representative in by the falling of his horse, bat contjoned dnr-
the state legislatnre. He served 4 years in ing the day at the bead of his brigade. In the
that body, and in the last 2 years was chosen battle of Obnrnbnsoo, while lea^g lus men
speaker, receiving three foortbs of all the TOtea against the- enemy, he fell fainting fKaa 1h«
ofthehonse. Inl888hewaseleol«danember pun of his iiynries, bnt refased to qiut the
of oongresa, where he served on the Jndiwary field. After the battle, the Mesioan canmaDd-
and oUier important committees, but did not er having opened negotiations for peace. Get.
attain to distinction in debate. He sustained Scott appointed Gen. Pierce one ot the com-
Jackson's opposition to the internal improve- misBioneratoarrange the termsof an armistice,
ment system, and made a speech against the The trnce was of diort duration, and the bst-
billauthorizingBuapprc^riationforthemilitary ties of Uolino del Bey and Obapnltepeo fol-
aoademy at West Point, to which institution lowed, and soon afterward the dty of Ueiico
be was long opposed, though during the Med- capitulated. Gen. Tierce remained in the city
can war he saw reason to ohange his opinion till December, when, the war being ended, lie
on that subject. On the question of slavery returned borne, and resigning hia oMumiaadt
he sided with the South, and opposed anti-sla- implied himself sgun to the practice of the
very meaaares in every shape. He remuned law. In 1850 he was elected a member of the
a member of the house of representatives until convention called by the people of Now Bimp-
18S7, when he was elected to the 17. S. senate, shire to revise their atate oonstitalion, and wss
in ^ioh he took his aeot as the youngest chosen president of the convention by anil-
member, having barely reached the legal age most unanimous vote. In this pcdtion he cx-
for the position. In the senate at that time erted himself to procure tbe removal froia ths
were Cl^, Webster, Calhoun, ^entou, Bn- constitotion of the tests by which CathoUcssft
f_v iir „ , «., . j^^^ j^^ eiclnded from certmn offices. On June 11,
tact and 180S, the democratio national conventioa as-
iv that it waa sembled at Baltimore, and after &S ballotingi
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
TRANSLDT HXBOE |U
for B eeadidite far preddent of the United t«e on territories, introdnoed & bfll for &a
States, daring which not a Tote had been given organization of two temtoriea, to be called
for G«n. Pierce, the Virginia delegation brought Kuisaa and Nebraaka, in the region W, of Mia-
forward hia name, and on the 49th ballot he aonri and N. of the parallel of 86° 80'. Bj the
was nominated b^ 989 votes to 11 for all other Missonri compromise of 1820-'21 slaverf had
candidatea. His prindpal oompetitors were been formallr and for ever exolcded from this
Jamea Bnohanan, Lewla Oass, William L. Mar* re^^on. Bf the bill of Ur. Douglas, which
07, and Stephen A. Dooglaa. At the enaoing was warmly sopported hy the adnuniatration,
presidential election in Kovember he received the IGseonri compromise act was repealed and
Vermont, Eentncl^, and Tennessee, whose n)ite of the strenaons oppontion of Uie anti-
mfiagea were given to Qen. Winfleld Bcott. slavery members of congress, the bill be<»me a
Of the votea of the electoral colleges Pierce re- law and received the aignatora of tbepreddent
ceived 2G4and Bcott 42. In the midst of this on the last day of May. Great excitement and
sudden and astonishing political sncoesa the indignation were aroused in tlie free states by
5 resident elect was smitten with a terrible this measnre. It was denounced as a flagrant
omestio calami^. On Jan. CI, 1868, while breach of tUth, and asthe violation of a cran-
maMngwith hlafamllyarailroadjonmeyfrom promise asaacrcdaa the compromises of the
Andover to Lawrence, Uasa., the oars were oonstitution itself. Unoh dissatis&ction also
thrown off the track and daahed agunst waa prqdnced in the free atates by the famons
rocks, and his only child, Bei^einin Pierce, a Ostend conference, at whioh Hr. Bnohanan,
fine boy of IS, was instantly killed. In hia U. 6. minister to Great Britain, 'i£r. Qauli,
inaagnnil address, Uarch 4, 1SC8, President minister to Spain, and Mr. Mason, minister to
Fierce muntained that slavery Is recognized Pranoe, were present, and proposed to bay
by the constitution, and that the fugitive slave Onba from Spam fbr (130,000,000, and in caaa
law ia conatitotional and ehonld be strictly ex- of her refoetu to sell the island to take it bj
ecntod. He denonnced in strong t«rm8 the force. A treaty waa negotiated at Washing-
agitation of the slavery qneation, which he ton in 1654 between the United States and
thought had been settled by the oompromlaea Groat Britain, providing for commercial re-
ef 1850, and hoped that " no sectional or am- oiprooity between this conntry and the BriU^
bitions or fanatical eidtement might again nrortnoes. The treaty with Japan negotiated
threaten the durability of onr institntions, or oy Oonunodore Perry was ratified by Uie sen-
obscure the light of onr proeperity." Three ate at the same session. Two important bills
days after hia inanguradon ha appointed his were vetoed by the president, one of which
oabinetasfoUows: William L. Marcy, seoretory made appropriations for the completion and re-
ef state ; James Onthrie, secretary of the treas- pair of certain public works, and the other ap-
nry; Jefl^raon Davis, secretary of war; Jamea propriat«d 10,000,000 acres of the pnbliclanda
0. Dobbii], secretary of the navy; Bobert totneatateaforthereUef of the indigent ijiaaneL
UcCIelland, secretary of the interior; Jamea In the q>ring of I8G4, property b«]onging to
Campbell of Pennsylvania, poatmaster-general; American oitizena at Greytbwn in Nicaragna
and Caleb Onahing, attorney-general. At an having been stolen and reparation refrised hj
eariy period of his administration President the anthoritiea, the U, 8. frigate Ojane iraa
Herce was called upon to deal with a eerious sent there, and on July 18 the place waa bom-
?ie3tion respecting the bonndary between the barded and most of it burned. In the following
nlted States and Mexico, a tract of land be- year occurred the flllibuster invsaicm of NIo-
tween New Mexico and Ohihnahna, called the arogua by William Walker, whose suocees in
Hesilia valley, being claimed bv both countries, the antnmn of 18GS appeared to establish his
The dispute waa finally settled by negotiation, power, and consequently a minister sent by him
and resulted in the acqnintion by the United to Washington waa rec^niaed by the president
Btatea of the re^on now known as Arizona, and diplomatic interoonrae op^ed. In Feb.
InlSSS, under the direction of the war depart- 1806, a bill that had paaaed oongreaa for the
ment, various expedltiona were o^anized and payment of the P^vncli spoliation oluma was
tent out to explore the routes proposed for a vetoed by the president, who in the followinfl
railroad from the Misriarippi to tiie Paoiflo, of month also vetoed a bill increaaing the annnal
with Qreat Britain on the subject of the hsh- eton which received hia signature were the bills
eries was amicably settled by mutual o(mce»- to reorganize the diplomatic and consnlar gys-
sions. While these negotiations were going on, tern of the United States ; to organize the court
mach interest was excited both in the United of ol^tns ; to provide a retired list for tiie na-
StBlea and in Eorope by the affair of Martin vy ; and to confer the titie of lieatenant-gen-
Koszta. (See iNoaAniM, Duncan NATHuniL.) era! on Winfield Soott. At tbe close of 1854 and
The first congresa which met during the ad- during the winter and spring of 16C6 circum-
ainistratdon of President Pierce assembled in stances occurred which for a time aerioMiy dls-
^. 1868. In the following January Mr. turbed the hannony between the governments
Douglas, then chairman of the senate commit- of the United States and Great Britain. Enlist-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
as PIEEOE HERPOST
BentiarTecraitsforUteBTUUtannjintlieOri- A ffAi grtddBted flt'S^isiiUb etdlene in ISM,
mea tcm mads eeenOj in thte eoontn mtder tnd Bftervard began to stod; law, bnt roMlr-
ttesauctionofUr.Onmptoo,thoBrttlihiiiiiiI»- il^ to t>«ooine ft preacher, vas admitted oa
ter at Vashington, vImm KMtll vai therefore Wal into the Georgia con&rence at Uaoon is
demanded b? the prMident ThiB waa reftued, 1680. With the eioepti<Hi of the year 18S1,
and the preeideitt at hogtit dtenloed not anlf dnring which he was Btationed in C^iarleatMi,
the minbter but t^ ^tlah oODflila at New 8, 0.,\% labored la the legnlar miiuetcy in va-
Tork, Philadelphia, and OindnuaU. baoaow of riona parts of his native Htal« ontil I8S8-^,
dieir oomplidQr in ibt Titration of the neutrality frben he became first president of the Geoi^'a
lavs. The matter vaifineUr settled, and after tanale (nov Weelejau) college in H&con.
aTaeancfofafewmooaiBaneir^ntishlegatton While hwe he edited JoIaUf with P. Pendk-
waasenttoWasbiDgtcnL Tbelasttwojearsof ton the "Bontbera lady's Book." In 1848 be
President Pleioe'e MndiMratiui were mailed was defied praudeot of Emoiy oollege, 6s.,
br scenes c^donMatiediseatd and eeotaonaldis- and ocoitinned in that. office until hisdecticm
KteconoendngaaUrainEaosas. (SeeEurajus.) to the episeopaoy at tbe general cooforeuoe in
1 Jan. 24, I8S6,ihepre«dient sent a message OolamboB, 6a., in 18H.
JO cwigreM in whidt he rqireaented Hm format PIERER, HaraBiOH Attoubt, a German pDl>>
tion erf a free state government in Kanaaa aa liaher, born in Alte&bni^ in 1794, ^ed H17
an aot of Tcbellion, and justified &e principIeB IS, ISCO. In ISll he stodied medidne tf
of the Kansas and KebraAa aot. On Jute S Jesa, and in 1813 Joined the armri roee to Ibe
of the same yeai' the national dcmooratio ewi' rank of m^or, and resigned tn 1881. He took
nntitm met at Oindnnati to •ominate a cmdl- ehai^ of his fsther's publiahuig faooae in IBiS,
date fivpreridenL The first ballot stood : fbr andoompletedthefneylAipddiwAciFblCTAadfc
James Bnehamm, 185; f» FranUin Pleroe, (86 vols., AUenborg, lB34r''se), coamMaoed by
1S2 ; Ibr Stephen A. Dongas, 88 ; for Lewis hie &ther, and afterward pnbUshed a new edi-
Oasa, e. On snbeeqnent ballots the vote for tton, wtirelT reoaat (lB40-'46). Bii two bods.
Pierce gradually ^miniahed, and on the ITtli Ylotor a&d Eugene, oontinned in the mansge-
laltot ail the rotes were gireo for Ur. Bo- ment of the establishment, and pnbiiahed a 3d
ehanan. Before the a^oomment of oongresa editiim of the encyclopedia under the title of
in the following August, the hone of repr»- IMwrtal Lemkon (iO vols., Altonbarg, 1841-
sentatires made BnamendmeDt to the army ap- Hi), A 4th edition oonmienoed in 1867 is not
propriation bill, providing that no part ot the yet oomiJeted.
army should be employed to eidbroe the lawa PIERPOHT, John, an American poet sod
made by the territorial legidatore of Esneas^ deigyman, bom in Litchfield, Conn., April S,
until congress ahonld have dedded that it was 1786. He wsa' gradaated at Yaie eoOege in
a valid legislative aseombly. The soiate re- 1604,Bndinl80fi wenttoSonthCaroIjnaaspri-
fused to concur iatMs proviso, and oongress vatotntorintheiamilyofOoL William Allstta.
adjonmed without makinir any provision for He remained there 4 years, qteodingpartctf his
the soppart of the army. The precedent imme- time In Charleston and put on the WacMmaw
diately isaaed a proohunatioB eallii^ an extn nearOetagetown. Retaining to OtmtecticBthi
sesdon to convene on Ang. 31, wluo tike ar- 1609, heatodiedlawintheedioolBtXil^eldi
myblll was psHcd without an? provisa and andhavingtieenadniittedtopractieeitthebar
immedutely afterward oongresB a^joonwd. It afS;esexco.,Uaas., inl812, settled at Kewbory-
came t^ether again on Dee. 1, and the presi- port, where ho delivered before the WisUng-
dent's Bunud message was chiefly devoted to ton benevolent soeiety his poem of " The Por-
tlie subject ot Kansas, and in its citation of trait," included in the collection of his " Par
•vents and ezpresBions of praise it took strong triotlo and Political Pieces." Rdinqaidung
grannda against the free-state party of tiie ti>e profession of law, wbirJi, in oonsegceoce
country. The sesnon closed on March 8, 1857, of tbe unsettled state of effian ctasei by the
and on the following day the administration of war, was by no means looratiTc, he wont into
President Heree teiminated, and that of James mercantile bosineea, first in B(«toii and then
Buebsnan commenced. Mr. Herce aoon after- In Baltimore, but was unsncoecafiil. In 1816
ward visited MadelrSj and traveled cxtoneiTely he published at Baltimore "Airs of Palce-
io Europe, from which be retnrued in 1860. tine," a poem in heroic meesore, and won af-
On April ai, 1861, be made a speech to a mass ter began tbe study of theology, first by hira-
meeting at Cono«nd, N. B., in which he de- self and subsequmtly in tbe Barvard theol<^
elaredhimsdf in &vor of the Union gainst the calschooL In 1819 he waa ordained nmisttr
southern oonfederaoy, and urged the people to (tf the HolUa street Oongregatienal ohon^ is
l^vetothenataoBaladmSnlstratimaoiKdUland Boston. Be^)eiktapart<rflS85-'fiin EnroM^
vigorous annport — ^Ilie Ufe <^ franklin Keioe, extending his travels to Cfwrtuitinople and the
to the period of Ms nomination aa candidate for rains of Ephesos. E« had been, both in tbe
the preriden^, has been written by Nathanid pulpit and out of the pulpit, an active laborer
Hawthorne (Boaton, ISBS). in behalf of temperance, anti-slavery, the me-
PIEROE, ^BonoB Fostbh, D.D., one «f the liondion of priscm diseipUne, and other i^tonsx
bishops of the Uetbodist Episoopsl chnreh, The freedom witii whidt he expreesed hb opio-
fiouth, bom in Greene eo., Ga., Feb. & 1811. ions, eqie^ally in regard to the tempcraoM
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
. had gtnn tiaeto eome tetSiag b*~ iHt; vinga modtrate aad pointed ; tail of tv
fbra hk departore fat Europe, and in 1888 there rlona leugtiu, KBDerallj lonudod ; tarai Bhor^
apriBg op betveen hima^ and a portion of toes long, hind one abont dia length of the
Ina Dtti^ s wmfrOTanj whieh lasted T 7ean, tanas. In the tfpioal genna eoivmia (Linn.)
Atueeadof thattim»adlsn>lMilirureqn«Bt- the pMrailing ooktr is blniah graj, of di^rent
Attheeadof thastuii»adlsnUM>lirureqn«Bt- tliepMn „ _ ..
edbf Ifo. PierpontjWbohadbriimriduHitlTBna- ihaOM, with feathers of a peeijiar fonn and.
tttBtd himself against the idiarKes of his ad- metallio lustra npon the neck; thtir feet are
nnariee. In 1846 h« beosraa ue first pastor formed fbr waluig ss wdl sa percihing, and
of the Unitarian dun^A in Tro7, K. T., There they generaUr seek th^ food upon t^
lur«miUned 4 reara, when he aooepted a call gronnd; they eat prinoqiallj grains, aowu^
tram the first OoDKr^atJonalehnrcb in Hedford, and other nota, and some tend^ leaves and
Uass., at whiobpIaeebenowT«dd«s. Inl840 plants. There are more than 80 speoiea i
lbnj'<^hiB poems have been celled forth by limdof /oaliT[dacea,eQ)eoiall7on theooastsof
tJTcomstaooas oonneat«d with Hie moral and Oreal Britain, Afiioa, and Ama, where thejboild
rslijpoM moTonents of the times. their radelj ctnstnioted neeto. The oraunon
I^ETISlf. 8ee G^tMAH Tbboloot, voL Till, ^geon or dove, too well known to need desorip-
p. 191. tion, is derived from the wild rook pigeon or
PIOEON, an extendve family of raSorUd biset((7. JMo, Linn.)} initawild state itlivea
tsrda, bj some ornithologists raised into an In caverns and holes m Hie rooks of Qte ooaat^
nder, oharaoterized hf a short, straight, com- and never in the woods or npon trees; it
freased bill, with the apical half vaulted and swanns abont the Orkneridandsand the He]}-
Wrong, and the base ocmiparativelj weak and rides and on the rook? idands of Um Mediter-
covered with a fleshy membrane in which the ranean. Man sabstitntea an attifl^al dove cot
Boatrils are plaoed ; wings modM'ste ; tarsi for the natnral oavem, m wlileh the pise<HU
Bore or lees loiu and robust, and the toes rear their yonng f(v his benefit; the birds,
tong, divided, and padded bmeatb. Host pi- however, generallj d«;>end for support on
geoBs are perohers, and Utis family m^ be re- theirt own ezertkna, mid atjoj so perfect a
girded ss forming the oonneotmg Unk between freedom of actum that tbey oan hardly be said
Uw gallinaceoDs and inseasoritd birds. Their to be domeslioated. Thisspeoieemay beknown
geograi^oal distribntion is very extensive, q>e- from thewood and ring pigeons by the 2 broad
ciM b^ng fbond in every part of the world and distinct blsick bars aoross the closed Wingo^
eicept in tiie frigid zones ; bnt their fsvorite tha white of the lower part of the baot and
habitats are tropical 8. Asia and the islands of tlie brosd black bar at the end of the tail It
the ibidiaii archipelago. They gener^y nest is beyond donbt that this is the spedes known
on trees, laying 2 whitish eggs oa wldch bo^ to the aneients, and whidi from time unmeoo-
■exea sit in tnm ; the yoong are oovwed with rial haa been regoided with peenliar effootion
athinhaiary-like down, and are fed in the nest by mankind, as tne emblem of gentleness, af-
dUableto fly, at first by a milky half-digested f^on, and the divine love and mercy; itwaa
(sbstanoe disgorged by the old birds. The the dove whioh wss sent fiwtii as a mcMcn^
iEgfat is generally rapid and powwftil, and fr«m the ark and returned with the (diva
c^ablo «f being long snetained, as in the branch In its month, the harbinger of glad tid-
ourier pigeon; m the morerasorial types the logs; It was one of the pnrest aaorifidal offer-
wings are shorter and rounded, and the flight tags under the Meeaia dispenaotitn, and to the
is abrupt, low, and of short oontinuanoe. They Oiuistiaa world it has always repreaanted the
are generally wild and timorous, and, with the Holy Spirit desowding to Ueis mankind; from
exception of the oommon pigeon and turtle tiie sSeotionata Intereoone between the sezea,
dove, bare not bewi domestwated. The voice it was sacred to Yenns, the heathen goddess
eonasts of a gnttoral cooing, at times plaintive of love, and washer omutant attcmdaut. The
and tender, at otiiets harsh and onpleasant, and pigeon is interesting to the ooraparative phya-
is mostly oonflned to t^ males in the breeding Idogist fh>m the fact, above alluded to, th«t
staan; the oolors are nenaUytwiUiant and beau- the psrMt birds nomisb Out young wtUi the
tifoUydivw^ed; their fledi is wh(desome,nu- onrd-like contents of the erop, secreted br
tritimiB, well flavored, Jnic?, and hlgh-ocdored. meoial glands like the milk in mammalia, witn
In the American fimna pigeons take the plaoecf tnis remarkable diflbrenoe, that it is secreted
MTtridgfls and pheasants. The&milymolndea I? both sexes, and even moat abnndantlyby
the nb-famlfiea wlttmUMS or [dgeons proper, the male. It was dlsoovered by Hutter that
trnvains or tree pigeons^ ^MfrAks or ' " ' ' ■ • '- ^^ "
pigeons, did^meui^M or tootb-tuUed p , ,
and iidiiut, of whieh the dodo, alre*^ de- the breedii^ sesstm,
scribed, is the only representative. — ^In the e*- irregular Bhuadnlar iqppearance on the intoto ;
Icmiiius the bill is moderate and ilendM", and the seorebon of these glandnlsa ao<m ooagulalea
*iGnte at the tip ; tiie nostrils a Icmgitodinal into a granulated white onrd, so that the old
fMS or sTonnd the crop, thin and memtwanons in the ordinary
nlled pueona, oondition, becomes thickened and enlar^ in
), a^e*^ de- the breedii^ sesstm, more Tssonlsr, with an
irance on the intoto ;
mdnlsa ao<m ooagulalea
onrd, so ti*** the old
S18 FIOEOK
Joke ftbont "pigeon's miH" is not vtthont and abdom«& ^nrpluh red, with the outer
fbondotion ; & joang pigMin, like a ;ouig ridge of the wiqk and Bome of the greabr
nainms], mil sorelj me if deprived of its par- coverts white. lie wood pigeon (_C. taia*.
' ents in tbe first week of its life. Pigeons do linn.") is of smaller size, and of more limited
not drink in the maimer of ordinary birds, bat distribnlJDn, found prindpaUj in well wooded
hj a lonA contdnnona dranght. wilhont raising districts, migrating to the south in winter ; tt«
the headontU the thirst is sotufied, like cattle, habits resemMe those of the ring pige(»i ; it ia
There are nnmeronsvAtieties or breeds highly about liinohes long, with an alar extent of 26;
prized by the pigeon fonder ; whatever uieir the general color is Unish gnj, with the aides
form, colors, or peonliaritieB, the; have all of the neck golden green, the fore neck and
origmated bom a few occidental varieties of breast pale vinons, and the enter web of the
the common speoieB, isolated and oaretnllj seconduies and some of their coverta with a
bred bj^ man, and not fhim hybrid orosrangs s^t of black, not fornung bars as in the rock
with other spetnee either allied or remote; pigeon. Neither of the kst two apecieB ha*
these varieties, as &r as known, are permanent been domesticated, and neither will breed with
when bred in and in, and, if permitt^ to breed the rock pigw'n, nor with their own species ia
indisoriminatelj with each other, prodnce a captivity. Xhere are several wild n>eeies of
fertile offi^ning. Boch varieties require the eotumba in the United States, as the band-
ntmostoare to keep tbem from degenerating, tailedpigeon((7./aMia(a,&a7),abont 15 inches
end hare bo &r lost th^ natnral iustinctB and in length, found fhim tbe Bocky mountains to
desire fbr liberty that they have become nearly the Pacific, and as &r south as Uexico ; the
dependent on man for their sapport, having in color above is olivaceous ashy, the head and
great measure lost the iacnlty of providii^ for lower parts parplish violet, a white 2ialf coQar
Qiemselvea. Among the numeroos varieties on the back of the neok,-tul with a subtenninsl
of this spedes may be mentioned the fantail, dusky band, ndes of neck with golden reflec-
Jacobine, ponter, tumbler, and carrier pigeon, tiona, and the bill yellow with a Uadtip. Tbe
the last of which has been described nnder that red-billed pigeon (C.,;Ia«*rwtru,'Wagl.),o£the
title. The bnt^ls are so called irom the great lower liio Grande, is 14 inches long and 23 in
nnmI>erof the tail feathers, their erectile power alar extent; the general color is slaty bine, with
and singular trembling motion; they are of the back olive, and the bead and neck idioco-
amall size, awkward fliers, and very apt to be late red ; bill during life pnrple, yellow afto'
overset by the wind ; when pnre the color is death ; no metallic scales on the nedL Tb»
generally white, sometimes with a black bead white-headed pigeon (C. leucec^iiala, Linn.),
and tail. The Jacobine pigeon has a ruff of a little smaller, inhabits the Indian and otbw
raised feathers forming a kind of hood lilie southern Florida keys and the West Indies;
that of a monk; it ia small, but of light and the color ia dark slat j blue, with the top<rflhi
elegant form, with white head, wings, and head white, tbe sides of the neck with gold«9
tail, and reddish brown hood, back, and breaat; green scales, the bill porplish, iris white, and
some highly prized varieties are pure white; legs dork red. — The passenger pigeon (eefapMlM
it is very prolific, a poor flier on account of its migratoriut, Swains.) has been described vaia
hood, and generuly keeps much at home. The that title. In the ^enus eiit7>M^<u« (Selby),
ponter or cropper is so called from its focmty including the frnit pigeons, the bill Las a lam
of infiating toe cesophagns to on extent some- and prominent soil bs^ portion, beneath whidi
tunes equal to tbe size of the body ; this infia- the nostrils are utuated ; the Sd, Bd, and 4th
tion salyects the bird to many inconveniences, quills nearly equal and longest ; tail lengthened
diseases, and &tal accidents, and hence, though and gener^y rounded ; taru very shtwt, snd
of handsome plumage, it is not much esteemed dotbed with down below the knee. There ate
by fanciers ; it is also nnprodnctive ; the pre- about SO species, found in the forests of India,
vailing color is reddish brown. The tumbler Anstralia, and the islands of tbe Indian and
is so called from its singular habit of rolling Pacific oceans ; they live on the branches of
over and over in the air before alighting ; the the highest trees, feeding on fruits and berries ;
Turkish pigeon, of thesame race as the carrier, their colors are^een, yellow, and purple, with
is of large nze, with a bUl tuberculated at the bronzed and metallio reflections. One of the
base, snd the eyes widely surrounded by naked handsomest of this beantiiul groap is the Hat-
red skin. The cnshat or ring pigeon (G.pa- meg pigeon (C. anea, Selby), about 18 inches
lumtui, Lion.) is widely distributed over Europe long, inhabiting India and its archipelago ; the
and K. Asia and Africa, even where the win- general color is a fine pale bluish gray, witb
ter« ore severe ; it is an arboreal species, perch- golden green back, wings, snd tail, and deep
ing, roosting, and nesting upon trees, keeping chestnut nnder tul coverts. Tbe magnifioent
a vigilant watch in the daytime; the eggs are fruit pigeon (C. tnoffnifica, Temm.) ii«a the
S, white, and hatched out in 17 or 20 days ; wing coverts spotted with bright yellow, a
2 broods ore raised in a year. It is a large purplish green tinge on the breast and abdo-
riee, measuring 16 or IT inches in length; men, and the rest of the lower parts rich y^
sides of the neck are glossed with green, low ; in these and the allied species the metaOic
bounded by a patch of white wliich nearly lustre of the plumage changes with every mo^
meets t>eldnd, forming a half collar ; the breast tion, rivalling even the hues of the humming
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
birds. Thex feed on nTrtmega, tigs, and In Ans- neigliboring UAads, is of s general 7«IIowidi
tralia on the top leaves of the oabbase paka ; green color, 'wiUi a mantle of rich brovnlBh
the natmega we Bwalloved whole, the eiter- red, crown greeideh sray, chin and throat fd-
nal envelope or the mace digested, and the low, wings greenish Dhu» edged with jellow,
bard nut voided not onlj tmit^nred bnt tlie tail bluish gr&j with dark central band, the S
better prepared for Kennination in the soil on middle feaUters wholly green ; this uid the al-
wHoh it is dropped; in this war the nntmeg lied species laznriate amid tbe riidi fcJiage of
has been extensively diBseminatea throngh the the banyan and other tropical trees, whose
East Indian islands: it has been fonndby ez- frnita jdeld them a never-fsUing repast; their
periment that an artifldal preparation by steep- colors are so nearly those of the leaves among
ug in a lye of lime, analogous to what it nn- which they dwell, that it is very diffioidt to
der^oes in the intestines of the pigeon, is detect them; their feet resemble those of a
necessary to oanse gemiinatioa in the nutmeg, parrot, and they olimb among the branches
On this food the fleah becomes very fat and very mnoh like this Bcansorial bird. — In the
highly flavored. The donble-orested pigeon eovrina or gronnd pigeons the toes are nanaliy
(^pholaiiaia antantioat, Shaw), a native of long and strong, and adapted for progression
New Holland, has an occipital crest and one on the ground ; the winga generally short and
of loose feathers oooniiyin^ the forehead and romided, and sometimes concave as in the par-
basal half of the hill ; tliewmgs arevery long; tridges, and the l^s are long ; approaching aa
the general color is pearl-gray, the crests red- they do the gallioaoeons birds in these respects,
dish brown, the t^ with a black bar ; it is they differ from them in having, like the other
strictly arboreal, Rregarioas, living in the for- doves, very short osaca ; they ran with great
ests, feeding on the wild figs and the fmit of rapidity, bnt the flight is low and labored ; the
the cabbage palm. The genera Utrtvr and colors are more nniform and less brilliant than
aaa of this Bnb-&nuly will be noticed nnder in the preceding sab-&miliee, thonsh some of
TuvrLB BovK. — In the snb-&mily trtroninte the members are very handsome birds. The
or tree pigeons belong the genera ptihnopvt genns eolwnbirut (Spii) has a short slender bill,
^wains.) and trenm (vieill.) or vinago (Onv.) ; and lengthened roonded tail, and contwns a
b these the bill is short, with the tips of both few pretty little species from the warm parts
mandibles of nearly equal thickness, the tarsi of South America. The genns e«nat(Ia(Bomq).)
very short taxd more or less feathered, and the has longer wings and a shorter tall ; the Bp»-
toes ^vided at the base, with short and curved cies are few, and these small pigeons are ohie^
olaws. In the genns ptiUmepvi or the turte- confined to the West India and 6al^>agoa iaf-
lines the bill is slender, tiie wings moderate, ands, whence tiiey sometimes wander to the
the 3d qniil the longest, and the let with the Florida keys ; they seek th^ food on the
end suddenly narrowed for some ^stance, and gronnd, and when alarmod flyoff with awhist-
the tail moderate and even. These showy ling noise. The Zenuda dove (Z aittabilit,
birds are found in the tropical deep forests of Bonap.) is about 11 Inches long and 18 in alar
India, Australia, and the Paciflo islands ; they extent ; the prevailing color above is reddish
are of solitary habits, feeding on fhiits, espe- olive tinged with gray, with a purplish hue on
dally that of the banyan. The pnrple-crowned the head end nnder parts ; inside of wings and
tnrteUae (P. pTtrpuratuM, Swuns.) is abont ID rides bine ; quills brown, secondaries lipped
incheslonfi.ofaparrot-greenoolorabove, paler with white, and the tail with a anbt«rmmal
on the sides ; forehead and crown pale lilac black bar. The keys skirted with mangroves
bordered with yellow; middle of abdomen nsed to be their ft vorite breeding places, hence
rich orange passing into pnre yellow ; nnder called pigeon or dove keys ; the nest is made
tail coverts orange ; scapnlars purplish bine ; on the ground, and more compact than is usnal
J lulls greenish black margined with yeQow. with pigeons ; the flesh is excellent ; the food
n the blue-capped tnrtemie (P. monaehui, consists of seeds, aromatic leaves, and berries,
Siraios.) the prevuling color is green, with some of which are acrid and poisonous to
theforehead, crown, andabdominal patch bril- man; the cooing is very soft and melancholy.
Gantblne; line over the eyes, the chin, throat, The white-winged dove {melopelia Uueoptera,
and vent bright yellow. In the genus trenm Bonap.) has the orbital region naked ; Uie
the bill is stont, the &d and Sd qnills nearly color is light olive brown above, purplish on
equal and longest, with the Sd notched on the the head md neck, and bluish gray below ; toil
uner web near the middle ; tail ronnded, or broadly tipped with white, and a broad white
lengthened and wedge-shaped ; ^ere are abont patch of the same on the wings ; it is fonnd in
SO species, inhabiting India and its archipelaeo the West Indies, and from the valley of the Bio
and Africa; they are arboreal, wild, living in Grande southward. In tiie genns ehanu^M~
flocks, and feed on ihiits and berries ; the flight lia (Swains.) are indaded other small ground
ts_ rapid and low. These thick-billed pigeons pigeons from South America and Africa, The
vie with the parrots in the diversiflea colors scaly dove (C7. tquamota, Temm; tearfadeUa,
of their plumage, the prevailing hues being Bonap.) is abont 8 inches long; the color ia
.green and jellow, with pnrplish and reddish ashy olive above, and ashy white below tinged
patches. The aromatic vinago (71 aromatiea, with pale violet en the breast, the dark browa
Steph.), of continental India, Java, and the margins of the feathers giving the bird a aoafy
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
UlpeeraMM ; it Lb faimd from tii« tbU^ of the iAbU of gmn, beniea, and insecte ; tlie nwer
lBt> Gianda southward. Tha groood dove ((7. parts are gray, witb A purple tinge on the head
pautrina, Sweine.) ia 6i inches long ; above and neck ; the under parte white, and the t^
grajiBh oUve, the neck tuid occipat tiofed with reddish brown. In the genns *tarnan<u (Ba-
Dlae ; lower parts and udaa light porpliah red, nap.) belongs the bine-headed pigeon (_S. eya-
some of the feathera margined with darker ; tuicepkaia, Bonap.) of the West Indies and the
! Bills brownish orange, and wings marked with souUiem ke;s; above and on the sides the
lack, steel-blae, and violet blotches; female color is olivaceous chocolate, and below red-
vitboct the purplish red ; it is foond along Qie .^sh brown ; chin, throat,, and forehead black ;
8. Atlautio and golf coasts, and ia Lower Oal- crown hine ; it is aboat 10} inches long ; it is
ifomia. In the geana penitera (Swains.) the retired and solitair, and lajs seyersl eggs in b
bill is verj slender, and tite tail moderate and nest on the groima ; the poling are saidto fol-
Tonnded ; there are about SO species found in low the parents as soon as hatched. In tha
the tropical parte of Soath America, the W^ genus gotira (Jlem.) belong the lar^ crowned
Indies, S. Airica, and the Boutii sea i^ands ; pigeons of Hew Guinea and the Indian archi-
their flight resembles that of the partridga peJago; the head is ornamented with a larga
The white-bellied ground dove (P. sTiKnaictnMJ^ compressed crest. The crowned pigeon (Q,
Swuns.) is about IS inches long; the upper coronata, Sleph.) is the largest of the famUj,
plumage is pale umber brown tinged with being 27 or 28 inches long; the hill is 3 inches
green, the lower parts white tinged with tI- long and black ; the crest is comjposed of lone
nous red on the breast ; forehead and throat sVkj barbules plnmed at the end, which, with
hoary white, and udes of neck vinous red with tha head, neek, and lower parte, are gravish
lilao purple and golden green reSeotdons. The blue ; back with the feathers black at the base
Eej West pigeon (P. Martiniea, Temm. ; orto- with tips of rich purplish brown; a central
jMMM, B«on.) is ohen called mountain par- broad white bar across the closed wings. This
tridge in the West Indies; it is abont 10^ bird seems to connect the pigeons with the
indies long ; the upper plnmage is brownish curassowa and guana ; it neete in trees, and
oTUige with a purple or copper? gloss ; reddish lays only two eggs ; it is readily tamed, but,
white below, pasEong into pale wood brown ; like the gaudy Nicobar pigeon, does not prop-
it is found in f lorida and the West Indies. In agate in conunement, and can hardly bear the
Australia belong the genera ocj/phaps (Gonld), chilly temperature of northern climates ; its
with long wings and tail, ana an ocdpital flesh is eicellent for food. This species and
Great; petrophaua (Gonld), in the rocky and the ff.Tifctoria have hybridized at tie London
barren K. W. districts; phapg (Selby), very loolt^al gardens, and have produced a living
handsome bii<da, living like partridges ; gao~ youlg one, having sat upon a single egg for 28
jjAops (Gould), and cAdlrM^iAii^ (Gould), found days. — The sub-family didimeulmm have the
also in the Indian archipelago. These are bifl strong and nearly as long as the head, with
generally showy birds, and have dmilar ter- tbeculmendepresseddose to Ibe forehead, and
restrial habita. In the genus calaruu (Gr&j), then suddenly rising and forming an arch to
the bill is strong and much onrved at the tip, the acute and OTerhanglng tip ; the lower man-
wings long and pointed, and tail moderate and dible is armed with S distinct angular teeth near
even; tarsi very robust; base of upper mandi- the ,truncat«d tip; the wings moderate and
hie covered witii a wattle, and feathers of tbe oont^ve, and the bend armed with a blunt ta-
neok long. These birds inhabit the Indian ar- berde ; the tail short and rounded ; tarsi mod-
ohipelago, rannlug on the ground with great erat« and strong; all the toes long, and with
qukknesa, and perching on the lower branches sharp curved claws ; bare space around eyes
of trees. The Nicobar pigeoa ( 0. JUicohariea, and on each Aia of throat. The only genus is
Gray) is one of the most beantifol of the fam- iiiuneubat (Peale), and the only species D.
ily in its colors, though its heavy body, pen- stngiTottrit (Gould), found in the Samoan ial-
dent tail, and coucave wings show its affinity anda ; it is about the mze of a common pigeon,
with rasoriol birds ; it tsaboutlS inches.long; of a general blackish glossy green color, with
the plumage is ridt metallio green, ohanfpng chestnut back and t^ brownish quills, and
irith the Iwit into golden, ooppery, and pur- orange bill. Its wings indicate a considerate
plidi red ; Uie tul is pure white, and the quills power of flight, and it ia said to pass most
oloddsb blue with greenish reifleotious^ In of its time on trees, feeding on berries and
the genua ttrruUa (^un.) belo^a the camn- fruits ; it also seems adapted for movement on
colatod pigeon of B. Ainca (Y^ canaumlata, the ground, and its bill is suited to dig^ng
Hem.) ; the hill is slender, the wings long, and up bulbous roots or stripping the husks from
the tail short; there is a pendulous w^tle nuts. Theyoregenerally seen In pairs or small
under the throat, and a naked hao^ng band flocks ; the nest is made among rooks, and the
on the sides of the neck ; It comes in tiiese re- yonng are bom naked and helpless ; tiie flesh
spects the nearest to the nailinas, and also, like is excellent ; they are ke[)t as pets by the na-
the preceding genua, lays 6 or 8 eggs instead tJves. This is an interesting bird, as showini;
of the usual 3 of the pigeons, and the yonng a living connection of the pigeons with the ex~
inunediatdy foUow their parents, who keep tinct dodo ; many of its characters also bring it
' fitwi together by a peculiar ciy ; thelbodoon- near gallinaceous birds, eqwcially the curaasows.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PlGiEXyS RJlWK PIKA 831
TWSOS HA.'WK, a Hmall bW of prey of Ignorant of anatomy, to a race vbose _
the &lcoii Bab-fiunQf and geoiiB if/potriorehit have been found in the valley of the
(BoieX which differa from /alec (I^n.) in its sippi. The eocloBores containing these Ixnui
longer and more dwider tarsi, covered in front are made of 6 pieces of rough sandstonv <»
with larg« hexagonal soalea, and very long and limestone, 16 to ^ inohea loog, 18 deep, and
aleodtt to«s. There are more than a dozen 16 widej the bodies are placed with the ahon]-
QMciea Bcattered over the world, of which the dors and head elevated and the knees raised
two mrat coounon European repreaentativea tovr&id the face, in a reclining or sitting poa-
have been described nnder Hobbx and Mer- tare, vrith varions oroamenta and cooking
uz ; they prefer wooded onltivated districts, ntensila ; the total length of the skeletons haa
and oaoBUy follow in the train of the small been bma S to 4^ feet. Aoowding to Dr. S.
migratory birds on which they prey ; the G. Uorton, the separable condition of the cra-
fli^t is rapid and long eostained ; the uest is nial sntores, the ohaiaoters of the chan^ig
nude on trees or among rooks, and the e{^ dentition, and the absence of nnlon of the
■re frtHn. 8 to S. The American pigeon hawk epiphyses of the long bones, show that tbese
{H. ODhmbariut, Gray) b 18 to 14 inches long aappcaed pigmies were only children, from 6
and M in alai extent; the male is smsSler to 10 years ol age, of the Amerioan Indian
than this. The adnlt bird has been described raoe, whose bodies for unknown reasons werft
by Aodabon as the little ooiporal hawk (A baried vnrt from the adulte of their tribe,
lourarito); Us general color is bluish ali^ PIQNXBOL. See Pnntsou).
Bvny feather with a longitudinal blaok line ; FIZA (lagomt/t, Gnv,), a genns of the family
liratiead and throat white; below pale yel- l&ptmda, inolnduig the tailless hares. They
lovish or reddish white, each feather wiUi a have no visible tail, the esrs are ^ort and
Icomtadinal line of brovrnish blaek ; the tibia rounded, the hind legs short, and the molara
are light fermginoQs, with blaok lines ; qnills |ij ; the skull is very flat, dilated behind, the
black, vrith ashy white tips: tail light bluish mterorbital space contracted, the supraorbital
iih, Upped with white, with a wide subter- processes absent, the orbits directed npward,
Bunal black bond and several narrower bands and the malar bones exl«ndlng backward near-
of ths aame ; cere and legs yellow, and bill ly to the opening of the ear chamber ; there ia
binigfa ; the younger birds are dusky or blaok- one principal opening in the nasal process of
Ux brown above, and the taii. haa 4 to 6 white the superior roaiiUary bone ; the ^gomaUo
baoda ; the variationa in plumage, according arch is remarkably short ; the ooronoid prooeaa
to ace and locality, are considerable. It is of the lower ^aw a mere tnberole, and the men-
Stand over all temperate ]!Torth America, Cen- tat foramen situated near the middle of the ra-
tial, and tbft IT. of South America ; it breeds mus ; the principal upper inciaora have a deep
in tbs north. It b the boldest of any hawk vertical groove on the outer side, and terminata
of its axe, pouncing on thraahea, wild pigeons^ in 2 points with a notch at the end; the lower
voodpeokera, snipe, and even teals, but prey- incisors aim^le; the npper molars aaia the faarei^
mg chiefly on birds of the nze of the red- thslowerwitbadeeperontergroove; therears
wmged blackbird and sora rail; it has been generallysmallDakedpadsattbeendofthetoes,
known to attack cage birds in the porobes of Qie rest of the feet densely clothed with for.
hoDses in crowded cities. Acoordmg to Dr. The pikas are of small size, the largest not sx-
Brewar, tlie eggs measure about !{ bv 1} oeeding a Guinea pig; they are found onlv in
indiea, and are nearly apherical ; the color b alpine or aobalpine ^tricta, where they liva
Bot a very clear white, and there are a few in burrows or amon^ loose atones, remaning
b6ld irregular dashes of light yellowish brown, quiet by day and feeding at night ; the food
Aie&f aboQt the smaller end; the neat is coneiste of herbage of different kinds, which
ooaisely constructed of aticka and moaaea, re- they store up in little piles in antmnn for win-
■aroblJM that of a crow. ter consumption ; when feeding they often ut-
PIQMT, or PyoKY (Gr, nvyitauK, from trvy ter a ohirpmg or whistling noiae. The alpine
loh the fist, or a measure extending from the pika (L. alpinvi, Ouv.) is about 9^ inches long,
dhow to the Sst, e^ual to 18^ Uches), the with long and soft for, grajiah next the akin ;
name of a fabled nation of dwufs said to be general color above grsTish brown, yellowish
only 3 epans high, and believed in by the gray below; feet pale, with a yellowish tinge;
andenla from an early date as inhabiting the the oars margined with white ; it inhabita S^
interitw of Africa, where they were anppoeod, beria from the river Irtish to Eamtohatka.
aeeording to Juvenal, to wage continual war The pigmy pika (£. jmtiUnt, Deem.), from
with Oie cranes. Herodotus (ii. BSj speaks southern Siberia and the TJral monntoina, is S{
of tbrai, and, like all who have copied him. Inches long, of a general brownish tint pencil-
probably confonnded in his acopunt men and lad with black and brownish yellow ; feet and
tlie ^noeephaloua sfiea of Africa. Dr. Erapf; nnder parts yellowish white. Other species
ft nummary, has recently revived these stones are found in the monntainous districts of ffln-
wHlt rsference to the Dokas,atribe of K Af- dostan, some of them 6,000or 8,000 feetabove
rican Heroes to ^e sonth of Shoa and Kaffa. the sea. The Bocky mountain pika (L. pria-
^ee Docoa.) — The term pigmy has in the c«pf Rich.), or little chief bare, b about 7 inches
United States been applied by some vrriters, long ; the general color b grayish above, pea-
TOL, xm. — ^21
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
dll«d -with black and vdlowiah vhite ; jeHow- Ibe inhkUtmU of lake «aA rirar. Wonderfiil
iah brown on the aides, and dirty ;«UoviBh Eitorios hare bMn tidd regarding the gigaatto
white below. It is found along the Bodkf lize and «ztraiw longeTitv of the pike, and we
monntaim from lot, 42° to 60° N. ; it freqnenta can readilf oonoeiTe that it may attain a weight
hews of loose stones, oomiug ont after sonset. of 40 or 00 Iba. and an age of 100 j'eara, where
Pal^ describes ^e polar pika (L. hj/pvrborevt, food is abnndant and angers absent. Ita fleah
Wagn.), the smalleEt known species ; it is onl^ is well flarorod and eeey of digeatdon. OnTier,
6i inches long, ara;ish brown above, tingei. BiohardBon, and others have asserted that thia
withmfonson the head and sides; itiafrom speoieeoeonrealsointheKreatAmericanlakea;
N. £. Siberia. There are 8 or 4 foedl spedes bnt on the general prindi^ that the animnla
described from the osseons breoda and the of America and Enrope, with the exception of
pliocene of Enrope. the arolio Anna, thoi^^ neaH; allied, nav^not
PIKE («o^ I^m.), the oommon name of the been fomid to be identioal spedes, this mar be
soft-rayed abdominal fishes, whose single genas reasonably donbted ; the nsh described from
nowconstitnteathebmilyawcMia. Their head- America as J?. Aunfu ia probablj the firtt of the
qnartars are in North America, only one species species noticed below, or else one of the many
being fonnd in Enrope and temperate Asia ; as yet nndesoribed. — The common lake pike of
they are confined to fresh water and to the Amcrioa (,E. eator, Lesneor) attains a length of
northern hemisphere. The body is elongated 8 fbet; the back is deep greenish brown, the
and scaly ; there is a single dorsal, generally sides with nnmerons rotmded and oblong pale
opposite the anal ; there is no adlpiwe fin ; the yellowish spots, and the abdomen white ; the
upper jaw is formed principally by Uke inter- fins are reddish yellow, marbled with biackiah
ma:dllariea ; the month is large and well far- and deep green, the caadal large and lunated ;
nisbed with teeth ; there are several covered it is fonnd in the great northern lakes. The
^andnlar accessory branchife, the number of mnscalonge or mashinonge {E. nebUior, Thomp-
oranohicetegal rays varying from 8 to 16 ; son) of Lake Ohamplain is a larger and rarer
swimming bladder simple; stomach dphonal, fish, and mnch better for the table, always com-
intestine short and without cteca ; under the Tnanding a higher price than the lake pickerel,
skin are Tasenlar tamlfioatlons, pecoliar to the though the latter is often erroneously called
family. According to Agasdz, the cyUndrioal muscalonge ; the lower half of the cheek is
elon^ted form in£cates a low pofdtion among without Bcales, which is not the case in E,
the abdominal fishes, as also Aaes the month, mtor. Mr. Thompeon Oa his appendix to the
the msidllaries bdug widiout teeth while the " History of Vermont," 18GS) spells the name
palate bones are powerfully armed; the inter- ma»quaU(mge, deriving it from ma»git» (face)
maziUaries and themaxillariesare inonearoh, and aUongi (elongated), an epithet given to
as in the salmon family; the skeleton, and es- it and other pikes by the French CanadiaDB.
pecially the skull, is remarkably soft. The This may be distinguished from the lake nick-
common p^e of Enrope {E. Vuoiv*, I.inn.) erel by the nearly black color of the back,
rarely exceeds 8 feet in length or a weight of the bluish gray ddes with dark brown rounded
12 or 20 lbs. ; some have bem described con- markings, its grayiah nhito abdomen tinged
riderably beyond these, bnt moat are below with ruddy, its more robust propordons, ahort-
them ; Uie head is elongated and fattened, the er head, flatter face, and wider jaws ; it attains
lower jaw considerably the longer; the gape a length of more than 4 feet and a weight
very large ; the head and upper back dudn- of 40 lbs. Af assiz descrities a pike of large
brown, becoming lighter ana mottled with size from l4tke Superior, in his narrative,
green and yellow on the sides, passing into ml- under the name of E. horaa. The common
very white below ; pectorals and ventrala T«le pike of the northern states, the long or shovel-
brown, other fine darker, mottled with white, nosed pickerel (£ retieulatut, Lesuenr), attains
yellow, and green ; iris yellow. Young pikee, a length of 1 to 2 feet ; the colors vary in dif-
cr pickerels, ore of a greenish hue, and ue col- ferent localities, but in moat die body is green
oravarymnchatallages. The pike inhabits moat above and golden yellow on the sides, with ir-
of the rivers and lakes of Europe, and was long regular dark longitudinal lines united into im-
ago introduced into Great Britain, where it is perfect reticulations ; lower parts white, fiesh-
now exceedingly common; from the 18th to colored on the throat; a black vertical band
the 15th centmy it was so rare in England beneath the eye ; dorsal and caudal fins green-
that the price was fixed by law, and generally iah black, the others fieah-colored. This is
a much higher <me tlian for salmon or tnrbot. everywhere valued for the table, and is caught
The pike is a very strongs active, and fierce fliih; at all seasons of theyear, even through the ice;
it darts from its reedy cover with extreme velo- it is taken generally with a hook, buted witb
dty, swallowing other fish, water rata, and even afrog's leg, small fish, or any white anbatanca
smiul aquatic b&di ; Lao6pide calls it the shark mov^ rapidly over the anr&ce of the water ;
of the fresh waters, sparing not its own ipedea it is also epeared through holes in the ice, or
and devouring its own young, and tearing in from boats to which it is attracted by bright
its gliittonone ftiry evsn the rem^s of decom- lights. It is a very rapid swimmer, voracionn,
pomng carcasses. Its size, strenfftb, swiftness, and strong ; like other species it remains ap-
and oaring render it a tyrant dreaded by all parently motionless !n the water iratching an
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
opportm^ to dart spon tta prej-, Tuch taor FIKB, the name ot wmiiee in 10 of the
BUtMottiDj Mx whioh it can pofldbly awallow, TInit«d Btatee. I. AK.E. co.of Feim.,separated
tJie Bpmr peroh in vcMt eaaas excepted ; while ftom S. T. and N. J., vhioh there fonn an
the bodyremuDB Biupended, thwe is an inoai^ angle, b; the Delairare river, and drained b^
eaot motiea ot the fev laat n^ of the dorsal Laokawazen and Shohoia creeks ; area, abont
and anal fins, «apeoia% the fi^ner, with aro- 900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 7,SM. Ithasarongb,
UiT movement of the pectoraU, and oooaaion' liillf sarfaoe, and indifferent eoil, with forests
all; of thevenbvlB and oandal; theee forcea tiiatTield large qnantities of timber. The pro-
maintaitt aaoh an exact eqnilibriom tliat the doctiona ia 18S0 were 88,608 boahele of Indian
fish doea not more In tite water. The tront oom, 16,874 of oafe, 62,0S9 of potatoes, 8,540
pickerel, or ahort-noaed piokerel (S.fa»eiatv*, of wheat, 8,619 Iba. of wool, and 99,617 of bot-
D^Maj), ia oommonly somewhat smaller; the tor. There were 4 grist nulls, 38 saw mills,
gaaml color is dark greenish, with abont 30 6 tanneries, 6 chnrches, and 95S pnpile attend-
naiTow blaokisli brown bands, not forming a ing pnbllo sohoola. The N. part is traversed
network; the throat stained with fiili^ons; bTthe Delaware and Hndscm canal, and the
the bod; is proportionatel j etoater and the Kew York and Erie railroad passes along the
BDont shorter than in the preoeding nieciea. IT. E. Iwrder. Oapital, Uilford. TL A. W. oo.
Thb speoM is fonnd generally in the [uakerel <rf Qa., bordered W. hj Flint river and drtunect
weed or m water bnshee (etphakm&im oceiden- hj Eig Potato, ti^Uri"', and other creeks ; area,
toltt) ; it is tsken at all seasons of the jear, abont 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1B60, 10,066, of whom
bnt rarely in the deep water channel like the 4,733 were slaves. It has an nneven snrfltoe
long-nosed species ; it takes the bait eagerly, and moderately fertile soil. The prodactiona
sad makes back into the shallow coverts in 1860 were 418,990 bushels of Indian corn.
wbenoe it darted ; it bites at any thne of day, 46,443 of oats, 86,566 of sweet potatoes, and
sad wbedier the but be at or beneath the 6,002 bales of cotton. There were 8 grist
inr&oe, moving alow or fitst ; it is more T(n«- mills, 6 saw miUs, 4 t«nneries, 2 newspaper
eiooi, if poarible, than the B. retioulatw, an offices, 96 chnrches, and 864 pnpils ettendlng
individoaf bring traqnently landed after havmg public schools. It is intenwctod by the Mar
been several times ^awn partly ont of water ; con and western railroad. OapHal, Zebalon.
it has been known to take the hook with the HI. A B. £. oo. of Ala., bordered E. by Pea
tail of a half digested fish visible in ita month, river, and dridned by the Ooneonh river and
Any one who baa seen pickerel dart opon fish ita branches; area, abont 1,300 sq. m.; pop. in
in an aqaarinin, and witneeeed ttie force with 1860, 34,486, of whom 8,786 were slaves. Its
which tMystrikethe bottom, will peroeivewhat anrfsoe is ondalating, much of it oovored with
an admin^le fender the prominent lower jaw pine; the soil is not very fertile. The prodao'
nukes; itisfreqnentlymnchlaceratodbyviolent tioua in 1860 w^^ 631,193 boshels of Indian
contact with the bottom, without the upper jaw com, 151,657 of sweet potatoes, and 8,679 bales
sn£fering at aU. — The name of pike is some- ofootton. liere were 3 grist mills, 3 saw mills,
times given to the long-jawed marine fish of 8 tanneries, 18 chnrches, and 498 pnpils at-
thes]liedgenns$«fo]i«(OaT.); in this the head tending pnblio schools. Capital, Iroj. IV.
aod body are very mnoh elongated, the latter A 8. co. of Ifiss., bordering on La., and drained
covered with very minnte scales ; the long by Bogne Ohitto river and its branches ; area,
jaws sre straight, narrow, pointed, and armed abont 860 sq. m, ■ pop. in 1860, 11,186, of whom
with noaeroas small teeth. The A truruata 4,986 were slaves. The prodnctioDS tn 18G0
(Lesaenr), called the long-Jawed or gar pike, la were 346,761 bnahelsof Indian com, 37,866 of
from 1 to 3 feet long, of a light greeni^ color oata, 61,040 of sweet potatoes, 390,660 lbs. of
above and silvery beneath, with a dark band rice, and 4,138 bales of cotton. There were 6
extending from above the pectorals to the grist mills, 7 saw mills, S tanneries, 16 church-
origin of the dorsal ; the body is slender, and es, and 468 pnpils attending public schools,
the hasd flattened ; the dorsal is aitnated on Oapital, Holmesville. V. A B. W. oo. of Ark.,
the posterior fonrth of the body, highest in drained by the Little Missonri river and ita
front and rapidlj decreasing toward the candal; branches; area, abont 600 sq. m. ; pop. in
the anal shaped like the dorsal, and opposite 1860, 4,030, of whom 337 were slaves. It has
to it. It is fonnd in the sonthem New Eng- a hilly surface and fertUe soil The produo-
land and the middle states. The European sea tions in 1864 were 98,916 bushels of Indian
pike (£ milffarit, Onv.), or mackerel guide, so com, 8,76Q of wheat, 6,760 of oata, and 429
eaLed from its preceding the latter to shallow bates of cotton. Oapital, Uuritoesborongh.
water to spawn, is about 3 feet long; itisabnn- VL A co, ofKy., in the extreme E. corner of
dsiit on the ooaate of northern Europe, and Is the state, bordering on Vs., druned by the
eaten in the spring ; it is also used as but; the West fork of Big Sandy river; area,400sq. m. ;
fleahresemblesthatof themackerel,batisdrier, pop. in 1860, 7,884, of whom 97 were slaves.
and the bones are greenish. It is an active fish, It nas a hilly snrface, the Onmberland moun-
svimmingnearthesnrfaoe, and often springs ont tains exten^ng along the S. £. border and a
ofwster. The oolor above is dark greenish blue, epnr partly along the B. W. There are eiten-
lighter on the udea, and silvery below ; dorsal sive beds of bituminous ooaL The prodnctions
BDdcaiidalgreeniehbrown,andotberfin8white. in 1860 were 198,764 bnshels of Indian cont,
jy Google
wool, and 4,401 of toboooo. There irera 10 in NevbiUTporf. In the spring of ISSl he
chnrchee, and 180 pupils attending miblic Etarted for the West and South. Airiring at
Bchools. C^^tal, Fikevllle. Vii. A a. co. St. Lonis, afl«r haTing gone mnch of the wajr
of Ohio, intersected bj the Scioto river and on foot, be set oat wiu a company of 40 on
drained hj several branches; area, abont 426 an expedition to Uexico, and res«hed Santa F£
eq. m. ; pt^- in 1860, 1S,04S. It has a diTersi- on Jiov. 28, where he remained a year, engaged
fied mr&ce and fertile soiL The productions part of the time aa a merchant's dei^ and part
in 1860 were 797,660 bushels of Indian com, of the time in peddling. In 8epL 18S3, he left
16,?8B of wheat, 67,788 of oate, 88,476 lbs. of Taos with a company of trsppen, and, after &
wool, and 121,667 of bntter. There were 4 viwt to the bead waters of the Bed and Brazos
grist mills, 13 saw ttijIIh, 8 tanneries, 47 rirers, separated with 4 others from tbe p||tj,
cborches, and 1,478 pnpils ^tending public travelled 600 miJes on foot, and reached Tort
schools. It is intersected by the Ohio canal. Eknith in Attanaaa, " witboat a rag of clothing,
C^tal, nketon. YIU. A B. W. co. of Ind., a dollar in nioney, or knowing a person in
bordered K. bv 'White river and dnuned by Uie territory." Tne following winter he spent
Patoka and S.Pat«ka creeks; area, 887 sq.m.; in teaching, and in Jnly, 1888, he b^^ s
pop. in 1660, 10,188. It has a gent^ imanlat- school, which he was soon fbrced to give np
ing surface and a generally fertile soil. The on account of sickness. In the mean time be
prodQctJona in 1860 were 407,281 bushels of bad written several poems for the " Arkanfss
Indian com, 16,126 of whest, 37,894 of oats, Advocate," a newspaper published at Little
16,9Bllb8,of wool, and 788 tonaofhay. There Eocb, which so pleased the editor that be gave
were 10 grist mills, 4 saw mills, 2 tanneries, Pike an invitation to become his partner. The
14 chnrchee, and S7S pnpila attending peblic offer was gladly accepted, and in tins poaitioQ
sohoots. It is intersected by the Wabash and be remained nntil ]8S4when he bought the
Eri« caoaL Cental, Petersburg. IX. AW. whole. establishment Ue continned to edit
CO. of m., separated tttaa Uo. on the S. W. by the pqmr until 163S, but meanwhile studied
the lOaeiasippi river, bounded £.bv the nUnois^ law and was admitted to the bar, alter which
anddrainedbyMcEee'sjBay, andUttleMnddy he devoted himself entirely te that profession,
creeks; area, about 760 sq.m.; pop. in 18<0, A little before this he bad published in Boston
97,249. A lateral channel of the Htsrisappi, a volnme of " Prose Sketches and Poems," in
called Sufcartee dough, traverses the county, which he gave an account of some of bis Jour-
It has a roUing surface, about equally divided neys. The "Hymns to the Gods," pnbhshed
between forest and prurie, and the soil is very subsequently, were composed at an earlier pe-
fertile. It contains large qnontities of coaL nod, while he was teaching school at Fair-
The productions in 1860 were 1,876,04S bush- haven. Several fbgitive poems of hb have also
els of Indian com, 194,061 of wheat, 180,267 appeared in perio^cals, and in 1864 a collec-
of oats, 88,460 lbs. of wool, and 119,741 of tion of his poetry, indading the "H^mns to
butter. There were 12 grist mHIe, 8 saw mills, the Oods," was printed at Fbiladelpbia imder
3 weekly newspapers, 10 churches, end 8,241 the title of " Nugte," bat was never published,
pupils attendingpoblio schools. Capital, I^tts- Ifr. Pike bos been a prominent man in the
field. X. An K oo. of Uo., separated from political movements of the South- West, acting
HL bj the Uissisaippi river, intersected by Salt there with the state rights paitt'. During the
rivw, and diMned by several creeks ; areiL Mexican war he serv^ with distinction as a
about 700 sq. m-.\ pop. in 1660, 18,420, of volnnteer.
whom 4,066 were slaves. The prodnctions in PIKE, Zxsinxnr Houtookebt, an American
18S0 were 748,640 bushels of Indian com, general, bom in LambertoD,N. J., Jan. 6, 1779
106,341 1^ wheat, 86,060 of oata^,406 lbs. of killed in the attack npon York (now Toronto),
wool, and 848,630 of tobocoo. There were 17 Canada, April 27, 161S. His fatber was an offi-
grist mlUa, 8 saw ndlls, 8 tanneries, 3 weekly cer in the IT. S. army, and the son, early em-
sew^pers, 81 chnrohes, and 3,780 popQa in bracing the same profession, entered his father's
pnb^ aebools. Oapltst, Bowling Green. company, then serving on the western frontier,
PIKE, Albikf, an American poet, bom in and rose to the rank of lieutenant. He was at
Boston, bee. 29, 1809. Aooording to his own the same time a diligent student and acquired
account, bis father wss "a Journeyman shoe- a knowledge of the Latin, French, and Spanish
maker, who worked bard, pud his taxes, and langnagee. After the United States purchased
gave all bis obildren the benefit of an ednca- Louisiana, Pike was sent on an expedition to
tion." When he was 4 years old the family explore tbe sources of the HiBdsnm)i and tho
removed to Sewburypott, and in the district surrounding territory. He left St. Lonis Ang.
ediools of that town and in an academy at S, 1B06, at the head of 30 men, provisioned for
Pramingham he rec^ved his eariy education. 4 months ; but his journey lasted nearly 9
At the age of 16 he entered Harvard college ; months, during which he soSfeaed greatly trcaa
but bwng unable to sopport himself in Cam- inclement weather and scon^^ of food. Two
bridge, he became aasiBtant teacher and subse- months bad not paamd by after his return
quenflypreceptorof a grammar school in New- when he was sent by Gen. Wilkinson on a
bntyport Afterward ba taught suooeauvely rimilar expedition to the Interior of Louinana.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
TJKBfBTEAX. 8»
Hera winter ov«rtook tlie partr, sai fye veeks seotiCH] of nnootb, treel«8B pndrie, 40 mifea bj
they enfiered from cold and hnnger. At last, 15 in extent, and other flelda of rich flora]
after 3 in<H)tha' march, tbe^ made their way to beantj, enclosed b<r rugged mounts walls,
what tbey supposed was the Red river, bnt In the^i|^ near the mimmit snow is perpet-
were taken prisonera b; a bodj of Bpanisb oav- naL — The monntain has fnmiahed the pc^nlar
olrj, who informed them that the^ were in name for the Roc^ mounts ^Id region, not
Spanish territory and on the baohe of the Rio yet follj ezi^ored, but Mnbraoing portions of
Grande. After on examination before the eom- the original territoriee of Kuuaa, Nebraal:a,
mandant^eneral of the proTince of Biao^, Fika New Uezioo, Utah, and Oreeoo. For many
was rele^ed and sent home, arriving at Natoh- jeirs vague reports and traditions of gold in
itoches Jnlj 1, IB07. He reodved the thanks this regioa had been cnrrent among trappers
of government, and was made saoceasivdj ow- and Indians. In 1BG7 a party of oiviliEed Ober-
taki, niq]or, and in 1810 oolonel of infantry. In okees made the firat organized attempt to ex-
tbat Tear he published an aecoont of bis two plore it bnt were driven, back b; boatdle sav-
eipeaitions, illnstrated by several original mapa agea. In 1858 a oompany from Georgia, and
and charts. At the beginning of the war of anoUier from Lawrence, Kansas, reported that
1B13 be was stationed on the northern frontier, they had dieoovered gold in pojing qnantilles in
was appointed in 1818 brigedier-seneral, and tbe valleys near the base of Fike'spesk, though
was sdeeted to command the land forces in the subsequent investigotiona have not developed'
expeditim against York, the capital of Upper any remunerative diiu^nKs within many miles
Gaiiada. He suled from Ssekett's Harbor April of that mountsn. On May 6, 1869, rich de-
25, arrived at York April 27 at the head of posits of gold were found in tJie monataina oo
1,700 men, and commenced the landing under the head waters of Olear creefc, 60 m. N. of
a heavy fire. After carrying one baHcry he Pike's peak ; and from that day the coontry
was about to assault the main works, when the has been settled with great rapidity. In Aug.
British magazine exploded, and Pike was mor- 1860, its population was 60,000, and two
ttllv wooooed by a neavy stone. He was cai^ mmtha later there were 176 quartz mills in
ried to the commodore'a ship. In his last mo- the monntuna, about one half of them in (fer-
ments the Brttiah flw was shown him ; makiiig ation, at an outlay of 11,600,000. The gold
a sign to plaea it under hia head, he expired. yield of 18S0 was estimated at (4, 000, 000. In
PIKE'S PEAK, a peak of the Roekj moan- the vicinity of Clear creek, near the ori^nal
tains, in the territory of Ocdorado, lat 89° N., discoveries, quartz mining is the leading occu-
long. 105* W., named in honor of Qen. Z. U. pation, and tne gold-beanng quartz is found in
tike, who discovered it in 1806. Its height is great abondsnoe, while 100 m. fiirther S. gulch
variously given at from 12,000 to 14,G0O feet mining is lai]gely carried on. The gold is found
above tea level. The ascent, which is mode exoloaively in the mountains. Its northern
from Colorado City, is eitremeiy difSoolt, pass- limit, as far as yet discovered, is in the Wind
ing over n^ged hills, and eloag the preoipitons Itiver monntidnB, and its soutbem in the Ban
walls of narrow eanimt, which abound in cas- Juan mount^s of Kew Mexico, more than
csdes and picturesque views. No rente baa 600 m. apart ; but a great portion of the inter-
yet (ISfll) been found by which horses or vening country has not yet been examined,
moles cut approach from the E. «ithln 8 miles Silver ore is found in large quantities W. of the
of the base. In ascending, the transition is ex- South park, on both sides of the dividing ridge;
tremely abrupt from a dense pine forest to the but its quality has not been sofScientlv te^sd
bare, open monntain side, with no vegetatnon to demonstrate the practicability of mining it.
eicept beds of grass among the rocks. Near Iron, load, coal, and other minerals have also
the BOmmlt, bloisoms of funt yellow mingled been foand. The auriferous quartz exists in
with purple flpring from the ground in great lodes, running N. E. and 8. W. ; and the geolo-
profasion, so near banks of mow that one may gy of the region differs radically from that of
pluck Sowera with one hani and gatbei'snow California and Australia. — The climate is healthy
in the oAer. Two enormous gorges extend and agrecabla, and the winters are mild, though
from the top almost to the base, one of them vrith occauonal periods of 2 or 8 days in which
visible to the naked eye at the distance of 80 the cold is intense, and the mercury sometimes
nulcs. The summit is nearly level, embracing descends to 80° below zero. Ohanges of tem-
aboat 00 acres, and composed of angular slabs perature are much more sadden and severe than
and lilocks of coarse, disintegrating granite. It on the Atlantio coast, but lung diseases are al-
affordi one of the grandest views on the North most entirely unknown. The elevation of the
American continent, extending nearly 100 miles iralley r^ons is about 6,000 feet above the
in all direction^ embracing the great plains on sea ; the atmosphere is peculiarly dear and la-
the E., and on the N., 8., and w. a vast ex- vifforating, and so dry that fresh meat cut in
psMe of mountains, of diverse forms and vary- stripe and exposed to it will cure sufficiently,
ing colors, inoinding several transparent, spark- witoout salting or smpkiog, to be carried to
Kog intea, and the sources of 4 great rivers, the any part of the world. No rain falla, except
Platle, Arkansas, Bio Grande, and Oolorado of daring about 7 weeks of tlie late summer and
OalifoTuiiL Directly W., and thousands of feet early antumn. The mountains are densely
bdow, are the South park, a oresoent-shaped wooded with pine, spruce, fir, cedar, and aspen.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
816 PfglPH PBAir FILOHABD
Tie Moent of the dividiag Tidgft b In Dusy foasUuTitbaweaDdnTenDocsutliailMb
jSaoeo Twj gentle ; and near Breckinridge wa- of a deit^ -who " tTonUea tlie waUn." Ths
ten «hioli ran to the Atlactie gnab from Uie Ai^iahoea formerly strewed the gronid liil
gronnd within fiOO jrarda of ■[vijigB wUoh feed tomahawks and tauTee, and hag the trm
a tribntaiT of the Pacific. Beveral paaaee with qairera and moooasoiu, m propitiiUiy
tJuoD^ tlie moantainehave been fotmd, which ofi'eringe to the spirit of the puoa.— DeuTu >
ofibr no Migineering obetadaa to theocnutmo- the metropoUsofthe Pike's peak re^udi
tion of a r^lroftd ao eerions >■ those which a well bnilt tows of 6,000 inbabitmts. A ti
hare been already orerocmie in the Alleahanies. was paseed by ooagress in Feb. 18S1, to wpb
Hm great Amerioan desert sztenda to uie base ize the regioii into atenitoirtmdertluiiiiH
of the moontains, wUcb rise abfnptly like a of Oobndo^botmded IT. b; laL 40°?^! t;
wan on its weetAn border. With the azc- '
tion of the narrow TaUeya ot the etreanu,.. ^ .^
oanrista of vast wastes of aand,deititDle of tree PILATE, FoBTnM,tJieBonianoffl«ri»nib
or slirab, and oharaeteriied by mnnerons va- of Judaa nnder whom Obrist Buffered, lb
ke a of Colorado, bounded IT. by laL 40° n.,£tT
tow- lOTg.lOa° Tfr.,S.bylat.8rH,ind¥.ljlli
3a,it Green and Colorado rivou
rleties of the oaotaa, amen, withered grass, nature of bis ofSoe is not well nndeislood. In
ihmbs, and alkalme vatm, often poi- tJlie Qreek Testamontheisulled^^.fliB
a both cattle uid men. The streams King James's and the B'
■tnnted shmbs, a
B sink f^nruptlf from view, learing a late "governor;" Philo JndnDBUid^eGtttt
dr^ bed of sand abOTS, and ran nndergromid fathers style him atirpomt; Jceepbng bcnli
f<v many milaa, when they again gneh np aa mrpoirar and iwutv, and Tatutoa fmmln.
ioddody as tliey disappeared. Antelopes, He was the 6th Soman indunbent of (bt of-
wolves, pndrie dogs, and rattlemakea abomid fice, anooeeding ValeriuB Gratni, A D. !5 (t
in the desert, and elk and grisly and eeTeral S6, nnder the reiga of Tiberias, asd nrnot
other qtedes ot bears in the monntains. The the poet 10 years, JosMtbtia relila tt"^
soil of the TaUeys i^peara to oouaist ot pore acts of i^Jostioe which he conumttod dnmi
aand ; but with ample irri^ttion it prodnoas his goTemineiit, and be was fioall] %><«
wbea^ bariey, and root oriw* in great abmi- in conaeqnenoeof Ms craeltytatlieBiiian^
danoe. Soma floor is bnnght from New ](ez- a nomber of whom he oansed to be miaKW
leo and Salt Lake, and other aopplies from the for a stieht distorbance e luted by lii> (ff^
UaKHiri river. The transportation of all the dons. The SamaritanacomplunedtoBiilne,
in^rata from 800 to YOO mUea, in wagons the proconsnl of Syria, who ordered » W
drswn 1^ oxen kdA mtdM, renders the expenses repair to Rome to answer the accMitiixLn-
of linng more than lOOpor oent. higher than berias was dead before hia arrival, but KKn-
on the ifiieoari river. The prindpal tribes of ing to Easebina the disgraced invatke »
Indiana are the Arapahoes and Utea. The lat- banished to Yienne in Osul, wberehe coii»
ter are sometimes hostile, bnt easily held in ted aaioide about A. B. 86.— It cu ^ »
eheok by the whites.— The region abounds in doubted, alter the testimony of Hvenl loaeU
natoral featorea of peculiar mterest, which, writers, that Pilate transmitted to tkemp'i^
whenever a railway oonoeotion is obtained, Tiberina a memorial of Ohrist'a koov ul
most render it a popular summer reaorL death; but the "A<rts" and "I/tter"irt>w
Among theee are Pike's and Long's peaks, the now exist nnder his name are umvoallr ^
North, Middle, and Booth parks, tbe Honoment garded as sAirious. ,
regkm, and nmaerons hot and cold mineral PtLOHABD.aflsh of theherrinitol!,*"
springa. The Ucoument region oompriEea a genus alo*a (Ouv.), It is aboat u '''f ^F
large section altoigUanament creek, abounding herring, but rounder and thicket, u^nt
in natural stone monuments, standing upright lai^r scales ; it differs principal^; d«d ^
in pifltoresque and ftntaatio forma. The pr»- herring (pltipea) in having a deep oola ^^
dominant shape is that of graveetonea, which, centre of the upper jaw. It is thai. f^!'?
iotei^WTsed with numerous pine groves, give dut (VaL), from 9 to 11 inches loift,^™
lotei^WTsed with numerous pme grovea, give dut (VaL), from 9 to 11 mches loi* "■--;■
it the appearance of a great cemetery. Two green above, on tbe sides and bdof ^"^
miles him Colorado CSty they culminate in the dorsal £n and tail dusky, the obKU ua
the " Garden of the Goda," or « Bed Eotis," gill covers tinged with golden jeUo'""!, "3
which riae perpendicularly SCO fbet, fbrmiDg a varioosly radiaJJng strin ; the moalh ^ ^
most impressive spectacle. At one point they without teeth, ft feeds on sbHiDia, m-^
have been reft asunder to the base, leaving a oniBtaoeans, and the roe of fish. It ^If^^
natural «m or carriage way. Near than are inuneose numbers on the coasts of C(ai*
the &m«d txnling fonntalna ^ontaineqni Bonil- and Devonshire, front July until QiriEtiiuS'
le), whieh gnsh np witli great feme, and are b caught, prinoiiwlly at nigbt, in ^If^]
io stron^y impregnated with soda that they dionhir nets, one end of wtdch ia «"^"j^
have inoruated the adjacent rocks with deposits bottom by veicbta and the other u^ *^
of it to the thicknese of several inches, flour by corks; as many as 1,200 boodmittD^
mixed with their watsn, withoat the addition been taken in a nn^e fishing, and the f"^
of any other snbstance, fwms peonliarly Ught annnal product in OomwaJl i» "^ -,jl
bread ; and thc^ are aneged to possess rare hoosheads, containing about 6O,w0,0W ii^
medioinBl qaaliuea. The ladlaas r^aid these viduals ; the fish are removed by sniUei k
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
in ndi fflunttdeB as fhe enran d«rir& and am mn among the pkoM ttras dlatingntahed, saA
preswrea in tlie same way as herring, $tt» tooa became flie reaorts of gnat namb«n of
which thej are Muuidared Oia next beat fbod. wordklppen. Ndtiier the hoatilitr of the pa-
Thig fidimr emplojs about 8,000 perwMU, and ganaintbe reign ^ the emperor JoUan, the rav-
s c^iital of more than tl,000,000 ; thefiiher- ageaof the Ootha-Hmu, and Vandals, nw the
man are in the habit of ea^ng, and with troth, ecaqneatof JenualembTthe Arabs had ai^ pw-
thBtthepildu>dla"tlielea>tfiahlnrize,moit oepbble efibot in eheakmg theae perilona Jonr-
in Dumber, and greatest for gain, taken trvm. neju The most ilhuMooa persona Ihoiuht it
the wa." A &rorUe intj- of eating them is in no ehame to take vip the acrip and rtaff and
1 pie, with the heads M tlie flah piotniding Jonm^ on foot from the moat distant ooon*
throi^cb the onut. Tliis ipeeie* is also abnn- ttlea of Enropa to the banks ti tb« Jordan,
dsnt on the coasts of Brittany, Bpain, and Poi^ Daring the 10th and Uth oentoriee the fUlnra
togat, and is of great valne to their Soman to peiform some pilgrimage iraa looked npon
" ■ ■ ■ "" rhiid
Oitfholio popitlationsL almost aa a mark <a im^etr. Whoever h
PILE, ft post of timber or of inn driren into eseaped a neat danger, tnnmphed over an
the groQiid, either upon the land ot under ira- enemy, obtained the object of qwtial prajWB,
ter, to Nrve aa a ftnmdation of anj atntctare. or oonmdtted a great ^ vent to ^ve thanks
In thdr most simpleform |nlee are the str^ht or prav for p«r£in at some spot «onaecrated
bodies of trees pointed at one and and banded hj rdtgiooa tnditionB. A fother deiroted his
at the other to protect this from the ahatt«r- infimt child to jdlgrimage, and it was the first
iDgeSectofthe blows by vhiohtlieyaredriTea dntyof t^e yonth when he grew up tofttlfll
davn. The lower eod ia also sometimes shod the tov. Often a dream was inte^eted as
witb an iron, socket terminating below in a impodng an obligation to go on a pugrimage,
point \ and vitbia a few yean jHtst these hare and sdU more freqnentlT the Joomer was im-
beenmsdein the form of a screw, ao that by posed bythe chntohln lien of theuudentca-
tnniing the pile at the head it is screwed down nonioal penanoes. Pilgrims were eTerywhere
into Uie muddy or aandy bottom. I^les nsed reoeired with faos[dtality. Uany of them oar-
npon the coast mavtj are made like a wedse ried neitlier money nor anna, bnt each was
at the point, and along the low^r third of the obliged to show, as a sort of passport, a letter
Btick portione of the wood are cnt away so as &«m his prinoe or bishop. His departure and
to leaye the remdndsr In the form of soooea- retnm were oelebrated by religions obserr-
Bive inverted ihista of oooes, eaoh abont S f^t anoee. Cb bis setting out the pilgrim re-
loDg, set one upon another. Thos shaped, the oeived from bis priest a scrip and staff to-
pile tends to bory itself ta the sand with the gether with a ooarse woollen gown marked
oscillatioaoftheBaa. ^es are driven by ma- with a cross; he was sprinkled with holy
ohinw osSed pile drivers, the action of which Is water and accompanied by a procession as ta
thefUlofaheavyblookofironralsedtoacon- aa the next parish. When he arrived at the
sidcrible h^ht by a windlass tomed by men, hoW dty he first prepared himself by fosting
horses, or steam power. A variety of mv and prayer, and then visited the sepulohreoov-
ohiaes in use for tUs purpose are described in ered with a robe which be afterward preserv-
"Appleton's Dioldonary of Maohines, Ueohan- ed to be buried in. He viewed Uonnt Qon,
ics," ftc, under the head of " Pile Drivers." the Mount of Olives, the valley of Jehosh-
PTL^ See Hxuobbhoids. apbst, Bethlehem, Ibtnnt Tabor, and all the
FILGBDCAQ£(Lat.«ai^nti(,atraveIler), places associated with the miracUa of Ohrlat:
a jonmcy undertaken from devout motives to and having bathed in the Jordan, he gathered
soma holv plaoe. The history of pilgrimages In the territory t^ Jeridio a palm bfanoh,
b«loags (udeflv to the middle ages, iJiough even whiob on his return borne he presented to his
from the earheot Ohristian times the faithful priest to be laid npon the altar in token of the
used to visit Jndtea for the purpose of witneea- completion of his enterprise. It is from this
ing the places consecrated oy the lifo and snf- ciroomatanoe that Qie pilgrims to Palestine are
fsrinp of Jesus Christ The prsotioe was r»- oslled palmers. Next in merit to pilgrimage
garded not only as a quiekener of devotion, Its^ was providingfor the safety and comfbrt
bat aa a most acceptable satls&otion for nn, of the pilgrims. Hospitals and monasteries
Hsd was frequently asaomed as a penance, were bnilt for their reception along the meet
After Oonatantine had built a church over the frequented routes and in the city of Jerusalem,
Bite of the holy sepulchre, the number of nil- ana Ohristiaua eetabliahed there exposed them-
grims vastly increased ; and on the dodioaoon eelves to great dangers in order to go and
of the ehttrch of the Kesurrectirai at Jerusalem meet them on the road. Female pilgrima
in the SIst year of timt emperor's reign, an were received by religions commniddes of
immense concourse of people ia said to have their own sex. The merchants of Amalfl,
been present from all parts of Ohristendom. Venice, and Genoa, and the princes of the
The empress Helena, in the course of the pil- West bore most of the expense of supporting
grinuwa which she made to Palestine, caused these hospitals, and every year monks of Polee-
chnrches to be built ia nearly all the placea tine oame to Eurcme to collect alms for the
usDcisted with the prominent events in the ssme purpose. The Ifohammedan caliphs
life of Ohrist. Nazareth and Uonnt Tabor treated the pilgrims alternately with cinelty
UigmzOQbyGOO^Ie
ass nLQEDCAGB
and UnthcM; but under tlwSm<x^aaiiTarka, llieir devotions here. The prindpal pltae of :
irbo conquered Palestine in 1078, they were pilgrimage in En^and was WiilBiii^iisin in
mliQeated to violent pereecation. Aboat thia Norfolk, where at a moaastery of AognniniKn
time tbe archbi^op of Mentz, with the bishops or Black canooB there waa a lau^l of the Vir-
of Bamberg, Utrecht, and Batiabon, undertook gin, with a famons etatne. There was eoarc«
a pilgrimage to the H0I7 Land, and the mnlti- a person of any note- in England who did not
tnde of their followers amounted to 7,000 per- at some time or other send a rich preMut or
sons, of whom fewer than 2,000 reached home pay a viut to Onr Lady of WalBinghaio, and
again in safety. A few years later the mis- the offerings of gold, ulver, and predons stoDee
eries of tbe pilgrinie and Christian inhabitants aocnmn]«t«d there were of almost incredible
of JeroBalem gave rise to the crasades, which valne. Erasmus has pven some aooonnt of
may be considered as armed pilgrimages on the pi^rimsges to this Bbriue in hii ctdloqny
al^rgescale. (Bee OsireAoaa.) £1 the mean aLHUM Pengrifiatia SeUffifinu trgo. The Ou-
tline these pionsjonmeya had not been with- age was destroyed at the dissolution of tbe
ont prsftic^ resnlts. Beside relics of saints monasteries in IG88. Another popular dero-
ond precious remains of Clhrisdan antiquity, tjonsl resort was to the ahrine of Thoraas i.
Che pQgrims brought back the dlks, gems, and Beoket at Osnterbory, where as mai^ sa 100,-
othw products of the East; Frenoh and Italian 000 pilgrims are said to have been roistered
nerohants established w^«houaes in Jeruaa- at one time, and the o&rings at the sitsr of
Imn, and every year on Sept. IS a taix was the saint amounted in one ^ear to neaTly£l,000,
epened on Uount Oalvaiy, where the Franks while those at the principal altar were only
and Moslems exchanged their goods.~Fil- a few pence. The pilgrimage to Canter-
grims however did not confine themselves to burr, though not more popular than that to
Sndtea. Borne travelled as far as Egypt, where Walnngham, is more famiUar to the modem
Ohrist passed his in&ncy, and penetrated to reader through the " Oanterbury Tales" of
tiie Bolitndes of Memphis and the Thebaid, in- Ohauoer. PilgTims also resorted to Glaston-
habited by the disciples of St. Anthony and bury abbey in considerable numbers, and also
fit. Pant, the first hermit. In Enrope there to some lesser shrines in England. Ireland
was no province without a shrine of some abounded in holy places, the most famous of
martyr or apostle. The tombs of Baints Peter whioh was probably St. Patrick's Purgstory, »
and Paul at Rome were reckoned only less oave ntuated in a small island in Lough Deig,
sacred than Palestine, and Loretto on the E. county DonegaL Up to a very recent period
coast of Italy was fbmons for Ota Vir^ ]|£ary'B from 10,000 to 16,000 pilgrims used to resort to
house, believed to have been miraculously it at a certain time every year, but within a fbv
bvnsported thither fromNasareth. Treves in years theBomanOaliioUooleigyhaveforbiddm
Prussia is celebrated for the supposed ooat with- the practice. Tbe Bnsriana have aeveral jdaoM
out seam worn by the Saviour, and Bvd to have of pilgrimage. They reeort to the monastery
been deponted by the empress Helena in a of Monnt Athoe to pay their devotioiis to Onr
building which now forms part of the catho- Lady of Iberia. Kiev is venerable for its oav-
dral of St. Peter and BL Paul in that town, ems fall of the bones of those who suffered
The first historical mention of this ralio is in for their Mth under the Tartars. The Lann
IISO. It was exhibited in 1810, and agun in of the Holy Trinity, about 40 m. from Moscow,
1814, when in the space of 8 weeks it was contains the nncormpted bo^ of St. Bergins,
viewed byos manyas 1,100,000 pilgrims. The and that of Bt. Alexander fievakoi near St.
celebrated dirine of Santiago de Oompostela Peterebm^ has tbe relics of the saint whose
in Spain, where the bones of St. James the name it bears. At the monastery of the New
wostle were said to have been deposited, waa Jerusalem near Moscow the pilgnms behold in
viMted by immense numbers of pilgrims from the plan of the edifices a close copy of the holy
all parts of Europe, and in the ISth or 14th city, with its priuinpal churches and ohq>eIs
oentnr; there was written in England a guide exactly reproduced. Tboo^ the custom of
book entitled " The Way from the Lond of pilgrimage in Bussia as in all other European
Engelond unto Seat Jamez in Galiz." The countries is falling into disuse, it is still not en-
pilgrims who came hither moonted some steps tirely extinct. — In the East It fionrisbea in full
to the ima^ of the saint in the cathedral vigor. Among the Mohammedans the pilgrim-
and kissed it, after which th^ received cer- age most in repute is that to Mecca. (See
tifioates called oomfMUllat. Thvj took away OAnn.) The favorite shrines for the PereianB
with them, as tokeos of the viat, some of the are Mn^d Ali, the burial place of the oaliph
sosllop shdls with which the city of Santiago AU, which is resorted to b^ the Sheeah sect ;
«tiU abounds. Li Franoe the &vorite shrine and Eerbela, where Hoesem, son of All by
was that of the archangel Michael at Mont St. Mohammed's daughter Fatime, was sl^n, vis-
Uiohel in Normandy. The mountain is a sharp ited chiefly by the sect of Ali. The Pendans
isolated peak crowned by a church and oon- also niake viaita to Mecca and Medina. In
vent, now used as ». prison. For ages it was Hindostan there are innumerable holy placea
visited yearly by thousands of devotees, and to which devotees resort, the most celebrated
the records of the convent contain the names of whioh are Juggernaut, Benares, Hurdwar,
•f more than a down kings who have p^ Bwarka, and Kasmok. The julgnmagee are
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
mi. PILLOV 899
gvntsnUj at fMIvsls lasting eereril dasra, a eorporated together latQ irhat ts oalled &&
part of the time being passed in religions masa. PortionB of this are then rolled with a
rit«3, a part in amnseineats, and a part in apatnla into cjUnderg of nnifoira diameter
bn^esa Thieving, levdnese, and aa forms througbeot, and from these the pills are dt-
of Tillanf are then espeoiaU; rife. Borne of Tided in eqnal sizes either bj the eye or hj the
the pil^nms lose ^ their means and have to nse of gradoated dirisions upon a tile, and thej
l)eg their waj home; others resort to such are then rolled one by one mto globular form.
plaoee fbr the parpose of ending tlieir exist- A machine is much used by which a cylinder
eiic€^ for it Is believed Uiat those who die at can be rolled ont between two flat surfaces and
certain of these holy spots are exempt from then between two ribbed surfaces of the same
(More aaffering and metempsjohods. Uany apparatns be completely cut npinto pills, which
of the deroteee in proceeding on a pilgrimage require no fiirther rolling. To preTcnt pills
prostrate themselves on the gronnd at every from adhering together they are dnsted over
step, repeating each time the name of the god with etfted arrow root, powdered licorice root,
or the place to which they are going. The or lycopodinm. Methods have also been intro-
Mongols have a strong taste for pilgrimages, dnced of coating them with a solution of gala-
sod ttieir eoontry abounds with places of great tine, and also of collodion. They have beside
reputed sanotity, generally Bnadhist monas- been covered with gold or silver leaf, and also
teries, to which at certun times vast crowds coated with siwar to di^ise the taste of their
are attracted. A rite greatly in vogne at snoh ingredients. The nse of materials that wonld
times eoonsts in mating Qie cbcnit of the prevent the action of the gastric jnice upon the
monsatery in a series of prostrations, the body pills should be avoided ; and pills sfaonld also
being extended at ftill length and the forehead pe prevented from becoming dry and hard.
ton<±ing tho groimd at every stop. As the PILLAR. Bee Oonnm,
inonasteriea with their ontbnildings are often PILLARS OF HEROTJLES. See Qibgai.-
very large, it is freqnently difBcnlt to accom- tab.
plish the feat in a single day. The Japanese PTTXNTTZ, a viU^ of Saxony, sitaated on
of the Sinto sect make pilgrimages to a famous the right bank of the Elbe, 7 m. 8. G. ftom
temple in the province of Isje, which every one Dresden ; pop. abont BOO. In its palace the
isobligedtorisit at least once in his life. The emperor Leopold II., Frederic William II. of
journey is made generally in the spring and Pmssia, and some other princes met in Ang.
on fbot Other devotees, usually in companies 1791, and concerted the preliminaries of a
of 3 or 3, travel about the empire to visit the coalition to oppose the progress of the French
33 chief Qnanwon temples. They are dressed revolution, and enforce the right of the Bonr-
in white after a peculiar fashion, and oht^a bons to the throne of France,
their bread by ringing fh)m honse to house, PILLOItT, an instrnment of ponishment,
many of them having no other oocnpation, but oonslsting of a wooden frame erected on post^
paaring thur lives in perpetnal pilgrimage. In having holes in it through which the head and
the ooldert weather pilgrims may be seen arms of the culprit were thrust, in whioh posi-
Journeying to certain temples with no other tion he remained for a certain time exposed to
covering ^an a little straw about their waists, the view of the public. It existed in France,
. They recwve no charity, live very poorly, and where it was anciently called pUlorie, and in
run neariy all tiie distanoe. The Sinai of the more modem times ea^van, from the iron collar
Japanese Boddliista i> the monnt^ of Foosee used to fasten the nock of a criminal to a post ;
or Fooeeeyama near Teddo, and a yearly pil- in Qermany, where it went under the name of
grimage to it is the dn^ of every one. manger; and in England even before &e
PILL in medicine, a preparation of drugs in Norman conquest, where it was called Asaf-
nnall globnlar masses of convenient size for Jimg«, or more correctly JiaUfttng (catch-neck),
swallowing. In this form medicines that are By the " statutes of the pillory" passed in the
very disagreeable to the taste, and those which reign of Henry ni., the punishment was em-
by thdr insolnbility cannot be given in the ployed for snch crimes as forestalling, using
hqaidform, are most conveniently administered, deceitftil weights, peijnry, and fbrgery. Ao-
Uany drags may be at once rolled into the cording to the form of the Judgment, the crimi-
form of pills ; others of soft or liquid consist- nal was to be set in or upon the pillory. Ita
ency require to be inoorporated with dry and nse was abolished in all cases eioept peijary
inert powders, ea wheat Aour, starch, gum ara- in 1616, and altogether in 18S7. In like man-
bio, crumbs of bread, Sen. ; while powders must ner, when the penal code of France was revised
be mixed with soft bodies, assoap, simps, honey, In 1S83, the earcan-waa abolished. The length
mndlsge, and the like. A mixture of sirup of time during whioh the culprit was expcfled
and powdered gum arabic b much used, and is in the ^lory was sometimes defined by law,
J referable to mootlage as less likely to become but was more usually 1^ to the discretion of
ry and hard. Water is often added to soften thejudge.
the mass, and some fixed oil is also recom- F1LIa)W, Qidzon Jororeoir, an American
nieiided, for the purpose of keeping the ptlls general, born in Williamson oo., Tenn., June
wft for a long time. In preparing pills, the S, 180S. He was graduated at the Nashville
Buteriils Br« to be thoroaghlT' mixed and in- mdverdty in 1887, stadied law at Oolombla and
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
tM Tn/>S PILOT FB3H
VtdiTille^aDdluTfiigbeata&idttedtotLebtr dnl rf J« Ubu; the am^tnrw of th* mom-
oommMiMd the prectioe of his ^vfyeatai at mrait toHenrjILbitheomiednlof StDenia;
OolnmbiiL, Li 1844 he was ecot of e delmto the mensolomn of Chuoellor de KngocL etm
to the demoonlio natioiutl oonTentKui at Bel- preserrod in the mnMom at the aohooT of fine
timore, where he exerted an aetive inflnenoe arts in Paris; and the " Throe &aoeB," now
hi ftTor of the ii<»Dinatioii ot James E. Folk, ia the Lohtkl bearing the Ukeneasee ot Oatba-
whose election he alio advocated with great rine de' Uedid, the dochees d'Etampea, and
eanieitaieaa In the aabeeqnent oanTaBB. In Ibne. de YiUerof, repnted the haadaomeat
July, 1846, war having been deolarod agdnit wwtten of thor time.
Uezlco, he was nu^ ft brigadiecgeitenu, md PIIX>T. Li aome maritime eonntiiee of En-
set ont for the seat of war in oommand of a lopa tide wotd waa ftMrmerlT, and ia to srane
brigade of Teoneisee volnnteMii Vben Gen. extent even now, oaed to deognate an officer
Tqrlor maiehed vpon Motttanj, Gen. Pillow of a Teeael who had the charge of the ihip'a
was pUoed in oomnund of a breads stationed oonree. Bj general usage the tenn ia now ap-
atOamargo, and remained thnvontil the eai^ plied to a p^aon not belonging to a diip,
part of 1847, when he was wdered to jtrinthe whooondaotaitiatoorontofah«'bor, or over
anD7 sent to invade Uezioo at Vera CniK on- shoala, or wherever the navigatdon re^nirea
dw OoL Boott. He manhed his brigade to enperior local knowledge. The office is one
Tampioo, tlicre embarked, and landed with the of great inmortaDce, and is regolated by law
mjun armv near Vwa Orna on Uardi 9. He in most dvi&ied oonntriea. The EngBah stat-
shared active^ in the investment and siege of ntoirprovirions on this subject aro to be fonnd
that dtj, and when the Hexioans made known in the merchants' ahii^g act, 18G4, 17 and
tbdr readiness to o^titnlate, he was appcrfnted 18 Victoria, & 104, $$ SaO-SSS. IntheXTnited
one of the oomndnionen to negonato the States an actofcon^ressanthcnizes the several
terms of the sarrender. Attheb^ueof Ceiro states to make theirown protege laws; and
Qordo, April 18, he was assigaed to the dntj snch laws have been aecordin^y ensued b^
of fl-Tn"^""c t^o right wing of the Mexican aU the seaboard states. These laws gerorallT-
aimy. That part of the enemy's line was more provide for the appointment of oommisdonera
stronglj fortified than was sopposed when the who are invested with power to make all need-
battle was planned, and the attack was met faltnlea andregnlatjons onthesabject. "WUla
with a destraotive Are from batteries concealed a pilot ia on board a vessel within the pilot
behind a thick growth of bushes and some gronndB, he has the control of it, and ia answtt*
felled trees. In this engagement Gen. Pillow able for anj injnrj which m&j happen to it
waa wounded, though he renuuned in active throng his bolt; and this Uabilitj' was car-
command nntil the battle was over. Boon af- ried to snch an extent b/ the earJj maritime
ter this battle be was promoted to the rank of law of some Eoropesn oomitarie& that the julot,
mdor-gener^ The 13 montits for which the if nnahle to render fbll aatis&ction, atoned fbr
vwonteers had enlisted being abont to expiry his negUgence with his life. While the pilot ia
ft was determined not to march tiion anjliir- onbowd the power of tlie master (tf the vcMel
tiler. While new recmits were arriving. Gen. is not whoU7 anperseded. It ia bis duty, in
Pillow made a short visit to Tennessee. Re- case of obvioDS uid certain disability, or dan*
tnming to Mexico abont the middle of Jnne, gerons ignorance or mistake on the put of the
1647, he took command of a large force at pilot, to disposeess him of hia anthoritf . 6o
Vera Omi, destined for the interior. On July it is the dntj' of the master to see tbat a look-
8 he reached Gen. Bcott's head-quarters at Pne- out is kept; and generally, while the orders
bla. In Angnst he moved forward with the of the pUot are imperative as to the course the
main army for Uie vaUej of Mexico, and took vcasel is to pnrsae, the management of it ia
part in the battles of Ohiirubnsco,Chapultepec, still nnder the control of the master. The
and Molino del Be/. After the conclusion of pilot is the servant of the owner of the vessel,
tiie war, he became involved in a serious con- and the latter is genersltr liable to third per-
troverBf with Gen. Scott, by whom he was sons for any damage resuting from his ne^-
arrested upon charges ot insubordiastion and gence or fault. But it; aa when a veasel is en-
misderoeanor, and was tried by a conrt martial tering a port, the mastw is obliged to take tlie
and acquitted. He then retired to private life, first pilot that offers, (^ pay a certain anonat,
and has rince devoted his time to the manage- it would seem that snch taking ia by otmipnl-
ment of hia ]ai«e estate. In 18S0 he was a rion, and that the ownw aboold not be liable
member of the Nashville aonthem convention, fbr liis acts. Thia is the settled law in Eng-
where he delivered a nieech against the ex- land, bnl the question is still an tq)en one u
treme ground taken bynlta'a souuiemmen. In the United States.
April, 18S1, he offered to raise a laige force in PILOT FIBH, a soomberoid fish of the ge-
Tennessee in tid of the secession cause in the nus nauerattt (Baf.). It is characterized by a
more Bonthem states, fiisiform body, small uniform scales, a keel on
PILON^, Gbbkain, a French sculptor, bom the side of the tul, the dorsal compoaed of iao-
at LouS, near Le Mane, about 1610, died in lated spmes, and the ventrals onder the peo-
Paris in 1500. He executed a mausoleum of torala ; the head is compressed, the teeth thin
Cardinal GuJllaame dn Bell^, in the oathe- and crowded on the jaws and palate, and the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PILOT XNOB RN 881
tgfi rm T; eome free ipines is mn- be eetimsted at a,YOO. Their eomplfizioii
fioot of the donalaad anal fins. There are 4 ia dark brown, diffenng &om that of tne redr-
Rieeiei, of wMob the best known is the ^ akins E. of the Book; mountains and the olive-
Mi^ (Ka£), the famoas pilot fish of naviga^ featured Indians of California. The mon have
ton ; it ie abont a foot Iouk shaped like a slender forms, hnt the women, who do moat of
maderel, of s ailvecr gnv ecuor, blniah on the the hard labor, are well made. Agricnltore is
baok, with 6 AaA Uoe bands encircling the their principal occnpation. Thej are the most
body. This ^edes attends veseels for long oiviliiedofanj of the North American Indians;
diatinoes, like the aharks in the water and the the; mannfaotnre cotton fabrics, pottery, and
pMrela in the air, for the sake of the bits of other nseful articles with considerable skill,
liwd thrown overboard ; this may aoeoont for and e^jof a reputation for simplicity of char-
& ttrmatga fellowship of this fieh with the acter, peacefolneea, and honestj. Thej show
■harlu, tliB former, as the wonderful stories a conrageonn spirit however on occasion, and
of «*il<»v go, at one time leading its cartdia- are freqnentl; at war with the Apaches. Xheir
poena oomittiuon toward, and at another babitationa are built of etakea interwoven with
%wMj fi-om the baited hook ; these species straw, com hoBka, or rashes, and plastered over
nam to be oa good terms with each other, with mud, and are generally grouped together
bet probeblr have it common o^ect in view, in viliagea of from 20 to 60. The men have no
tba obtaining of food, the amaller being too dothing except a hreeob cloth, and oocauonaDr
dmble fiv the greatw, like the Jackals which ■ blanket, or such odds and ends as the; pick
follow the lirai, and the attendants on the npfrom American travellers; the women wear
birds of pr^; Ite^en thinks tliat the pilot ahlanketorotherclotb tnoked abontthewaist
fish feeds anou the ezorements of the shark, and hangbg to the knee. The only weapon
It iahabha ttie Mediterranean tutd the Atlantic, naed hj the tribe is the bow and arrow. They
fiillawiDg Teasels into the tropics and even to possess horses and cattle, bat very few mnlea.
the ooaats of America ; its fleah Is eaid to be (See Oooo-Uaxioopas, and Pdeblo Ihdusb.)
TUT good. The stories aboat its leading res- FIN, a hit of wire, sharp at one end and tar-
m1* in thur proper course and throngh dan- nished with a head at the other, nsed chiefly
roa paaaagea, for which it was held sacred for the toilet for temporarily secoring portions
the anmentk, are mere &bles. On the of the dress, and generally by seamstresses and
' riean coast is desoribed the y. Nmehora- tailors for fastening their work together. The
I (Odv.), with 4 transverse hands and 4 need of litt]e ntenuls of this sort has been met
_.js before the dorulj it has been seen on from antaent times by varioos devices. In the
le New England and Sew York shores. Egyptian tombs they are foand mnch more
res before the dorulj it has been seen on from antaent times by varioos devices. In the
New England and Sew York shores. Egyptian tombs they are foand mnch more
PILOT KNOB. Bee Iboit Uouettaih. elaborate and costly than the pins of the pres-
POiOT MOUNTAIN. See Aauui. ent time. They vary in length np to 7 or 8
PILPAT. See Bidpat. Inches, and are famished sometimes with large
pn£EN', Nxw, a town of Bohemia, and capi- gold heads, and sometimes with a band of gold
tal of a circle trf the same name, at the confla- around the upper end, those of the Utter kind
Moe of the Bradlanka with the Berann, a trib- having probably tteen nsed for seounng the
nUry of the IColdan, 52 m. S. T. from Prague ; hair. The anoient Meidoans fonnd in the thorns
pop. 10,000. It is ntnated in the midst of a of the agave convenient substitutes for metallio
mile valley, uid is fortified and well bnilt pins; and even the English, np to the middle
A railway oonnecta it with Prague, and it ranks of the 16th oentary,- made nse of rude skewera
at oiM erf the moat impcvtant o<Hnmercial towns of wood, Uiougb they also made others of gold,
tit the kingdom, having large annnal fairs, a mlver, and brass to serve as pins. To that time
thtiving transit trade witli Bavaria, and mann- they had depended upon the manufaotorers on
betores of woollen goods, morocco, iron ware, the continent for their supplies of the better
born ware, alom, die. It contains a military aorta of pina, and this Importation appears to
aodemy, a lyoeum, a gymnaainm, a philoso* have been established previous to 1488, when
phiaal institation, and a theatre. Among the it was interrnpted by a prohibitory statute. In
iM*t intereating public buildings are the town 1548 an act of parUament provided " that no
ban, the honse of the Tentomo kiughtfi, and person shall put to aale any pins but only sacb
the eatbedral of St. Bartholomew. The last is as be double-headed and have the head soldered
a Am Ootliic edifice of the 18th centnrv, with fast to the ahank of the pin, well smoothed, the
a Aeple 160 feet high, and several good paint- Hhank well shaven, the point well and roundly
inga, and is supposed to have been boilt \)j filed, canted, and uarpened." Within 8 yeart
tke Teutonic knights. About S m. B. E. is the from this time the manufacture was to mudi
■midl market town of Old Pilsen, with about improved that the statute was of no impor-
1,000 inhriritento. tanoe. In Glonoeeter the business of pin mak-
PHIENTO. Bee Ai.ianox. ing was introduced in 16S6, and soon proved so
PiXOS, an Indian tribe of New Menco, in prosperous that it gave employment to 1,500
the raOey of the Oila. They are neighbors of persons. It was estsbliahedm London in 1686,
the OoBo-Marioopaa, whom they resemble so and afterward in Birmingham, which became
much in person and mannera that they are not the chief seat of this and other mannfacturioK
eaaly ^^it;^.i■|gn^|^^n^^ from them. Ttkeir number operations of similar oharacter. In tiie United
Btet«a ibe mannfootim vfaa first nndertaken enffiddnt protection, under wUditlioraunifito-
ROOD after the war of 1818, whea in conseqnencA tore became firmly eBtabUshed. At the present
of the luterraptioQ to commeroe the valne of a Ume the total weight of pins made in the Uiiit«d
paper of pina waa not less than (1, and. these States is soppoaed to be from 7 to 10 trau a
were of verj Inferior quality to those now week. In qnalltf they are qiiite eqaal to
worth only 0 cents a paper. The first attnnpt thoee of Engliah mannfaotnre.— Notwitiistand-
waa made b^ some Eoglishmen at the old state teg the apparent inaignificance of pina, their
prison, in what was then called Greenwich tU- use la ao nniTeraal that the factories devoted
uce, now a part of New York city. The enter- to tb^ prodnction ore verj ezteusive, and
pnse was soon abandoned, and waa agun na- lai^e qnantltiea of copper and zinc are con-
dertakes with tbe same tools in 1620 at the somed in tlie formation of the brass of which
Bellerne almshouse, bat again witbont snoceas. they are made ; and though they appear so
In Masaachosetts dnring the war A new ma- simple in their form and constrnction, aome
diine was invented for facilitatlDg the process, of the machines by which they are produced
hat little or nothing was done In the mannfoo- are exoeediogly complex and expenrive. The
tare of pins. In 18S4 Mr. Lemoel W. Wri^t two factoriea in Oonneclicnt have consomed of
of Uassaohnaetts patented in England, and in- copper alone nearly a ton duly, making nse of
trodnced in a bctory at Lambeth, London, that of Lake Superior exclnsively, and mannfae-
eone important tnacbinea of his invention, the tnring their own brasa and wire. The prodno-
first ever contrived for making solid-beaded tion of pins by both companies amounted in
plus. Tbe company however failed before 1B61 to aboutS tonsaweek. By the old metb-
tliese pins were introduced into the market, ods of mannfaoture, which however varied ocn-
and tbe machinery was transferred to Stroud uderably at different times, the distinct pro-
in Glonoesterahire, where the mannfbcture waa cesses were nsnally stated to be 14 in nnm-
eondncted by D. F. Tayltv and oo., and the first ber, eommencing with straighteninf the wirc^
Bolld-hesded pins were sold by tiiia firm in which had alr^y been tborougiuy cleaned.
London about the year I8S8. In 1883 the new drawn down throngh a plate to the reqaired
machines of Hr. John I. Howe of New York rize, and wound on a bobbin. The atrughten*
were patented in the United StatM. These ing was efiected by drawing tbe wire qoickly
were for making tbe pins with wire or " spun through the spaces between 6 or 7 uprigbt pins
heads" like those imported from Europe, and fixed m a table in a alighUy waving line, adapt-
were no doubt the first self-acting machlnea, in ed to the thiokneas of Oie wire. The wire was
wbicb tbe pin was entirely completed by one thoa mn out in lengths of 80 feet, which were
process, that proved anccessftil. In 1886 tbey cut off, and these were reduced to shorter
were put in operation by the Howe mann- lengths adapted for 8 or 4 or 6 pina. Pointing
factnnog company at their factory constructed was done by grinding the ends upon stones ur
fbr this pnrpose in New York. Their opera- steel cylinders, called mills, SO or. 10 of tbe pin
tions were transferred to Birmingham, Oonn., wires bung held together in tbe handa and
in 18S8, and soon inolnded the new process made to rotate as their ends were qtpdied to
of makiag pins with solid heads patented bj tbe grinding snrfacea. They were then cut int«
Ur. Howe in 1840. Another factory was es- tbe right lengths, and the bits not pobted were
tabllsbed in 1S88 at Pougbkeepsie on the Hud- retumed to tbe pointer. The pin beads, made
son river, by Messrs. EUooum, Gells^ and co., of a finer wire, were prepared by winding them
making nse of proceasea invented by Mr. Bam- by alatheintoaapiralronnd other wires. Three
uel Slocum for prodaotng tbe solid-bead pin ; tnma of the spind being out off furnished tbe
but their interests were finally tnmsferred to head for one pin. The heads were annealed
the " American Pin Cktrnpain-," at Waterbury, by being bronght to a red heat, and then shaped
Conn., where tbe bnsiness has for a number by the blow of a hammer. Each one bems
of years been Buccessfnlly carried on in con- taken up on a pin wire, and this introdnced
nection with the manufactnro of hooks and point downward in a hole in the centre of a
eyes, which are also made of brass wire. The die, a blow from a drop hammer worked by a
improved prooesaee, among other favorable re- treadle aecured tbe head to tbe pin. Anotlier
snlts, have materially diminished the weight and still older method was to fasten two coils
of the pins, so that to prodnce the same number of the headiug wire on the ehaok by bammer-
mnch less brass is consumed than formerly, ing it between dies, acting transversely to the
The reduction in the price of pins, rated accord- line of tbe shank. A rounded head was tbns
log to their weight, hsH been fully one half formed, neither smooth nor well fastened,
einoe 18S6, while the qnality has been improved Tbe clumsy Dutch pins, still occasionally seen,
in an equal ratio. Tbe early operations in the present this form of bead. Several finishing
United Stotea were greatly embarrassed by the processes are still necessary for preparing tbe
tariff then in foroe, by which pins were ad- pins for market. They are cleaned by boil-
mitted dnty tree, while tbe brass wire suitable ing them half an hour in sour beer, or soln-
for tbeir manufacture, and of which very little tion of tartar. To whiten or tin tbem they
was mode in the conotry, was snlfject to a dnty are laid in a copper pan in alternating layers
of SQ per cent. For this reason the business with grain tin, and when the vessel is nearly
laogoisbed until tbe tariff of 18^ seonred to it full wafer is added and heat ^plied ; when
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FIS PIKOEKXT ass
bot, eonw oream of tBrtar is added, and the the tatAorj at WAtertmry- and alao at Eirnung-
'boiUog is (xstinaed for an honr. The proceaa ham, Oouo. It is now superseded at both places
may be repeated if reqnired, the pins being by a recent improvement on a patent granted to
crashed in cold water ttetween tbe boiliogs. Ifr. Thuddens Fowler of Oonneoticut. The pins
Drying and polishing were emoted by placing are fed into a hoUowoflinder which revolves on
the pins tc^etiier with bran in a leather sack, roUera, and are taken np In the compartmesta
and oBiniDg this to be agitated for some time, into which tJiia cylmder la divided by meana of
Tfais was formwly done by two men, who kept loDgitndinal ribs extendiog along ite inner enr-
the sack moving ih»n one to the other. After &ce. From these they drop npon an inclined
this the pins were separated from the bran by plate^ and sliding down thia are caught in the
winnowing with fan blowers. Sticking the links of an endless chain which passes along the
pins in papers, which are then folded np ready lower edge of the plate. Each link is notched
imployment to great for as nuwy pina as moke a row, and each notch
nmnben of women and children abont the pin receives its pin hanging in it by the head. The
fiuttorie& The papers were oilmped for the whole row la then left together in the paper
rows of pins, and each one was set In a scat of when the link is carried forward to the proper
vioe, leaving the edges of two adjoining folds position. The only attention the macbme re-
Kajecting. The paperer, catching up a nam- qnires is to sopply it with paper and pins.-~
r of inni brtweea the teeth of a comb, intro- Pins have been recently made of iron and steel
daced them one by one throngh the folds, plao- wire. To protect the metal from rusting. It is
ing each in one of the groovea channelled lubricated with oil as it posses the last time
in the vice to serve as guides for sticking the &om the draw-plate. The mannfactnrais then
pinSL By Uio divimon of labor, each of these oondncted, as with pins of brass wire. Afao-
prooesses employing a special operator, the re- tory is in operation in Oonnecticnt prodarang
Bolts were regarded as wonderful — abont 13,- them. Black pins for use with black dreeiaea
000 pios betag produced, many times haadied, are prepared by japanning tlie common brass
and put up for market, at a cost of abont 8t, pins.
Bnt the improvements introduced into the man- PIN WOBU . See Estozoa, toL vii. p. 328.
ohctnre by American inventors have entirely PINANG, an island in the strait of Ualaoc&
changed its character, and led to the more rapid Bee Pssuta.
production of pins at much leas cost of lolior. FINOHB&OE, an alloy of oopper and dno,
Oneof thefirst olfjeotaumed at in tlienewma- made to resemble some of the baser alloyi
chines was to form the head from the pin itself of gold. It was bronghj into notice by Hi,
and thus lessen the extra work attending the Obristopher Pinchbeck, mneioal olockmaker,
construction and fitting c€ the separate heads, who died in London in 1783. (See Ba&ss.)
while prodnob^ a much neater and more dur- PINOKNEY, the name of a family of Booth
able pin. A gmeral idea of the improved ma* Carolina distinguished in the revolutionair
ohinea, vhidi are altogether too complicated and subse<iiient history of the United States
for a particular desoription, mar be obtained Thomas Piaokney, its fonnder, emigrated from
from Uie acoonnts of them publisned in the HQi Lincolnshire, England, to Sonth Oarolina in
volume of " Newton's London JounsI," and in 1687, and established himself at Oharleston,
Babbagtf s " Eoonomy of Uannbctures," The where the large brick mansion inhabited by
machines of Mr. 'Wright, while they were at him Is still standing. He was a man of ind^
the faotoiy at I^mbetb, are stated by Mr. Bob- pendent forinme, and by his wife, Ifory Ootes>
ert Hantiahisworii:,"Uaniifactures{DlIeta]," worth, had 8 sons, Thomas, Oharlea, and Wil-
to have attracted ^eat interest in London, and liam, of whom the first named, an ensign in
to have been visited by strangers from the the 17th regiment, royal Americans, died
ooontryasoneof theonrio»tiesof themetrop- young. Oharies, commonly known as Chief
olis. In practice, however, they £d not prove Jastice Pinckney, was ednoated in England,
snocessftu, and thdir use was soon abandoned snbeeqnentiy practised law In Sonth Caro-
hy Ur, Wright — Among the most important lina, and in 17S3 was made ohief justice of
improvements lately introduced in the manu- the province and king's oonndJlor. His wife^
faoCnre are the machines for sticking the pins Mza Lucas, daughter of Ool. Lucas of the
in pq>era. Until their introdaotion the pins British army, was the first to attempt the
when fiuidied were taken by the families living cultivation of rice in the Oarolinas. Chief
in the nMghborhood,Bnd fixed in the papers b^ Justice Pinckney went to England in 1763 to
the women and ohfldien at their houses. This superintend the education of his children, re-
was an inconvenient and wasteful method, and maining there 5 year& and died in Carolina
not easily canled ont npon a laige scale. The about ITS 0. His remaining brother, William,
first improvement over the old Englidi"hand born in Charleston in 1 70S, died In Dec. 1766,
bar" was the invention of Mr. Samnel Slocnm, was master in chancery and commissory-gen-
and consisted In a hand machine patented eral of the province. Of the descendants of
In 1840, and used at Pooghkeepde. Yarious Charles and Williun the following were the
improvements were from time to time made most distinguished. I. Osablxs OortewoBTH,
vpoa this by different [nveiMrB, and for IS bom in Charleston, Feb. 36, 1746, died there,
years or m(»« the machine was in operation at Aug. 10, 1826. He was the eldest soa of tha
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
J
884 HSOKHKV
diiefjnstioe, uiclsfctkeBgeofYirMtakenbr tntinuttng at Qie same lime tliat the pcnftttr
hia &cher to England to M eduoated, Haviiig of refiual would be war. "War be It, tbenl"
passed throogh Weatmiiuter sdhool, he waa replied Finoknef. " Millions for defence, or,
graduated at Ohrlatehnroh college, Oxford, bat not a cent for tribntel" On retnming to
■t an early axe, after whidi he atadied law in the United Btat«s he was appointed a m^or-
the Middle Temple. He enbeeqaentlj passed general in the army, and in 1800 he was an
nearly a ;irear in the royal militarj aoademy in nnsncoeeahl candidate fbr preddent, receiving
Caen, France, and in 1t69 returned to Oharle*- with John Adams tha ^otes of the (federal party.
ton and commenced practice aa a barrieter. H. Thomas, brother of the preceding, bom in
Almost immediate he beoame a participator Charleston, Oct. 28, 1750, died there, Kov. S,
in lie preparatory oonflicts which opened the 1838. Like his brother he waa edacated in
Btroggle ofthe rcTolntion, He waa a member England, first at Westminstorschool, and after-
of the first provincial congress of Sonth Oaro- ward at Oxford. He stndied law in the Tem-
IJna, and in Jons, 1776, was elected a captain pie, was admitted a barrister, returned to Bonth
in one of the two regiments raised by the proY- Carolina in 1770 after an absence of 19 jeara,
ince. He aerred at the cafttore of Fort John- and soon engaged in active resistance to Qreat
•on in Charleston harbor, and also partddpated Britain. In 1775 he was commissioned a lien-
in the movements reanltingtn the defeat of the tenant in one of the provincial regiments, in
British fleet before Fort Uooltrie. The war which he attained therank of m^jor, and npon
langaishii^ in the Soatb after tbla, he joined && appointment of Gen. Lincoln as oommand-
tbe American fbroes at the North as a volnn- er-in-chief of the southern army he became
teer, and as aide-de-cam^ to Oen. Washington one of his aids. He fonght with <UBdnction at
waa present at Brandywme and Germantown. the battle of Btono ; and at the assanlt npwi
The Sonth being again menaced, he retnmed Savannah, where be act«d as idd to Connt d^Es-
In the spring of 1778 to Carolina, and partid- taiug, he beaded one of the assidHng colnmne
pated in the nnancoessAil expedition to Flori- of the continental army, and succeeded in
da. In Jan. 1776, he precnded over the senate mounting the British redonbts, from which he
of Sonth Carolina ; soon after aided Moultrie was compelled to retire. Afler the fall of
in protecting Ohaneston agunst a greatly sa- Charleston he joined the army of Gatee, and
penor force of British r^olars nnder Q«n. at the disastrous battle of Camden waa des-
Provost; and in OoL 1779, fonght with great perately wonnded, and woold have been slwi
Intrepidity in the dlsastrona assault upon 8a- nad he not been Teoogniaed by a BriUsh officer,
vannah, a vivid account of which from his pen an old college friend, whose timely exclama-
was published in Cordon's history of the revo- tion : " Bave Tom I^ickney^ stayed the bay-
Intion. At the commencement of the siege of onet nplifted against him. He was sent as a
OhariestonheheldcommandofFortMonltrie, prisonerof war to Philadelphia, where here-
which inflicted severe It^nry npon the British mained nntil the peace. In 1780 he was elect-
fleet approaching the city, although it oonld ed governor of South Carolina, and in 1799
hot retard its progress. The fort was soon received from Washington the appointment of
after abandoned, and Ool. Pinokney transferred minister to Great Britain, whence aft«r a few
his services to the besieged town, where he years he was transferred m the same cc^Mcity
oontinned nntil its anrrender, a measnre which to Spain, where he negotiated the treaty of
he opposed to the last. He remained a prison- IldefonEO, by which the United States secured
er of war nntil the peace, when he resumed hb the free navigation of the Hiselseippi. He re-
practice at the bar. In 1788 he was a member turned home in 1796, and waa soon after elect-
of the convention which framed the constitn- ed by the federaUsts to congress from the
tion of the United States, and subsequently of Charleston diatricL After serving for several
that of Bonth Carolina which ratified it ; and years in this capacity he retired mto private
Bgainofthatoonvenlion whichinI790adopted life, but in 1813 accepted the ap^intment
the constitution of the state. After declining of ratgor-general of the southern militair di-
offers from Gen. Washington of a seat in the vision of the country, the duties of which in-
anpreme oonrt, and in his cabinet as secretary volved the prosecution of war with the Creek
of war and of state, he accepted in 1796 the and Seminole Indians. His last active field
office of minister to France, Diplomatic Inter- eerrice was at the battle of Korse-staoe Bead,
oonrse between France and the United States where the military power of the Creeks was
was at that time beset with difficulties, and the finally broken. Up<m the condnaion of peace
directory, which waa then in power in the be retired definitively from public Hfe, HI.
former country, treated Hnckney with marked Cbabub, grandson of William, bom in Oharlea-
disrespect, and flnslly ordered him to leave ton in 17D8, died in 1824. He was educated
the country. He returned subsequently with for the bar, and when scarcely of age was dto-
Harsball and Oerry as assodates, but negotia- sen to the provincial legislature from the par-
tions went on alowly, and the American com- ishof Ohristchurch. At the capture of CharleB-
misdoners were at length given to understand ton he became a prisoner, and remained such
that nothing woold be accomplished until the until near the close of the war, when he resum-
f>vemment had received a present In money, ed his profession. In 1786 he was elected a
alleyrand eobmitted this proposition to them, delegate fr^im Sonth OanUna to the oongress
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FDtDAB 88$
«t tbo oonftdencr, and lift tabs^itienllr took being d««eencl«d from the .S^ia, who ol«Inud
■n important part m t^e preparation of a plan to hars Bpnmg from tiis Oa^nids. It aMm
of govenunont for the United State*. In 1788 also to bave been renowned for Ha morioil
he advocated the ratifioation of the conetitotion iMU, and Pindar In hia boyhood reedved ]<»■
tn the South Oartdina oonventioD, and in the sons on the Ante from the player Seopdinna.
BDooeeding Tear he was eleot«d governor of The tBSt« which he earlr du^Iayed for poetiT
the atate. ix 1790 he preaided over the etate led hia father to send nim to AUiens for io-
conrantion by which tne present constitatdon Btmotion in the art There he remained nntU
of Sonih Oarolina was adopted ; in 1791 and abont the age of 20, haTing atadied under L»-
igain in 179ft he filled the office of goTemor, bob of Eermione, and onder Agathoeles and
and ia 1T98 was elected & senator in oongresa. Apollodoma. After his retora to lliebea he
He wss a frequent and able speaker on the received instmctioDs from two poetesses, Myi^
republican side of tihat body, and was one of tia and Oorinna of Tanagra, the latter of
the most aotJTe promoters of Jefferson's eleo- whom seems to have exerted considerable in-
tion to the preeidenoy in 1800. Dnring the flaenoe over the young poet Flntu^ says
nme year he eOTerelj denoonoed the alien and that " she advised T'Jth to introdaoe mytbloal
■edition laws enacted under the administration narrstives into his poems, as the mosio, rhythn^
of the elder Adams. In 1802 he was appointed and elevated langnage were properly deuced
aunieter to Spun, and during his residence simply to adorn the sabjeot matter. Inaooor^
'n tiuU oountry negotiated a release from ance with her recommendation, he wTOt« •
the Spanish government of all right or title hymn, still extant in port, which was filled wUh
to the territory pnrohased by the United States nearly all the Thehui mytholo^ ; wherenpini
fema France under Ur. Jefferson's administrft- she' stud : '"We onght to sow with the hand,
&». In 1800 he was for the fourth lime and not with the whole sack.' " Pindar veir
elsded governor of South Oarolina, and snbse- early began his career as a poet^ as there u
qnnitly on several occasions he served in the still extant an epinidan ode written in his SOth
Mate legislature. Hla last appearance In public year in honor of Hijrpooles, a victor In thft
life was in 1819-'21, when ne represented the Pythisn games. He rapidly acquired great
Charleston district of his state in congress, and repntation, and the different states of Qreeoe
eiinestly opposed the IGssouri oomproroise and the tyrante of the colonies on important
IdIL TT. Oxsat LiVKsm, son of the preced- ocoasiooB applied to him to write choral songs,
kg, bom in Charleston, Sept. 24, I7S4. He Testimonials of respect and affection were abo
Tii graduated at the South Oarolina oollege acoorded him from all portions of the nellei^
fai IBIS, subsequently commenced the stady world. He was honored with the compUmeik-
at the Uw with his brother-in-law Bobert Y. tary franchise at Athens, .i^gina, and Opna:
Hayne, and was admitted to the bar. In 1816 by the inhEibitants of Ceos he was employed
be was elected to the state le^alature from to write a prooesnou ode, although their own
Charieston, and continued to be a member of celebrated lyric poets Simonidea and Baochylt
that body for 16 years. In 1619 he became dea were still living ; at Delphi an iron cht^
editor and proprietor of the " Charleston Uer- was flimished him to sit upon while he ssng
eaiy," which under his control was a prom- the ApoUinean hymns ; there also, by order^
iDeut exponent of the doctrinea of the " state the Pythia, he was entitled to a portion of the
rights" party, and about the some time deSnl- banquet of the Theoxenia ; and he was courted
tively resigned his profession to embark in the by nmneroQB princes, in particular by Aleian-
lareer of politics. He was mayor of Charleston der of Macedon, and for the praises bestowed
during the period of the nnlMoation excite- on his ancestor Alexander the Great Is said to
tnuit, and in 1633 was elected to congress tronx have spared Pindar's house when he destroyed
the Ghsrleston district ; was reelected in 183G. Thebes. About 473 he accepted the invitation (4
sad in 1839 and 1810 was agun mayor of the tyrant Hiero to visit Syracuse, where he re-
Oharleston. He was subsequently collector muned about 4 years. He was a great admirer
of Charleston and a member of the legislature, of Athens, which he fr^uently visited, and with
Qe has been a busy writer of political pam- whose inhabitants he was eiceedingly popular,
phl^ of a strong southern tone, and is also The poems ofPindarconsisted of epiidoiaortri-
the author of memoirs of Jonathan Uaxcy and umphal odea, bynma to the gods, pteans, dithy-
BohertY.Hayne, the "Life and PubUcServicea rambs, odes for proeeaaions, songs of maiden%
of Andrew Jackson," ^. mimio dancing songs, drilling songs, diiVM^
PINDAR (Gr. niviapot), a Greek lyrio poet, and encomia or panegyrics on rulers. The
bora in Thebes or in tne village of Oynos. only entire poems, however, that have come
cephala, according to OHnton In 018 B. O., ac- down to ns are the £^nieia, which were all
'^oraing to Bdckh in G22, died according to the written in honor of victories gained in the pub-
formet estimate in 489, according to the latter lio games, with the exception of the 11th Ne-
lnM2. Little ia known of his history. He him- mean, which was composed when Aristagoraa
ulf iclls Da that he was bom during the cele- was installed in the office of prytanit at Tene-
britionof the Pythian games, which was about doa. The triumphal odes are divided into 4
">« beginning of July. The family to which books, corresponding to the 4 great pnblio
lu belongcid was one of the noblest of Thebes, games <£ Greeoe, the Olympian, Pythian, K«-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
S86 HNDEUONTE FINE
meal), and Isthmisn. The eultjeot matter of Halt& and Bic^, and finally establlihed hfan-
the odea aanallj ooneists of tiio pr^se of the eetf In Avesa oeor Verona. His chief irorks
victor and of his oit^, with many allDsiona to are; J^vie e ponie eampettri (178G) ; SermoTiif
the tnythical origin of tha former, and the satires npon the follies of the times, somewhat
legendsrj events connect«d with the early his- in the style of Horace ; Arminie, a tragedy
tory of the latter. Either the wealth of the founded on the death of Armmius, in whid^
victor ia praised, a3 in the case of triunphswon he introduced the choma; Ibta Morgana;
by the speed of horses, inasmnoh aa only the Elogia di OeMtner; II eclpp di marUllo; and
rioh could afford to contend in the chariot Mogie di leturati, a biogr^hical proee work
races, or his valor is commended if ha had nn- (2 vols. 8to., 162&-'G). He translated the
dei^ne in the contest any personal peril. The Odyssey into Italian hlank verse, beside trans-
mythical element is always a prominent feature lating from 'Virgil, Ovid, and Catullus. — His
In his odes. Ha was himself a atriot worahip- brother Qiovakni, bom in 17S1, died in 1813,
per of the gods, and appears to have placed wrote some dramal^c works, among tliem I
credence in the marvellons and supernatural Saeeanali, and translated Ovid'a Smudia
aoooonta of Oreek legendary history. At the Amorit.
same time he rejects some of those stories and PINDIJS, in ancient geography, a range of
transforms othci'4 which do not agree with his mountains in nortbem Greece, a part of which,
conceptions of the gods. The qnarrela between property so called, separated the provinces of
the divinities, and all atones repreBcntlng the Thesaaly and Epiraa. The name is also need in
gods OS guilty of wiohed acts, he either formal- modem geo^^iy. ^ee Gbbkck, and Titbkzy.}
Ij repudiates or doea not recount As the epi- PDJE (pinvt, Toiunefort), a genua of aoft-
nician odea were snng by a choma at a featival, wooded trees fonnd in the temperate climates
many iocnlar remarka were admitted which of the northern hemisphere. They belong to
would De inoonsiet^Dt with the modem idea of the iaxga and important natural order of ami-
the sustuned anblimity eeaential to lyric poet- /tra, Qieir fruit being an ament of conical
IT. Although the odea were sung byaohorus. shape, the acalea of which become indnrated
the poet was snpposed to speak in the firm and closely appreased. The conifera are trees
peraon, and Pindar av^ed himself of this oir- or shrubs with B rennoos Juice, needle-ehM;>ed,
onmstanoe to pve advice to the victor, to de- entire leavea, and monceeious or ^cecioua now-
fendhimself againat theattaokaof enemiea,and ers in ament^ destdtnte of calyx or corolla.
to assail rival poeta. He somettoes indulges Their wood b made op of ligneous fibre pecn-
in praise of himself and depredation of others, liarly marked with anull circular dota or diaka,
aa m the seoond Olympian, where he compares by which it can be readily disdngnished. The
himself in the following manner to Simonides true pines have been separated from the firs by
and Baochyljdes : " I have many swift arrows modem botanists, being found to present dis-
within my quiver ; they have a voice for the tinotive marks. (See Fm.) In the pines the
wise, but for the common herd they need an inflorescence is monceoiona; the barren or
interpreter. Wise ia he who haa learned much staminate flowers are in tramiual clustered
by his natural abilities; but those two, whose spHies, the numerous stamens inserted on the
expertnesa comea from pracUce only, babbling axis by very abort filamenta and a scale-tike
in their garmlity like a brace of Jackdawa, connective; the anthers barst open length-
clamor in vain against the god-like bird of wise, shedding the pollen, each separate par-
Jove." — The «ditio fHnetps of Pindar was tide of which is made ujp of 8 nnited grains;
printed at the Aldine press of Venice (8vo., the fertile amenta are either solitary or clns-
ISIS), along with Oallimaohua, Dionysius, and tered, and consist ofimbricatedcarpellary scales,
Lycophron. Theheet edition ia that of August each in the aiil of a deciduous bract bearing a
BOokh (3 vols. iiO; Leipeio, 1811-'2I), contain- pair of inverted ovules at the base ; the frnit
Ing a commentary and dissertatiooB upon the is a cone formed of ligneous scales, generally
music, metres, and. lyric poetry of the Greeks, thickened at the apex, refiezed when ripe ana
which threw mnch new light upon those sub- dry, disclo^g Uie 3 nut-like seeds lodged in.
jects. Tliere have been a few translations of shallow excavatdons at the base, each furnished
Pindar into En^ish verae, of which the last is with a thin membranoua wing derived from the
i" r the Rev. H.F. Gary (London, 1883), which, lining of the scale; cotyledons 8 to 18, linear,
though it follows the text of Heyne's edi- The leaves are in fasddes of 2 to 6, enclosed
tion, is superior to the older translations of in a chaffy membranous sheath at their base,
West and Uoore. In Bohn's "Olassical Li- which in reality is a parcel of primary, wither-
brary" there is a prose translation by Dawson ed bnd scales. The number of the leavea thoi
Turner, which is printed aloi^ with Uoore'a enclosed in a common sheath frimishea a very
poetical version convenient arrangement for the several species.
PINDEMONTE, Ippoltco, an Italian poet, — Of thosein pairs may becited the wood pine
bominVeronainl768,died thereinfiov.l8S8. (pinva tyhatrit. linn.), & tree with an erect
He was educated at the collie of Este and at trunk and sometimes growing to a great size ;
Uodeno, travelled through France, Germany, its leaves short and glaucous, its conee atalked,
Holland, and England, was made a knight of ovate, and recurved, with mf^ed, truncate, and
the order of St. John, redded for a time in depressed scales; its timber fondshea the red
Jtl
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PINE 887
dul, and In eHmates Sliital>l« to iU growth it low, etraggling, Krabt? tnmk ; its rifai leaves
beeomM ft Ter7|nataTeBqae object, ua aooomit ara aonoave-grooved above; its vood is light
(tf its hardiiMaa it ia sometimea planted to form and tough; it ranges from Mune to Wisconaia
ft acreen for t«aderer sorts ; the soil in which and northward. The red pine (P. retinota,
it grows and the climate seam to affect it so aa Aiton), improperly callod the Norway pine,
to originate man^ distinot varieties, witioh are has an erect, lofty tnmk, long lightiBh green
to ba mat with m different parts of Enrope. leaves, ovate oblong, veryobtose cones, shortor
The hooked pine (P. unoinato. Ce 0.) ia a fine than the leaves, red and rather smooth barley
alfHaetreo with an ereot tnmk ; its leaves are and compact wood, which b much esteemM
tbott and dark green, its cones oval, recnrved, for strength and durability. The edible pine
sessile, with pyramidal and recnrved truncated (P. edulU, £ngelmann) is the piliaa of the
or jnncronAte acalea; it ia extremely hardy, Uexicana and the "not pine" of American
aztd its timber is durable. The timber of the travellers, a tree 40 to 60 feet high, with short,
I^Tsnean pine (P. Pyre/iaioa, La Peyronse) ia sab-globose, conic, sessile, erect cones, lai^e,
i^ tobe of exoellent qnality and largely nsed wingless, obovate seeds with sheila thinner than
in the Spanish marine ; it ia described as a ma* those of tha hazel nnt, and very pleasant in
jeetio ^ooiea, inhabiting the Sierra da Segora flavor ; it is a native of Kew Uexico. Another
of Spain. A fine tree about the central parts nnt pine (P. monophyllut, Torrey) has one of
of the Grimea, with erect tnmk and horizontal its leaves suppressed, oocasiontdly producing
* ~ ~ ' ea whon old, very long and stiff leaves, two from the same ehealh ; they are stout and
la aoddnrable wood, but Inclined to be rigid, somewhat sharp-pointed; the cones ovoid,
knotty, is the Fatlaa pine (P. Pn^ZiuMna, Lam- stmes with a thick, obtnsely pyramidal, and
bert); ita renn iaaaid to poesessa very pleas- protuberant anmmit, nnarmed: seeds large
mt odor. The pigium* of the Frenoh are the without a wing ; the kernel is of a very pleaa-
nedaof die atone pine (P. pt^ro, linn.}, aflat- ant flavor, resembling that of the Siberian
lieaded speoiea with an erect tnink, long, stif^ stone pine. This species was found by Fre-
dirk green leaves, round, polished cones, and mont, extensively Effused over the moontt^s
large oblong seeds ; its wood ia often naed in of northern California from long. 111° to ISO",
^ hailding, and its seeds eaten likenots; a and through a considerable range of latitude.—
nnety with thin-shelled seeds and whiter Of species whose leaves are in throes may be
Tood ia also known. This species occurs In mentioned the Canary pine (P. Canarimttiti, 0.
theLevant and south of Europe. TheOorsioan Smith), growing npon the monntains of Ten-
pioe (P. larieiOf Poiret) has a very erecL tall eriffe and the Oanaries, where it forms large
trmk, larKe, deep green, distant, rather loose forests, and often acquires enormous size ; ite
leaves, and ovate horizontal cones, which are limber is very resinous and durable. The neo-
shorter than the teavea. Its timber is umilar «t pine (P. Gerardiana, Lambert) has a lofty
to red deal, bat more brittle and less elastic ; trunk with a corneal head ; its seeds ore large
it i* naed eztenrively in ship building by the and edible ; it grows iu the highest forests of
l^oioh; in the monntains of Oorwoa, Greece, the Himalaya. The noble _pine (P. intignit,
Turkey, and Bpain it heoomes a fine tree. The Dooglaas) is a l>eantiful nieoies, remarkable for
dnater pine (P. piiuuttr, Aiton) has a lofty, its bright, dense green folla^ ; it is found in
erect trnnk, long, stifi^ dark green leaves, and California, The southern pine (P. ataia^lii,
dostered cones, the scales terminated by a l£i.) Is a lofty tree with thm-scaJed bark and
ligid ^ine ; it is a noble species on the sterile, very valuable resinous wood ; leaves very long
Mody plains of France and S. Europe, espe- from long sheaths, crowded at the summit of
didly near the coast. Its resin and tor are the thick and very scaly branches ; its uses are
iDBch consumed in making lampblack; loose in ship building and for making tar ; it consti-
diifting aanda have also been arrested by arti- tates almost the entire growth of the pine bar-
fidaQy idanting the tree. The yellow pine (P. rens in the southern states. Near to this is
■MtM, Ibc) ia a fine tree and common in dry soil tbe long-leaved pine (P. maerophylla, Engehn.),
from New Jersey to Wisconsin and southward ; with a trnnk 70 to 80 feet high, leaves IS to IS
its tronk is BO to SO feet higli and straight, and inches long, in fours as well as in throes ; cone
irodnces a flne-gruned, rednous, lasting tim- 4} inches long: it is common on the higher
ber, Mpeoially valnable for flooring. The Ta- moont^s of Ctuhnahaa in northern Mexico,
ble mountain pine (P. pungMt, Mx.} is found A supposed form of this was notJced on the Zu-
Dpon the Blue ridge in Virginia and south- Hi monntains, differing chiefly in the leaves be-
ward ; it is a large tree with abort, oompaot, ing constantly in threes and shorter and in the
pale green leaves, and has the general aspect smaller cones. The loblolly i>ine (P. tada,
af the Enropean wood pine ; its cones are Linn.) is a tree CO to 100 feet nigh, with long;
borne in clnsters, and remain ^ftnging npon pale green, stout, straight leaves, and oblong
die tne for man^ years; its timber is much cones; itabark is very thick and fnrrowed, its
esteemed. The Jersey or scmb pine [P. inop$, wood sparingly resinons ; when found in old
Aiton) h a straggling tree, 18 to 40 feet high, fields its trunk is low with spreading branches.
with spreading anddrooping brancblets ; it is and lands thrown ont of cultivation are imme-
tsed princ^uly tot fad. The gray or north- diately covered with this species ; it is found in
era scmb ^e (P. BanJcnana, i^bert) has a Yi^ima and southward. Tlie pitch pine (P.
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
m PISS
rigida, Miller) Iwa a thiokiBh dark-colored bark ; linn.) oftan grow Erom 190 to 160 feet Ug^ la
Its wood is ftiS of knots and saturated witli a Bixigle, ereoL oolmnnar trunk when oocnrring
rosin ; it b verj common tn a low atnnted form in primitive forests ; its leavw are of a rich
on ftandjplaius amd spare rockj Boil from Uaine deep green, its conea elongated, eomewhat
to K«w York and sonthward, and ia employed cmred, the aoaiee tliin and eoft, the seeds
for fne]. Sabine's pine (P. SiJnniana, DonglMs) small ; It is a most valoable tree, and fomiahM
ia a noble Oalifordian ^cies, with a tnmk 140 in the New England states an. immense amotmt
feet high, and is remarkable for its lai^ heavy of lunber in boards and shingles ; its geogrwh-
oonea, the scales of which are prodoeed into ical range is from the Saskatchewan, lat. 54'
long recurred points^ its nnt ia lai^ and edi- K., to Georgia, and from Nova BcoOa to the
ble. This tree, ooonrring on the western alopes Booky monntaina. A very similar species b the
of the Sierra Nevada, b one of the manj P. tlrobi/oTTnit (En^lmami), the largest pine la
called white pine in Oalifomia-; its foliage b New Uexico, growmg npon the highest momi-
thin and of a Terr light green, giving it a very tai&s; tte tnmk rises tolOO or 180feet;theconee
peodiar aspect different from ail the other are 10 inches long and vei^ retinons. Still an-
pines of that oonutrr ; its wood is tough and other b the Bockjmomitain white pine (P. ,;f<iii-
elastio. A still more singalar-diaped cone b ilii, James), whose tnmk varies from 60 to 100
the frnit of the great booked pine (P. Coulteri, feet in height j it b in some respects like the Cem-
Son), a large strong-growing tree with brown- bran pine, its seeds being eatable. Thesngarpine
bh bark, lai^ branches, and spreading top ; (P. Zambertiana, Dongloss), bo called from the
Seaves 9 inches long, inenrved, somewhat com- sweetness of its resinonsiuice, which pi entifUly
Sresaed, mncrcwate, S-farrowed above, flattish erodes from the treOj is aescribed by Mr. Doug-
eneath, slightly serrated on the margin and oq lass as of great size, its trrmk attaining a height
itbe elevated lino along the middle ; cones large, of 200 feet and a oircnmference of abont 80
iConical-obIoDg,lfoatandmareiaIength,Otnches feet; its branches are pendnloos and form an
In diameter near the middk,and weighing abont opes pyramidal head : the leaves 4 to fi inches
4]ba. each; scales wedge- ^ped, elongated at lon^N with short declduoas aheaths; the cones
"the apex, lanceolate, mncronate, compreraed on penaoloasfrom the extremities of the branches,
both udes, incm'ved and hooked, T«ry thick and and when ripe about 10 inches in length j the
indnrated ; the species occmrs on the monnt^ns seeds large, ova], and winged, the aia of a frili-
of Californio,atanelevationof4,000feetabove ginons color, and cont^ning on innmnerabla
-the sea. En^^ehnana's pine (P. ^tgelmaTiTii, quantity of minnte sinnoos vessels filled with a
Torrey) 1b a large and fine tree, often 80 to 100 crimson Bubstaaoe, and fonning an interesting
feet high and 2 or 3 feet in diameter ■ leaves 4 microMH^ical object ; the kernel is sweet and
-to S inches long, the sheaths mostly block ^ pleasant to the taste, and the seeds therefore
the cones about i inches in lengtii, erect, ovate form an important item of food to the Indians
<or elongate, conical, acales recnrved and prick- who collect them. Thb species was fonnd
ly, geeds oDovstc ; it b common on the monn- growing npon the most sterue sandy plains to
tains of New Mexico. The bony-seeded pine the westward of the Rocky mountains in Csli-
■(P. oaleoiperma, Engelm,) b a small tree 10 to fornia, not forming dense forests, bnt scattered
'20 feet high: cones sessile, erect, sab-globose, singly over the nndnlsting conntiy. — Thepines
smooth; seeds large, wingless, obovate, with a are generally of rapid growth and easy of cnlti-
hard shell; it occurs on TOe monntain borders — '"- '^-' '"' ' — -j- _i.;-l -v-_ia
near Buena TIsta and about BantiUo in New
Mexico. — Of the species whose leaves are In
■fives may he Tuentioned the Montezuma pine (P.
JfonUtuma, Lambert), a tall tree growiug on can he advantageously transplanted wten young
ihe mountains of Mexico at an elovatlon of to cover wom-ont and sand-covered fields, tak-
11,000 feet Above the sea level ; the thread- ing np the trees when they have made the
leaved pine (P. JUjfolid), a noble species yomig shoots of the smnmer's growth, which
brought to notice by Mr, Hartweg, who fonnd should be abont on inch long. Olher speoies
It in Guotemds, with leaves acutelj triongnlar doubtless bear removal as vSiL The rarer or
and from 12 to IS inches long ; the Oembran more valuable kinds are grafted npon the har-
pine (P. Ctmira, Linn,), an erect conical tree, dier and more common bj the process practised
with stiff glancons green foliage, and obloug among the French, calUed herbaceous grafting
conea contaicinf; bi^ very honl-shelled seeds, or ffT^e Tiehvd]/, having been invented by a
the kemiA white, oily, and agreeable to the nobleman of that name; thb b done when the
taste ; the last is sn ornamental and hardy young shoots are so tender as to easily break,
epedes, with fragrant, fine-grained, soft wood, a and tne scion b inserted by the cleft prooesa.
native of Siberia, Tartary, Switzerland, and Sometimes the stock of rarer kinds is increased
Italy. The Bhutan pine (P. esetUa, Wsllich), a from layers by skilfol gardenera. The wniftra
native of Nepaul on the mountuns, b a tall, are readily raised from cuttings ; they strike
handsome, pyramidal tree, from 90 to 120 feet root best when the onttinga are from the pres-
high; its wood b white and abounds in liquid ent season's growth, taken off near where it
rssm ; in habit It is simibr to the following, proceeds from the old wood and when neady
Ibe ITorth Amerioiui white pine (P. ttrAvt, ripe, some time in Angnst. With a slight bot-
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
FINB nSIAPFLE 889
toraliMl It loBdd the; vlll root faiSireeks; into the ioy^ waters, uid not tmfreqnentlr oar-
bnt when no heat can be ^pUed, the; will be ried down and swept a,wnf hy the rnfih of the
root«d bj iptiag, and after tbe/ have made one fragments as thej are set free. Thus maoj
jear'sgroWthue^flhonldbecattotbegronnd. lives are ammallj lost npon tlieee rivera. A
Cattingi Bhonld be protected front froat — For portion of the men in a batean keep behind all
ecoDOmioal naea no tree in the temperate re- the lop, aetting thoee adrift that are oaiiKht m
Snsiitobeooinparedwitli tlie pine. Several the banks, and pnsh^ thent onward when
nehw of fatdnstrj are dependent entirelj the enrrent la slack. This also ie a work of no
QpODits>pradacta, and all the oommerdal ar- little difficnltJ^en>eoiall7 in paaainfftjiroa^ the
ticlea known aaiuva] stm«a, which support a Uras, someoi which are manrmilea in lengtii,
large depaftment of trado, are nothing else and in whldi the log* are lid>le to be driveil
than a portion of these prodaota. Thebnaineea baiok and dispersed by the winda, and the ba-
of MrtBog, bringiDg to the mlUa, and sawing lean to be swamped by the wKves. In snch
into lorabw the p^ea of the fbresta of Ualne aerrioe ia nnrtnred a dasi of the most hardy
has together with tiie trade in this article given and daring men, adndrably fitted by thdr pnr-
emplojment to a oondderable portion cnc the snita for pToneera of an army, aa waa proved by
inhabitanta of that state. More than 10,000 the corps of them specially detailed for Ihia ser-
tnen have year alter vear been engaged npoa lioe in the Ifozicm campaign. Other pine dis-
tbePenobsoot river uone inlogginc and saw- trlctaof importance for the large amounts of this
ing. Before the riven freeze np in ueantmnn timber they have prodnoed are about the heed
they ropair In eompaoles of 16 to SO by bateaux watera of use Hodeon river, of the Sosqaehanna
to the pCne diatriota in the distant wHdemeaa and Delaware, and espeduly at the eoaroea of
about toe morces of the rivcm, and even npon the Alleghuiy river in New Tork and N. Fenn-
thelakeaaad. streams whose waters flownorth- aylvania, whence large supplies have been aent
word, bat wluoh by artiSdal idiannels have down the Ohio. The N. portion of the lower
been connected wiUt the aonUmn rivere of peninsula of lOobigan as well as the upper
Haiae. The? drive up the banks of the riven peninaola also abonnd with pine, and the pine
and throngh the thick woodi and ahnoet im- forests of N. Wisconsin are of vast extent and
peaetrable swampe the oxen upon whose labon importance. At the mills tiie logs are oonverted
they depend <br hanliog the fogs down to the into square timW, or out up into boards, plank,
streams dnriog the winter, and for whose 8Up~ olepboarda, and sbinglea. The machinery for
port they have made provirion by cutting and these pnrposea, some of which is noticed in
stacking b tlie smmner the wild grass m the the article Olatboabm, is exoeedingly ingen-
vicinity of the spots aelectsd for their opera- ious and efficient. Pines alao affi>rd the matits
tioni. Arrived at these places ronote fraia all for ships and the still longer onea for sloops,
eettlementa, they preiMre their camp for the The sonthem pines (P. fflttu and F. atittratit\
lops winter, cons^octing a rude ahanty of logs are much harder to work tliau the white and
wi& a rincie slemiiiw place npon the gnmnd red or Norway pines of the north ; bnt, as
extending ita whole tei^ith, and filled in with aheady stated, they make exoellent flooring
the flat branches <d the hemlock, bakam fir, boards for houses and the deoka of ahips and
and white cedar, np<Hi which they spread their good timber for ship building. Near the coast
blankets. A warm stable is bmlt for theb oat- oftheOaroIinaaflatsandytractscoveredalmoat
tie, and a storehouse for their sallies (tf select- exclndvely with the P. aautralu ext«nd many
ed clear pork, fionr, molasses, green tea, and miles int^i the Interior, and are the chief aourocs
mm. Their <K»eratioQS are soon commenced of the supplies of tar, pitch, rosin, and turpen-
by felling the u^e pine trees that are found tine of northern oommenw. The methods of
Mattered here and there through die forests, obtaining these artJoles from the pine tree are
and when the snow crust ia in the best condi- partionlulydeacribed in this cydopndia onder
tioD for working the oxen the loga are hanled their own titles.
down nnoii the ice that ooven the streams. FINE MARTEN. See ICixtra.
The work ia thos continned through the winter, PIKKAPPIJt, the esculent fruit of the ana-
and when the ioe begins to move in the spring nana tatwa (lindley} from tropical America,
the Inmbermen break up their camp and en- and belonging to the natural order bronuliaeaa,
gage in the udnone and very dangerons task whioh is oompoeed of endwena wlt^ 6-leaved
ofdrivingorrannlngthelogsdown tbestreams. flowers having Imbricated divisionsand mealy
Daring the spring freshets they are at tJmea albumen. The habits of the several species in
swept rapidly down, logs, ioe, and batean hnr- this order are pecnKar ; they are hard dry-
ried with the foaming torrent throagh the leaved plants, often with a scurfy sarfaoe, end
roeby sudden desoenta and down the long rap- capable of endnring great heat sod continued
ids, or they are thrown npon the ledges, dryness, yet producing bloasoma distiognished
grounded upon the banka, or entangled with forbeantyana frsgranoe. Thechaiaoteraofthe
gre^ accomolationB of bllen trees, which with order are : calyx 8-parted, sometimes colored ;
tbe cakes of ioe form "Jama" that entirely ob- petals S, colored, withering or decidnotis; sta-
stTDct the passage. These are laboriously re- mens 3, inserted in tbe tube of the corolla and
moved by cutting away tbe obstraetions frvm calyx ; ovary S-celled, many-seeded ; seeds sl-
below npwud, ^ men often being precipitated ways namerooi^ with a leathery akin at tape^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOOgle
840 FDIZAFFLE PIN^BOLO
ing tnto a Blunder thread. Tha pineimple msf FHlIEL, FHOJPgt, a Frenoh phTtkiao, bom
be ooDBidered the most remarkable of all the at St. Paul, near LaTaar, depaitment of Tam,
speoias. It is an indigeaooB plant in the woods April 20, 1T46, died in F&ria, Oct. S6, 182S.
of South America, aod from tbenoe has been Be was the eon of a phyelciui, end studied in
canied to Africa and to the East Indiee, where wTeral oolleges, supporting hiioBelf meanwhile
it now forms a part of the natitnliiea fiora, b; private t«aQhing. In 1778 he removed to
The pineapple fniit, atmctiirallr regarded, ia no Paris, where he ^ye lesaona in malhematiea,
more than a olnster of flowers arranged upon deroted every leisare moment to medical in-
an elongated axis of inflorescence, and tennl- veetlgation, and wrote for the medical and the
nating in a tott of graea leaves ; each flower phUosophioal jonmals. His proposal for a new
and its accompanjing bract become thickened dassification of animala, based on the formation
and fleshy, and as there are many on the spike, of the Jaw bona, gave him so much reputation
this increase oaoses a crowdiag together and as to nmke him a competitor with Cavier for a
swelling out of the whole until a m^ve bead profeesorabip at the jardin det filanta. In
of individoal flowers olumged into a sort of 1785 he was led to tnm bis attention to insaii-
berries Is the remit ; the withered tips of the ity, and, taking charge of a private asylom for
petalsremunandgivetotikerhomboidal-sliaped the insane, he tried with flDccess, for 6 years,
divIslonB of the £fmt the qtpesranoe dt an eye, tlie substitution of gentle moaaores for the
technically loalled by gardeners the pip. In the harshness then almost nniversally practised,
wild oondition each of these contains seeds ; bnt la 1?01 he obtsined a prize from the society
ImgenltiTetion and stimnladng soils have oblit- of medioine for tlie best essay on the treat-
erated the disposition to bear seeds, a condition ment of insanity, and soon afterward was ap-
to which other vegetables or fruits are frequent- pranted physician of the Bicetre. This im-
ly reduced, as in the seedless varieties ot the mense establishment was a prison, almshooae,
grape, orange, Ao. By these means tlte orown hospital, lunatic asylum, and nnreery, all in
of leaves and tbe snokers at the base of (be froit one ; and the Afferent olasaes of inmates were
are required to propagate new plants, and new snfferod to mingle with one another. It was
varieties must be expected from plants growing orowded almost beyond endurance, while many
wild or in such a condition as to allow the oer- <tf the bidldings vrere uttorly unfit to be inhab- '
feotion of the ovules instead ni the oarpel-Jike ited. The insane were chained in dark, damp,
and pulpy envelopes. The pineapple has been and filthy cells, and their keepers were male-
eitensively the sulject of tne garaener's oare^ factors condemned to this duty as a pimiahmetit
especially In Great Britain, and many contri- for their crimes. It was very rare that a Inna-
Tsnoes have been inveuted to raise it in per&o- tio recovered. Under Pinel's Administration
tion. The chief oondderations seem to be a each class was confined to its own qnartera,
good, rich, loamy soil, warmth appUed to the the worst portions of the bnildings were torn
roots, abundance of water aud moistnre in a down, and the remainder thoroughly repaired
high temperature, supply of lionid stimulants and cleansed. The improvement in the coodi-
when in a growing state, and less water and tion of the insane was, however, the object at
more air when the fruit is ripeniog. It is said which he especially aimed ; and this he was
tbat fruits thns rdsed in glass structures called compelled to attempt in person, for cmelty
pineries are far superior in point of flavor to had rendered the unhappy oreaturea so fero~
any which grow in the open air, although the oions that no one durst set them at liberty,
wild sorts found in parte of liie East Indies are The number of cnres he aooomfdished, even
highly praised. In the Azores, the pineq)ple among these ehronio case^ astonished the pro-
is raised in pots, which are set in the open mr fbasion; ai^ liie method of treatment he iiUro-
in summer, aod protected in winter from the duoed baa beeu adopted in all civiliiedoonntries.
oold by merely a straotnre with a glased roof After two years he waa trau^erred to the Sal-
known to gardeners as a lean-to. l^evarietiei pUriire, a aimilar inBdtatton for f^alea. ffis
in the London bortienltural sotne^'i catalogue wwka en diseases of tike mind gave the first
are more than BO in nnmba-, bnt those partioa- dedded immitee to that investigatiw of insan:-
larly recommended are t^ qneen, Antlgna, Ity which has ocniferred so much honor upon
queen, black Jamaica, and Uoscow ; and the the medical science of tha present day. At
largest fruited are the Envitle and Trinidad. — the death of Ouvier he succeeded him oa a
Thejniceof the nnripe fruit of the pineapple is member of tiie academy of sciences. He was
ezceaidvely acid and excoriating to the month, the author of 24 medical treatiaes, 6 of which
It is somedmes employed along with allied were on insanity and ownate topics, and 18 or
R>ede^ Uie hromtlia pingvin, and others, to 14 on tiie mechanism of the Joints, and other
destroT intestinal worms snd to promote the subjects oimnected with animal medhauics.
seoiethni of urine ; and from the fibres of the TTREROljO, or Fiqnsboi- a city of Italy, in
learea of the ananama very fine eloth is man- the province of Turin, on the Olnsone, 20 in.
nftctnred.— The representative of the (rw-m«2i' S. by W. from Tnrin ; pop. in 1840, 16,491. It
aeea In the United States is the Spanish moss has S churches, Q convents, and manufaotoriea
(TtOoadiJa teittMiilM, Ijnn.) of the south, and t^ailk, wool, cotton, Ac It came into the poa-
several other species known as air jdants oo- ses^n of the house of Savoy in 104S, bnt waa
onrring in sontheni Umida, several times oonqnered by the French, who
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
pmis WSS. 841
held U (Mm 168« to 1674^ from less to ISH, «tloilat»a a« OiUts of 34 otmubk Li 1788
BDd from IBOl to 1814. The conqneron dnr- ^peared hia troiislstion of Uudlius'B Attrff-
ing the ITth eentnr; conaiderably etreagthened nomiea.
its forb'fleatlons, bnt dismantled them on being FINK, Uie common name of varieties of
obliged to EiTO It np. the dtaat&u* earj/opJij/Uiit (Unn.), vrhich in
PMEB, Iblk or. L (^ Itia da Piaet.) An its natural condition grows wild m the south
islssd near the 6. W. extremitr of Oaba, Wm. of FranoeandinEn^utd, vliereitismetwith
in extreme lengQi, and 4Sm. in breadtl); area, on old rnlnona walla. The pink is of the Datn<
1,800 m. m. ; pint, in 18S4, 1,400. Naera Ge- ral order of carvopJ^/^lMM, which are herba-
Tona, the oairftal, is dtnated on the N. nide, ceons plants w^ awoUen artjonlato stems ;
and the other plaoea of most importonoe are opposite^ endnlearee; regular flowera; sep^
Banta F6 and Jorobodo. It ia separated from 4 or 5, and petals the aome ; stamens fi or
Oaba by a ehannel abont 86 tn. ime, and the twice as mauf; styles 9 to S; frnit a o^mile ;
coasts are Indented by nmnerona t^B, many seeds eiirTed:,w^ a meal^ albumen, llieyare
of which afibrd good anchorage. Thtn aro natives chiefly of the frigid and temperate parts
several moimtalns, the most remarkable of of Qie world. The 4 pnarapal varieties of die
which are the Sierra de la OaSada, the Bagnil- pink are tiie doable-flowered, called the camfr-
la, and the 6ierra de los Oabellos, respectirelf tion ; t^e frnlioose or tree oaroation ; the im-
l,ltOO, 1,600, and 1,074 feet above the leib brioated or olove, of a dark sai^nineoos color,
EztoDsive tracts of marsh extend across the with the stigmaa protruding beyond Uie petals,
centre ofthe island in an E. and W. direotion; and of deli<ttoas fragrance; and the thistle-like
Qie soil in other places is exceedingly fertile, (earduinvt, Don), wjth leaves, calyx, and pe-
lt is weli watered, and some of the rivers are tals beset with flstolons spines. The oarna-
navigable for TMsels drawing 10 feet 4nSm. tioos are themselves divided into 8 classea,
from the e%s. The olimate is mild and healthy, viz. : flakes, in whioh there should be 2 colors,
Here are mines ofiron,8i]rer, and quicksilTer, iiie stripes of the blosetxns going quite throngh
and aalphnr, rock o^tal^ and marble are tlie petals ; Usarrea, the flowers TariegatAd in
fonnd, me last of many colors and excellent irregular sbipes and epoU, and having 8 dis-
qnslity. Tobaeoo and difibront kinds of fruit tjnot odors ; and piootees, the flowers having a
are grown, and timber is abnndaut, the most white ground spotted with scailet, red, pnrple,
VBlaablede[Soriptlonsbdiigplne,i)uhogany,aiid or other colors; the last named are hardier
cedar. The island is a depwdenoy of Onba. than the others, with smaller blossoms and their
OolnmboB diseovered it in 14M; and it was margins serrated. The original type of the
afterward much frequented by pirates. IL An common garden piok is the dianthtu plitmari-
island of the Paoiflo ocean, about 43 m. in cir- v* (Linn.), with a stem boating S or 8 flowers^
comference, situated near the 8. E. extremity tJie teeth of the calyx obtuse, calydne scales
of New Oaiedonia ; lat of the peak on the S. somewhat oTate, very short, mncronulato,
E. partt2°88' H., long. 167° 25 E.; pop. esti- olose pressed ; petalsja^ed,maltifid, bearded;
mated at S,SOO. Many kinds of floe timber grow leaves linear with scabrous margins. Itiasup-
on the island, among others a pine similar to posed to be a European plant, but from what
Otat of NorfiHk islsnd, sod sandal wood. The oonntrr is uncertain. Its flowers are more or
natives are middle-alMd, of a dark color, and loss fringed, sweet-scented, double, fdngle,
of the Papuan race, like the Fa<^ee islanders^ white, purple, spotted, and variegated. Two
whom they much resemble. The males are principal varieties are known, viz. : hortenm
cireumcised, and botii sexes go nearly naked. (De 0.), with petals bearded in the throat; and
They are oannibals, and are exceedingly cruel port^uu (De 0.), with smaller leaves and petals
and feroctons. scarcely fringed. The garden pink has been
PDfQBB, Albxabdei Qm, a French as- greatly improved by the florists within a cen-
tronomer, bom ia Paris, Bept. 4, 1711, died in tnry past, having been before treated as a bor-
1796. He reoeived his education at a convent derplant. Some beautiftil sub-varietiea knoirn
school in Benlis, and early became a teacher as Paisley pinks are hybrids originating In that
of theology ; but having embraced Jansenistia part of Scotland smong the weavers and arti-
opiniona, no was compelled to abandou this sans; and the sorts most esteemed by them
career, and devoted himself to astronomy. He are what are called, pheasant eyes, from a dark
published, from 17J(4 to 17S7, under the name spot in the centre of the blossom, and the
of Stat du ekl, a valnable nanlio^ calendar; nearer tbb approaches to black the more it is
and after veri^rloK ^ QaUIe'a table of modem valued. Between 200 and 800 sort^ are enu-
ecHptes in the Art ds virifitv la datm, he oom- merated. An intermediate form between pinks
puled the rin^lar phenomena Uiat had ocom^red and riootee carnations is called the cob pink,
in the 10 eentories preceding ear era. Fnnn whUdi is of laige size and much prized. The
1760 to 1776 he made edantmo voyages to ob- oomation and pink delist in a rich loamy soD
serve transits of stsrs, and to ascertain die -ralne inolining to auidy, and require bnt ]ittle_OTO-
of Berthoud and Loroy'a timeideoea. In 1798 teotion, wintering well in cold frames. Ther
he published his ComitograpMe, on trwUi hit- are propuated by onttinga, layers, and seed.
t^TMtM dti eotnitet (9 vols, 4to.), npon which The superb pink (B. fup«rciu«, linn.) has green,
he hod been engaged for .several yeani He mootli, UuMr-lanoeol^ leaves, sweetHKented
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
84a FINEE&TON HNEHXY
flowen boms on braneUng 9t«ini In twos or puted in Puia, where, notwIQiBtindittg his
ttueea, the pcrtala rose purple or lilAo; itgraws obmoIom Indiist>7, he died in indigent circnm-
spontaneonuy <ml hs^ihs and borders of forests stsnoes. He wu a man of vigorous intellect
in monntainoiiB oomitriea of Eimqw. A varie- and vet; oonsldersUe histmical and antiqnftrisa
tr with pnrpie flowers Is known. BsTersl learning, bntfollofpr^ndioes. Heisdeecribed
outers of ^edlsnthus tribe are oaUedpiDka,bnt as "sTer^IitUeand very thin old man, with a
their tcentlees fiovers and rather diflferent tot; smail, eharp, yellow face, thickly [dtted
node of infloresoenoe osnse tltem to be treated bj the small pox, and decked with a pair of
with less oondderation. Bmne newandTsry green spectacles-" His literary correspondence
cnrioQs Tarieties of the dian&fui CAimmu have waa edited by Dawson Turner (London, 1880).
lately come Into notioe, known as Japan pink^ PIN£K£Y, Wrjjaii, an American lawre-
" ■■ * ~ ~ lodnx ' ' " ' " ' — - -
of wldoh i>. SdwMi, lawtioitit, and mtTUtrih bora In Ajmapolis, ltd., March 12, 1704, died
nu are examples ; tiie style of the plants, their Teb. 92, 1823. His family was a branch of tho
flancons fohage, and stiff, npri^t, patnlons South Carolina I^okneys, and early settled at
iosgoms,do not Teoommesd uiem. Annapolis. He studied medicine in Baltimore,
PINKEBTON, JoHR, a Boottish author, bora but in 1788 resolyed to devote himself to law,
in Edinburgh, Feb. 17, 1768, died in Paris, and was called to the bar in 1786. Hii very
Uarch ID, 183S. He was intoided {<a the le- first efforts gave him a marked position. In
gal profesdon, hot having established himself 1788 he was elected a delegate to the conven-
in London in 1780, he entered upon a Hteraiy tion which ratified the oonstitotion of the Unit-
oareer of ungnlar activity. After pnbUshing ed States, and snbseqaently held variona state
some trifiea in verse nndeidiie title of " Itimea" offices in the honee of delegates, senate, and
(Bvo., 1781), be edited " Select Scottish Bal- conncdl In 1706 he was sent to London by
lads," many of the pieces in which be snbse- President Washington as eommisdoner under
qnently confessed were bis own composition, the Jay treaty, remaning abroad nnlil 1804,
sneceeded by more volnmes of verse, an " Ee- when he became attorney-general for the state
say on Uedals" (9 vols. 8vo., 1784), onoe a use- of Haryland. He waa sent minister to England
fhl manual for nnmismatists, and " Letters on In 1806, and held that office till 1811, when be
Literature, by Bohert Heron" (8to., 1786). was appointed attorney-general of the United
The lost named work, exempli^fing a new sys- States by Ur. Madison. He held this ofKca
tem of English orthogra^iy, procured bim the over two years, and resigned it in conseqaenc«
acquaintance of Horace walpole and Gibbon, of an act of congress requiring the attorney-
He next edited "Ancient Scottish Poems" (2 general to reside at Wastunotoa. He com-
Tols. 6vo., 1786), published from the MB. col- manded a volunteer corps in the war of 1612,
lections of Sir Biohard Msitland, and long sap- and was severely wounded at the battle of
poeed to be forgeries, although their gennine- Bladensburg. In 181S he was a member of
ness is BOW auQientioated. In 1787 appeared congress, and in 1816 was ^tpointed minister
his " Dissertation on the Origin and Progress to Russia and special minister to Naples, retnm-
of the Scythians or Goths," which, with the <ng home in 1S18. The following year he was
" Inquiry into the History of Scotland preced- elected a member of the U. S. senate, where he
ing the Beign of Ualoolm HI." (2 vols. Svo., made two elaborate speeches on the Missouri
1789), is chiefiy remarkable forthe strong anU- question, and was a member of the committee
Celtic feeling of the author, who undertakes of coni^ence that reported the Missouri com-
to prove that the Celts were an inferior race promise, which he strongly advocated. At the
to the Goths, " being mere savages, hut one tune of his death Mr. Finkney was by general
degree above brutes. His " History of Scot- acknowledgment at the head of the American
art to that of Mary" (S vols. 4to., 17B7) is less that was held by Daniel Webster some veara
colored by pr^ndice, and is still considered the later. His " life" was written by Henry Whea-
mostaocuratenistory of the period. After the ton (New Tork, 1826). — EnwAsn Coats, boq
death of Walpole he collected and published of the preceding, an American poet, bom in
notes of the convwsatloa of his patron, with a London, daring the temporary residence there
memoir, In 9 vols. 12mo., under the title of of his other as American commianoner, in Oct
" Walpoliana." Among hie remaining works 1803,diedinBaltimM«,Aprilll,18S8. Hewas
were the " Medallio Hirtmr of England to the educated at St. Mary's college, Baltimore, and
Kevolntlon" (4to., 1700) ; "loonographiaScotl- at the age of 14 entered thenavy as a midship-
ea" CS vols. 6vo., 1799) ; "Modern Geography man. £al824herengned hiscommisnon, was
digested on a Kew Flan" (8 vols. 4to., 1802); married, and commenced the practice of the
" General Oolleotion of Toyagee and Travels" law. Failing in this, he attempted unsnoceaa-
(17 vols. 4to., 1808-'18), aooixnpanied by a ftiUy toprocure a commission fn the naval eer-
"New Modem Atlas," pnhliriied in parts vice of Mexico; and in 1897 be assumed the
(1809-'16) ; and " Petrology, or a Treatise on control of a political journal called " The Mary-
Bocks" (2 vols. Svo., 1811). In addition to lander," which from ill health be was soon
these he edited 8 rolumes of eoaroe Scottish obliged to relinquish. His poetical repataUon
poems, Barbonr's "Bruce," " Lives of Soottiah rests on a volume entitled " Bodolph and other
6Bints,"dBC. The last 89 yean of his life were Foenu^" puUiahed anonymously in 1826. Some
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PINT FINZON 3ia
oftheBongifaithtB,inolDdliigthe"HeaKbi''snd oraudrti of ■ eirdeot trees, of an wire oi l«n
the " Plotore Song," Btall have great popularity, in extent, entindj dead, wiuioat aoy apparent
PINT, a measure of oapadtf, betiig the 8th oanae. This is Tariooslj attributed to the ef-
part of a gaUon. (See Gallott.) feeta of lightning or the ravagea of inaecta.
PISTAIK), See Guncu Fowt. The brooks and rivnleta of the piny woods
HSTKT.T.T, Baooio, an Italian arohitect, eonriat of the poreat and moat limpid water.
bom prolmbl J in Florence about the nuddle of The abnosphere is aingolarl; healthful and ex-
tlu ISth century, died probably in Urbino bilarating, and the e^ialationa from the pine
abont the commencement of the 10th oentnry. are believed to poaeeaB properties poeitively
He was the principal architect of Popn Sixtna cnratiTe of incipient putmoaary disease. Tha
TV^ for whom he erected abont I478-'S the popolatitHi is email and aoattered, on aoooont
ffistine ohspeL He ako deateied the chnroh of the nnprodnctdveneeB of the soiL Of late
and oonTent of Santa Uaria del Fopolo, the old years, however, there have been large accea-
Dbrary of the Vatican, the dmrdiea of San aioiiH to the amount of labor and c<i>ital em-
Fietro in Yincofia, Santa Maria dalla Face, and ployed in obtvnlue^iiuber and turpentine, a»
Bant' Agostino, the Fonte Siato over the Tiber, well as, to a limited extent, in the cnltivalioa
&e. After the death of ffixtna he went to Ur- of the land.
bino, and was engaged upon the ducal palace TISZOS, the name of a &mily of wealtby
of that city. and daring navigators in the port of Palos de
PyrO, Uknsbz. Bee Uramcs-PDrro. Uogner in Andalnsia, S members of wiiidk
PlnTO D£ FONSEOA. Bee Ohat>b, Hu- were intimately asaociated with Colombos in
oris or. hia discovery of America. I, UAnrni Alohbo,
PrarUKIOOHIO, Bbbk^bdoio, wa ItaHaa the head of the family at that time, was so
punter, bom in Perogla in 14M, died in 1618. ocHivinoed of the feasibility of the project, that
He was ft putril of Peruglno, and one (^ the he offered to afford the means for Golumbna
beat pftinteTs of the Boman or Umbrian aohool to renew his application to the court When
previous to the tdme of Raphael, exoeUng In the latter had obtained th» royal order to fit
portraits, history, and architectural aooesao- out 8 Teasels for the voyage, it was principally
rwa. He executed portraits of FopeaFimll. through the influence of thePinzons that crews
and Innocent Yin., Isabella the CatfaoUo, and eould be collected for them. Uartin Alooso
other en^ent personages, but Is chiefly dislin- commanded t^e Pinta on this voyage. In the
-■ - ^ — 1 H, painted ir ' ' '
oof"
. _ _ ./Kaphi . ,
PDTTWO0I>S,atenn^)pliedt0BeveralTei7 ithimaeUl Hesto^edatariveriuBlspaiuola,
pushed hj Ms historj of ^tu H, painted in snbsequent croisiaa in search of the imaginary
'0 compartments of the Duraao of ^wna, and island of Babeqne, be deeerted Columbus in the
n whicn he waa uaisted by BaphaaL latter part of Nov. 1492, and went in search of
diffiuent re^iMis of oonntry in the sonthers now called Porto C^iollo, but which for a long
states <^ Ifort^ America, but more partionlarly' time was designated aa the river of Martin Alon-
totbatbroadbehofterrnoryexten^ngfroroeo ao. From here he carried off 4 men and S ^ria
to too m. inland from the N. shore of the gnlf of with the intention of selling them in Spain aa
Hedeo, and inclufngnearlythe whole of West alaves, bnt was afterward forced to ^ve them
florida, with the sonUtern parts of Alabama and up by Oolnmbua, with whom he fell in during
Knisuppi, and the S. E. comer of Louisiana, the following January, attributing his parting
Fortions <xt East Florida, Qeorgia, and the Oar- company with the admiral to stress of weather.
oBoas partake, in a greater or less degree, of On the return voyage they were again separat-
the same general fbatnres. This region is but ed by a storm, and Knzon waa driven into die
Bttle clearad and cuUivated. Its oharaoterls- port of B^onne. Not doubting that Oolumbna
ties are entirelv dlflbrent from those of the ad' had perished In the tempest, he wrote to the
>eent cotton oiatriots. The soil is sandy and sovereigns, giving infinTnation of the disooveryt
barren, and the predominant and to a great and auing pen^ssion to eome to court and
ntent olmoet imnried growth is pine, both in deliver his oooount in person. He arrived in
the bin and level portjona, for there is a great Palos the evenii^ of the some dav with the
divernty of surface. The absence of under- admiral, and found that the latter iiad hod a
growth allows the eye a wide range of vision, triumphant reception. He landed in privet^
and gives to these fbrests a (dngnlarl;r stately and, broken in health and spirita, received not
tipptanace. The borders of the streams and long after a letter fr<Hn hia sovereign forbid-
vwamps are fringed with a thidk growth of ding him to appear at court. This added to
magnolia, bay, laurel, and other evergreens, bis dejection, and soon after he died. II. Yi-
" Nj-call " is the provincial term commonly obntb YaSxz, who had commanded the NiDa
mdied to the smaller of these swamps or in the first expedition ef Columbus, in oonae-
tmeketa — often the sonroe of streams — which quenoeof the general license given by the Span-
coiutitiite a bmiliar feature of the country. It Uh sovereigna to moke voyages of discovery,
is hare that the deer and other game, which fitted out an armament of 4 caravels, manned
*re rare in tbe open woods, find a refrige. Open mincipally by his friends and relatione, and in
Slxi^ or savannas, of greater <^ lees extent, Oeo. 14S9 aisled from Pslos in a S. W, direo-
■re frequently met witb. A corioua phenom- tion. After having gone abont 700 leagues, he
uon occanonally ocourring in these woodi oroaied the equinoctial line and lost sight td
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
the nortl) ttar. On Jen. SS, 1500, land vm death dw published a Ttdnme cntMed " Aneo-
dsecried ; it iraa Oape St. Angiutine. I^nEoa dotes of Dr. Bamnel JohitMD dnring the last
was thus the first European to erow the equator Twenty Teara of liis life" (Sro., 17B6X This
in tiie western ooean, and the flrst disooTerer publication prodooed a fend between her and
of Brazil. I^ndins, he took fbnnal poesearion Boswell and the other fnends of JohnBon.
of the country for the OaHHUan crown; bnt be- which gave rise to I>r. Wolcott's poem of
ing Twolntely met bj wariike natives, he sailed " Bozzy and I^ozzi." "While liriDg in Florence
to the N. Vf., and after varioiie adventiires in 1786, abe printed with Herry, Greathead,
reached the month of the Amazon. Pnrsiiing and Farsons, Uie fonnders of the Bella Cmsca
his cosrse, be passed the moDlh of the Orinoco, school of poetry, a oollection in prose and Terao
and in the latter part of Jnne reached Ssp»- called " The Florentine JGscellany," which
*niol&. In the following month twoof thecara- however was not published. Her oUier wwks
vela were sonk with thdr crews in a terrifio are : "Letters to and from Br. Bamnel John-
hurricane. Pinzon arrived In Palos about the son" (3 vols. Bvo,, 1788) ; " ObscTTations and
end of September, after a disastrous voyage, Kefleotiona made in the oourse of a Jonmey
which bad swallowed np all his fortone. On through Franee, Italy, and Germany" (3 vols.
8ept.fi, l&Ol, royal permission was given him 8vo., 1780); "British Bjvonymy, or an At-
to colonize and govern all the oonntry he hsd tempt at isolating the Cboice of Words in Fa-
discovered from Oape St. Angnedne to a little miliar Conversation" (2 vols. 8vo., 1794) ; and
north of the Amazon, but he never made a " Betroepeotion, or a Beview of the mosaatrik-
second expedition into those parts. In 1506 ing and important Events, Characters, Bitna-
aud again in 1508 he was concerned in voyages tions, and uteir Consequences, which the last
to discover the passage which Colmubus snp- £^ht«en Enndred Yean have presented to the
posed to lead from the Atlantic to a southern view of Mankind " (2 vols. 4to., 1801). She !•
ooean. m. Frakoisoo Maktis, the thHl also said to have written much both in prose
brother, accompanied the first expedition of and verse for various publicadous ; but the
Columbus, BS pilot of Martin Alonso's vessel, poems contributed in 1766 to the "Miscella-
the Pinta. — By the emperor Charles T. the nies" published by Anna Maria Williams, egp«-
Finzon family were raised to the ranlc of hi- oially one entitled " The Three Warningn," are
dalgos, in reward ibr the services in discovery considered her beat prodnetionH.— See " Auto-
its members had rendered. It still exists in hiograjihy. Letters, and literary Bemuns of
Uogner near Falos. Mrs. Pioxzi," edited, with notes and an intro-
FIOMBO, Fbi. Sebabttano dbl, an Italian ductory account of her life and writings, by A.
E inter whose family name was Luciano, bom Hayward (London and Boston, 1861).
Yemce in 1485, died in Borne in 1547. Ho PIPE, a wine meaBnre of rather indefinite
studied under Giovanni Bellini and Gior^one, capacity. In England it is rated at 126 wine
and by his works attracted the attention of gallons,ornear1y 106 imperial gallons. Apipe
Agoatino Chigi, a merchant of Bienna, who of Cognac brandy is about ISSJ gallons; of
poTsnaded him to visit Rome. Here Michel Montpellior, 164} gallons ; of Bordeaux, 90}
Angelo gave him valuable advice, and it is even gallons ; of port wine, 188 gallons ; of sherry,
reported by Tasari that he aided him in the 180 ; of madeira, 110, &o.
composition of some of his most celebrated PIPF!, a mn^cal wind Instrnment, of whicb
works, and set him up as a competitor to Ba- there have been many varieties. It is distin-
fihael. 8ebaatiano's"BaiBingof Lazarus," which gnished from the flute byb^ng blown through
t said to include several gronps and figures in- one end instead of the aide. The ancient
vented, if not designed, by the great Florentine, Egyptians possessed both the flute and the
was at all events intended to rival the " Trans- pipe, u appears from the nameroos drawing
figuration" of Raphael. He excelled moat how- ropresentmg musical performances preserved m
ever In portrtutare. Clement YU. appointed theirtombe. Thepipesweremadeof reeds,and
him keeper of the papal seals, from wnioh dr- some of them preserved in the British museum
onmstsnce he derived his surname of Fiombo and in the collection at Leyden are merely
(lead), the SQbstaoee used in sealing bulls. His pl^n tubes, from 7 to 15 inches in length, fur-
office obliged him to assume the m<Hik's habit, nished with either 8 or 4 holes, and sometimes
whence he was a^Ied Prate or Fra. with a small mouthpiece of reed or thick straw,
FIOZZI, Hesfeb Ltitoh, an English author- compressed at the end so as to leave a very nar-
esa, bom in Bodvel, Caernarvonshire, in 17S9, row aperture. Some of the pipes consist of two
di«i in Clifton, near Bristol, May 3, 1821. Bhe tubes, to be held one in each hand, one giving
was the daughter of John Salnabury, esq., and a deep base sound, and the other a sharp tone
In 1764 married a wealthy brewer named for the tenor. The modem Egyptians use a
Thrale. Shortly afterward die formed an ao- mde imitation of it called the double eummara.
anaintanoe with Dr. Johnson, to which fact WiUdnson remarks : " The double like the
tie owes all the celebrity she has in literature, dngle pipe was at first of reed, and afterward
"With him she preserved a close intimacy until, of wood and other materials ; and it was in-
much against his wishes, she married in 1784^ troduced both on solemn and festive occamona
after the death of Thrale, an Italian music maa- among the Egyptians, as among the Greeka.
tar named Gabriel FiouL After Jdmaon'a Men, but more fivqnent^ women, performed
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FIFE «a
npn H, oocarionaUr ^&nc!i^ ss &tsT pU^ed ; wo^ of Olasgoir and Dundee the cast inm
ud Iraii iti repeated occarrence in the sonlp- pipes have been made of late with the socket
tsm of Tbebea, it was eridentl j prefemd to or &acet end bored out to & true taper and
QtB dn^e pipe." The Bomans made use of a accaratelj fitted to the corresponding Bisaller
linSar inurnment called the tSna, and a per- or spigot end, which is tarned in a lathe. Bj
•CO pltjlng Ute doable pipe was said eanere or coatmg the spigot end with hjdranlio cement Oi
Mabm tiSiia, the two tabes evidently being the oonsbtencj of paint, laid on with a broEh,
ffistinet, and not connected by one monthpiece, a tight joint is secured without the neceB8it7
The &ia dextra, held in the right hand, was of an j paoltisg ; but to make this sdll more
ased to lead or commence a piece of music, and aore, the precantion has been adopted by Hr.
VM hence called meentitia; while the tibia JamesLealieof boring ont a frroovearonnd the
mMfrn, held In the left hand, and fbllowine inside of the month of the &noet, into whidi
the fomier u an accompaniment, was called melted lead m^ be poured to form a ring.
MMmCwo, The former is Boppoced to hftve Both the water and new gas pipes of Dundee
beeatliebase,andtiielatterthetenoror treble, are bored and turned, and the process has
The Fhr7^;ien [dpec, ^ving a grare and solemn Proved perfectly satisfactory and economical.
KKind, were osed at nmerals. Others regnlat- The rias to which water pipes are subject is
«d the danc^ and the stroke of the oars in breakage at the Joints from their being under-
nwlng. In the Greek mythoi(^y the pipe was ndned by eicarations for eewera or other pnr- ,
tlw Earorito instrnment of Pan, to whom its in- poses. Great damage has thus been done to
Tmtioii is aeoHbed, and of other rural deities, the water pipes at Edinbnn-h, which are
The pastoral character thus early associated mostly of socket Joints secured with lead and
widt it has continued to the present day, and it yarn. In Montreal and Hamilton, OanadA
bnowfoond only ia remote comers of Europe, West, turned and bored pipes procured from
amoDg simple and primitire people. Throngh- Scotland hare been laid for the water wor^ the
tnt Franoe, England, and other Eoropean largest size of the pipes bebg 16 inches diame-
Hxmtriea, it was always played in conjunction, to". Another kind of Joint is formed br bring-
vitb the tabor, a small drum. ingtogetiier two ends of pipes, cast of the same
PIPE, a tube for the oonreyance of water, diameter throughout, and shrinking upon these
tteam, gas, heated Eur, or other fluid, used for a collar of wrought iron. Buch Joinings, adding
■ great variety of purposes in the arts and in little to the diameter, ere convenient for long
domsstio economy. The materials of which pieces of pipe, which are to be driven down
ripes are constructed are also very various. Into the ground, as those nsed at the natural
Logs of Tood have been eitensively used fbr oil wells in Pennsylvania. (See PBTBOLKcif.)
WKler pipes, the sticks bebig bored throngh Water pipes have also been saccessfiilly made
the centre by long angers, and fitted together of hydraulic cement encased in thin sheet
by means of the conical termination at one iron. (See Aqueditot, to which also refer-
eitd entering the corresponding enlarged cav- ence may be made for on account of the dif-
Ity of the next length. The pipes by which ferent sizes of water pipes in use in the United
London was supplied with water were not States.) The small water pipes called service
many years since thus constmcted of elm pipes are chiefly of lead, notwithstanding the
wood; and similar pipes of pine are still in serions objection of their imparting poisonous
common nse in many places in the United properties to the water. (Bee Lead.) Varions
States. They are defective ftvm the decay expedients have I>een devised fbr protecdnx
Iher experience when buried in the ground, the Inner surface of the pipes, as by a lining of
which soon destroys their usefnlnese, and also tin, of gutta percha, and of piteh, and pipes of
contaminates the water that passes through block tin and of gutte percha have been manu-
them. Oast iron pipres prove a valnable sob- Metered to t^e tJieir place oltJ^gether. The
slitato fbr wooden pipes. They can be made former, however, have proved too expensive
of any sise and to bear any desired amount of for general use, and those of gntte percha, at
lliey are jointed together either by least of the ordinary qualities of that article,
J flanges around each end, through are liable to decay. — Wrought iron pipes, snclt
•orew bolts are passed, a flat ring wash- as ore now nsed in immense quantities for
•r or some material appropriate to the nse to steam and gss pnrposee, are of recent inven-
which the pipes are to be put being laid be- tion. In the earlypsrt of the present centnry,
tween the two flanges ; or one of the ends of when gas was first applied to illumination, old
each pipe is east with a socket large enough mnskat barrels were sought for and fitted to
to admit the end of the next pipe for a short screw together to serve fbr conveying the
^stance. The Joint Is then mode tight by gas; and it was not until 1884 that processes
packing in hemp, and following this with of making wrought iron tobes were invented
melted lead, or, if it is to be exposed to heat, and patented in England. Various modes of
by ail immoniae and iron tnmines. This mix- constructing these pipes have rince been intro-
titre bcteg dampened, a rapid oxidation of the dnced, differing from each other chiefly in the
iron tnmings takes place, by which they in- manner of welding together the edges of the
eiease b balk and Iiecome tjghtly set in the long strip of iron, as this is tnmed op into the
Joint, cwnpletely flDing it np. For tiie wttex drcolar form. By some manufooturers a man^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
846 TTPE
the pipe when it^ped wm« beaten togiBtlier; large aavHU the labtainaokweeui^ parte of
«Dd 1)7 others the maadrilTasdi^enBedwUb, the UiutedStatM,aawdluiiLotlMrooiiiitiiefl.
the Borip or " akelp" of iron bdng talen frton But many earthenware pipe bowls are now
the fbnUce almost at the point St fluion, and nude vi&oat the atem, some of i^ain form,
bj the oWn of a drair beooh dragged thioogh andsomeTithKrotesqaehesdautdflgnrMof a
a pair of tonga with two bell-mouthed jawa. great Tariet; of Bh^>ea, These are used with
in wUoh the edges are stronglr CMnprooaed a etem of cane or oUter wood, which any one
together and welded. — 9*^P^ pipes are ez- can fit to them. Upon the Anurican oontiiaent
tensiTeij emplofed in distilleries of different pipes bare been in tue from verj remote peri-
kiods and other ohemical operations, and to oda. The7 are fonnd in theanoieiit monnos of
protect them from corrosion they are often the West together wiUi other relics of an nn-
tinned within. Brass pipes are nsed in sitoA- known race, elaboratelj' carved in stone into
tions ezposad to great heat, as abont steam fuioifol shj^es, often resembling varions ani- '
boilera, and espedoUy for the tubes of tsbnlar male of the conntrj. In northern New Tork
boilers. Pipes have been made of zino as a pro- and in Cajnsa co. Hi^j are freqaently discoT-
poced eabsBtnte for lead, and also of an may ered in ploughing the land. Some are of bo^>-
of zino and lead. Hpes fbr oonTejing gas stone and oUiers of baked olay . In the aoooont
hare reoentlf been made in France and Eng- of the disooverj of the Hndwm river by Robert
land of bitmninized paper, U. Jalonrean, a Jnet, mention is made of "red oopper tobacco
oontrootor for paving Paris and other towns in pipes and otber things of copper, which the
XVance with bitnminona concrete, noticing the savages did wear abont their necka" In the
Bti&ess and solidity of a roll of paper that hod N. W. territory, upon the sommit of the divld-
bean left some tune ooated with bitumen, was ing rid|^ between the Bt. Peter's and the Mis-
led to prepare some pipes in this manner, which souri nvers. called the Cotean des Prairica,
proved so etronc and impervious, that eiperi- and in the lalatude of St Anthony's falla, the
ments were made with them b^ direction of Indians have long procured a peculiar Tariety
the municipal autborities of Paris to test their of red steatite or soapstone, of which all the
durability as gas pipes bnried in the earth ; red atone pipes of that region are made. The
and at the end of 12 months, on being taken locality is neld in great reverence by Uie In*
from the ground, it is said they appeared like dians, and tbey bave strongly opposed any at-
new pipes. A piece of the pipe, of 2 inches tempts of the whites to visit it Oatlin, bow-
diamet^ of bore and i inch tbiolmesa of mate- ever, succeeded in overcoming their scruples,
rial, supported upon bearings 8 feet apart, was and was shown the spot at the baae of a long
broken only by a wei^t of 4S8 lbs. ; and vertical wall of quartz, which lay in horizontal
specimens of only i inch thickness were found strata, the pipestone layers spreading under
o^Mble of resisting a pressure of 2Q0 lbs. to the adjoining prairie land of the ridge, whence
the sqnare inch. Pipes out out of solid blocks it was obtained by digging a few feet in depth.
of stone were in use to some extent in London He jndged from the great extent of the eicava-
in the early part of the present century, and tions, and from the graves and andent fortifi-
several in^nious modes of preparing them cations, that the place must have been frequent-
were contrived. By one method circiuar cut- ed by different tribes of Indians for many cen-
ters were made, the first one to remove a cen- tories. (" American Journal of Science," voL
tral core from the block, and lai^er ones fol- zxxviii., 1840.) The pipes made of this stone
lowed, each removing a hollow cylinder of its are heavy, and nsoally of rather plain fonn,
own diameter. The pipes, though good in deoorated by bands and ornaments of lead,
other respects, were costly and Bable to be which appear to have been run into depressions
broken in the joints by the jarring occasioned made to receive it and then amoothod down,
by carria^ passing over them. Baked earth- The stems are long and corioutdy carved sticks
enware pipes are now prepared for the convey- of hard wood, eomeliines flat, frequently omn-
ance of water, and especially for drains. (See nientedwith gaily colored feathers of birds and
Dbainaqe.) horse hair dyed of scarlet bus. The most
FIP£, ToBAooo, a bowl and connecting tobe elaborate pipes are those of the Asiatics, espe-
made of baked cli^, stone, or other material, oiaUy the Persians and Turks. (See IUeeb-
and used in smoking tobacco. Olay pipes, bohadm.) The bowls are large and heavy, not
with slender stems of 6 inches to a foot or intended to be held in the hand or carried
more in length, bave been largely supplied to about, and the stems are several feet long,
commerce from potteries devoted to this man- sometimes made in part of spiral wire covered
n&ctnre in Loudon and other places in £ng- with a thin impervious coating of leather or
land, the clay, which is a pecoliarly white and Other substance, so that this portion of them ie
adhemve variety, being obtained from Pur- very fleiiUe. The mouthpiece ia of ivoiT-, ul-
beck in Dorsetehuv. The brittle character of ver, or amber, the last oemg preferred and
the pipes is in part compensated for by their mnoh the moat expensive. The principal por-
uheapness ; and thongh they are now giving tion of the amber product of Pmssia is applied
place to more durable kinds made of other to this use, and some of the mouUipieces ttmi-
ol^a, of porcelwn, and even of wood, the con- muid very large prices. In the Turkish de-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
■at u uuiox- oBiwu uiD ainusar oouaar IB i»pi»- pBie dtowb, [TBiiHTenieir DRTTBa WlUl OitrKer
aOf ippointod to tak« ou« of it, and preMiit brown ; the tail is fan-^&ped. Another epe-
n nonthpiMe to bla master fiv nnoking. The deaoftheEiigUahooutiatbe'?. typA&(Iiiii).),
rga bowl of this pipe ia set upon an ajr-tight charaoterixed bf its deeper jaws j it te aboat
pcrtaMBt <rf the great exhibhion of 16B1 than can is taken of the eggs or yonng, this duty
wife 4 amber moiith^eoea valued tt^^ether at ia performed bj tiie males, while fa other
£1,000. Tha Baatnit AmIoA or icukar is a alassea the fenuJee, assisted oocaeionall; br
jApa of «xtra(H'diiiBiT alia, and an insbument their mates, protect and feed tiie Toong. It
of todi ii^N>rt«iM>e in tha oonrta of Uta prinoea attains an average length of IB inches, and is
dtat D (rfBoer wiled die hmtor boudar is spe- pale brown, trADSTerselr bRrred with darker
ebflT")- ■-' ' ■ ■ " ' ■ ^ i . . .
large b , , , . „ ,__ ,_ _,
roNal oontainiiig water, and a small tnbe from IS inohee long, olive green, mottled and qiotted
the [npe pMsea down into the water. The with ^ellewidk brown and white. Among the
BBoking tube is inserted into the side of this speciea whlidi have no fins bnt ibo doraal, and
tbmbI, and eontmnnioatoi Ihrongh a long flexi- na8Qboaadalpotieh,aretheAa7wr»tu(Edns.)
Ub tabe vitii the moothpieoe. Br eihanating of the British seas, abont 20 inohea long, of a
the air tbrongh fliis the smoke is foroed down jellowish color, with transverae pale lines an^
onder the water, and entering the n>aoe above daik margins ; the anakepipe fish (S. ejAidion,
It Mates into toe fCem freed hj Its contact Linn.), abont 14 inchea long, of tlie size of a
witt the water from some of the most acrid goose quill, the tail ending in a point and the
pn^MMlias of the tobacco. The German pipes color a nniibrm olive green ; and the worm
are ot G)^*^ varietjr, aa well of materia) as of pipe fish (S. IumMe\formi*, Jen.), onlj A or 8
fbma. Those of porcelain are sometimes bean- inches long, of a dark olive green color. In
tifiillT- painted in the stjrle of fine obinaware America b the 3. Peetianvt (Storer), which
rt*nlS"g. Other pipes are of wood and of attains a length of 13 inches; the color ia
meeradhaam, with long and with short stems. oUve brown, with nnmerons transverse daiiar
FIFE OLAT. Bee Olat, voL t. p. EOS, bars, and yellowish below ; ponoh present
FIFE FISH, the popnlar name <^ the snb- and all the fins exo^t the anal, or the latter
Ikmil; tyitgnathmm ik the l(q>hobranohiate is ezceedingl^ minute; eyes prominent and
order of muine acanthcpterTi^oiis flahea, and very movable. Another speoiee, from New
naitienlaiir of the genua $yitffiuithta (lAnn.). En^aad and New York, leas common, is the
The diaractere of we order have been given brown pipe fish (3. /uaetu, Storer), of a gen-
la the article Lothobbikohb. In the snb- ersl brownish color. It is very easy to see in
badij the form Is much elongated, and oot- the aqnanmn that the tail ts not the sole nor
ered with a series of imbricated plates, and the the prindpal organ of locomotion in these
dla are arranged in tnite instead of platee, fishes, and many species have no fin bnt the
1^ genus has a T-^ided body, the inont doraal ; when dedrons of rapid progress, ther
sbai^t and cylindrical, and withont spines; move the bodjvnymnch like an eel, bnt in
a aingie doraal on the middle of the back, not ordinary locomotion the donal is the chief
on an elevated plane, the upper border of the motor oigan ; thia may be seen to make short
htA never in toe same line with that of the and quick vibratory movementa which pass in
' " " " ' *"'" either oon- spiral waves along its border, like the screw
.. interropted of a propeller, and might well have snggeeted
where thst ends ; donal sor&oe fiat or slightly this motive power to naval arohitecta. They
eoneave, and the rln^ of the bod^ 34 to 27 ; have also a remarkable power of moving the
tha gin opening is circnlar and high np, and eyes, even throogh an arc of 00°, and each in-
Ae ventrab are wanting ; the jaws tobnlar, dependently of the other ; thia fitcnlty is pos-
the month at the end ; in aome species the eessed by toe hmilj. — Other acanthopterons
pectorals, anal, and oaodal are wanting ; the apeciee of the family aulotttimitUi are also
tail is not prehen^le ; the head in the same 4»lled pipe fishes ; these are charaotorized by
Hoe with the body : the males have a oaodal the prolongation of the bones of the face into
e^ poDoh under the tail, open ia its whole a long tobe, at the end of which is the
extent. About SO species are described, of month ; tiie ribs are short or absent, and the
vUeh in Europe the best known is the great intestines have neither great dilat^ona nor
pipe fish (8. acut, linn.), sometimee called many folds. In jUtulatia (Linn.) the mouth
needle fish; this has all the fins except the is small, with a nearly horizontal gape; the
▼entrala ; it is fonnd at low or high water, body long and slender, the head forming i or ^
swimming dowly among sea weeds, feeding of the total length ; branobioetegal rays 6 at
*M anall emstaoeans imd mollnska, marine 1; doraal single and nmple, opposite the anal;
-wonoa, inaecta, and roe of flihes. Inthemale teethsmall; oneortwoJointeafilamenla,arane-
the poaterlor part of the abdtonen is broader times as long as the body, isanlng tmca be-
thao the rest, w^ 8 soft fiaps folding together tween the deep forks of the osndal; dr Madder
than the rest, with 8 soft naps folding together tween the deep forks of the osndai; ur bladder
and totwiBg a kbii of poach fbr the reception very small ; scales invisible. The serrated pipe
of tiw MTga, whieb, it is bijieved, are piaoed flah (F. mrata, Blooh) att^ns a length of S8
■ ■ ^^ L the caudal flament is
t drab, with a narrow
ong the sides, the throat
nen and irides ailvery;
there byUle female; it ia greatly attached to to 80 inohea, of which the caudal mament is
tte ynong, which alao, when small, are said to 10 or li; color light drab, with a narrow
tab refhge in the ponofa ; It is Interesting to brownish blue band along the sides, the throat
obstrve that whenever among fiahea nnnaoal white, and the abdomen and iridea ailvery ;
84S MPH PIHAOT
the snout with longttodiiul Betrated lUgw; ftir 10, and tiie ace for 11. Wboem his {xrint
tbe lowerjawthelonmraadflomawliat cmrved eoanta one for each card heboid*. 8. Seqneaca,
upward, with a fleaoj protnbertuice at the which is aereral oards in the same ndt, folloW"
^in ; the shonldera corered with horn^ ijig oonsecntWel^, ooDnta 8, 4, 16, 16, lY, or
plates; the doraal and amal triangnlar peo- 18, aooording aa there are 8, ^ 6, 6, 7, or 8
torsla qaBdran^Qlar, ventrals terj small aad consecntiTe oardB. 4. The tnutUnt, wlucfa ia
aboot mid wajr between pectorals and anal; it 4cardaofeqiialTaliieiii4diffeTentmiite, coonU
is fbnad Atnn Massaobtisetts to the coast of 14. 6. The cards are reckoned bj the wimier
Braril. The tobaooo pipe fish {F. tabaoaria, of the greater munber of tricks, and count 10.
Blooh), also Amerioan, is smaller, brownish 9. The eapot, coonted by a plarer who wins all
with a row of pale spots, with the abdomen the tricka, nuikee GO towara uie game, benda
white in die middle, and the orbite splnY. In 10 reckoned for tlie cards. There are many
aulotloma (Lso^p.) the dorsal is preceded by lindlar implications in piqoet, eopeclally in tha
some free spines, the Jaws toothless, tite fkdal seqnence, where the holder of the sreater ae-
tnbe and body' less slender, the latter acaly, qnence, a tmitiime, or 8, is entitled to const
the tMl without filament, and tbe air bladder for the huitiime, and for erery lesaer sequenee
very large; the A. Bmentt (Bloch) Inhabits that it involves — a tiene, a qumrt, a ffuint, a
the Indian ooean. In ««ntruou< (linn.) there asinjrrM, and KMpft^e— thatis, 78. From an
is the tabular snont, bat the body ia oval and ordinary pack of cards the S, 8, 4, S, and 6 are
compressed, trenchant on the abdomen ; there discarded for ;Mqaet, and the other cards rank
Is a gpinons doraal very &r back, with a strong as at whiat. The cards are dealt 8 by S, nntil
Ist spine, and a soft dorsal behind it ; &e body each player has 13, and the tofen or stock i>
Is covered with small ecalei. The G. Kolapaoi then plaoed npon the board. From this the
(Linn.), called aea snipe and tmmpet fish, is dder hsnd has the right to draw 5 cards in
common in the Ifediterranean ; it is 4 or ff their nstoral order, and most then discard the
inches long, reddieh on the back and sides, and same nnmber from his own hand. This discard
silvery on the belly, aometimes with a golden affords htm Bome opportoni^ to arrange hia
tinge ; its fleah is delicate and esteemed. In hand with reference to the variona ecorea. It
amphutle (Klein) the back is culraased by is imperative upon the elder hand to diseaid at
broad scaly plat«s, and the strong dorsal spine least one card, bnt not the whole 6. If he dia-
ls oontinned backward in the axis of the body, oarda leaa than G he has the privilege of looking
of which it actually forms the hinder eztrem- at the cards left. Bis own discard is optionu
Ity, the second dorsal and the anal being with the dealer, and if chosen follows after
crowded backward and even on to the nndor every other hand. Tricks are taken in the
snrfece; they are from the Indian ocean, usual manner by the superior cards of the same
The food of all these fishes consisto of minute snit
cmstaceana and other marine animals, which PIB PAJiJAL, or the SAurra' MouicTAra, a
they detach from varione kinds of sea weed. lofty range, forming part of the 8. W. bonndaiy
PIPPI. Bee Qmuo Roiuno. of Caahmere. and separating it from the Pnn-
PIQUA, a city of Miami co., 0., on the Great ianb. Its highest point, in or near Ut SS" 40^
Vlaml river ; pop. in 18S0, 4^20. It is at.the N., ia ahont 15,000 feet above the sea. At th«
S action of the Dayton and Michigan and the 8. W. extremity is the pass of the aame name,
Inmbns and Indianapolis railroada, 7S m. W. about 18,000 feet high, bnt below the limit of
fhnn Oolumbus, and 88 m. K. from Oincinnati, perpetual snow. — Fir Paigal ia also the name
with which and Toledo it ia also connected by of a river which rises in this range, and falls
the Uiami canal. The city Is regolsrly laid into the Jhylmn in lat 88° 16', long. 78° 88' £.
oot with wide atreete, and S bridges connect PIRACY, robbery npon the sea. fipelman
it with Rossville and Enntersville, on the op- «ays that pirata once meant in England aea
porite side of the river. Water power is sup- knight or soldier ; and he dtea an instmment
plied by the waste of the canal, and there are of the time of King Edgar, in whkh one of th«
nnmeroQB manu&ctoriee. The dty contains witneaees styles himself arehipiralan, that is,
a bank, a town hsll, 8 newspaper offloes, and aa Speiman translates it, a^niraL He also
12 ohnrcbea. qnotes Asser and another ancient chronicler,
PIQUET, a game of cards played by two who write tliat the war galleys of Alfred and
persons. The name is IVench, and refers to a of William the Oonqneror were manned by
phrase in the game, the pigtu, which has its pirata. The legal definitions of pirate and pi-
equivalent in the Engliah "point." The game racy are derived from the civil law, whenoe
la lOO, The denominations of the soore are they were transferred to the maritime and ad-
the following : 1. (7(irf« Aten«A«, which iswhen minlty lavrs and the law of nations. The oivU
a hand dealt contiJnB no face card. This hand law applied pirata, pradanet, and lalnma to
enables the holder to count 10, and is counted the same kind of offenders ; indeed, the latter
before any other. 3. Point, which ia reckoned terms were sometjmes used interchangeably
by the player who has the greater nnmber of with the former. Bnt the proper, and in faot
cards in any one suit, or, if both have an equal the sole difference between the terms was that
nnmber, by the one who has the greater num- prirdoiK* and Jatront* described robbers vpon
her of ptpB. In this oount the faoe cards stand land, while pirata meant robbera on the sea,'
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FIBAOT M8
Tk* wtUen «p«n tli« dTil,tlie iBtnaeSaosal, Iw «4}Bdged tot>e'i»nMT; ind tttaTowpttia
and DNitime codes agree in defioing pira^ aa » muiuer ahoold piratioall7 and felonlonalr
tobberr or depiedalaon on the sea. BtneQj ran tkwaj vith tJtj vessel, or anj goods of the
^askii^ pint^ is not on offeuoe known to the Tftlae of $50, or Tield up anj snoK vessel rolnn-
eommoii ikw. As it is » orime conmtitted on tax'dj to pirates, or if any seaman shonld \>j
the hi^ seas^ it is oommitted out of Its Jaris- force att«apt to hinder his commander from
dkiiaD. As Sir Obarlee Hodges said in the defending tne ship or goods oommitted to his
higli eoart of admiraltf in 1SB6: " Piracy is tmst, ever;- saoh offender shoold be adjudged a
tlMsea term for a robbuj oommiUed within pdrate and a felon, and be ponishsble with death,
die joriadictiaii ot the admlraltr." Until tfae Tho terms murder and robbery in titie act are
tfatote S8 Stnrj Yin. it was ezolDsirelr a to be onderHtood as thej are defined at oom-
eirit law offisitoe, ooff^zahh only by tiie ad> mon law. The words high seas apply to any
ouralty coorto. Bat the procedure nnder the waters near sea ooasts which are beyond low
fbnna and mles of the ctvil law indndes no water mark. The next aot tooohing piracy
trial bj jory, and ft was plain^ an enoroaoh- was that of March 8, 1619, which was extend-
aant oa Um libcsrties of the ^i^Ush snttjeot ed for two years by the aot of May 16, 1&20.
that bis life abonld be forfeited without jndg- After this period had elapeed, the aot of Jan.
Bcnt by his peers, acoording to the law of the 80, 1B23, renved without limitation the first 1
land. Fnrtharmore, as the itatDte itself teoitea, sections of the aot of 1819. These sections
ttiere ooold be onder the civil law no oonvio- contained proviaons anthoriainff pablio and
tioa for a orimennleas the accused plainly cos- private ships to seize pirates wherever they
finsirl i^ or it were directiy proved by witnesses might l>e fo and. They are still in force. The
who aaw it mxmnitted. The statute therefore 6th section of the aot of 1619 was directed
d that tita offences which it aontempUt«a against those who shonld commit " piracy as
■hoold be judged in such ebires and places as defined by the law of nations ;" and bo long as
• "■«desigDat«dbr" "' ' ' " ' ' " ■ ■ ' ' ■ ' '
ikonld be designated by the king's oommisnon. It remained npon the statnte book it confetred
■nd in the same form as if the sUogid crime npon the V, B. conrts a jnrisdietion over wacy
had been committed anon the land. This com~ qnite the same as that which is ezerdsed over
njaston is directed to toe admiral or his depnty, Uie offence In England. This section was not
■id to direo OT fonr othws, among whom, says continned by the act of 1B23, bat seems to
Bla(]kstoDe,aretuiuUytwoooinmonlawjDdgee. have been disi^aoed by the 8d section of the
Tbeindictnunt isfoimdand tried bygrsndand intermediate statnte of 1 BSD. Indeed, Oban-
petit jury, and Uie trial fbllows, in other re- eellor Kent says that tliis section is snbstantial-
^eots, tlte ooDise of the common law. Yet it is ly a definition of piracy according to the law
to i»e observed that theooortthnsconstitated is of nations. It runs asfollows: "If any person
still enei^ially an admiralty court. The statnte, shall upon the hl^ seas, or In any open road-
■sid GUef Justice Ifan^eld, merely altered the stead, or in any haven, basin, or bay, or in any
Bade of trial, bnt the jorisdiction of the court river where the sea ebbs and flows, commit the
iMta OB tlw asme fbondatios as before the act ; crime of robbery In or npon any ship or vessel, or
itis regulated by the civil law and by maritime npon the lading thereof^ or npon the crew, he
castMis, gronndsd on the law of nationa. Pi- shall be a4]udged a pirate. .... If any person
racy, therefore, can be said to be an offence at enf^ged in any piratical enterprise, or bolong-
eaaaum law only when this t«m is taken in ing to tlie crew of any piratical vessel, shall
its most oomprehensive sense, and so inclnrive land and commit robbery on ahoie, neb per-
sf tlie law of natitHU. — ^In the United Btatee, son shall also be s4judgad a pirate, and upon
flie eognizance of ^itty is reserved by tiie convictioiiahallsQffiardeath." TheactofUwoh
eooatitation to the general eovemment. The S, 1647, provides tiiat snbjeots or citizens of
8tii aseliMi of the Ist article of that instrn- fcn-eign states found and taken on the seas mak-
■eait gives to congress Uie t>ower "to define ingwarontheUmtedStatesjOroniieiugageinBt
ud pimish idraciet and felonies oommitted on the ressels and property thereof^ or of the dti-
the Ugh seas, and offences ag^st the law of zens of the same, contrary to the provirions
aationa.'' Under tills ooostitntional provision, of any trea^ existing between the United
Bad because the U. 8, conrts have no common States and the country of such persons, shall,
law jnrisdietion, the definition of piracy in our when sach acts are declared by snoh treaties to
lav IS to be sought exolnsively in the aots of be piracy, be arraigned, tried, convicted, and
MDgress, and it will be sera that they have punished in the conrts of the United States.
■Mterially enlaced the usnal conception of the Finally, dtizens of the United States who
ofiaee. Ctftheaotsby whiobcoi^esshasex- are engaged in the slave trade are declared
•mist i the authmd^ conferred by the oonatitn- ly the statute of 18S0 to be pirates^and upon
tiM,theearliMtwasthatof April80,1790. It conviction are to snffer death.— These are
dedined that murder or robbery oommitted on tbe existing laws concerning jtlracr. A re-
ttehj^seaSjOr inanyriv«r,havai,orbayout view of the chief pdnts which have been
of the Jtuisdiotion of any partionlar state, or made in construction of them will present
■By other offence which, if oonmiitted within eonvenientiy the Amerioan law of this ofibnoe.
Utsimdyofaoonnty, wonM by the laws of the Ve have seen that, thongh the section which
Waited States bo poniahaUe with death, should expresslygavejurlsdiotionoTer "piracy as d»>
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
«« tft, «tatoto
^oet wbiob pim
Hyiny,- Mod tiat,
nZffa/ aakiag aah
toenbant Bbip. wi.
liM, vbUb lie TToto In abont 9 days, was k the tbUs. It is lined npon both ddes with
decUed saoMas, and Ite followed the profbadon stooa qoaTB, and Bpanned by 8 bridges, "nis
of a light dramatist until he vaa enconraKed Fonte alia PorteE^, in the E., has 4 arohee.
to tttonpt a higher fli^t br his fiiend Qribil- Next b«1ow it is the Fonte del Xezco, or mid-
Ion. Hia fitat 6 act comedj, Lm JQ* ingraU, die bridge, with 8 arches ; it is hoilt of mar-
0H Titnile dm pint, was performed in I'il^S at hie, and is esteemed Che finest bridge in En-
tha Frau^ Oteatre, wiuk moderate ^plaoM. rope. The Pont« i Mare is the wesUtnunost;
Of two trag«diea wbioh he afterward produced, it oas S arches, was built in 1S81, and restored a
one fltiled and the other iDooeeded. Two com- oentnry later bj Bmnelleaohi. The long wide
ediea, now forgotten, followed ; and flnallj in streets npon either ride of the Amo, called
17SS Za MifrMnanM, ov le poSte, his master- Lnng' Arno, are gar and cheerfoL The Far-
[uece and one of the beet pujs ia French lit- lauo TJppiazitighi is said to hare been de-
eratar& speared. In 1741 he prodnced F»r- signed hv; Uiobel Angelo, as also its neijdt-
■oad (Urte*, a tragedy, wliich Med. In oon- hor the Palauo Lanfranehi. Among the u^
oert with Oolld, Panard, and others, he teresting edifices on the B. side of the river
established the idn^ng sodetj known as b are the Loggie dl Banchi, erected in 1605, and
eoeaoH, and &^^ mooh of his tune to convivial now used for a com market ; and the aoademj
pteasores. Eia wit and readiness at repartee of floe arta, fonnded by Napoleon in ISIS,
were almost proverbial, and Voltaire lumself In a large grass-grown sqnare at the extreme
was carefol not to ^oarrel with him. The northern an^e of the city stand fonr of tlte
Freoofa academy, which had been ft'eqnently most remarluble stnictnree in Uie world, all
the oly'oct of his satire, nevertheless elected bnilt of white marble in corresponding style :
him a member in 1753 ^ hot the king refused the cathedral, witli its baptistery, its etmp^
lua assent, on aooonnt of a lioenlioaB poem nile or belfry (the cetebn^ed leaning tower),
eon^osad by Piron in his yonth, whereupon and the Oampo Santo or oemeterj'. The oa-
he wrote his own epitaph : " Here lies Firon, thedrsl was erected to celebrate a triumph (d
who waa nothing, not even an academidaa P the Pisans in the harbor of Palenno in lOflS,
^ works have been published at Paris in 7 wlien allied with the Normans to drive tiie
n^ 8vD. (1776). Saraoens oat of Sicily, It wss b^nn in
PISA, an audent city of Peloponnrans, and 1064 and finished in 1118, is in the form of a
the capital of the middle district of Ells called Latin cross, 811 feet long and 106 f^t wide
^satia, ntnated in the lower valley of the In the interior, and is richly ornamented with
Alpfaena, between Earpina and Olympia, a aniuent strined glass, p^tings, and statnary,
thort distance K i>om the latter. It was first Inolnding masterpieoea by Bwoafmni, Andrea
eelebrated as the reridence of Pelops, after del Sarto, Staggi, Nicola Pisano, and others,
wliioh it ^peara to have declined. Snbse- There are 12 altars in the nave and transepta
qoently it became the head of a confederacy s^d to have been designed by Michel Angelo.
«f 8 atatea, and had the presidency oi the It was groatly injnred by a fire in 1590, and
(Sympic festival, of which it was deprived by its fonndations have settled so that every part
die neighboring Eleans, recovering it however of the original stnictnre is ont of line. The
In the 84th Olymfnad, 644 B. 0. This privilege baptistery, commenced in 1163, bnt probably
tlieaoeliarth became a continoal cause of war not finished till the 14th oentory, is a ciroolar
between I^sa and the varioos rulers of Elis, huUding 100 feet in diameter and 179 feet in
antil in tiie 62d Olympiad the Eleans were extreme heigBt, and has fine mosaic pav^
finally aaoceMfiil, and ^aa was razed to the meats, elaborately carved coiamns, and nn-
gnmnd. So complete was its destruction, tliat merons bass-relieo. The campanile was be-
even its existence waa dispnted in the time of gun in 1174. It is 190 feet hish, and consiata
Strabo. of two conoentric circnlar w^ls, each 3 feet
PISA, a city of Ital;^] and capital of a prefeo- thick, with a stairway running np between
btreoftiiesaaienameinTaacany,sitaatedQpon them. The well inside the inner wall is %
both aides of the Amo, about 7 m. from its feet in diameter. The tower is divided into 9
moath, 13 m. N. N. E. from Leghorn, and GO stories, each having an ontside gallery of 7 feet
m. H. from Florenoe ; pop. in 1858, 23,000. projection, and the topmost story overhanging
It has ODmmnnioation by railway with Leghorn, the base abont 15 feet, though, as the centre
Lacco, and Florence. It is bmlt on a marshy of gravity is atill 10 feet within the base, the
fertile plain, encloaed on the E. by the Apen- ballding is perfectly safe. It has been snp-
■inei, and 0[)en on the "W. to that part of the posed that this inclination was intentional ;
Mediterranean which is called the Tnscan sea. but the opinion tliat the foundation has sank
It is surronnded by an ancient wall a little is no doubt correct. It is most likely that the
more than 6 m. in extent, with S gates. The defective foundation became perceptible before
circuit of the wall enclosed origittally much the tower had reached one half its height, as
gatdsa ground, and the onoccnpied space has at that elevation the unequal length of the
Eeeo increased by the destmction of many columns exhibits an endeavor to restore the
convHita, giving Uie outer parts of the city a perpendicular, and at ationt the same place the
desolate appearance. The Amo, here a ma- walls are strengthened with iron bars. Tha
tealic river, forma almost a semicircle within Oampo Santo, the archetype of aQ aimikr
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
1 Italy, ia a simctiire 415J feet tare for ruioni ohnrobes of Florence, but ia
long and 137 feet 10 inches wide, commenced best known by Lis bronze gates for the bap-
in 1278, and encloaing a monnd of earth tistery of St. Joba in tbat city. As an arclu-
b«Hght from Ml Calyary many years before tact he designed Bereral chnrohea in Tnscuiy,
by Archbishop Ubaldo when e^>elted from and accordit^ to Yaaari the arsenal at Yemce.
Palestine by Saladin. It contains a rich col- PISCATAQUA, a river flowing between New
leotion of monnmenta, indnding many Boman Hampshire and U^e. It rises in East pond,
Barcophagi, and the walls are covered with between the towns of Wakefield, If. H., and
ancient frescoeii. The uniTeratty of Pisa is Newfiold, He. ; tbence to Berwick Lower falls
among the most celebrated in Italy. Its de- it b called Salmon Falls river, after which an-
grees, except in divinity and canon law, are til its jnnction with the Oocheoo it is known
accessible to persona of ^ creeds. Qalileo as the Newicbawannoo ; thence to the ocean,
was one of its professors. lU libi'ary contains which it enters about 8 m. below Portsmontb,
66,000 volmnes. Pisa is anpphed with water it has the name Fiscataqna. The harbor, from
conveyed from the Yalle d'Asoiauo by aa Portsmontb to the sea, owing to the atroog
aqueduct, began in 1618, of 1,000 arches and tides, is not mnch obstmcted by Ice, and Is
4 10. long, and having 8 reservoirs. Boap, one of the best in the United States,
glass, and vitriol are mside to some extent, bat PIBOATAQTTIS, a N. co. of Ke., drained by
Pisa has little importance ^tber as a manofao- the Piscataqnis and the west branch ot the
tnring or oommeroial dtj. — Pisa was an an- Penobscot and their tributaries: area, 8,780
deat (uty of Ftruria, and its origin, through aq. m.; pop. in 18B0, 1S,0B2. Its snrface Is
tbe identity of name, has been ascribed, no dotted over with hills, the highest of vhlclk is
donbt inoorrectly, to a colony from the Pelo- Uonnt Katabdin, and contains a large nnmber
ponneeiaa dty. It is first mentioned as a de- of lakes, of which the principal are Bebec,
pendency of Rome in S2S B. 0. In the 10th Pemadnmcook, Oarribon, Ohemmcook; and
oaabarj it was the first among the commercial Uoosebead ; the last named is the largestL and
republics of Italy. In the IStb ccntnry a is 8S m. long by from 4 to 13 wide, A latge
straggle with Oeooa began, which ended dis- portion of the land is yet nnsettled. The pro-
astronsly for Pisa. It took part in the con- auctions fn 16S0 were ]4,M6 bnshels of wheat,
tests oftheGuolpbs and Ghibellinea, in which 48,92C of Indian com, 147,034 of potatoes,
Count Ugolino with two of bis sons and two 171,220 of oats, Sl,74d tons of hay, B4,8S4 lbs.
grandsons were imprisoned in a tower in Pisa of wool, and 849,CtS of butter. There were 8
and starved to death. It was t^en by -the grist mills, 20 saw mills, 1 woollen and S flan-
French in 17SS. nd foctories, 26 ohnroheB, and 6,0C6 pnpils at*
PISANO, the name applied to several arissts tendingpnUio schools. Capital, Dover,
of Pisa distiognisbed at the period of the re- PISCIOIJLTIIEtC. See Fishes, vol. vii. p. S86.
vival of the arts in Italy. L Giufta, com- PISE,CHAKLEBOoHBTAirnNK,I>.D.,anAmer-
monly oalJed Gionta di nsa, bom probably in ican clergyman and author, bom in Annapolis,
lieo or lieo, died about 1250. He is the earii- Md., in 1603. His father was an Italian of aa
est Tuscan painter of whom there is any reo- ancient noble femUy, his mother a native of
ord, having been many years anterior to Cima- Philadelphia. He was educated in the Roman
bn^ and probably aot^nired a knowledge of Cathoho faith, and alter gradnating at Oeorge-
his art from the ByEantine jpaicters who settled town college under the care of the Jesnita went
in Pisa after the capture of Constantinople by to Borne to study theology. After about 2
the Yenetiaus. 11. ^iooia, the greatest artist years' absence he was obliged to retDrn home
of the 13th century, bom about 1200, died Inconsequence of the death of his father. He
about 137&. He was one of the most eminent then entered the seminary of bTonnt St. Uary's,
of the restorers of soolpture, and amon|^ the Enunitteburg, where he taught rhetoric and
earliest to return to the study of the antique, poetry, and flniahed his theolo^cal studies
As an architect be was almost equally distin- under Dr. Brut^ afterward bishop of Yin-
guisbed, and his works in Florence, Naples, cennes. Ordained priest by the archbishop of
Fisa, Yenice, and other Italian cities were ua- Baltimore in 1826, he began his pastoral duties
merous aad splendid. He was the first origi- at Frederiotown, Md., and about 6 montha af-
nal artist of the renaissance, and gave Ihe first terward was oalled to the cathedral at Balti-
impulse to the movement, succes^uUy carried more, where he wrote his " History of the
ont by Giotto and his school, for the rdeotaon Obnrch from its Establishment to the Refijnna-
of the Byzantine types of art and the adoption tion" (G vols, Svo., Baltimore, 1830) ; " Father
of those founded on nature, m. GioTimn, BowJand," a tale, in answer to " FaUier Olem-
son and pnpil of the preceding, bom about ent;" and "The Pleasures of fiehgion, and
1236, died m 1820. His chief work is the other Poems." His health faUbg, he again
Oampo Santo or cemetery of Pisa. As a sculp- vidted Borne, where he received the d^ree of
tor ne was a worthy successor of his &tber, B.B., and the honorary title of knight of the
and became celebrated throughout Italy. lY. Boman empire. After his retnm to the United
Airnsu, a sculptor and architect, distinguished States be was associated with the Her. lir.
as a metal founder, bom about 1280, died In Uatthews in the pastorship of St. P^iick's
Flocesce in 1846. He executed works in scalp, ohurcb, Waahington, and through the influence
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PlSmU. FISISTRATUS S68
of HeniT Olaj, who became hia wtum personal pl^ headed hy LTcargae ; tbe party of tii«
fiiend, tbs appointed chaplain of the U. S. coast, headed hj Megaclea, the aon of Alo<
senate Mr. Clay also offered him the ohair mteon ; and tbe partj of the highlanda, oonsist-
of rhetorio in Transjlvania nniverBitj, whioh ing of the poorer oloaaea, headed byPinstratQB.
he decUned. At the invitation of Dr. Daboie^ Having wounded himself, Piaistratus m>eHed
biahop of New York, ha retnoTed to the latter one day in the agora, complaining that he had
city, and was settled over several chnrohas aac- been attacked, and asking foragoard. Aoom-
cessirely, the last being St. Peter's in Barclay panj of 60 club-men was assigned hiin, whiob
street. Daring a journey to Ireland on bosi- soon being increased, he seized the acropolis,
ness connected with tbe chorch he sketched and compelled his leading opponents to flee.
the scenery of the country and the manners Strenuous resistance was made by Solon, who
of the people in his "Horse Vagabunds." In however was unable to effect any thing, and
1819 he rcMgned hia position at St. Peter's, i^pears not to have been moleoled. The aeiz-
purchased the Emmanuel church in Brooklyn, ore of the citadel took place in GSO ; bat the
and dedicated it to Oatholic worship under the chronology of the ensning events is oonftised.
patronage of St. Oharlea Borromeo. Of this Piaistratua did not long eqjoy his elevation. A
heiss^ pastor. In 18G8 he delivered a Latin coalition of his opponents was formed, and
ode at Emmittebnrg on occasion of the SOth he was driven trojn the city ; but dissenaions
anniversary of tbe foundation of Uount St. arose among them, and overtures were mada
Mary's oollege. Dr. Piae is one of the most to Pisistratus by Kegaoles, who offered him
prominentOstholioolergymen in America, both the sovereignty on condition that he ahoold
as a leotnrer and preacner. Beside nnmerons marry his daughter. This was agreed to,
fbgidfe pieces and translations of the hymns and PiaiHtrataa entered Athena in a chariot
of tbe breviary, be has written a poem entitled by the side of a stately woman named Phya,
"The Acta of the Apostles;" "Zeuosioa, or clothed in the costume of the goddess Athena,
the Pilgrim Oonvert; "Indian Cottage, an heralds going before and crying out: "Athe-
Unitarian Story;" "Aletheia, or Letters on nions, cordially receive I^siatratua, whom
the Truth of ^e Oatholio Doctrines;" "Let- Athena has honored above all other men, and
terstoAda;" "Christianity and the Ohnrch;" is now brinpng back into her own acropo-
"Lives of St. Ignatius and his first Compon- lis." He thus gained possession of the ffov-
iona;" "Notes on a Protestant Oateolusm, ernment, and married the daughter of lie-
Ac.;" and "The Catholio Bride," translated gacles ; but not choosing to have children by a
from the Italian. He has nearly ready for the mem*ber of a family deemed to be accursed, he
press an epic poem in 4 cantos. so incensed the Alcmsaonida that they ag^n
PISIDIA, in andent geography, a province united with the party of Lycurgns, and expel-
in Ada Uinor, bounded N. by Phry^ Faro- led him. Betiring to Eretris in Eab<BB, h«
rios, E. by Isaoria and Oilicia, S. by Pamphy- spent the 10 years of his exile in making prepa-
lia, and W. by Lycia, Oaria, and Hirygia. It rations for his return, and at the expiration of
became a separate province on the division of that time landed at Uarathon with mercenaries
tbe Bomon empire by Constantino the Great, and troops led by Lygdamis of Naios, and sue.
having previously been included either under ceeded in reestabliahong himaelf in power. He
Phrygia or Pamphylla, Olives, salt, iris, a now took into pay a body of Thracian troop^
root from which perfumes were manufactured, exiled the Alcmnonids, and kepttbe children of
and tbe wine of Amblada, highly prized by the many of the principal citizens as hostages, EDi
ancient j^ysiciana, were produced. The chief reign,however, seems tohave been mild, andro-
towns were Antiocbis, SagalassOB, and Selgo, ceivod the conunendation of Herodotus, Tbncy-
the last mentioned being tbe most important, dides, and Aristotle. Bnt the last named im-
The inhabitants were mountaineers, never con- pntestohim the design of impoverishing as well
cmered either by the Syrian kings or by the as employing bis subjects by undertaking great
Bomaos, although tbe latter held poaseanon of works. This view is supported by the scale
some of their ohief towna. In the time of upon which the temple of the Olympian JnpdteT
Straho they were ruled over by petty chiefs, was planned, and which remained unfinished
and derived their anbaiatence mainly from plan- until the time of Hadrian. Among other acta
dering their neighbors. The mountainous parts he purified the island of Deioe by removing the
of the ancient Pisidia are now inhabited by dead bodies buried within si^ht of the temple.
Caramaniaua, & wild predatory people. The He is also said to have instituted the greater-
country is rarely visited and little known. Panathen^o festival. Tinder his encontage-
PI&ISTBATIJS,tyraatof Athens, bomabout ment the earliest form of tragedy appears to
612 B. 0., died in 537. He traced his descant have been brought into Athens, and the poems
to the Homeric Nestor and the Pylian kings, of Homer were collected and written dovm.
Distinguished for mental and phyaioal endow- He also made a collection of other worka,
meuts, he became the friend of bis kinsman which Aulus Gellina calls a library. Hft con-
Solon, and accompanied him in the expedition uuered Naxos, placing Lygdamis upon the
for the recovery of Salamis. After the adop- throne, and wreated Sigeum from the Mityle-
^on of the constitution of Solon, Athens was neans. He was succeeded by hb sons. (S«4
^vided into 3 parties : the proprietors of thq BireASoam ahd Sipfus.}
vol.. xm. — ^23
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
S54 PISSELEU 'FIBTOI.
PISSELEU', Ainn m. 8e« firAvne, DnoH- c^j wilUn a few ;rearB past that pistola have
■tSD'. been KeDerallj provided with eights. Yetaoma
PI8TA0HIO {putaMa wra, Linn.), a Bmall remark&ble piMolB were produced &t an early
tree indlMuona to Syria, growing SO feet period, whion embodj the peooliar priaoiplea
hi^ with decidnona, unequal, pinnate leavea of the most perfect instnuneata of the preaent
of 8 to 5 leaflets ; ditBcioDs, apetaloos flowera, Aaj. A Spaniah piatol made abont the end of
arranged in short branching racemes fivtn the 17th century iadeacril>ed b; Greener aatiie
the old wood ; the frnit a dmpe of a reddish most complete mstnunent of the kind which
color, with a thin rind and a brittle S-Talred he had seen. " Bj moving a lever toward the
shell containing an almond-like eeed,' mnch bat end while the mnzzle is depressed, the lock
Qsed hj £aroi>eBn confectionerB. Tbe pistachio is primed, half cocked, and the hammer shnt
tree b comprised in the natural order anaear- down ; retnm the lever, the powder is in tlid
diaeem or terebinth^ treee or ehrubs remark' breech and the ball before it. We have seen
able for their caoatia, gnmmy, reainone, and it fire 2S shola withont a faUnre and with one
even milkj Jnices. The pwtaeui vera is cloth- snpply of ammonitiou. The magazine was in
ed with gray bark, its bruiclies spreading and two tnbes in the stock." The piece waa finally
not nnmeronB, its leaves winged, alternate, barst in firing. It is stated by tbe sante an-
and on long petioles. The kernel of the pis- Uioritj (Qreener's " Gnnnery in ISSS," p. Id)
tachio not is oily and mUd to tbe taste ; it is that tn the mtisenm of aridllery in Paris are re-
Bometdmes eaten raw, bnt more freqnentlj in a volving rifles, and swords and revolving pistols
dried state like almonds. The tree is cniti- combined in one, which were prodnced more
Tsted in France and Italy; it will grow in an^ than 200 years ago. Borne have 4, 6, and 6
good garden soil, and can be propagated from charge chambers. They wonid have prevented
catlings and by seeds. It is recommended the establishment of Colt's patent, had not this
for ornament on acconnt of tbe beanty of its been based on his causing the cbambeta to re-
foliage. There are several other species well volve in tbe act of cockm^ the lock. These
known to botsniati. improved pieces, so eztraordmaiy for the time,
PISTIL, in botany, that part of the flower never came into general nse in conseqnencA
whose office is to elaborate the aeed. The pis- of their nnavoidaUe olnmainess, each chamber
til oocapies the moat central part of the bios- having its own hammer and pan, and the in-
som, ana is one of its essential organs. It may convenience of keeping these primed. Such
. be r^arded morphologically as the end. of a instruments, moreover, mnat have been ex-
branch or flower stalk. It consists of 8 parts, tremely expensive, and but few workmen oonld
viz, : the ovary, a hollow case contwning rudi- have made them. Pistola of simpler form dis-
mentary seeds called ovules; the style, which placed them entirely; and these for the most
is the tapering part above, end which may be part were clumsy instrimients, especially the
very much elongated, or very short or even pistols made for naval service to be Qsed in the
whoUy wanting; andthe stigma, which is tbe dose contests in boarding. They carried lai^
tip or some other part of the style, or when the bells, and were often donble-barrelled, eacb bar-
fl^le is wanting the summit of the ovary. The rel having its own lock and pan. Uany were
office of the stigma is to catch uid detain the highly decorated with elaborate mountinga
poUen, so that it may fertilize the ovules which npon their stocks, and an exterior finish ol
are afterward to grow into perfeot seeds. damaskeening or other ornamentation of the
PI8T0JA, or PisTou (ano. Putoria or Pit- barrehi ; bnt liUle was done to perfect the
toriwai), a fortified city of Tuscany, in the pre- character of barrels or of the locks. Great
fectnre of Florence, on the left bank of the value was attsched to these ornaments, and
Ombrone, SI n. N. W. from Florence; pop. pistola of the Turks and Greeks are still re-
12,000. It has a cathedral bnilt in the ISth markable for the extent to which this elaborate
oentary. Iron, wool, silk, and leather are man- finish is carried. — Such was the character of
nfbetured. In its uei^borhood Catiline waa ^tolsnp tothe time wbenMr.Bamnel Colt of
defeated and shun (OS B. 0.). Hartford, Oonn., directed his attention to their
PISTOL, a small firearm to be oarried abont improvement, and succeeded in bringing the in-
one'e person, or in hobters at the saddle bow, stmment to a state of perfection never before
named from the city of Pistoja in Tuscany, attwned. (See Colt, Sxmcsi-) His first plan
where it is stated pistols were first made, was to increase the number of dischar^ea by
Mention is made of their use in 1544 ander the arranging several barrels in one cylindric^
reign of Francis I. of France, and in the time gronp aronnd a central spindle, and cause these
of his successor Henry H. the horsemen who to turn by each cocking of tbe lock sufficiently
oarried them were called pistoliers. Being in- far to bring another barrel under the hammer,
tended only for hand-to-hand enconnters, no All tbe barrels being first loaded, they might
attempts were made to give them accuracy of then be discharged aa rapidly as the hammer
ain^ which indeed was altogether impraotica- could be raised and the tri^er pulled. Pistols
ble until the adoption of the firelock, toward of this kind have since been m use, but the plan
the close of tbe 17th centnry, and such acoura- finally adopted by Oolt was to make a revolv-
S moreover waa considered incompatible with ing oiambered breech for the charges and uae
eir necessary shortness of barrel It Is indeed a single barrel, in connection with which each
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
t^iBinbar-WMlmntgilitlBmiMeMlonltr^nvina the otlt«r fiv fbe forafiBgvr <rf dw rij^t bond,
back tbs hammer to tite AiU oatoh. At Iiau A poll with the one brings the hammer ap and
cook the ohambw la free to he turned round by a fre^ ohamber rotind to its plaoe. The pnll
bond, and in thia state the reoeptadea are load- behig released, the pistol remaina cocked and
edbf pouring in powder and pladng a ball in the ojlktder springs forward, making its con-
each Erectly upon the powder, wimont wad- nection with the bsrrel tight. The tngger may
ding. A ramrod is permaoentlr attached to be instantly palled with the forefi^er, dia-
the under aide of the barreL and la so oontriTed ohargiiig the piece. These movements ma; be
that by bringing down iti free end it acts as a oontinned wiut rt^idity till the 6 barrels an
lever and at^wly prMSsa a abort rod into one discharged withont removing the right hand
of the receptaolea, driving tiie ball bcxae, and from its place or calling the other mto use.
efieotaallyahDtdiig in the powder. Theoharges The large oze and length of the pistol, end the
areallthiwr^idlf introdnoedandseoQred,and aoooraoy with which it may be fired by means
peronsdon caps bemg placed on the nipplea with of its two sighta, reader it a formidable weapon
-whioh tbeohamberis provided, the pieoeisready even at loi^ shots, and it iaevidsndyexb«mdy
foreerrice. Hie pistols are otmslTaotod with ez- well ad^ted for nae on horseback. At dith
treme nioe^ to goard against lateral escape of tanoes up to 160 yards a good marksman
the fire and smoke, which by fooling the parts on^t not to miss in any nomber of shots a
ipoald obetmot the movemeots; and aocoraoy target as large as a man. Bat for oloee en-
of aim is aeonred by a mght at the end of the oonnters the small cartridge-losding pistols
barrel, and another in the hammer at the other are the most recent and mnoh the most e£9-
ead when this is aet at fall oook. The great eient we^Kms. Several varietdes of these have
valne of Oolt'a pistols waa fblly established in been brought oat by Amerioan inventors, and
the Texan and afterward in the Hezican war, are known as Smiui and WesBon's, Warner's,
and tbey ^ved of inestimable servioe to the and Allen's. They all have the revotving
allied armiee in the Orimean war, and also to cylinder, whioh contains 7 chambers ; and they
Om Kngtigh in their late enconnter with the ^fTer from each other chiefly in the manner in
' ' 'n India. Btill they failed to give entire which the cartridges ia« inserted into these '
" a beoanse of the necessity of stopping ohamben. In Smith and Wesson's the pieee is
ve^ Bre to oock the ^eoe for the next so oonstmoted that the barrel may be inatwitly
_ L) several IkigUah and American i^stola tamed at right angles with the stock, setting
devioes hare been introdnoed for meetjnc this the OTlinder free to be slipped off from the pin
objection, and &e pisttds of Traabier and Dean on whieh it tarns, and the cartridges may tlien
of E^and have acquired mnch odebrity for be slipped into the rear end of the obambers.
the rapidity with whioh they may be fired ; the These cartridges are copper <afa reerasbling
pulling of the trigger raises the hammer to the peronssion oapa, laige enoogh to exactly fit the
fall cock, when it is saddenly let go, and the core of the chamber. At the close end thi?
action being repeated the same motJon bringB are enlarged so as to form roond the edges a
aronnd another chamber whioh is immedlat^y thin receptaole for the percoision ptin^ng, and
discharged. Several offioers provided with present a flange-like impediment to the cap en-
tbese pistols, who were engaged at the battle tering entirely Into the bote. Snffident powder
of lakennan, certified that they mast have been fbr a charge is placed in the base of uecap,
ent down had there been the slightest delay for and apon Utia tfaelGni^ ball is inserted, act-
cooking their pistols. But otheta object to tag as a tight stopple, and projecting from the
this form of lock on the gronnd that by the end like a eork from the neok ot a phial,
aa^en liberation of the mainsraing as it is Whether carried in the pocket or introdnoed
polled np, the aim is disturbed and the fire can- in the chambers at tite pistol, the cartridges are
not be made with the aoonraoy of other pistols, slwsys protected from dampness, and no in-
Trantaer, whose pistols are ccoiddered the best Jnry can resnlt to tiie barrel, however l<mg
made in En^^and, introdnoed some other modi- tiiey mar be allowed to remain in it. They are
ficationa, one of whioh was the nse of a patent prepared by the manafjactarers and pnt ap in
labrieadng ballet with a Inbricat^g compod- boxes like peroassion aa^e, and thna the ase of
tion, by the nee of whioh the fouling of the powder fiasks, peronssion caps, and separate
barrel is effeotaally prevented, and the piece balls is entirely dispensed with, and the piece
may be fired several handred times withont is completely charged with no more tronble
cleaning. The great advantage of applying and expenditora of time than nsnally attends
grease for this purpose has long been fully ap- the fixing of peronsaion caps apon the nipples.
preciated by onr marksmen, and withont it the The slight prcjeotion of the oartridge cap ont-
barrel is soon obstrnoted with lead to sncb a aide the cylinder does not interfere with its
degree that the balls fly very wild. The pis- revolution, which is effected by bringing the
tol made by Savage at luddletowu Oonn., and hammer book with the thumb of Om right
now used very generally in the U. B. cavalry hand. The pistol thns cocked may be in-
service, meets the olgection a^nst the English standy fired by paUing the trigger with the
self.coeking pistols of thdr aim being destroy- forefinger of the same hand. After the cbam-
ed by the introdnotion of a doable tngger, one bers are discharged the cylinder ia slipped
part of whioh is fitted for the middle finger and off, and any discharged oqpa remaining in It
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
866 FI8T0LE FTTOH
are remoTedbjrpKBdug the chambers In Bnoce»- an open boat, tliey bore awaj fbr TaUtL Here-
aioQ upon a fixed projectinK rod beneath the one of the crew named Ohristian and 8 otber^
barrel. Thej are uien reaaf for reohar^g, after the rest had landed, induced 9 notiTe
In Warner's pistol the cartridge is introdaoed iromea and S men to come aboard, vhen they
throngb an opening in the aide of the stock at pot to aea and were not heard of for manj jexn.
the rear of the chamber, and the cylinder ma; In 1808 Capt. Folger of KantnckeL while on a
be removed sidewise when necessary for clean- sealing voTsge in the Patufic, called at Pitcaim
fng it, the barrel being inunovablj £xed to the island, and, baving snpposed it to be nniidiab-
stock. This is also t£e ease with Allen's pis- ited, vaa much snrpnsed to see a canoe widi
tol, to supply whose chambers with cartridges two men of a light brownish complexion ap-
the cylinder con be slipped out on one side, proooh his vessel, and request in good Knriish
and when filed be retnmed to its place. A that a rope shoold be thrown to them. Tbej
diffionlty is enconiit«red in increasing the size were like descendants of the remoant of the
oftheoartridge-loadingpiHtolaofthischaraoter. long lostandlong songht crew. Determined
As the charges are increased the tbickneaa of to ont off all traces of themselves, when the
the copper cap mast be proportionally in- matineerH reached Fiteaim island they ran tiie
oreaaea, tiiat uie charge may not be tlirown Bounty aabore, where, alter stripping her of
back. Bet if thia cap is miade of very thick all tiiat might be naeM to them, they bnmed
copper the percnssion powder may not be her. Ohri^an and his asaooiates took tlie
ignited b^ the blow of the bammer, and the Tahitian women as wives and rednoed the men
aharge will not then be fired. It is for Uiia to bondage. They appear to have got on well
reason that these pistols are yet of diminntive fbr a time, made good honses, and cultivated
sizes only, but they are nevertheless snrpris- a ccndderable extent of ground ; but at length
Sly efiicient for their size, and some method the slaves rebeUing, they were forced to de-
l probably be devised of overcoming this stroy tiiera aU, not however before S of the
obstacle to ibeir capacity. masters had been killed in the aSn-j, am<»ig
PIBTOLE, a gold coin, equivalent in Spain whom waa Obristtan. One of the mntlnewa
to a quarter doubloon (f8.90). In Germany committed snioide, and another, becoming de-
it ia toe common name of coina bearing the ranged and exceedingly violent, waa knocked
name of the state or sovereign who coined on the head with an axe by his compan-
them, and worth abont $3.70. The old Italian tons as a measm'e of self-defence. The rest
pistole or <iiH)p{a is worth from |8 .09 to $7.02. all died natnral deaths, and at the time of Oapt
PITOAIRM ISLAND, anialandofthePacifio Folger's visit Adams was the only survivor of
ocean,inlat.S5'*8'B.,Iong. 1E0°8''W. ; extreme the mntineera. (See Adams, John.) He drew
length about 21m., breadth 1 m. It is elevated, np a simple code of laws by which the island-
the greatest height being nearly 3,600 feet above era are still governed, and to which they are
the sea, and is Borrounded by oliffl which pre- verymnchattached. They are an honest, kind-
dude the possibility of landing except in two or hearted people, of very simple habits. When
three spots. The temperature ranges between not otherwise occupied, they often hold meet-
69° and 90°, and the climate is remarkably ings among themselves, at which the women
healthy. There are a few small streams, but take no inconsiderable share of the conversa-
they are liable to fdl at certain seasons, when tion. The women are more indnetriona than
the inhabitants depend upon water preserved the men, and assist in the cultivation of the
in tanks. The soil ia rich and fertile^ and the gronnd. In 18G6 the whole commnnity was
island is everywhere thickly clothed with a lux- removed, by some well-wishere in England and
oriant vegetation. Several tropical frnits and AustraUa, to Norfolk isluid ; bnt the greater
vegetables are indigenons, and many others, part of them were much diwatisfied with the
together with some of those belon^^ng to tem- change, end early in 1869 two families, nam-
perate rwiona, have been Buccesoblly intro- beringl7soulB,retumedtoFitcumiduid. The
duced. All the domestic animal * except the number remaining at Norfblk island was 2(8.
horse have alao been introduced, and goats are PITO^ (Gr. irtrra), a black rennons snb-
veiy numerous in the more inaccestible parts stance constituting the residuum when the
of the island. — Pitcaim island waa diaoovered volatile portions of tar are driven off by heat,
b^ Oarteret in 1767, and named after one of When warm it is aoft and sticky, but becomes
hi* officers who was the first to see it. Ita solid and brittle when cold. It is one of the
chief interest, however, is derived from the products of tha pine tree classed in commerce
mutiny of the Bounty, a vessel sent by the as naval stores, and is largely produced for
British government to convey plants of the consumption in ship bnitdmg, Ming nsed to
breadfhut tree from Tahiti to the West Indies, pay the seams and uiua render tii«n imp^ri-
The Bounty arrived at Tahiti at a wrong season ous to water. It is also nsed in medicine aa a
for transplanting, and was compelled to remain mild stimulant and tonlo, and is administered
there for 6 months, during which time the crew in pills for cutaneous diseases and fbr piles. —
fbrmed connediona with the natives. A few Burgundy pitch is used for plasters, and when
da^s after sailing, in April, 1789, the crew mu- applied for some time to the akin acts as a
timed, and when they had sent Capt. Bligh mbefiicient, exciting alight InSammation and
and tnose who would not join them adrift in serous effiudon, and relievii^ dtronia a^ctimia
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
MTKIS PITT 867
of Hm flbeat and rhenmatio painB. It ia pi«- HTT, Wmuic, flnt earl of OhaUiam, an
pared frtHo the resinoos matter that exndes English orfttor and Etateaman, bom at west-
tnaa the Norway spmce (abiu RCMba), and minsten Not. 16, 170B, died at Eayea, Ma; 11,
firom the Europeaa ailver fir tree {A. piaca). 1TT8. HewaatheBon of Robert Pitt of Bocon-
The renn ia mdted in hot water^ and etrained nock in Oomwall, and grandson' of Thonias
tbroo^ coarse clothe. Thia vanet; is yellow. Pitt, who obtained the sobriquet of Diamond
aad ia diatiDKoished from the componnda of Pitt from a largo diamond which came into his
common [iit(£, renn, and turpentine, made to possession in India, whero be bad been governor
resemble it, by ita peonliar odor. It ia largely of Fort 8L George at Madras, and which he
prodnced in uie neighborhood of Nenfchitel, sold to the regent Orleans for £135,000. ™"
and thence fitmiahea to r, ■, ,. -.
1. — Canada liam Pitt receired his early edocation at Eton,
pitch reaembleB the preceding in ita properties, and in 1726 entered Trinity college, Oxford,
. and ia prepared from the inspiBaated Jnice of whlob he qaitted without taking a degree, bat
theh«nlockepi^oe(jf. (7an<uMn*u). Tbejoice with a bigh reputation for talent and for
exodfls q>oataneouBly from old hemlocic tree& skill in elocntjon. He travelled in IVance and
and hardena apon toe bark, which is stripped Italy, and on his return obtained a commission
o% broken in pieces, and boiled in water. The in the army aa a comet of dragoons. In 1786
pitch BB it rises to the sorfaoe is sidmmed off, he entered the house of commons for the
198° P., and is almost too soft at the tempera- tlon, and made him the most formidable op-
tojre of ttie body to be worn as a plaster. ponent of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole,
PlTltlN, TmoTHT, an American hiEtorion, who in his vexation caosed the "terrible comet
bom in Farmington, Oonn., in 17S6, died in of horse," as he called him, to be dismissed
Vow Haven, Deo. 18, 1847. He was graduated from the servioe, a paltry revenge which only
at Tale ocdlege in 17B5, studied law, became a spurred Pitt to still fiercer attacks. "His
monber of toe state l^islatfire, where for 6 flgnre when he first appeared in parliament,"
seseloDB he was speaker of the honse, and from says Macanlay, " was strikinoly graceful and
I60S to 1819 waa a representative in congress, commanding, his features hign and noble, his
In 181S ho pnbliahed " A Statistjcal View of eyes fall of fire. His voice, even when it ean^
tbe Commeroe of the United States" (Ed ed., to a whisper, was heard to the remotest
New Haven, 1886); and in 1826, "Political benches; when be strained it to its fall extent,
and Oivil History of the United States from the sonnd rose like the swell of the organ of a
1763 to the Close of Washington's Administra- great cathedral, shook the honse with its peal,
tjon" g vols. 8vo., New Haven). and was heard through lobbies and down stdr-
PIIT, an £. CO. of N. 0., intersected by Tar cases, to the oonrt of requests and the pre-
liver ; area, abont 700 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, dncts of Westminster halL He cnltivated all
lfi,080, of whom 8,478 were slaves. It has a these eminent advantages with the most assid-
level SQifaca and sandy soil. The prodnotions nons care. His action is described by a very
in ISCOwere 458,478 boahela of Indian com, malignant observer as eqnal tothat of Oarrick.
lfi2,85S of sweet potatoes, and 171 bales of His play of conntenance was wonderM; be
cotton. There were 13 grist mills, 6 saw frequently disconcerted a hostile orator by a
mills, 28 tar and tarpentine manufactories, IB single glance of Indignation or scorn. Every
charchea, and 1,086 pnpils attending pnblio tone, from the thrilling or; to the impassioned
Bohools. Capital, Greenville. aside, wosperiectlyatbiscommand." Inthedo-
PriT, OHmaroFHEB, an English clergyman bate, in 1740, on the bill for regtstering seamen,
and poet, bom in Blandford in 1BS9, diedApril he was taunted by Horatio walpole with his
13, 1748. He was educated at Oxford, where yonth, thonsh he was then 83 years of age, and
he made a translation of Lncan's Phanalia, made the celebrated reply, of which Dr. John-
which has not been preserved, and was chosen aon gave in the " GenUeman's Magazine " the
to a fellowship of New college. In 173S he commonly received version : "I will not attempt
obtained the rectory of Pimpeme in I)orset- to determiae whether youth can jostly be im-
shire, bnt he continued at Oxford until 1734, puted to any man as a reproach; but I will
when having received the degree of M.A. he afflmi that the wretch who, aAer having seen
withdrew to his living, and there passed the the conseqnences of repeated errors, continues
rest of bis daya, greatly beloved for bis benevo- still to blander, and wnose age has only added
lence. In 17fl7ho published a collection of hia obstinacy to stupidity, is surely the object of
poems, under the title of "A Miscellany," and either abhorrence or contempt, and deserves
two years later a translation of the first book not that his gray head shonld secnre him itom
of Virgil's .lEneid, and subsequently at In- insult." He gradually obtuned the popular
temJa the remaining 11 books. Bia veruon is repntation of being one of the most powerfbl,
correct, and contains many short passages of vigilant, and patriotic opponents In parliament
eingnlar merit, bat it has never ei^oyed the of nnoonstitutional and unwise measures, lite
same popolarityas Uie more spirited and ^- famooednchMSof Harlboronghlefttol^ttwhen
oronstruisiation of Dryden. Pitt also made an Bhediedin]744alegaoyof£10,000,"forhavlng
exoeDent translation of Vida'e " Art of Poetry." defended the laws of his country and endeavored
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
86g FTTI
toetnttfrcHnrain." IhiheMowiiigrMrtlw of eommoiu: lis wm ft6(»ed t^ the pu^e;
dnkeof N«rvMttle,whohBdbeoaaiepriiii»miii- he waa admbed hj all Europe. He was tbe
later, iriahed to bave him made Moretatyftf war; firat ffingliahnwiTi of hia jimea ; and be bad made
bat the Uiw bated Fitt,ai>dwoiild not oonsMit England the first country in the world. The
to tlw «pp<£itiiieat. Inl748IiewasapiKsnt«d great commoner — the name hj which he
jirint Tioo-treanirer of Ireland and toeaanrer was olton de«gnated — might look down with
and paymaater at the armf. Ha filled these soom on coronets and Kartera." George £L
t^BoM wiQi audi integri^, ntaaag to accept died Oct 25, 1760, and was encceeded bj
the ordioarjperqnintea, which had made them Geoi^ IIL Jnet at thia period the French
in leas sonipalona hands the most lao'atire contt had anoceeded in obtaioiog the coOpera-
positionB in the goTemmant, that bis repnta- tion of Bpain bj a secret treaty known as the
tion rose to the highest pitch. In 1?G5 be "iainil? compact." Pitt, fiiUj informed of the
determined to <9pose certain measoree of the hostile intentions of Spun, insisted on declaiiog
sdnistrj, and aooording^ rerimed bis posts; war against her before she had' time for prep-
bnt the popolar disoontent at hu abaenoa from aralJon. Hie ooUoagnes in the ministir op-
office was BO great that it waa deemed prndent posed this bold poIi<:7, and Pitt resigned Oct.
to innteldm to return to the mfadatiT with the o, 1761, Bis wife was created Baroness Cbat-
poaiUon c^ secretaiT of atate. The king how- bam in her own right, and a pension of £3,000
over oon&raed bitterlr hostile to hint, imd in a waa settled on himself Lady Chatham, and his
abort time dismissed bim frcan office. The eldest son. The war, however, was cootinned
iwers, which ms^ him in fact prime minister, was concluded Fob. 10, 1763. Ee mmntained
island waa then engaged in the 7 jean' war, bia digni^ and bis popnlarity in his retirement,
wuoh bad <9ened disastronslT fbr her arms in and came forward in parliament onir when
Mwen
almost ereij part of the world. To Pitt was great questions were to oe discnssed. In 1764
now intrusted the snprome diieddon of the war be spoke againsb general warrants with all his
and of fondgn affoirs. Under bis Tigorons and customary force and eloquence, and in 1766 be
akUfol administration the aspect of tliingB opposed the American stamp act with equal
qteedlly changed. A snooession of victories vigor. In that year a new ministry waa form-
Wd cmqnests filled the kingdom with r^oio- ed, and he was ^ipointed lord privy seal, and
lag, and raised still higher the already great at the same time was created a peer with the
flmie<tf the minister. In July, 1768,Loni8[)nrg tiUes of Yisoount Pitt and earl of Chatham.
was tak«i,thewhola idandof Cape Breton was His acceptance of a peerage very mach damaged
lednoed, and the French fleet was destroyed, bia popnWity. The people had been prood of
Hie year 1769 opened with the oonqnest of bim as tba " great commoner," and bis eleva-
Qoree. Next fell Gnadelonpe ; then Ticoo- tion in rank was thought to have lowered bis
deroga; then Niagara. The Tonlon sqaadron trne dignity. Ee did not long continue in office.
was eompletely defeated by Admiral Boscawen In Nov. 1768, he resigned the place of lord
off Gape Lagoe, and this was followed by the privy seal, and never afterward held an;^ pnblio
newsof the crowning tritmit^ of Wolfe on the employmenL He had been &om childhood
heigbta of Abraham, the aorrender of Quebec, tormented by the gout, which of late years
and the oonqueet of Canada. Next a large afflicted bun so severely that be now s^dom
fleet under Oonfiana was oomplately defeated ^tpeared in puhlio, but spent much of his time
byHawke, and atnccession of English victories in bed, employing his wife as an anuumeimain
almoet annihilated the French navy. In the his most confidential correspondence. In the
mean time vast oonqaeata had been mode in intervals of pun he sometimes appeared in the
India, repeated victories won over the French house of lords to speak on questions of great
generals there, and a mighty empire fbnnded in importanccL Inl77S,'6,and'7heopposed with
the space of three yeara. On the continent energy the measores of the minisUy in the
Pitt's measnres were equally sncee^iiL "When American colonies, and several of his speeches
ha came Into power Hanover waa almost com- on that subject are yet popular in the United
pletely in fbe bands of France; but the in- States for their lofty and impas^oned eloquence.
vadera were speedily driven out, and were His last t^ipearance in pnblio was on April 2,
beaten in 1768 at Orefeld, and In 1769 still 1778, when he went from his uck bed to
more completely at Hinden. At the same the house of lords to speak agunst a motion
time the nation exhibited all the signs of wealth to acknowledge the independenoe of America,
and prosperity; the merchants of London had He appeared swathed in flannd, cratch in band,
never been more thriving, and the impor- emaciated and debilitated, and supportod by bia
tance of several great oommerdel towns, Gla»- aou, and son-in-law. Lord Habon. He protested
oow in particular, dat«s from this period, witti great animation against the diBoicinber-
■' The sitiution which Pitt occupied atthedoae ment of the empire and the degradation of the
a! the reign of Qeorge II.," aays Uacaul^r, power of England. The houselistened in solemn
"was the most enviaUe ever occopied by any ailenoe and with profound respect. At the end
public man in English history. He had con- of bia speech he fell in an apoplectic fit, and
oiUated the king; be domineered over the house was borne home to die a few w<«ks afterword.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PITT 880
ThB dasth cl m great « gtotomwiii and orator, piqdl wUdi tx^an, soootdiiig to UMtal^.
falling in the attranpt to ronse the sfirit of his the diBtdnotiim of wAxtg the worst biogr&phioai
ooantrymen, made & inoit profound impreaeion work of its size in the world. At the nniver-
on England. All parties nnited in doing honor mtj he was distiognished for matiienuitiod tal-
to his memorT', and in aoknowledgiog Us loft^ ent and for profioienof in olsasituil leanunK
gentoa, hia anacllied probitf, and £js unrivalled bat pud comparatively little attention to mod-
pnblio services. His debts were pud bj the em literatare. Of the living laugnages he had
nation, hia familf provided for, and his body no knowledge except an impemot aoqnaint*
was buried in 'Westminster abbej. Lord Uao- ance with French, ^s &vorite authors were
anlaf eaja, at the dose of an article in the Bbakeepeare, Milton, Locke, Adam Smith, and
"Edinbnrgh Keviaw:" " Ohatham sleeps near Bolin^broke. Hia &thar had trained him
the northern door of the church, in a spot from infanof in the art of Tunnngifjg lus T<Hoe,
which has ever since been appropriated to which was natnrallT clear and deap^toned, and
eept has long been to poets. Uuisfield rests point of mding him a great parliamentaryora-
there, and the aeoond William Pitt, and Foz, tor. On qnitl&g the oniverntr he stodied law
and Grattan, and Canning, and Wilberforce. in Lincoln's Inn, and at the age af 81, twi^
In no oUier oemeter; do so manj great citizens years after his father's de^Ji, he becune a
lie within eo narrow a space. High over these member of parliament for the borough of Ap>
-venerable graves towers the stately monument pleby. The party with which he a^ed was a
of Chatham, and from above, his own effi^, section of the opposition composed of tlie old
graven by a cunning band, eeems still with followers of hie father, with the earl of Shel-
eagle ikce and ontstretohed arm to bid England bnme. Lord Camden, and Col. Barr^ at thur
be of good cheer and horl defianoe to her foes. head. His first epeeoh, Feb. 26, 1781, waa in
The generation which reared that memorial of fkvor of Burke's plan of economical reform, and
him naadiswpeared. The time has come when made a great impression. Burke exclaimed on
the rash aha indiscriminate jodgmants which hearing him: "It ia not a chip of the old
his contemporaries passed on hia character m^ block; it is the old block itself." Someone
be calmly revised by history. And history said to Fox: " Pitt will be one of the first men
while, for the warning of vehement, high, and in parliament." " He is so already," answered
daring natoreL she notes hia many errors, wUl Fox. Subsequently during the session the
yet deliberately pronounce, that among the young orator twice addressed the house wilii
eminent men whose bones lie near his, scircely marked aaocess. In the next sesaion he die-
one has left a more sttunless, and none a more tinguished himself still more brilliantly, and
splendid name." — Of Chatham's writings, there on the rise to power of the Bockingbam min-
have been publtahed a small volume of letters istry he was offered the highly lucrative office
to hia nephew Thomas Pitt, Lord Camelford, of vice-treasurer of Ireland, Though his in-
and iaa " Correspondence " (4 vols., London, come at thia time was very small, he declined
1838-'40). His title expired with his eldest the offer without hedtotion, declaring that he
son (3d earl), a general officer of unenviable would aooept no post that did not give Um a
notoriety, in 1886. His life has been written seat in the cabinet Three months later, on
by the Rev. Francis Thackeray (2 vols. 4to., the deatb of Rockingham, his sncoeaeor Shel-
London, 1827). hume found that Rtt, although then but 28
PITT, WiLuui, an Enaliah statesman, see- years old, waa the only member of hia party in
ond son of the preceding, born at Hayes, conn- the house of commona who had the courage
ty of Kent, May 26, 1759, died at Putney, Jan. and the eloqnenoe required to confront Fox
23,1806. He was a aingularly precocious child, and Burke and the other great oratoraof the
and even ab the age of 7 was remarkable for opposition. He was accordingly brought into
the interest wtuoh he took in grave sul^ects, the cabinet as chancellor of the exdiequer. Is
forthcardorwithwhiobhepursuedhisstudies, the following year the Shelbnme ministryre-
and the sense and vivacity of hia remarks. At signed, and the king, nnwiUiog to take Fox u
14 he had the intellect of a man, and wrote a his sncceseor, urgently pressed Pitt to accept
tragedynotworaethanmanyproduetionswhioh the premiei;phip. 'With great Judgment he
have been printed by persons of matnre yearg. steadily refused the tempting offer, satisfied
nia physical development was not equal to his that he could not at that time form a atable
intellectual. He was tall, slender, and bo sick- administration. He took his aeat on the oppo-
ly that be waa edncated at home instead of be- ^tion benches, and advocated a prt^eet <^^jp>r<-
ing sent like other boys of the same rank to liamentary reform which waa r^ected, 'When
the great public sdiools. Before he hod com- parliament adjourned he visited the continent
pleted hia 15th year he was fitted to enter the in company with 'William Wilberforee, and waa
nniverdtT^andwassenttoPembrokehoIliOam- received bythe Parisians in the most distin-
bridge, wherehewasfirstnndertheohargeof a tingniahed manner. Parliament reassembled
tutornamedPretyman,forvhom he contracted in Nov. 1788. The ministry brought forward
a warm aflbotion, and whom he afterward mode a bill for the government of lodia, whieh ex-
bishop of Lincoln, a iiavor which hia preceptor dted the fiercest opposition and was defeated
endeavored to reqnite by writing a Dfe of his in the house of lords. The ministry readied,
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
MO ^TT
end Htt sacoeeded as prime minliteT, being Burke, above 'Windham, above Sheridan, and
q)poinl«d first lord of the treaanr; and cban- not below Fox. His decIanutiimiraB oopioDB,
iwor of the exchequer. He took office Bar< polished, and splendid, lb power of Barcaam
roonded by difflcultiea of die most formidable he wba probablj not anrpMsedbj any speaker,
kind. AmoDg his ooUeagnes in the honse of ancient or modem, and of this nmnidaUa
Dommons there was not a single orator of note, weapon he made merciless arc." On Karch
while the opporition was led by Fos, Bnrke, 20, 17SS, Pitt in a speech of 6 hoars, delivered
SheridaD, and North. His polioy, however, without notes and withont a moment's faesita-
was from the outset firm and nnflinching. He tlon, bronght forward a scheme for the redemp'
maintained the contest with haughty resoln- tion of the national debt by means of a sink-
tion from Dec. 17, ITBS, to March 8, 17B4, not- isg find, and supported it by a vast and elab-
withstanding he was defeated in 16 diviuons. orate array of fignreg and aj^nments. It was
ThoBgh the house of commons waa hostile, the agreed to by the house withont a single diaaen-
king and the people gave him the warmest tjent vote, and raised his reputation as a finan-
■npport. In the mid^ of the straggle the oier to a degree which sabseqnent experience
clerkship of the pells, a linecnre place worth has not justified. In the autnmnof 1788 George
£8,000 a year for life, and one that could be IH. became insane. The opposition, with
held together with a seat in parliament, be- whom the prince of Wales, afterward George
eame vacant. Everybody thought that Pitt, IV., had affiliated, contended that the prince,
whose whole private income was only £800 a who all agreed should be r^ent during the
year, would appoint himself; but he gave the king's insanity, was as a matter of course en-
office to Ool. Barr£, who was old and blind, titled to the fail powers of the crown. Pitt
" No minister was ever more rascoronaly li- maintained that it belonged to parliament to
belled," says Hacaulaj ; " bnt even when he determine with what degree of power the re-
was overwhelmed with debt, when millions vent should be intrusted. The people, to whom
were passing through his hands, when the uie prince's vices made bim odious, sided with
wealthiest magnates of the realm were solidt- Pitt, and sapported him with enthosiasm dur-
ing him for merquisates and gartera, hia bit- ing a long and violent contest on the subject;
tereet enemies did not dare to accuse him of and when that contest was terminated by the
touching unlawful gain." The courage and de- king's nueipected recovery, the popularity of
termination of the young premier at length the minister was greater than ever. In the
triumphed. The opposition m^ority was re- same year Pitt, who was always strongly op-
duoea to one, and parBament was dissolved posed to slavery and the slave trade, carried
with the coalition of Fox and North demoral- by his elo<juence and determination, against
iaed and practically defeated. The appeal to the opposition of some of his own eolleagnes,
the oonutry met with an enthnnastio responBe, a bill to mitigate the horrors of the middle
160 of the coalition members losing their seats, passage. Until the outbreak of the excesses
and Pitt being returned at the heiKl of the poll of the French revolution his administration
fortheuniveruty of Oambridge. Hewasnow, had been distingnished for its bomaue and
at the age of SB, the greatest subject that &ng- peaceful character, for efibrte at conatitntiooal
land had seen for many Kenemtions. No min- reform, and regard for freedom and order. He
later in modern timee had. ever been so power- looked at first with approbation oa the French
fill and bo popnlar. Macaulay terms him at movement for constitutional liberty, but in
this period the greatest roaster of the whole common with the vast majority of the £oglisti
art of parliamentary government that baa ever nation he was shacked and revolted by the
existed, a greater than Montague or Walpol& atrocities of the rev olntionista. He however
a greater than his father Chatham or his rival labored hard to avert the war with Franco, bat
Fox, a greater than either of hia Illustriona was at length forced by popular pressure and
eucoesBora Oanning and Peel. "At his first the current of eventBintohostilities. His raili-
appearance in paruament he showed himself tary administration was feeble and uuskiUhL
fnperior to all hia contemporsries in command He underrated the resources and misundentood
of language. He conld poar forth a long sac- the character of the French people, and made
oesrion of ronnd and stately periods without no adequate use of the means at his command,
premeditation, without ever pausing for a word. For a long series of years the operations of the
without ever repeating a word, in a voice of English on land were marked only by ineffi-
•ilver oleamew, and with a pronnndation ao dency, blunders, and disasters; and on sea for
artlcalate that not a tetter was slurred over, a long while af^kirs went little better. I^tt
He bad less ampUtode of mind and leas rich- had made his elder brother, the earl of Chat-
oeaa of ima^ation than Burke, less ingenuity ham, first lord of the admiralty, a post for
than Windham, less wit than Sheridan, leas per- which he was totally unfitted; and nothing
feotmasteryof dialectical force and less of that was done by the navy till Earl Spencer anc-
hif^eet sort of eloqnenoe which oonsista of rea- ceeded him, under whose administration two
«on and paasion ^^ised together than Fox. Tet great naval victories were won within a year,
the almost onanimona Judgment of those who In spite of bis blunders and failures in foi^
were in the habit of listening to that remark- elgn expeditions, Pitt's extraordinary genius
Ableraoeof man laoed Pitt, aa a speaker, above as a parliamentary leader continued to him
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PITTAOAL PITTSBtJBG 891
fl» abeoloto control of the house of com- Reichenbach in wood tsr. It is a solid com-
iQMiB, and at lengtii the opposition to bim pound of a deep bine color precipitated tVom
UiBTB ■DtwtantullT' vaniabed avaj. la 1799 plcamar, which 18 the bitter oil of tar depriyed
the lu^eat minority that could be mnstered on of its aoid by the addition of barytea Trater.
any qneatioQ iras only SS votea. Host of the Pittacal bears some resemblanoa to indigo, as-
leaden of the oppodtioQ had given in their BQines a metallic lustre by friction, and is used
adtie&n to the adminiatration, and Fox, the to dye a fast bine upon linen and cotton -mOi
fTUteat of them all, bad withdj'awn from the tin and alominoos mordanta.
field. In Ma domestic policy Pitt was vigor- PITTA0U8, one of the seven wise men of
009 md severe, and effectually repreaaed the Qreece, bom io Hytileae in Lesbos abont 663
lerelotionary spirit in the British islands by a B. 0., died about S69. He was the eon of Hjr-
nries of high-handed measures and arbitrary radius, and is first mentioned as engaged in a
enactments which rendered him exceeding conspiracy with the brothers of the poet Al-
ddiona to the liberal part of the people. He cffios, by which Helanchnts, tyrant of Myti-
fbrmed great' plans however for the b«nefit of lene, was slain about 612. About this time the
Ireland, bnt could only effect the legislative Athenians and Mytileneans were eng^ed (a a
nuian with Great Britain, his nrqject of Oatho- war for the possession of Bigeom in the Troad.
Ik emancipation being defeatea by the obstinate A battle ensued, in which t£e latter were van-
prejudices of the Ung. lading the monarch qnished ; but Pittacns succeeded in slaying with
immovable on this point, Pitt resigned and his own hand Fhrynos, the leader of the ene-
Addington became premier, Pitt at first made tny, who waa on Olympic victor, and whom he
DO opposition to the new ministry, and for a overcome by entangling him in a net. For hia
canstderable period lived in retirement, so em- conduct he was offered great rewards, but
birrassed In oironmataaces, after SO years of would take only so much land as he could
ibnlnte power, as to have had serious thoughts throw his spear over ; and this was known to
of Tetomiag to his profession for subsistence, a late age as "thePittacian land." Uytileneat
But when ia May, 1803, the ambitions deaigas of this time was agitated by the conflict between
Nipoloon drove England to break the peace of the democratic and aristocratic parties, the
Ainiena, he appeared in parliament Bad made a latter of which waa led by Aloffins and hia
peat speech in favor of the war. In the ftil- brother. These were at length worsted and
Xnring year the weakness of Addington and banished ; bat the exiles were not incllaed to
Ida coUeagnea became so apparent that the king submit, and kept Uytileae in a state of alarm
ins forced to recall Pitt to the head of affairs, by their efforts to rotnm, bo that the inhabit-
Ktt deaired to form a cabinet of the first men aata flaally choao Pittacns, who belonged to
in the kingdom without reference to paat party the democratic par^, as a ruler with absolute
affinitiea ; t>ut the prejudices of the half insane power, aader the title of auymnetes, an office
monarch against Fox were insurmountable, and which differed from that of a tyrant in being
■I Fort friends would aot take office while he elective. This position Pittacns held from B8»
vas exdnded, the new government was formed to CT9. The lost poem of AIcebub abounded
chiefly of die wreck of Addingtoa'a admiaistra- with bitter invectives agaiaat him, describing
lion, inth the additioa of a few personal friends him as aa oppressor, sad ridicaling the pecnU-
ot the premier, of whom Harrowby, Helville, aritiesof hispersonat appearance. Heeuacted,
rod Oanning were the moat eminent. Pitt was among other laws, that offeaoes committed In
soon beset with troubles of fearful magnitude, a state of intoxication ahould be visited with
Ha was deprived by various csuaea of his ableat doable peaalties. He was celebrated as aa.
a»4i<itor9. Harrowby fell aick, and Melville elegiac poet; but only a few lines of hia are
Tas disgraced and ejected from office for qnes- extant, preserved by Diogenes La&rtius.
tionable pecuniary transactiona. On the con- PITTSBUEG, a city, and the capital of Allft-
tiaenl K^>oteoa was everywhere victorious in ghany co., Penn., situated at the confluence of
wite of the mighty coalitions which the skill of uie Allogaaay and Monongahela rivers, which
ntt and &e money of England formed against here form the Ohio, in lat. 40° SB' 84" N.,
Km, The haughty and indomitabJe minister long. 80° 3' 88" W.; pop. of the city proper
grew m with anxiety and grief Thesurreoder in 1840, 21,115; in 1800, 4B,601; in 1880,
of the Austrian army at Olm gave him a shock 49,210, or including thesnbnrbs, 11S,000, The
from which he never tullj recovered, thoagh densely buOt business portion occupies the ex- '
4 days later the giorions news of the rietory of tromity of the peninsula between tne two riv-
Trablgar for a moment revived hia spirits. He era, which meet at an angle of about 88°, and
finally gave way on hearing of the battle of the outskirts extend along the bank of each
Anateriit^ after which he rapidly declined and stream, having between them a cliff 800 feet
died in a lew weeka. He was honored by par- high, which thraats itself forward from th«
liamnt with a public funeral, and his remains table-land in the rear. On this elevation, which
weredqwiitednoar thoaeof hia&therinTFest- is known as Grant's Hill, are the reservoirs
ooiater ablMy. — See " life of William Pitt," that anpply the city with pure water from
by Earl Stanhope (4 vols., London, 1891 «( w)?.). the Alleghany river. — Pittsburg is styled the
PITTAOAL (wr. n-imi, pitch, and kuXoc, "amoky city" on account of the heavy clonda
beaatiftil), one of the principlea discovered by of smoke which constantly hang over it, pro-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
868 PITlBBmta
dmwd brbnndng Utnminons ooal In bQ dveU- the opposite side of the AUM^hany river, hj 4
ingi aoa m&nnfactoring establlahmeiits. This bridges, one of which is a rtdlroad bridge, and
is the great shipplsg port toe oosl for all a Bniipension aqnednct for canal pnrpoeea. One
parts of the lG»adppi vallej. The amonnt of the finest Bospenaion bri^eB in the world
shipped daring 1860 was 1,600,000 tons. The wss erected here in 1860. Ihro bridges oon-
Uonongahols river, from whose hanks the ooal neot the <stj witti Binningham and SUgo on
is obtMned, has lieen improved b; slackwater the Monongahela side. The railrMtds in opto'-
datns and looks so aa to render it navigable in stion are the* Pennsylvania centra], the Pitt»-
b11 sessouB. There are 65 companies engaged bnrg. Fort Wa;ne, and Ohioago, the Qercdand
in miniog, 8,S0O men employed in Uie mines, and Pittaborg, the Pittsburg and OonndlsviUe,
and more than $1,000,000 invested in improve- and the AUeghaoy valley. The FUtsborg and
ments, and $3C0,000 in ooal tnga for towing Oonnellsville railroad is oompleted to Ocomells-
the coal to market. The value of coal lands is ville, 60 m., and is destined to extend to Ciun-
from $400 t« $800 per acre. From the first berland, Md., on the Baltimore and Ohio rail- '
Kttsborg has been a mann&otnring city. In road. The AUeghanv v^ej railroad is in-
artioles of iron it is Bnipaased by no city in the tended to meet ^e Hew York and Erie rail-
Union. There are now 28 large iron and steel road at Olean, and 44 m. of it are in working
works in operation, wliich consume more than order. The Stenbeuville and bidiana rulroad
$7,000,000 worth of material anniiaUy, soch as is partly completed W. of Steabenville, O., and
pig iron, blooms, scrap iron, coal, coke, fire is nearly ready for the iron between Pittebnrg
olay , Ac. Thej' employ about 6,000 hands, and and Btenhenville. The OharUers valley rail-
thdr annaal prodnot amoimfs to $12,000,000. road, conneotiDg Pittsbuig and Washington,
The value of ndls, eiokes, and rivets alone for Penn., 80 m. in length, is partially graded.
1867 was $3,000,000, and blister, plongh, and There are 4 city passenger ruhrosds, 8 of whddi
oast ste^ $2,000,000. Other articles of mann- are in active operation. The oUy has an excel-
£BctareareaxleB,vices,Bpri!ig8,crow-bars,sheet, lent Byat«m of public schools, and is the seat
bsj, and boUer iron, gas pipe, Ac. There are 18 of the western theological seminary of the Old
fonnderiesof tlieyearlycapacityof 46,000toiis, School Presbyterian church; the weetem nni-
consuming pig iron, coal, coke, fire brick, and veraity of Pcnnfljlvania ; two commercial otd-
other materuus, to the value of $700,000 annn- leges, an insane asylum, an ol)3ervatory, and a
aUy, employing 8O0 hands, and prodncing oast- marine hospital. There are G public libraries
ings to the vuiie of $1,2CO,000. An immense containing about 6,000 Tolomes. There are 10
cannon fonndery is in operation, which sup^ea or 11 newspapers, including 2 in the German
heavy ordnance for the government. The laognage, and the city has a well aopperted
great "Unioa" gun, the largest in the world, theatre. There is a U. S. arsenal ntnated
cast here in Jan. 1861, weij^ed 49,060 lbs. here, containing a large snpply of heavy ord-
There are machine shops, manufactories of nance. There are 6 banks of isene, with aa
boilers, shovels, plonghs, axes, safes, ontlery, aggregate coital of $4,800,000, and 6 banks
files, wire, rifles, guns, and revolvers. Abont of deposit, beside savings banks and private
S60 steam engines are built here annually, banking houses. — The early history of Pitte-
Ajuong other establishments are 2 copper smelt- burg, or Fort Pitt, aa it was formerly called, is
iug and rolling mills employing 800 men, 8 fnll of interest. It was first subject to Great
cotton mills employing more than 1,000 hands, Britun, then to France, then reoonqnered
9 white lead factories, and a large numl>er of by the ^English, The Eoglish aUumed title
glase factories. In 1667 there were 84 glass to the territory under a cliart«r from tlie
nooses, employing more than S,O00 hands, con- crown, strengthened by a treaty with the Iro-
Burning anuQally $2,250,000 worth of materials, quois; the French lud clwm on the gronnd of
andmaking$8,000,D00worthofgIaBe. Steam- discovery. In Feb. 1704, the Eugli^ corn-
boats are built here for all western and south- menced building a stockade at the river jnno-
era rivers, and the number of boats now (1861) tion, but were driven from it in April by a
owned in the city is 137, with an aggregate French force under Oaptain Contreorenr, who
burden of 26,974 tons. The value of flat-boats proceeded at once to erect a fort, which he
nsed for oairying coal to market (where the called Dnquesne, in honor of the governor of
boat is always sold) is about $260,000 per an- Canada. This fort at once became the great
num. The whole commercial andmamuactur- centre of all the military operations of the
ing prodnct of the city in 1850 amounted to French is this part of the country, and its
$60,000,000, inlB60tonear$100,000,000.— The commanding pc«ilion reudered its restoration
most imposing public btdldings are the court to the English a matt«r of tlie first importanoa.
house and new Roman OaUiolio oathedral. Accordingly, in 1766, Gen. Brnddook, at the
The latter is the laigest building of the kind head of uie largest expedition that bad ever
in America except the oathedral at UontreaL crossed the Alleghanies, was sent to recapttire
Hany fine shopa and warehonses are bnilt en- it. On July 9, 1766, he was met and defeated
tirely of iron, which is one of the best and by the French and Indians at a point on the
cheapest materials in use. There are about Monongahela 12 m. above the fort. Twelve of
116 churches in the city and aubnrba. The the British soldiers taken prisoners on that oo-
tity is connected with Allegany Oity, on oauon were burned by the savages. A force
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FETTSKIEID PIUB (Fon») 808
ofWOBttitadtrXaftx-QraittiruonttoptMM tort«^ 60 ohnnibea, and W pnpils atUmding
ia A aMond attempt to t&ko the fort, Cot IS, pdMo soboola. Valne of real estate in 166^
17S8; tmt a tUrd, by 6,000 meo under Geo. (4,691,671, being aa inoreaae of 63 per cent.
Fmbea, Sor. 26, 1768, waa aaooeeaTal, the amoe ISGO. Capital, Oompetitioii.
Fi«neh, didieaitNied bj the iailore of aereral PIUS, the uame of 9 popea, the moat cele-
attaoka on the adraioiiig annf , bariiig abaa- brated of whom are the following. I. E^a II.
doaed and eat fire to it on the asj pieoeding. (See JEsxab Stlviub.) II. Piua TL (GiovAmn
A new and large fort waa built and completed Asbblo Bsabohi), bom in Ceseoa in I7l7, died
iboot Jan. 1709. It waa called Fort f itt, in in Valeaoe, France, Aag. SB, 17B9. Before hie
hoBor of the Briliah miniater. Sereral expedt- deration to the pontincate he hod held the
tioBB vera fitted out againat it bj the Frenoii, office of papal Ireasorer. Elected to enoceed
but tbcT all hiled. In 176i the first efibrta Clement 2IY. in 1776, Le applied himaelf at
were nude toward building a town. In Oct. once to the work of reform in both choioh and
1773, tba poet waa abandoned bj the Engliah. atote, but met with great oppoution, eapeciaUj
A eontroverv between FennaylTania ana Vir- from Leopold L, grand doke of Tusoan^, with
ginia aa to the boandaiT line was tite enUeot whom he had a aeriona diapnte in 1777. Boon
dmatb negotiation, ana gave rise to ill feeung afterward becoming involyed in a disagreement
between the two atatea, Virginia claiming the with Leopold'a brother, Joseph II. of Aostria,
tarriury Kta whioh the dty atanda nnder a who bad auppreaaed himdreaa of oonventa in
diarter from JameeL.andFennsjlrauiannder hia dominiona and enacted Tariooa meaanree
a (Waiter from Oharlea C A company of Vir- tending to withdraw the clergy of the empire
giniana took poaeewon of the fort nnder an from the anthority of the Boman see, naa
order fh>m the "Virginia ooavention, Ang. 11, made ajonrneyto Vienna in 1763, bat foiled to
1775. On Ang. 81, 177B, oommiaaionera ap- efiect a settlement of the pointa in diapnte.
pointed by the two provinoea met in Baltimore, The Janaeniat aynod of Piatoja in Tosoany,
and agreed npon the boundary, wliich was duly coarwied by Bishop Bicei in 1786, revived the
ratified by their respectiTe l^ialaturea. Dnr- diq>ntea with Leopold; hut on the acoeacionof
ing the excise trouues of 1791-'4, Pittsbnig the grand doke to the imperii crown afterthe
vaatfae aoeneof mnohyiolenoe. Itwasincor- deaUkof his brother(l7BD) a complete reoonoili-
porated aa a borough in 1804, and chartered ationwaa efi'ected, both with Tuscany and Ans-
M a dty in 181S. Li 184S a oonflsgration de- trio. In the mean time, however, the nnfor-
troTed tlie entire buainess quarter, conanming tooate pope had found a new enemy in France,
|5,00OjOOO worth of property. where the property of the churoh was confia-
PrrTSFIELD, a town of Berkshire co., cated, and priests who refused to anbacribe
Haas., on the tine of the weatem rulroad, 151 to the "oiril oonstJtntion of the cler^" were
m. V. from Borton, and 49 m. F. B. E. from pnt to death or banished. While condemmng
Ailwny, and a terminus of the Housatonio and these violent proceedings, Pins YI. refused to
of the Fittsfield and North Aduns railroads; join the coalition of European states againat
pop. in 1800, 8,000. It is beautifolly situated Fraoce; but an ooonrrenoe at Rome in 17&S
m an elevated Tolley aurronnded by mountains, led to still more hostile relationB with the new
iad ia regnlorly laid out, with houses generally republic An agent of the revolutionary par^
oT wood and very neatly built. In 1805 there named Baaaeville waa aaaasainated by a mob
■rere 3 cotton nulls, manufacturing 1,600,000 whom he had provoked by his own imprudence^
Tsrds of oloth, and S woollen mills, pR>dncing and the papal government, though it made
H7,400 yards of broadclotb, and 860,000 of every effort to Iiave the murderers punished,
otvoet, beside a number of other mann&o- was charged with being a party to the outrage,
toriee; total valne of manufactured gooda, and thrMtened with aummary vengeance. In
11,198,000. The Berkshire medioal institution, 1796 Bonqiarte entered Italy, took possession
fbonded in 1823, and the young ladies' insti- of the leg^ions, and was marching upon Borne
tale, are both of eiceQent repute, and in a when the pope proposed a uegotlaJion; and in
pnapwone condition. There are 3 banks, and Feb. 1797, a peace was signed at Tolentino,
> churches, viz. : 1 B^tlst, 8 Congregational, whereby the holy aee aneed to surrender
I Episo(n)al, 1 G«rman, 2 IfeUiodiat, and 1 So- Avignon, Yenu^n, and the legations of Fei^
nan OaUioUc, aeveral (tf which are very hand- rara, Bologna, and the Romagna ; to relinquish
awne edifleea. the right of garrison in Ancona ; and to give to
PrrrSTLTAKIA, a a oo. of Ya., bordering the French 81,000,000 franca and some of the
on S. 0., bounded N. by the Staunton, inter- finest works of art in Borne. The folflbnent
•sated by the Banister through the middle, and of these oondiliona brought the pope to the
dTMnad by the Dan river on the S. ; area, about verge of ruin. After the volnntary oontribu-
900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 83,104, of whom tions of the richest familiea of the city, it was
14,340 wera slaves. It has a (Uvetaifled snr- M^l neeewary to resort to an issue of paper
face and fertile solL The productions in 1S60 money in order to raise the 81,000,000 fi'anca,
vera 658,816 bushels of Indian eorn, 138,984 the payment of which the directory did not
of wheat, 38,864 tba. of wool, and 4,700,767 lbs. fail to urge with the utmost haste. The French
of tobacco. There were SO griat mills, 18 saw atirred up revolutionary movements in Rome,
>BiU^7 tanneries, 8 distilleries, 48 tobaooo fao- audio an attempt tOBnppre>athemOen.Duphot,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
an attaehi of the Frencli embassy, 'was killed took poeteedon of Borne ; in April the emperor
\>j the ptq)al troopi. This g&ve the directory declared diplomatic intercourse at an end, and
a long coveted pretext for dethroning the pon- anneaed the provinces of Aneona, Uacerata,
tiff. On Feb. 10, 1798, Gen. Berthier entered Fermo, and TTrbino to the kingdom of Italy;
Kome wiHiont opposition, and on the 16th de- and in May, 180B, the remainder of the Bonum
olared a republic. On the 20th, having been states ivere incorporated with the Preacb em-
allowed two dajB for preparation, the pope was pire, Napoleon declaring that he " deemed it
escorted by a strong detachment of cavalry proper for the secnrity of his empire and of
along the road to Elorence. Eelo^ed first nis people to resnroetlte grant of Chsrlemagne."
at a convent near Sienna, and afterward with The pope replied to these ontragea by a bnll
the OtuihnHians in the vicinity of Florence. In of exeommnnication (June, 1809). On Joly 8,
the following year the French having taken between 2 and 8 o'clock in the morning, Gen.
possession of Tuscany ordered liim to be re~ Badet forced an entrance into the Qniri^l, and
moved to Grenoble, where he was kept for 26 conveyed the pontiff to Grenoble, whence he
days in close confinement, with only two at- was removed m 1811 to Savona. In Jime,
tendants. The victories of Sawaroff alarming 1812, he was taken to Fontoineblean. Here he
the directory for the secnrity of their captive, was treated with great respect, and on Jan. 26,
he was then removed to Valence and imprison- 1813, was persnaded, chiefly by the repreeenta-
ed in the citadel ; and the order had been ^ven tions of several cardinals who were permitted
to send him to I^on, when he was released to visit him, to ragn a new concordat which
by death. Pins Vl. was graceflil in person, tacitlygave np to the emperorthewbole eoote-
affiible, accompUahed, fond of learning and the siastioal states, and decided in favor of the civil
arts, and by no means ignorant how to govern power the long dispntedqaestion as to the papal
weU, He nndertook the drwnage of the Pon- veto on the appointment of bishops by the tem-
tine marshes, restored the Appian way and the poral authority. All the restrictions upon the
port of Terracina, enlarged the Vatican muse- freedom of bis holiness were at once removed;
'Dm,CBnsed the pablioation of the splendid series but aUttle reflection showed Pius that he had
of engravings known as the Mtiieo Pio Ol&m«n- been overreached, and on March 24, in a letter
Uno, adorned Bome with fountains and fine to the emperor, he retracted his conceamons,
bidldings, and attracted to his capital a number expressing the humblest penitence for hie weak-
of learned men and artists from other parts of ncss, and imploring the divine forgivenesa. Na-
Enrope. His administration waa mild and lib- poleon took no notice of the letter, but after
eral. IIT. Prna VII. (Bunaba Lttioi OmAKi.- the -disastrous campaign of Germany (1813)
MOhTi), bom in Oesena in 1743, died Aug. 20, proposed to restore the provinces sooth of the
I82S. He entered the order of Benedictines at Apennines if the pope would agree to a new
the age of 16, and after some years of study concordat. Befn^ng to listen to anyproposale
became lecturer on philosophy and theology to until he had been restored to Bome, he was
the novices at Parma and afterward at Bome. escorted to Italy in Jan. 1814; bnt the dis-
Pius VI. made him bishop of Tivoli, and in tnrbed condition of afiairs induced him to Tft-
1T8B cardinal and bishop of Imola. On the muu at Oesena until after the abdication of the
death of that pontiff in exile, the conclave met emperor, when he made his entrance into Rome,
at Venice, Bome being then in a state of anar- Uay 24, 1814, in the midst of the liveliest de-
ehy, and after a session of several montlis chose monstrations of popnlar satisfaction. For a
Oardinal Ohiaramonti pope, March 14, 1800. abort time dnring the Hundred Days he waa
In the following July he entered Bome, which agwn a f^igitive, when his territories were in-
had previously been evacuated by the French; vaded by Murat; but by the congress of Vi^ma
and in Aug. 1801, he signed a concordat with all the states of the church, inclndiug the lega-
the first consul whereby Oatholio worship waa tions, were restored to him. The rest of hie
reestablished in France as the state religion, life was principally devoted to the domestic
In 1804 he went to Paris to crown Napoleon, affaire of his dominions. He made great im-
Sassing^ several months there, and returning to provementa in the police and courts of law,
:ome in May, 1805. The amicable relatious and tbroughhis minister Cardinal Oonsalvi did
thus apparently establif^ed were soon inter- much toward the eitirpatiou of banditti. He
rupted by the seizure by the French of the abolislied every kind of torture, modified the
papal port of Aneona, and a demand from the powers of the inquisition, and confirmed the
emperorthat his holiness should expel all Kns- auppres^on of alt feudal imposts, privileges,
Btans, Swedes, Sardinians, and Englishmen from monopolies, and Jurisdiotions. He made new
his dominions. Along and acrimonious cor- concordats with France and other states, re-
respondence followed, the French meanwhile established the society of Jesus (April 7, 1814),
taking possession of Oivita Veccbia and of aU and condemned the carbonari. In his personal
the ports on the Adriatic. The refusal of the character he was modest, disinterested, and
pope to grant a divorce between Jerome Bona- virtuous. — See Artand de Mentor, .fitttoirs de
parte and Kiss Patterson, and a dispute con- }a vU et da jionUJUat du papt Pit VII, (8
coming appointments to certain vacant sees in - vols. 8vo., Paris, 1886), and Cardinal Facca'a
the kingdom of Italy, hastened the oonclusion. "Historical Memoirs," translated into English
In Feb. 1B08, a Freni^ force under Gen. Miolfia by Sir George Head (2 vols, post 8vo., L<mdoD,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FIDS (Pom) 86ft
1850); IV. P]tnIX.((3iOTJJnnHABuHAmAi Botd ; bnt on Not. IB Bmd wu a
¥axtra}, bom in Binigaglia, Maj 18, 1793. at the door of the council chamber;
He is a ion of Ooant Girgluno SoUzzi. In hli next daj the popolaM, the drio goard, Uis
Ilth ;ear he was sent to a college at Yolterra, sendarDierie, the troopB of the line, and the
and in 18D6 went to Borne to poraae his eocle- Boman. legion besieged the Qoiriaal and forced
aiastical stodiea. Daring the French ooonpa- the pope to accept a radical mlniBtr;^ and
tioB lie retired to Sinigaglia, but in 1814 re- on the iilh, having meanwhile remained a
tanked to the o^ital,aQa in I>ec. 1818 receiTed piiaoner in his own palace, with no control
holj orders. In 1828 he visited Ohili in oom< over Uie oItU adminiatratdon and little or none
ptBj with tJie ^MMtollo delegate Uonsignor ov^ ecolesiaBtioal affidrs, he escaped, disguised
MDzi, and passed two jeara at Santiago «m- as a simi^ prieet, in the carriage of the Bavtf
C7ed in preaohing and inatraoting. Betnrn- lian minister, Oonnt Spaur, to GaEta. Here
to Rome in Dec 18SS, he received from he was received with great honor. The king
Leo Xn. the ^pointment of president of the and qaeen immediateh^ sailed from Naples to
kovpital of St. IGchael, where he remuned meet nim, and peraoaded him to abandon bis
■bont a year and a half. In 1827 he was ore- original purpose of accepting the hospitalitjof
ated archbiahop of Spoleto. Here he founded Spain. Declarations of attachment and sfm-
an K^lmn for orphans, modelled somewhat path/, and presents of monej, were poored
aftat tiie plan of one over which he bad pre- npon him from sll quarters of the world. Ha
sided in Bome before his musion to South immediately isaned a protest against the acta
Anwrioa, Dnring the distnrbancea of 1831 he of the revolntionary government, and on Teh.
Indiwed 4,000 insurgeota who had taken refbge 18, 1849, called upon the Oatholio powers,
iaSpoI^o to sorreDderto the pqial onthoii- partioalarh^ France, Spain, Anatrio, and Nafjea,
ties, and at the same time was intrnsted ad tn- tta armed asdstance. On the same daj the
terim wttb the oivil administration of the prov- Boman oonstitaent assembly declared the in*
incee of Spoteto and Pemgia. In 1833 he angnratMn of a republic and the depontion of
was transferred to Om see of Imola, and in Deo. the pope from his temporal authoritj. On
1839 er«at«d oardlnal, hia q)p<dntment being April 8G a French force landed at Oirita Yeo-
rMMTod «» pttta until Deo. 1840. His red- chia and marched 'won Bom& while the Aua-
denoaatlmotawaadgnalizedbrthefonndatioa triaoa invaded the N. and the Bpa
of a ooUege for eodenaatleal students, asjloms provinces. Botne capitulated Jnl^ ., .
fi)rm-phansofbotbsexea,andahoa>eforfemale goveniment was intrnsted to a p^wl oommis-
Bpaniarda the S.
Jaif 1, and
Citents onderthe sisters of the Good Shep- iuon, aeonsnltaof state, a oonsulta for finances^
i. ' On the death of Pope GIregor? XVI. the and provincial coundlB. The pope returned to
wmelave choae him pope, June 16, 1846, after his o^iital in April, ISSO. He deolared a par-
e cuDBB uua pops, iiiuie id, ibw, uiwr uui oopiuu lu .a-pru, icxtu. ao uiNiuireu a jwr-
n of 48 hours, and on the next aaj he tial omnes^, bnt his progressive tendencies
ma prodwmed under the title of Pius IX. The had been thoronghly oheoked, and he has sinca
election of a man of such known liberal senti- shown no diapodtion to rule as a oonstitntional
nmits was hailed with nniveraal aoolamadon. monarch. Shortly after hia restoration he
On July 10 he published a general smnes^ to pabUabed a brief restoring the Boman Oatholio
political ofiCbnders, and immediately afterward hierarchy in England, a measure which pro-
■pplied hinuelf with great diUgenoe to r^rm- voked a violent outburst of popular feeling, and
iog the Bdminiatration, lowering the taxes, led to an act of psriiament forbidding the Oath-
piotiiig ooncesmona fbr railroads and ifanilar olio bishops to assume th^ titles. In 1854 he
~ 'B,openuig public offlcea to laymen, invited the bishopa from all parts of Obristen-
Ht visited the hospitals and othw public insti- fimnally defined the doctrine of the immaoolata
tnticHisiii disguise, in order to detect whatavw oonoepoon to be a d(wma of the Oatholio faith.
fknlto ml^t exist in their mansgement, and Theoeremony took phoe in St. Peter's, Dec 6.
■Bade his appearanoa in the itreeta on foot and TheotLer most Important eodeaiasticslacts of
nthoot pomp. In Kov, 1847, he called to- his pontifloate have been the oonclualou of con*
" aconncil ofstate composed of delegatea cordats with Spain (18C1), Baden (1864), and
Irtheraci
in»n tlM]
by his lib«^ oonrse ext«iided thron^^ont En- En^h and Americsn cdlegos for students of
— w and America^ and in Dec. 184T, a remark- theology. At the tJme of the treaty of Yitla-
lue,boweTer,soonmadet]iefii»nansdisaatis- tria to f^vor a confederation of the Italian
fiedviththemoderateoonoesaionsof the pope; states nnder the honorary presidenoy of the
and Ids nnwillingness to take an active part in pope, bnt tike project was soon abandoned. In
the Italian eaoiptign against Aostria, Ukongb the mean time a revolntum bad OMnmenoed in
hepeniittadabodyofTolnntewB to march to the papal territories ^ Papal Statu), and
the fhuktier, fncressed the popular disoontent. on July 13 and Deo. 7, 1869, his holiness ad-
% iasnad a proolamation, pnaniMng a oonati- dressed notes to the diplomatio i>ody, com-
tntkm oa a liberal bsna, md summoned to the plaining of the part token by Sardinia in these
nmnstry the fbrmer French ambassador Oonnt movMnenta, and oaking the assistanceof foreign
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
powers fat behalf of. hii t«mpoTtl sntliorltT. their flmdi, ihe tliree oonMeratee fitted out
On Oot. 1 the Sardinian oha^ d'aSUrea at an expedition for exploration and conqneet
Bone reoeived hia paaaport On Deo. 2 the alone tho sontbem eoaat. They pnrehaeed a
pope addressed a letter to the French emperor Tesa^ and about the middle of Kot. 16S4>
refusing to take part in the proposed En^ean Flzarro embarked at the head of 100 adventa-
congrees unless the emperor rM<Miu2ed the rers from Panama and a^ed aottthwud, l«tct-
integiitf of the Papal Btatea as de&ed hy the ing Almagro to follow in a smaller vessel a>
troadea of 1816. Napoleon replied bjadTMng soon aa it conld be got readj', which be did not
the surrender of the Bomaffiu M the tmly loi^ after with about 70 men. Neither voyaga
poatible Bolntdon of the Italian qnealion, and waa saooessM, and after rmmiiiK for sevnJ
the pope pnbUabed, Jan. 10, 18dO,an'eii07clioal hutdred miles dam the coast of New G
letter expl^tung his reasons fi>r r^eotJiis the da,andBnatidnlngterrfl>l«haTddiipeaiid lodng
emperor's advice. This was followed, Ibroh a number of men In their attempts to penetrada
86, by a boll of exoommtmioatiini aeainBt all the interior, both oonunanders retmned to the
persona concerned in the inratdon and ^smem- isthnniB with a moderate qnantitT of gtH which
bermentoftdsdominiona, whiohwBspnbUahed they had obtained from the nafiTea. Thvj
with the DBDa] fbnnalitdes on tiie SMh. The brought intelUgmce of Qie existence <^ the
events which hare gradnallj stripped Rns tX. rich empire of Fern, and after a long contro-
of nearly all his territorj are mentioned in the Tersy with the govemor, Pedro Arias, snooeeded
article Papal Btatis. The patrimony of Bt In getting pemisrion to make a second att«DpL
Peter is still (Uaj, 1861) goarded hj Frcooh Bo manj of th^ men had died of idekness ind
troops, bat it is nnderstood that Kc^leon III. hardships in the first expedition, that onlj 160
is willing to gnarantee to the holy see no more conid be mustered for the aecond. Their first
than the citj of Rome. A convention with exploit was to plunder a small Tillage on the
Bpaln, coQclnded in Aug. ISGO, engages Qoeen river San Jn&n, where they got considerable
Isabella to send an army of oconpatlon to the booty in gold, with which Almagro retomed to
Roman states in case of the withdrawal of the Panama to beat np reomitH, while Fizarro ee-
French troops. tabliahed himself on the coset and awaited re-
PIZAKBO. L FBAnomoo, a Spanish adven- enforcements. Almagro retnmed with 80 mea,
tnrer and conqneror of Pmn, bom at Tmxlllo in hot the nombers ana spirit of the FemTiana
Estremadnra abont 1471, assasriuated at Lima, were to formidable that the foree of the adven-
Jone as, 1541. He was an illegttimate son of tnrerawsa stUl deemed insnffident for the cmi*
Gonulo Pizarro, a colonel of inftntry, and of qnest, and Ahnwro was ag^n despatched to
Franoisca Gonzales, a woman of hnmble oondi- Panama forreenforoements, whUe Kzarro with
tion in the town of Tmiillo. He recdved lit- his followers continned to explore tho coast
tie care from either of his parents, was tanght The governor of Panama refonng to grant any
neither to read nor write, and was employed farther asdatance to the enterprise, Ftzarro^
In his early years as a swineherd. From this after various adventnrea daring which he ob-
oocnpation he ran away and embarked with a tained mnoh knowledge of the oonntry, sailed
crowd of other adventarers at Seville and sailed back to Panama, and went thence to Spsin to
for the New World, which tho discovery of ask fbr aid from tho royal government, taking
Oohunbns had thrown open to Spanidi ambi- with him as Tonohers several natives of Pern,
tion. In IGIO be was in Hispanlola or Hayti, a few llamas, and many articles of gold and sil-
snd took part In an expedition to TJraba in ver of FeroTlan mannfoctare. Bo reached
Terra Firma, onder the lead of Alonso de Qje- Eteville early in the snmmer of 1SB8. Immedi-
da, who on qnittiiig the settlement in search of ately on his landing he was arrested and pat
snppliea left Fizarro In command of the colony, in prison for debt oontraoted in America ; but
At a later period he was sssooiated with Balboa the king indignantly ordered his immediate re*
in establishing the settlement at Darien, and lease, and received him at comt with distia-
was one of the first Europeans who set eyes on sniahed turar ; and on Joly 26, ISSEI, a »^'tu-
the Pacific ocean. After the death of BaJboa laden or commission was granted to him ooQ-
he attached himself to the fortnnes of Governor veying the right of discovery and conqneet in
Pedro Arias, and waa emploved in several mill- Pern, with the title and rank of governor and
tary expeditions. In 1615 he was sent with a oaptun -general of the province, together with
small company across the isthmus to traffic those of ad^lantado and alfuaeil mayor for
with the natives on the shores of the Feclfio; life andasaUry of 736,000 maravedis. He was
and when Panama was made the capital of the In fact to have nearly all the authority of a
Spanish poBsessione la that quarter, he estab- viceroy. On bis part he agreed within 6 months
li^ed himself in the ne^hborhood of that city to raise and equip a foree of S60 men, and to
on atract of land which hecnltlvBted bythe embark withoutdd^rfortheconqnest of PeriL
labor of Indian slaves. After the lapse of a fow With a small force partly gathered in Spun,
years he formed an aaaodation with Hernando and accompanied by 4 of his brothers, Plzarro
da Lnqnea, a priest possessed of conraderable reoroned the AUantie in Jan. 1580, and jnst a
money, and with Di^o de Almagro, Hke himself year later sailed from Panama with 8 vessda,
a foundling and an adventorer who had earned 180 men, and ST horeas on his final and sno-
the reputation of a gallant aoldler, and nnitlng cessftil expedition against the empire of the
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FIZABRO FU.OEB 867
iocM. (For «n sooonnt of Ui« oonqoest, see AefttAoi him in a pitohed battle sear Quito ia
FiBD.) Daring nearlj the whole entMpiiM irhioh NnSei was alaia on the field. Thia vio-
thenhad boea maoh ^weumon between nzar- torf gave Pizarro for a while Uie trndiapnted
n> vA Almagro, the latter complaining Jartlj mastery of Peru. Bnt in the following year he
that Ua eerrioeB ware not properlv rewarded, was attached by the royal forces under the di-
and that Ilzarro had ^propriated to himself rection of Pedro de la Gasca, who had been
an tudae ahara of the honors and emolnments sent fh>m Spain with Ml aathority to sapprese
of tlwir SDOcesafid imdertaking. The qoarrel the rebellion. After variong enconntera Fizar'
had at length broken ont into oitiI war, in ro was deserted by some of bis followers, and
vhich Alnugrowasoqitiiredandpnttodesth. was debated, takes prisoner, and beheaded.
"" itest waa eontinned by hia friend ' ' "* " ..... ....
DiQKO Almagro, his son by an
, n^ fiustion at length formed a oon- abont" 1495, died aboat l&GS.
"Bta contest waa eontinned by hia friends, head- IIL HaairAinM, elder brother of the two pre-
<d by DiOEO Almagro, his son by an Indian oedingandoneoftheoonqnerorsof Pern, born
mnoyi
ster^
aoytoaaaaislnateFUwTO,andonBnndayjust legitimate son of Oolong Pizarro by a lady of
a dinuOT attacked him innis palace and ail- good Hamlly, was well educated, and at an early
ed Um in ft desperat* affiw^j In which three of age was taken by hia father to the wars In
Qkoi nnmber fall beneath his sword. He waa Italy, where he served nnder the Ch^at Oap-
aboot TO years old at the time of liis death, and tain OooaalTO de Cordova. He played a dis-
left two Mildred by a daogbtar of the incaAta- tingniahed part in the conquest of Pern, and in
hnallpa. His descendants, bearing the title of 1S88 was selected by hia comrades as their
narqida of the oonqnest, are. still to be found representatjve to proceed to Bpain with tiie
il IViixtilo in Spain. — Piiarro was tall, well royal share of the booty they had collected, and
formed, with a not nnpleaong countenance, a to ask the king for actional grants of prlvi-
seldier-like bearing, and a commanding pres- leges and honors. He arrived in Bpain in Jan,
enee. Thongh grasping in the acquisition of 16S4, and met with a gracions reception from
Moaey, he was liberal in its tiso, and not only the king, who complied with all tJie requests
gave latvely to his friends and followers, but. of the conqnerors or Pern, and mads their emis-
ezpemded most of the vast treasures of whiob sary a knight of Santiago and empowered him
he phmdered the inoas in public boildlDga and to equip an armament at Seville and take com-
•ehemas of improvement Lima and several mandofiL In a short Ume Hernando crossed
other citiea were founded by him. He had the ocean with one of the largest and beet ap-
Bever been taught either to read or write, and pointed fleets that had yet sfuled f^om Spun
to tiie day of his death waa ignorant of both for the new world. Boon after hia arriviu In
tJiose accorapliaiiments. Though bold in ac- PerahewasappointedgovemorofOnico, which
tion and not easily tamed frvm his purpose, he defended for S months ^^ainat a great host
be was bo slow io coming to s declnon that of Indian warriors. Snbseqnently he became
ha had an appearance of irresolution which involved in hoatJlitiea with Almagro, whom he
waa foreign to his character. He had formed bad always opposed, and was t^en prisoner,
the habit of aaying " No" to every request but spsKwi by his rival, who finally set him at
fai order at leisure to consider the matter and liberty. A few montiiB later Almagro ifell into
grant what waa expedient. He was cruel, the hands of Homando and waa put to deaOt
canning, and perfidious, and his merits seem by his order. In the following year Hernando
to lutve been courage, constancy, and forti' went to Spatn,caiTyiDgwith him agreat qaan-
toda. n. GoRZALO, one of the conquerors of tity of gold, to which he truated to obtain favor
Pern, yonngest brother of the preceding by at court and rebnt the charges which had been
Uie aame ^ber but another mother, and also preferred against him by Almagro'a friends.
Hi^timate, bom at Trnxillo about ISOS, ex- He waa coldly received, and, thongh no formal
eeut«d tt Oozco in IS18. He entered early sentence waa pronounced against him, wss im-
on the career of asoldier, and soon distinguish- prisoned for 30 years in the fortress of Uedina
ed himself by ids alrill in martial exercises, so del Oonipo, from which he was dismissed in
that when he came to the new world be waa 1660 when nearly 100 yeara old,
esteemed the beat lance in Peru. He was an PLACENTA. See EKaayoLooY.
eudlent guerilla chie^ but had neither the PLACENTIA. See Piackkza.
nuUtary nor the dvil capacity of Francisco, PLACER, a middle co. of Cal., bordering on
In 1&40 he was appointed governor of Quito, TJtah, and watered by the Bear and branches
and organized and led an e^iedition across the of the American river ; area about 1,000 aq,
Andes which resulted in the discovery of the m. ; pop. in I860, 18^70. Its surfaceia moun-
head waters of the Amazon and the descent tainons toward the £., and it contains a large
(rf Uiat Btream to the ocean by Orellana, one ertent of land snitable for agriculture, and is
of his officers. After the assassination of his also very rich in gold ore, having ftimished
brother he miaed an army and rebelled a^inst t7<000,000 in 1868. In the same year the
Blaseo Snllez, the new and nnpcpnlar viceroy county produced 10B,000 bushels of wheat and
who had been sent from Bpain. lie was warm- 100,000 of barley. There were 2 grist mills
ly supported by the bulk of the colonists and and28sawmillB,'llof which were propelled by
many of the royal soldiers, and rapidly drove steam, and the a^regate product of lumber waa
the viceroy from Umo, and on Jan. IB, 1S46, SS,000,000 feet per annum. Capital, Aabam.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FLAOOIDS,a<UTMonofDtiti]aginoiufiahe« vordajMriit aod jiMftTMiMa, the Rynonymea of
in the old sjatem of Agaau^ iuoludiog tb« plague, u well as the corre^xniding Greek
■harks and raja, characterized bj a akin cover- word, were used in an exceedingly loose sense,
edirregularly with enamelled plates, or studded and must be taken aa meaning nothing more
with rough oEBeooa points sometimes flimished than an epidemic fever. Tme plagne ia a oon-
with little hooks, and losanbling the peouliar tagioos fever characterized hj an eruption of
surface of shagreen. Thejr are among the high- oarbondes and buboes. Formerly pliupie oo-
est of fishes, approaching reptiles, and many casionallj prevailed in many places of north-
of Qiem are viviparona. (See GoMPABixivs em Europe. Frevions to its ust visitation in
Aj<*.to«i, FiSHEa, and losTSYOLoaT.) 166C, it invaded England, according to Syden-
FLAGIOSTOUES (Gr. irXoyioi, transverse, ham, everySO or 40 jears. UaraeiJles soffered
and Trofiay month), a sob-order of oartiUgiDOnB from it in 1720, Uoscow in 1771 and 1773, and
fishes, mdnding the sharks and rajs, in some some pointa in the Keapolitan dominions as
reelects the most highly organized of tiieir late as 1816 and 1816. Tne celebrat«d "black
class; they correspond to the eelaohiana of death," which ravaged all Eorope during the
Guvier, and to the placoids of Agaasiz ; they are 14th century, appears to have been the onental
few in number in the present creation, btit plagne. As m all severe epidemics of the dis-
witlt the ganoida (sturgeons, &c.) were by &r ease, at its commenoement many of the patienta
the most abundant in past geological epochs, died previous to the development of the peou- '
these two snb-orders being the only members liar eruption ; bnt the general oocnn«nce of
of tbe class found below the chalk. The oen- carbuncles and buboes ia sufficiently anthenti~
tre of their vertebral column is usually more or cated. It derived its same from the gaogre-
less ossified and divided into separate vertebra, nous escham formed by the carbuncles, or per-
and even when it forms a continuous chorda baps from tJie petechite which accompanied.
ienalu the divisions are indicated by trana- the disease, — A report made to tbe French
verse partitions; the skull is united to tiie spine academy (Bapport d VaeadimU n^aie da
by a joint with a conical cavity, and the former midecme tur la petU et Ut gvarantaina, Jhj.,
is a simple cartilaginous capsule, without su- Paris, 1846J says: "1. At present the eonntries
tnres, having a separate eartilaginoos arch where the plague still ori^atea are in the
which performs tbe office of upper Jaw; the first place Egypt, afterward Syria and the two
mouth IS arched, very wide ou the lower edt- Turkeys. It is probable, however, that ihe
face, and at some distance from the snout, plague may be developed without importation
which is much deveioped for the accommodar m the regendes of Tripoli, Tunis, am in the
tion of the large nasal capsules ; the teeth are empire of Morocco. S. In th(me countries the
in numerous rows, the inner coming forward conditions which determine and favor its de-
to replace those worn away by use ; the bran- velopment are the habitation of alluvial or
chiol sacs are separated, with 5 ormoredis- marshy grounds; a hot, moist atmosphere;
tinot openings on the sides or lower parts of the low, badly aired, and crowded houses; the
body ; the gills consist of membranous folds or accumnlataon of a great quantity of aninud and
plane surfaces, without the pectinated arrange- vegetable matters in a stat« of putrefaction ; a
meat of osseous fishes, and with a pseudo- scanty and unwholesome diet; great moral
branohia; there is no swunming bladder; the and ^yucal destitution; the ne^ligencxof the
scapular arch is detached from the bead, and laws of public and private hygiene. 8. Spo-
the ventrala are abdominal ; on the npper but- radio plague does not seem to be transmissible.
face of the head, behind the eyes, is a pur of Epidemic plague is transmissible both ia the 1o-
spiracles, communicating with the pharynx; caliticBwaere the plagne is raging and without
the skin is covered with hard rough grains or them. 4. It is transmitted by means of mias-
scattered spines ; in the art«rial bulb are from mata given out by the bodies of tbe sick; these
a to 6 transverse rows of semilunar valves ; the miasmata, in close and ill ventilated places,
intestine has a spiral valve; the optio nerves may cre^ centres of pestilentisl infeoticm.
do not decussate, but are connected by a com- No rigorous observation Las shown the trans-
misBure, and there is no arterial plexus between missbility of the plagne by simple contact with
the layers of the choroid coat of the eye. The the infected. New experimenta are necessary
secreting reproductive organs communicate to determiue that it is not transmissiUe by tiie
with the ureters, and end in a rudimentary goods and wearing apparel of the infected. It
process in the cloaca ; the claspers are present results from the observations made at the laza-
as appendages to the posterior edge of tne onol rettos for more than a year that merchandise
fins, fissured toward uie end, and commnnioat- does not transmit the plague." The period of
ing witb a cebcsI subcutaneous sac, well lubri- incubation in plague would seem in no case to
oated with mucus ; the ovaries are smaller than be beyond 8 oays. The course of the disease
in osseous fishes, and the ova very few ; some varies very much in diiferent oases. Some-
genera are viviparous, others oviparous, and times the local symptoms first show th^n-
others ovo-viviparoos. selves, and the fever which follows is compara-
FLAGUE (Gr. lAtiyri, a blow), an a^ravated tively mild : at other times the patient is r^iid-
malignant fever, endemio fn the East, and fi-e- ly overwhelmed by the violence of the eonsti-
qnently epidemic. By the old writers th« tntional disorder, and dies without the b(>-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PLAIOE FLAINB S69
punBoe of oarbttoclee or tmboes; between of s plane rarfMepreeentingaronnd their mAr-
tfa«aeextreiiieB,aiidteiidinf toons fonn or the ^ns abrapt desoents are called table lands,
edier, At diaeaae preseata emrj grsde of ts- Variooa other namea dee^nate the different
riet?. In ito mildw fornw small spola like flea Unds of ^aina or those of different conntriea. —
Utea irtt make thdr appesranoe, espedaUj on Deaerta are uasdj and rookv wastea aa«iip;riiig
thepirtaof the bod^eipoaed tothe air; uiese immenae traota of the ]<rw lands of the globe.
enlffgtS b«coin» duk^, and are covered b; Tbe^ abound eapecially in AMca and Aaia,
fMiiiiw or [riiljotenis filled with a dark-eol- and are mnoh lees frequent and extensive on
«nd fluid. Tm baae of the epota ia hard : it the American continent. Tbej occur in gene-
baontea black, formlne a gan^enona eschar ral tn r^ona trhiob the prevaiUng winda reaoh
with a airoantferenoe of an inch or an inch and after thej hare swept over broad traota of
a half in diameter ; theae are the oarbnnolea. mountain lands and been deprived of the moist-
TUaprooeea la attended with more or lesaferer, ore they carried with them. The plfuna of
wiiieli aa Hie eachar beoomes detached gradn- weatem Pern, lying nnder the range of the
■Uj saMdes. Often oonaeqaent npon the ap- Andea, are the principal deserts of Sooth Ame^
peiraiwe of the carbandes, glandular awellings ioa, and in North America other aterile tracts
tora, eommoolj la the groina or armpita, more of vast extent and of dmilar featnres are met
rantj- in tbe neek. These buboes, aa they are with on both eidea of the Bocky moontaina.
ternad, oeoasionally disappear without anppn- The great African desert (aee S^haba) ez-
ittton; more generally after a time pnaia formed, tends from the W. coast of Afrioa to the Red
Bomelbnes healthy, sometbnea thin andaaniona. sea, a distauoe of S,S0O m., and over a width
Oi9W in which huboea appear are attended with of 1,000 m. Parte of thia desert are bare
a higher grade of fever and with profonnder le^ea of rook, npon which the traveller may
dqiraarion of tbe vital forces ; headoobe, rest- pass fbr days together without seeing any
iMNMoi, ohiHa, and vertigo are commonly pre»- thing beaide the hard pavement beneath and
wt- the eyes are red and muddy, tbe tongae the sky above. To theae succeed oceans of
oorted, tiia akin hot and dij ; the pulse small, aond, with which in many plooea are Inter-
wetk; and freqn^tt; prteohin are frequently mixed anch qnantitles of salt that the sorftace
■naenb The duration of the diaeaae varies, ia white with it aa if covered with ice. Be-
In the oomtnenoement of severe epidemica cases yond tbe Red aea the range of desert land
biTe beea related in which the patienta have overspreada nearly ail of the Arabian penin-
£»d wfttiin M hours ; in most inatancee, bow- aula, a considerable portion of Asia Uinor, and
aitr, it eontinnes from one to two weeks. In may be traced tbrongb Persia, Tartary, and
nrere epidemiea the .m^tnityj^of the pattenta the great central plateau of Asia, extending
die, and when recovery takes place oonvalea- thos in one ahnoat continnona band of varying
eeeee is tedious. Uorbid anatomy hitherto has breadth from the Atlantic ocean to the bonlera
added notJiing to our knowledge of the disease; ofOhina. The extent of these lands in north-
llw blood ia fonnd to be altered and fluid, but em Africa and sonthern Asa, not reok(mfaig
no appearances have been noted which can be the oases or fertile tracts included within their
deemed oharacteristio. — Of the treatment of limits, was estimated by Humboldt to exceed
ptigoa we know little ; like other oontagiona the whole area of Europe, or aboat 600,000
euntbamB, it probably runs a prescribed coarse square leagues. — Nearly Qie whole of southern
wUch cannot be materially shortened, and per- Africa is an extensive though not very ele-
hips in the {msent state of oar knowledge vated table land, which extenda 6° or 7° N.
it would be wiaest in most cases to limit onr of the eqnator, and tenninatea in the higliland
cAbrta to tbe local treatment of the carbonclea of Senegambia on the N. W. and on that of
nd babo«s, supporting the patient's strength, Abyseinis in the N. £. On tbe I), and W. this
nd plaeing him nnder as nvorable hygienic tablelandiabonndedbymanntaincbalnswhioh
drsumstanoea as poadble. divide it from tbe lower pl^na bounded by the
PLAIOE. See HjOuvbkb. Atlantic and Indian oeaana. Southward the
PLAIIT8. Two great divisions have been platean dips to the maritJme pluns by anocea-
Taee^alxod of those portions of the earth's anr- nve steps composed of long narrow ph^H called
bee not oorered by water, viz., monntains and iamwt, which in the dry season ore arid dea*
plahis, making the latter term inclnde hilly and erta, bnt after tbe setting in of tbe autnmnd
nadnlating countries and broad tracts, at what- rains soon become covered with verdure and
erer elew^^ion &ey might be, so that the irre^- with a splendid flora. Tbe great plains of the
lUariiisB al their surbee oould not be denomi- interior are generally grassy, with a vegetation
Bated moontdoa. The geographer Bnache of very diSsrent i^om tbe tropical ve^tation of
the French academy introdnoed a distinction be- the aea ooasL North of Lake Ngami tbe oonn-
tween plains of great elevation and those lying try ia a dead flat for hundreds of miles, inter-
near ^« tevel of die sea, calling the former laoed by a labyrinth of rivers with their
platcaax and the latter plains or lowlands, tributaries and nnmerons intercommnnioating
ihii dBtJuotion was adopted by Hnmboldt, branches. — Tbe interior of Australia, so far as
nd soma have restricted the term plateaux to it haa been explored, oonedsts chiefly of vast
high laods maintaining a general level, which StiB, in which tbe rivera become stagnant in a
1* more or leas broken np by bills, while those wilderness of gigantic reeds^ and the traveller
TOL.ZIII. — 24
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
870 FLAIHB
8caRiel7 Bnda ft knoll UKb enough to raiae make their i^pearancs and ovOTqinad fha
him above the waters in the season of floods, plains. The oolj iuterrnptioDs to the dead
Sere are found wide tracts of thick faerbace- level of the snrEiiee, bem^ the depreauous of
ona bmshwood, which afford no sostenance of the beda of the rivers and creeks, qipear to be
any kind to those who traverse them. Loog occasional banks of limeetooe or aaodstone,
dronghts, to which the ooiuitry is peculiarly called baneot, standing 4 or 5 feet above the
subject, ^d which last sometimesfor years, dry general surface, flat at the top, sod several
up the rivers aad lakes, and oonvert these pUios leagues in length. Slight nndalations, called
into deserts from which sweep hot winds rais- mttat, imperceptible to the eye, are inlicated
ing tlte ten^rature of the coast regions be- by the water ooorses which are tnmed by them
tween lat.^5°Biid 86° 8. to even 180° in the in different direotions, — The plains of the Ama-
sbade. The fEtlling of the rains, however, son extend up the course of that river and its
speedily converts these dustj wastes into ver- brauches to the Andes, and include, with all the
dant pastures. — Central Asia b a region of waters they enclose and some ranges of hills,
immense monntain chains aumwrting table an area of 3,840,000 sq. m. About one third
lands of great extent. The northern parts of of this vast territory is covered with dense
(he same continent and of Europe present over forests, the prinoipsl portdons of which have
ft range of more thui 6,000 m. a euocearaon never been pene^ated; and so Inxnriaot is
of broad plains, covering the greater part of the vegetation and enervating the climate, that
Siberia, ft urge part of Kussia, Qerman^, «nd to reclum any oonuderable extent of these
Holland. On thia range, from the Pacifio to wiMs is a task almost. beyond the abili^ ttf
the Atlantic, ore no«levations exceeding a few man. Prom their wooded character they are
hnndred feet. Theea pluns in Siberia and termed tehat; bntopen. tracts like the llanos
Bnssia are called steppes, and large portions are scattered among the forests, and unmerous
-of them arerioh pasture lands, without trees, broad rivers occupy large areas and afford the
and much reseraldiag the prunes of the His- only means of guning access to the distant in-
sisaippi valley. — The American continent, Korth tenor. — The plains of the sonthem porticm of
and Sonth, is eminently a land of plains. They South America, lying beyond lat 15° 6., are
form ^1 two thirds of the whole surface of termed pampat, irom an Indian word signifying
the country, •exten^ng on the Atlantic side a flat. They resemble the steppes of Ruasia,
'from one extremity r)f the continent to the being open grass-covered tracts of vast extent,
other, with only oeoaaional interruptions by interspwsed with sterile portions of sandy and
monntain ranges erf little «xtent. In South stony character. Their total extent from N. to
America are distinguished three great regions 8. is about 1,800 m., and from £. to W. from
of plains separated from oach other by Jow 800 to 900 m. On the N. they reach the re^n
ranges of mountains, which run from the At- of tropical produotjona, and at the extreme S.
lantie ooaat toward the Andes. The northem their sorlace is in many places concealed be-
of these regions, having an area of 260,fK>0 neath the never-melting ice and snow cd these
•q. m.,«orapriBes the valley of the Orinoco and frozen latitudes. Across thur range from tjie
its tribntarie^ and the elevation of this great coast to tiie Andes three belts are recognized
territory nowhere exceeds 800 feet ahovs the In their northem division, distinguished from
sea level. So smooth is the sorfkceth* ' " ■ ■■ ■ - ■" • ■' — - >"
hundreds of square miles the land is al ^ , - , „ „
unbroken by any nnevenness as the water it- of taM thistles succeeded by clover. The former
eel^ and the rivers are so sluggish that their oom« forti with wonderiU rapidity in the early
onrrent is diverted in any direction by light summer, shooting up to the height of 10 or II
winds. This is the region of the Uanot (Lat. feet, and sending forth a profusion of rich blos-
i«6a plana). In the dry season the ground is soms. 8o close are the stems, that even if nn-
parched and tiarreo, and clouds of fine dnst anned with their prickles they would still pre-
snd sand iBcessaatly rising fill the tai- The sent an impenetri^le barrier- As the summer
grasses, which in Uie runy reason snddenly passes away this vegetation dies down, and lax-
spring up and grow to the height of 4 feet, oriant crops of clover spring up, and invite the
are withered and dissipated in dust. Naked return of the countless herds of cattle which
stems of the palm scattered over the plun^ were expelled by the thistles. To the west of
seen through the obscure atmosphere, -appear this is a belt of pluns covered with long graaa,
like masts of ships at sea ; «nd as the same which from season to season undei^ioes little
forms continually present themselves to the ohange except as the green of sommer changes
advancing traveller, be is painfolly impressed to the brownhneofwinter.aod thia giveaplace
witli the sense of the bonndleasneas anddreari- to the verdure of the sncoeeding spring. Be-
nesB of these solitndes. But as the vegetation yond this is a region of more elevated plains
comes forward with the return of the rains, lying along the range of the Andes, and covered
the plains are soon overrun by vaat herds of with low trees and shrubs, all evergreens
horses and wild catUe, which then find a rich The plains of North America, while no leas ex-
Cirage; and from the jungles of the river tenrive than those of the southern part of
s, to which they had rethred during Qie the continent, are distinguished frx>m them
drought, the great serpenta and alli^ttora by g»ater diversities of level, which, t^ot^iw
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
iritliniperiorcclTtaitegMOidlmate, render the and near the aorthera border of tlie state thii
oonntrj bi better adapted to the neoessitlea increasea to 800 or 900 feet, and some of th9
of man. Ezoepting the parts oorered by the higheatswellsof the pr^rie are 1,000 feet high.
Roekj and AUeg^nj moontains and their In S. Wisoonjiin the more elevated portions of
apors, all the rest are pl&iiu anmtermpted hj the prairie are about 1,100 feet above ^e wo-
moontain elevations. Near the moontains the ter. JiilowAtbeplaUaudueoUaudaprairia
enrface is hilly and more or less broken, bnt of Nicollet, dividing the waters of the Miaeis-
receding from the Alleghuiiefl wostward it sippi from those of the Ujasonri, is from 1,400
gr^oally aerames the distinctive character of to 1,500 ftet above the sea. On the head
plaint, whioh aredevdoped upon a grand scale iraten of the Dlinoia and Wabuh, and B. and
m the bonndlesBpruriea of the north-west, and W. of Lake Michigan, the pr^es are very
in the barren tenitories commonly knovn by level and smooth, and are termed flat. Else-
the name of plaina whioh atretcb away from where the sDr&oe is nndoladng aod broken by
the prairie rerion in the statea of AAanaaa, the depressiona of the atreama, and they are
Uissonri, and Kansas to the foot of the BocW known as rolling prairies. The depresaons
mannt^na. Throoghont these immense teni> vh«-e there are no streams are often 60 feet
torie» the differences of level are sufficient to below the mean level, and in the bottom the
produce a steady flow in the mighty rirera, not soil is wet and marshy and forms " swales" or
so rapid as to obstmot their navigation, bnt "alooghs," whioh render the roods almost Im-
snfficient to insare aalabrity to the comitry passable. In these places the grass grows very
by a healthy drmnage ; and thus is secured a rank and tall, bat npon the npper and drier
sfBtem of easy intercommnnioation between snr&oe the natoral growth is finer and the eod
all Beedons of the ooaatry, onsarpassod in im- dense and cloaely interwoven. A great variety
Krtsace by any mmilar system m the world, of flowering plants are interspersed among the
Che Srst volnme of the geological report of grasses, and daring the sommer the whole snr-
lowa Prof. James Hall has presented a ftill ao- &ce of the pruries is guly decked with the
eoimtofthenorth-westem prairies. Theregion bright colors of their blooms. The character-
Ihey occupy is the western part of Ohio, near- istic herbs, as described by Prof, Gray In a
Ij tbe whole of the states of Indiana, Dlinois, paper on the " Flora of the Northern States,"
uid Iowa, the BOathem part of Minhigiin, the pabliahed in the "American Journal of Sd-
northern partoflCssonri, and portions of Kan- enoe" (2), xziii. p. 897 (1867), wonid seem to
sss aitd Nebraska^ whi<^ near the meridians bo een^>oiita, esp«<»ally heUanthoid etmpotitOf
of 97° and 100° W., they gradnally pass into of many species. Among the variona plants
tiie arid and desert plaina. Thron^oat this named are many recognized as caltivated oma-
territory a great sameness exists in ike varie- mental garden flowers. Trees are met with
Hies of the topography, the vegetable prodnc- npon the prairies nnder pecaliar drcnmstances
tions, the sou, and geological features. The of moisture and soil, in scattered gronpa, called
■arface is drained by streama which commence ^oves, or along the larger streams, or oeoa-
in almost imperceptible depressions of the high nonally on low rooky ridgee, which are some-
prairies, and flow in beds and v^eys ik gradn- times met with. West of the MiBsis^ppi tber
ally increasing depth between vertioal walls of become less freqnenl^ and near long. 98° W.
limestone or sandstone, tbroDgh the horizontsi they disappear altogether. The soil of the prai-
Btrata of which the corrent has in past times riesis remarkable for its finely comminnt«d con-
made its cliaimel. What ore called bottom dition. It is generally free from stones, thongh
lauds lie between the rocky blnSs and the in some locauties bowlders or fragments of
dream, and np<m the Uissisaippi and the His- rock are foimd npon the surface and scattered
louri these attain in places a width of 0 to 8 tbroogh it. In the swales and in some of the
nu ; they are, however, often wanting entirely, bottom lands the rich black vegetable mould ia
Ihe blnfis on each side coming close to the very deep, but on the upper prairies its depIJi
Hrer banks. On the upper Mississippi the bot- is asaally from one to two feet The subsoil
torn lauds are in general well wooded, bat along is almost invariably an argiUaoeoos loam, more
the state of Missouri they spread oat into open or lees mixed in its lower portions with sand
prairies. These low or wet prairies are die- and occasional pebbles. ThQ total thickness
tioguished from the high or rolling prairies, of clay, sand, and loam amounts in some places
which fi»m the general upper level of the coun- near the larger rivers to 200 feet ; but the rock
try upon the enmmit of the bluffi. The eleva- is often found in other places very near the
tioD of these above the rivers is very variable, surface ; its immediate cover consists of layers
Near Prairie da Ohien in W. Wisconsin, it is 2 or 8 feet thick of aogolar fragments. Water
about 400 feet above the Uissssippi, and the ia generally found in the sandy stratum IS to
blafis themselves present a vertical bee of 80 feet below the sorface. Throoghont the
aboat i of this elevation. At Cairo in 8. Illi- prwrie region the underlying rocks ate soft
nois, the upper surfsce is from 100 to 260 feet sedimentary strata, especially shales and im-
above the river, or 400 to CSO feet above the pure limestones. Most of these on exposure
sea level In the central portion of the state, disintegrate readily and cmmble to soil, and
near the lUinois central railroad, the average the wlutle soil of Uie prairies appears to have
elevation is from 6S0 to 760 ftet above ttie sea, been produced from snob materials not removed
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
872 PLASOHE PLAME TBEE
for from their parent beda. To the finelf naiy profeBsor of theology at Gattii!gen,Trrot«,
comminuted condition of these materials Piof. amoof; otber -works, " Kev Revelation and In-
TTnii aacribea the treeless character of the spiration'' (1817), and a "Short Bohcme of the
prairiea. Where snch soils are fonnd in other Philosophio Doctrines of Eeligion" (1821),
portioDB of the West^ coTering tracts of limited PLANE, a Bor&ee anch that a etraiKht line
area even in thiddj -wooded dietricts, they are joining any two points in it will lie wnollj in
commonly withoat trees, and, aa is the case that snF&oe, or Booh a Bor&ce as may he con-
vith the prairies themselves, no evideuoa is ceived to be generated by a straight line re-
fonnd in the form of ancient tranka buried in TDlving aroimd another straight Ime at right
the soil that trees ever grew in these localities, angles to it. Plane geometry treats of the na-
PIANCH£, Jahss Robirsoii, an English ture and properties of pl^e fignres; plane
dramatist, bom in London, Feb. 27, 179S. In trigonomebyof plane triangles, orthosewhich
1813 he produced BucceBsfally at DmryLane lie entirely in the same plane,
theatre a burlesque, entitled " Amoroso, King PLANE, a tool used by carpenters and Join-
of little Britain." Li 1826 he travelled in ers for smoothinK down the snr&ce of -wood,
northern Enrope, pnblislting on his return and also for cutting it into shape correspond-
"lAya and Legend of the Bhine," and ia Ing to that of the cutting edge of the plane
1837 visited Germany ag^. In 1828 ho pro- iron, Planea trf the former bmd, -which form
duced at Dmry Lane his G6th and perhaps hia on!y flat surfoces, are called bench planes or
best dramatic work, " Oharles XU." In 1880 BurfaciuK planes ; and tb^ latter are groo-ring
he waa elected a member of the society of an- or moulding planea. They are all formed of a
tiqnaries; In 1884 wrote the "History of Brit- solid block of hard wood, called the stock,
ish Costume;" in 1888, " K^al Records:" and from the upper to the lower mde of which is
ilk 18S2, " The Porsuivant of Arms, or Herald- cut a wedge-shaped hole descending forwarid
ry fonnded upon Truth." In March, 1854, he in ordinary planes at an angle of about 46°.
-was appointed rouge croiz pursuivant of arms. The plane iron, which is like a chisel in shape,
Do-wn to 1857 he had -wnttou SOO pieces for is placed in this opening and temporarily se-
the stage. cnred by a wooden wedge. When properly
PLANOHE, Je*ii BipnsTJt GiraTiVE, a fixed and the plane is pushed forward on a
French critic, bom in Paris, Feb. 16, 1808, board, the edge of the iron enters to a depth
died Sept. 18, 18C7, He was edncated at the equal to its projection beyond the sole of the
Bourbon college, and became in 1881 a contrib- stock, and takes np a shaving whlchi passes up
ntor to the Sevu« de* devx monda. For a few the opening tlirongh the stock and b thrown
months be -was attached to the staff of the i7i>ur- out at the top. The width of tbe plane iron
tud de» dibatt, and in 1886 assisted Balzac in is from 2 to Si inches in nearly all the bench '
editing the short-lived Ckront^vedt Paris. His planes, which differ from each other chiefiy in
critio&l severity made him the dread of artists the length of the stock. Short planes of S to
and autbors, -whfle his slovenly personal hab- 8 inches are called smoothing planes, and are
its caused hmi to be styled the " Diogenes of used mostly for giving a smooth finish to the
literature." Having inherited property from work. Jack planes are from 13 to 17 inches
bis &ther, he went to Italy about 1841, and in length, and are -osed for the rongh^ work.
devoted 6 years to studying the masterpieces Planes of from 8 feet to 6 feet in length are
of Italian art. On his rctam home in 1846, known as Jointers, and serve to give straigbt-
he published the results of his observations in ness and accttratrr to the anr&cc. In the
biographical and critical essays on the Italian grooving or mouldiDg planes the sole is groov-
maaters. Hisvsrious essays have been collect- ©d along its whole length to correspond wii
ed and published by himself, 11 volumes in alL the irregular outline of the edge of th^plwie
PLANCE, Gottlieb JAxra, a German theo- iron ; and as each plane thus cuts only its own
logian, bom in Kurtingon, "Wnrtemberg, Nov. figure, a variety of these planes are required
16, 1761, died in Gflttingen, Aug. 81, 1888. for the diverrfty of mouldings, beads, grooves,
He was educated at Tabingen, and in 1784 be- ornamental edges, ic., with which Joinere give
came ordinary professor of theology in Got- a finish to their work. One form of these
tingen. Througli bis instrumentality, and in pluies is constructed for shaping the narrow
particolar through bis essays upon the history strips of which -window sashes are made, each
of the church and its doctrines, he gave a de- mm of sash requiring its appropriate plane,
oided impulse to the study of theology in that (See FhAmsa MAomsx.)
nniverfflty. His principal work is the " Hia- PLANE TREE, a tree ft-equenlly planted
tory of the Origin, the Ohanges, and the De- fbr ^ade, belonging to the natural order of
velopment of our Protestant System" (6 vols., plaianatta or planes, exogens seemingly re-
LeipMc, 1781-1800); and this was continued lated to the breadihiits,wiSi deciduous Sieath-
in a work published after a long interval nnder ing Btipnles, fiowera in globose heads, watery
the tiOe of " History of Protestant Theology Mce, albttniiuona embryo, and minute plnmnle.
from the Ooncordira Formula to the Ulddle of The leaves of the planes are alternate, palmate,
the Eighteenth Oentury" (GOttingen, 1881). — Iol>ed, with sheathing deciduous etipnles and
Heisbioh Lud-wto, his son, bom in Gsttingen, petioles hollow at base concealing uie jonng
July 19, 178S, died Sept. SS, 1881, extraordi- leaf bnds ; flowers moniBclous, very smalj, botb
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FLuxsrsm
_ ._, _ , led into thej torn ^
{^obnlAT ameots; BtomeiiB smnerona, mixed none b more pleasing, especially vhen ii. ..„
with snbclavata aoales ; ovarieB nnmeroua, ob- orooa foliage ; its brancbes, ahootjng out la a
oonio or narrowly davat«, crowded and mixed horizontal manner, finally take a direction to-
with flattened scales ; style elongated, awl- ward the ground ; its dean and whitish gray
ah^)ed, with the stigma on one side and near trnnk and the pendent aments are conspicnons,
the ^ez ; froit a not 1-celled and l-seeded ; and ita entire contoar, especially if the speol-
aeed pendolons, embryo long, tapering, lying in mea have ample room to ^ow, renders it at
the axis of TQiy thin albumen. — The oriental all seasons attractive. In New England this
plana (_platan«t orierUtUit, Linn.) grows to the epecies is most commonly called the hntton-
height of 60 to 80 feet ; its leavee are 6-lobed, wood and sycamore, the latter a name belong-
palmate, the divisionB lanceo]at«, dnnated, ing to an entirely distinct tree. In Oanaoa
stipules oearly entire; the Sowers appear in it is called the cotton tree. From that re-
May. It is a native of the Ijevant, and haa gion its range southward is beyond the Uis^
long been in Qoltivation. It is J nslJy considered dppi and westward from the Atlantic to the
one of the noblest trees of uie East, on aa- exti^ma western states. like the other spe-
oonnt of ita masfflve trnnk and wide-spreading oies, it prefers a rich, oool, and moist soU,
bnuides. The bark is smooth and of a whit- flonrishing especially on the banks of the
iah grey color, scaling off eveiy year in large Ohio river and its tribntaries. The botton-
patohes ; the branches are crooked and zigzag wood is seldom attacked by an; insect, bnt a
at the Joints; the leaves large and on long remarkable disease has prevdled for abont SO
petioles, cnt into 5 deep-pointed lobes ; the years past, destroying ita capacity to make ftall
rjTsor&ce is smooth and of a shining green, and perfect foliage, m conseanenoe of which
onder snriace paler and somewhat downy its limbs have perished and uie tree in some
at the angles of the veins. The flowers are so instances died. This epidemic seems to have
sniaD as to require a magu^ing glaas to dis- been general, and to be the result of badly
tingiiish them ; they grow in the form of balls, ripen^ wood occasioned by the lateness of the
wMch appear before the leaves in the spring, springgrowthoftheyoongsbootsandtheearly
the seeds ripening in the antnmn, bnt remain- coolness of the antmnn. £i some instances, fine
ing aa balls till the sncceeding spring, when old trees very mach ii^nred have nearly re-
they open and are dispersed by means of the covered and produced their balls aft«r several
bri^y down which snrronnds them ; they are seasons of previons fdlnre. Something rimilar
mall and very light, and are in reality little oocnrred to the species in the parks of Eng-
nota, stmcturally considered. This species is land more than 50 years ago, bnt there it wsa
of very rapid growth and attains to great a^e. attribnted to a late spring frost. The bntton-
Its geographical distribotion is wide, being wood has been strongly recommended for ar-
fbnnd in Asia ifiuor and Persia, and extend- tifloial plantations in order to raise a supply of
ing as far south as Cashmere. As it ascends firewood, for which it b very suitable, espe-
into the mountainous regions it degenerates oially when nsed in stoves. As timber it is
into a mere shrub, as on the Caucasian range, not much esteemed, being very perishable
It u seldom gregarious, and the largest speoi- when exposed to the weather, though it is
mens are found in rich soils near water. It was sometimes sawed into joists and other Inmber,
a lavorite amon^ the ancients, and is early men- The wood of the stem is of an agreeable fiunt
tioned in Grecian history. Among the Per- red color, becoming deeper in that of the
■Jans it bears the name of ehinar, and avenues roots ; this, if permsnently fixed by artificial
and rows of it are planted in thdr gardens, means, might afford a material for ornamental
In parts of Asia where timber b scarce the pnrposas. — The Oalifomian bnttonwood {P.
oriental plans is mnch employed in carpentry, rae«7no»a, Kuttall) b a remarkably dbtinct
joinery, and even ship onilding. Its wood species ; the leaves are divided more than
when dry weighs 49 lbs. 8 oz. per cubic foot ; half way down into 5 sharp-pointed, lanoeo-
it b of a yeUowiah white t^ the tree att^ns late portions, of which the 2 lowest are tha
eonc^erableage, afterwhich itbecomesbrown smallest; all Ute divisions are quite entire ; 2
nixed with jssper-Iike veins, and when pol- of them in small leaves are suppressed, thus
iahed it is of mnch beauty. — The occidental producing a leaf of only S parts. The young
pluie (P. oeeidentali*, Linn.) b the largest, lesvea, clad in a brown, pilose tomentnm, feel
loftiest, and nobleflt deciduous tree la Ameri- like a piece of stout woollen doth. The cat-
ca, having a grand oolomnar trunk, n-adnally kins are in racemes, 8 to 6 in number, witli
tlmniniahing upward, which gives ue base remarkably long styles persistent on the ripe
gr«at stability ; its leaves are on stout foot- balls ; and a raceme with the full-grown balls
stalks 2 or 8 inohea long, very downy and measures 9 inches. The tree laden with these
grayish green at first, bnt becoming smooth lot% pendulous racemes, each bearing so many
andpnrplish; when nrst expanded ther are balls atthe distanceofaboutaninchfromeaoh
covered with a cottony down, which disim- oUier, presents a very unusual appearance,
pears and the upper suiiTace becomes perfectly The wood b thought to be superior to that of
Dnooth, though some remuns of It may be the common spedes, harder, more durable,
seen on the lower surface ; when abont to &11 and less liable to warp. In general diaraoter
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Ion
874 n.ABXB TBEE PLANT
tii« tree resembles the oriental plane tnOK OJ vith bnt two cutters, and the plan« of tiie
than it does the common battonvood. — The Bramah machine is eniirelj dispensed 'with.
planes are readily raised fhim seed and props- Though not as rapid in its operation ss the
gated \)j layers and b^ onttin^s. The eorest "Woodworth, the Danleb planer, vith it^i recent
way is by seeds, which shonld bo separated modifications and improvementa, is still prefer-
from the halls by beating or by the hand, red and generally nsed for cabinet and other
They shoold then be rabbed to make them fine work to which it is adapted. Bnriiig the
clear of the wool. They can be gathered in monopoly of the Woodwortn machine hj the
March and sowed in ulo spring broadcast, patentee and his assigns, many attempts were
very thick, in a rich seed bed of light and made to supersede it by the nse of stationary
carefiilly prepared monld. When the planta cutters which were modifications of tiie first
first appear they should be screened from the invention of Bentham. These machinea were
heat of the son, when a year old transplanted built in considerable nombers, and were made
into rows S feet asunder, and when 4 or 6 to operate with tolerable effect. When in per<
years old transplanted and set for shade, oma- feet order, they work well, and are mach more
ment, or inel. Cuttings put in at antmnn will rapid in their operation than the cylinder ma-
root, bat not readily. Layers may be made chines, bnt for ordinary practical porpoaes the
either in antnmn or spring ; they root well, latter are preferred. The Woodworth machine
and make strong shoots the first year, ready performs it« operation by the use of cylindrical
for remoTaL— ^Except for timber and shade, the ontt«r8, or cutters attached to a horizontal shaft
tJaneaare of no known ntility. revolving with ^«at velocity while the board is
PLANER TREE. See Elm. bonie along nnder and in contact with them,
PLANET. Bee Astbottovt. by means of two or more horizontal rollers
PLASllfG UACHIKE, a machine for plan- which clamp the board on either ride, the roll-
ing boards and other lumber by mechanical ers being driven by meohaniam commonleat-
power. Thia is an old invention, and was ing motion from the cylinder. Though the
long sinoe brottght to a state of perfection cylindrical machine was not originally invented
nearly limiting the more recent improvements by Mr. Woodworth, hia cl^ms covered Bnoh
to its adaptation to monldings and other oma- eesential improvements in some of its detailB
mental work. Among the earliest attempts to as to render the patented modifications inval-
snbstitnte machinery for the hand plane was nable, and thos gave him an almost euHoElve
that of Qen. Bentham of England, who procured monopoly of its nse. This monopoly, tltongh
a patent in 1761. This was merely an applica~ jeoparded by constant and fierce libgadon, was
tion of mechanism to drive a lightly modified triumphantly -aastained by the courts dnring
hand plwie. Thongh there was too little ori^- a term of 2B years, nnder his oripnal patent rf
nality in the invention to prove sncoeasftil, it 14 years and two SQCcessive renewals of 7 years
was experimentally used, and by demonstrat- each. N'nmerons improvements are annndly
ing its own defects led to the invention of a added to these machines for their more perfeot
machine patented by Mr. Bramah in 1603, adaptation to special uses, descriptions of which
which was placed in the royal arsenal at Wool- may be found in the patent office reports,
wich, where it did goodserriceformanyyears. PLABT, an organized structure eontidning
Brainah's machine performed its operation by within itself the essentials to insure its nutri-
the rotation of a vertical spindle, carrying at its tion and reproduction, A plant fnlly developed
lower oxtremity a horizontal wheel, ^e rim of may he considered as consisting of a root, atem,
which was furnished with 28cntters or gouges, and leaves, with their modiflcationa, wMdi are
which were followed by a plane also attached lie organs of vegetation ; and of flowers with
to the wheel- Thus the rough surface of the stamens, ovary, ovale, and seeds, which are
board was trimmed and left perfectly smooth the reproductive organs. Every variety and
as it was carried by suitable mechanism from intermediate form of these several parts may
end to end, under and in contact with the out- occur, so that in the lowest condition of plants
ters and plane. — Thongh American patents both the vegetative and the reproductive may
were occasionally granted for those machinea be oont^ed in a single organ called the frond,
fi^m the year 1800 to 1828, bnt little interest as b the case in the algse. Stmctiu^ly con-
was felt in the invention nntil the latter period, sidered, the leaf or the frond is the aimplest
when William Woodworth of New York pat- viidble condition ; but the microscope reveals
ented the celebrated Woodworth planing ma- that even the frond and the leaf are made up
ohine. In 1639 Uri Emmons was the recip- of innumerable simpler bodies called cells,
lent of two patents, one for cylindrical and helping to neurit each other by a common
one for circular planing machines. Prom this fluid by which they are surrounded, and each
time to 1840 American inventive genins was having a growth of its own. This social sys-
Botively engaged in this direction, and many tem of cells, which, variously modified, compose
patents were annually granted. In 1886 Thorn- every part of all plants, Inclnding alike the
as E. Daniels of Worcester, Mass., greatiy im- hardest woods and the softest tissues, maybe
Cved the Bramah or drcnlar machine, which traced through gradations becoming less cohe-
ught it into general notice under the name rent, until the frond breaks np into fruatnles m
of the Daniels plaiier. It is Qnually oonstmct- i]ithe(2u)tmMc«s,andconMBting«t lastonlyof
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
ELAMT OOTTKB PIANTAIH 875
nml* «nd minnte ^bnleo^ each baring a per- to it; orary oompoBod of ftsingle carpel, sea*
fteuf independent exuteace. Of these last mar sQe irithoiit a diu, of 2 or 4 oelk, whidi are
Im dtod the enow plant (frotoweeut nwalu) c&need bj the angles of the placenta ; ovnles
<rf antio and ateine regions, or the hamatoeeiu peltate or erect, eolitaiy, twin or indefinite ;
and glaoeapta fonnd npOD motet rockfl. Bach Bt;le eimple, oapillarT' ; stigma hispid, aimplef
planttasoonoBt of aflingle cell have nmnerona rareljrholf oifid; capsnle membranonj), denis*
Bpedea oocmring in all parts of the world, and oing tranBTerself ; seeds sessile. The atBnitiee
axe termed aniccllolar. of the ribworts with other orders are Tery ob-
FLAKT OUTTER, a conlrostral bird, the acnra and are the subject of much study.
tipe of the snb-fainily phi/totomma, hy some The speoies are widely distribat^d over the
]UMed with the fiuohea and bj others with the worid, chiefly howevei in cool and temperate
ekatterera. IntheBinglegennspAyA»CiNna(Ii[o1.) latitudes. — The conunon plantain (plantago
the bill is short, strong, conical, broad at the mi^or, Linn.), introduced from Europe, has
bsM, with arched cnlmen and lateral matins acooiQipaiiied civilized man, sprin^g up near
fine^ aerrated; wings moderate, the quills his habitations and around his settlements ta
from the 8d to the 6th equal and longest; tail socb an extent that it has acquired among the
modwxte and even ; tarn strong, shorter than American abori^es the name of " white
the middle toe, and covered with tranBrerse man's foot" Its root is perennial, and ita
scales ; toes long and slender, hind one long, leaves are broad and 8 to B inches long ; there
and all armed with curved claws ; the intestine are 6 to 7 nerves traversing each leaf from end
ia Aort, an exception to the rule in ratable to end, which when broken across are fonnd to
feeders. Onlya few sjiecies aredesoribed, in enclose an elastio thread; their surface is gen-
tsmpente Bonth America, la woody and dry erally smooth, sometimes pilose; the foot^alk
regions, often visiting cultivated fields; they is furrowed; the scape 12 to 16 inches long,
Mvein pairs or in small flocks, and do oonsid- including the flowerepike, which is snrronndea
oraMe mischief in orchards and gardens by by a great many small, bract^d, and greenish
cutting off bods, fhiits, and plants vrith their white coroUed blossoms, persistent after with-
serrated bills, destroying, as if in mere wanton- ering ; stamens 2, as long as the corolla. The
i»e8a,mach mere than is required for food; they green and ripe seeds are eaten by birds, and
also eat insects. The flight is short and low, canaries are often supplied with the spikes as a
and the notes very disagreeable, resembling the variation of their nsnsi food. The broad leaves
gratmg of the teeth of saws rubbed over each are repnted good in allaying the pain from the
other. The best known species is the P. rara bites of mosqnitoea, and are in popnlor use for
(ICoL) of Ohili, BO called fivm its note ; it U dressing blisters and other sores. The heart-'
about the rize of a thmsh, brown above, each leaved plantain (P. eordata, Pe Lam.) is very
deatfaer edged with lighter ; top of head rafons glabrous, with ronnd-ovate or cordate, long-
1wt>im, wlucb color prevails in the lower parta ; petioled leaves, the midrib branching into veins,
twl rofons, with a tenninal dark brown bar ; the spike loosely flowered, bracts round-ovate,
wings dark brown, the primaries with a white fleshy, pod with 2 to 4 seeds. It grows along
bar, and the wing coverts edged with the same, rivulets from New York to Wisconsin and
It i» ahot by the Inhabitants for ita destructive- southward, blossoming from April to June,
ness. The neat is made in high trees. The seaside plsntun (P. mantima, IJnn.) has.
FT.ANTAQEHET, the snmMne of the royal very fleshy, terete, entire leaves, or rarely few-
family of England trovo. Henry II. to Richard toothed, smooth; cylindrical oblong ^ikesy
m. indudve. It beloi^ed originally to the ovate convex bracts, and oval scarious sepsis;
honae of Ai^ou, and by most antiquaries is this speoies is remarkable for its thick snocnient
derived fKim the story that Fnlk the first earl foliage, and for growing upon salt marshes. A
of that family, having committed some crime, slenderer varietyis also known. Therib grass
in. remorse west on a pilgrimage to Rome, (P. fanMuZata, Unn.) is mostly bury, its leaves
wliere he was sooui^;ed with broom twigs (plan- lanceolate acute at botii ends, the scape deeply
taffenitta), and from that circumstance assum- soloate, long and slender. It is also called.
ed ^e name. It is now borne throngh collat- English plantain. It sometimes makes its ap-
«ral descent by the doke of Buokingnam and pearanoe in abundance in mowing flelds and
Obaodos. nplands, and, though looked npon as a weed,
PLANTAIN' (phnttigo, IJnn.), a genns of yet is not distasteful to cattle. The. pigmy
berbaceons plants, usu^y stemless, belonging plantain (P. piailla, NnttaU) is ftom 1 to 4
to the natural order plantaginae«a or ribworts, mohes high, minately pubescent ; leaves entire,
-whieh are monopebuons exogens, the stamens flowers crowded or scattered, pod short ovate,
■Itematiog with t2te petals, having a single 4-seeded, a littJeexoeedingthC'Calyx andbract.
Btjieand str^ght inflorescence. The ribworts It ^ows on dry hiis, from New York to IDi-
luive flat, ribbed or taper, fleshy leaves ; flow- nois and southward, and blossoms from April
era borne En spikes, rarely solitary, nsnally per- till August. — The herbage of the ribworts is
^ect; oalyx 4-parted, persistent ; corolla mem- slightly bitter and astringent, and they have
bnoooa, monopetaloos, hypogynons, persistent, even been reckoned fbbnfliges. Their seeds
irtth a 4-parted limb; stamens 4, altemating are covered with mncus; those of a French
wibb the segmenla of the oorolla and affixed speoiea (P. artnaria, Fers.) sie largely export
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
876 FLAJilTAIK EATEB PLASeXT
«d to the north of Europe, and ore probablf f^mer witb th« inner half vbibb, and the Ut-
Dsed for eiiing ootton dt^hs. The seeda of aa ter vithont Bpots; orest of tike otdor of th«
£ast hidian epecies (P. Itpaffhula, Boxbiuwh) bead, extending on to the nape like a ru^ of
are of a cooling nature and naed medkunoUj ; narrow and ehup-pointed featlien ; bill vel-
tboM of the fleawort (P. ptytlmm, Willd.) form low. There are a few other epeines, of dnH
with boiling water a rich mncikge, and are gny and brownish colors. All these birds are
used for catarrh and nephritio amotions; the monogamoos ; they build their nwts in. tre«ej
P. eoronoput (WiM.) u said to be a dioretio; and both sexes asnet in ujoobation. — ThoAmeri-
and in Hgj^t soda ie obtained from the ashes oan sub-fsmily opytthoaomidot is placed in the
of P. tquarrota. Persoon enmneratos 66 tm- aame family by Gray ; the charaoters are esseo-
oiea of the plantain, snd there are probably tially the same, eaoept in the ino^alnlity of
several more. — The nsme of pluitain is also toming the outer toe backward. It embraces the
applied to a species of tropical fruit (muta to- eingle genns opit^oeomus (Hoffin.), and the sn-
^iWtuni,Iinn,), a mere variety of the bapana. glespeciee O.cHtiattit (Lath.) or thehoactzin;
PLANTAIN LATEK, the name of the mw- this is abont IS inches long, greenish above,
topkagiiM, a aab-faniily of coniroBtral birds, with longitndinal white stripes on the back of
iohabitlna AJHoa, and living chiefly upon the the neck and shonlders ; the foreliead and long
fmit of &e plantun. In all the genera the orest cheetnat, aa well as the primaries and ab-
bill is strong, broad at the base, onrred, vith domen ; breast lighter, with an orange tint ;
notched tip; wingsshort; tsil long and broad ; eecondaries and terdariea edged with white;
tarsi and toes strong, the outer one capable of tul long, green tipped with lisht bnff; bare
being directed backward ; thia last, however, q>aoe round eyes bine, 1^ rod, and bill yel-
ls denied by Swainson. — In the genns mvw* low. It lives in small flocks on the banks c^
phaga (Isert) the bill is large, with the cnlmen the rivers of Brainl and Guiana, feeding chiefly
mnt^ advanced on the forehead ; 4th and 6th on the leaves of the arvm arioniatiu {linn.^
qnills the longest, and the tertials long and which give to the flesh a raosky odor renderj^
broad; tail ronnded; orbital region naked, it nnpalatable. This singnlar bird was placed
The violet plantain eater (if. Diolaeea, Is.) fs by Linnsna and by many later anlhora amraig
20 inches long, of a beantifal shining pnrplish the gallinaceons birds, which it resembles even
black; crown and quills crimson, on the last in its gut; it is now ranked among the perehera.
with a liloo tinge ; bill brieht yellow, passing PLANTIGRADES, a divison ctf oamivorons
into crimson at the tip, light and aeml-trene- mammals, so named becanse the whole foo^
parent ; a white stripe beneath the eye. It is including the taraaa and metatarsoa, is arailied
fonnd on the Gold coast— In the genus tvraev* to the ground in walking. The toes are longer
(Onv.), or eorythaix (111.), tba bill is abort and than in the di^tigrade division, the form heav-
higb, with the lateral margins hnely seriated ; ier, and the diet more vegetable ; they have a
wings short, the 4th to the 7th quills ^e longest; greater facility for rdsins themselves on their
outer toe versatile ; orbital r^on naked, ana hind feet, for clasping, cUmbing, and dig^g;
head with movable crest. The Senegal plan- Uie small eit«nt tk the lumbar region renders
t^ eater (T. purpurnu. Less.) is abont 16 them less sample and agile; they are generally
inoheelong, of a glossy purple color, with the slow in their movements, and noctuma] in
head, necS:, breast, and orest green; orbits habit. The distinctions between these divi-
naked and red ; white stripe over the eye, and siona are not entirely definite, and some ani-
a black one beneath ; it is very shy, and diffi- mals are intennediato between the two, and
ctdt to shoot from its frequenting the highest therefore semi-plantigrade : these diviaons may
branohee of the tallest treee ; it is restricted to he represented respectively by the Ikwis, the
the W. coast of tropical Africa. The Oape dogs and cats, and the civets and weasels. Be-
Slantain eater (T. P*r«a, Yieill.), of S. Africa, side the bears, the plantigrades embrace the
iffers principally in the white margin of its glutton or wolverene, badger, raccoon, costi,
crest ; the T. Bf^hni (Swains.) has the green kink^ou or potto, and the panda or wah.
crest tipped with red, and both a white and a PLANTING. See Abbobicultubi.
black Une under the eyes. The crimson-crested PLAQUEUINE, a S. E. parisli of La., at the
plantain eater (T. erylArolcphvt, Vieili) has extremity of the state, bordering on the gidf
the body green, the face, ears, and chin white, of Uexico, and indndii^ the delta of the Mift>
the crest red, and the quills lilac ; it is fbond sissippi, by which it is intersected ; area, about
in W. Africa. Several other species are de- 1,000 sq. ro. ; pop. in 1860, 8,493, of whom
scribed in Africa, all shy and handsome birds. 5,364 were riaves. It has a low and level snr-
—In the genns seA^wAit (Wagler) the bill is face, having in no place a greater elevation
short And mnch arched ; Uie wings moderate than 10 feet above the gnl^ and a large portion
and pointed, with the 4th to the 6th quills the is occupied by marshes. The prodnctions ui
longest; tail long and nearly even ; tarsi short 1860 were 1S,6SG bbds. of sugar, 140,090 boah-
and robust The crested ]Jant^n eater (S. ela of Indian com, 669,180 galla. of molasse^
taritgata, VieilL) Is abont SO inches long ; the 1,636,740 lbs. of rice, and 60 balea of cottoa.
color above is oinereoua with brown ^>ota, b»- There were 2 churches, and S60 pupils at-
ne^h white with brown atripee ; head, throat, tending public schools. Cspital, I^aqn^nine.
and breast brown ; qnills and tail blackish, the ' PLAsSEY, Battu of. See Cutk.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PLABXEB 07 PABES FU.TA 877
FI.A8TEB0FPABffi. SmOtmdm, wooden tools called floats, or still better with
FLASXEBDia, the eoa^ of walla aad flat piecee of oork. The suriaoa is then readj
oeQings with a h^r of owiait, fina mortar, or for whitemng and coloring, or a tbtrd coat of
plaster of Faruk Tha praotioa ia of aadanb fine stnff or plaster made with ywj fico white
date, and the, pi— tgriag <rf the Bomana is said lime maf be first applied and floated, till it
to wre been mnoh better done than that in forms a perfeotl}r smooth and hard sarface;
onr own bnOdiiKa. ^edmens are atall to l>e ^nt this is rarelj found neceuary.
seen of luuiBnt Soman plaataring tliat la firm PLATA, L&. See AaaxxrrtNx Costbdkba-
and Bolid, free from eraoks, and smoothed and tkx.
polished on die sorfooe aa if made of marble, PLATA, Eio oa la, or the river Plate, a large
The roofa of dtehosBea in Venice are said to river, or rather a great estnarj, draining with
be oovered with a dmrable [diBter that with- its numeroos afflaents a large port of Soath
rtands ibn action of tlte weatbw and of the America, formed bj the confluence of the rivers
son, and ia not iqjnredbj persons waUdngnpon Parana and Urugtia}', the former rising in tjie
it Tba ontdde of boildiiim is often oovered table land and the latter in the momtt^s of
with a coating (rfm<KtBr,whioIiia lined to ind- Brazil; total length of the estoary witli its
tate stMM wori^ or is finished in what is called largest afflu«it, about 2,S00 m. ; lei^^ of the
rough caot The latter is done hj throwing or estnary alone, 185 m., the breadth gradnallj in-
splashing vpon the mortar while it is 7et soft creasing from 39 m. at Baenos ATres to 180 xa.
a mixtore of f^edil^ aUed lime, water, and at ite entrance into the Atlaotic ocean between
clean fine gravel which ia immediate^ bruhed Ponta Negra (tat 84° 65' 6., long. 66° 5' W.) and
over and oolcred to give to the whole a nni- Oape San Antonio (lat 86° ar 8., long. SS° 42'
form hue. Bmall stones, pebldes, and bits of W0> The basin of the Plata is one of tbe three
earthenware and other matMiala are some- geographical dirimons of the eonthern hernia-
times dashed on instead of nring the sifted phere.andiaestimatedtooocnp7l,a60,000sq.m.
gravel. For indde work tlie plaatw is in lime In this great water sfstem the river moat dis-
mortar, with an exterior finish of verj fine and tingnished for its length, directness, and volome
"floated" over the snr&oecf the ia the Paragnaj, which on receiving the waters
lOQgber first eoat, or of plsster of Paris, which of the Paraoa near Oorrientee assomes the name
rives a smoothw, harder, and mooh handsomer of that stream. The Parana tiins tSikeB the
naish. A. mixture ct plaster of Paris, white most important part is forming the estoarj of
sand, and Ume^ is known as bard finish. Tiie Ia Plata. The Uragna7,ita other great branch,
cormcea and other onamcitttl dedgns upon receives several important affinents, of which
ceilings or waUs are nsnallj moulded m piaster the Negro, the principal river of the Banda
of Paria witbont sand, aitd imbedded In pieces Oriental (formerlfUnigaarXia the most con-
one after another in the ^ronndwork before siderable. The estnary of La Plata contuns
this is drj, Otiior matanals naed for these manj sand banks ; the N. coast is high and
ornaments are " Oarver'a oompo," a miztore rocky, but the 8. shores are low, and the oonn-
of wb^iDg, resin, and f^ne; papi«r maeii try bejond is filled with immense plains. The
primed ovff witit whiUng and gine : carton cnrreuts of the Plata are impetaona and van-
pierrt, gotta peroh% and also marble dost; ahlefCwingtotheimmenBebodyof itsaffluenta,
hut all theae are infbrin to plaster of Paris, and the river is frequently visited by violent
Plaatering is applied directly npon walls of storms, chiefly raised by gales from the plidns,
brick ana mortar, Uie Joints of which are left which drive the water in a great volume in one
roogh tliafe it may the better adhere; or npon direction, creating so many difBcnlties for navl-
a surface of laths, which are flat narrow strips gationthatthenameof "Bulors'heir'(0ft>);{mM
of wood secnrely nailed to the Joists, raftere^ de lo* mariMroi) has been conferred upon the
or stnds, parallel to each other, and so close estoarr. The depth of the river increases to-
together that but little space (usnally lesa than ward its month, averaging there 10 fathoms; at
1 of an inch) is kft for the mortar to get Uontevideo, however, it hardly exceeds S fath-
between them. That which passes tliro)u;h oms, and gradaaUylesseoa, so that vessels draw-
spreads sod hardMis in linnp^ which key t£e ing more than about 13 feet of water cannot
rest of the ooating to tlie laths. The first eoat ascend above Baenos Ay res.— The mouth of the
termed the Itqring or aeratdi ooat^ is allowed river waa discovered by Joan Diaz ds Bolia in
to become partiaU^ dry, and is then roogtiened the early part of the 1 Sth century, and has given
in lines wita a aortof rake madeof bits (tf laths its Spanish name La Plata (silver or argent) to
nailed tt^^otlier, and may also be qtrinkled with the Argentine Confederation. After the flight
water to eanaetbe seoond coat to adhere closely of Rosas and the election of Urqniza as provi-
to it. The application of thia, called setting, is uonal director of that oonfederatioQ of statea,
a work of some nloe^ in order to obt^ a layer one of the first measures of his administration
of luifhrm Uiiokneas. The plasterer provides was a decree, issued Aug. 28, 1862, opening the
for this by marking off the mrfaoe with little waters of the Plata to all nations, to take efi'eot
ridges of mortar odQed screeds, whiehaerve as Oct. 1, 1S58, Soon afterward an expedition
E'ugeB, and between these the flne and tUn was fitted out by the government of thb United
preparation is applied, fiUing them np evenly, States noder Oommander Thomas J> Page of
>nd it is then smoothed over or floated by flat the IJ. 8. navy, who explored the tributaries of
U,9,-„zoobyGOO^Ie
878 TLLTMA. FLATXD HAKUFAOTDBB
the I'lata from 18M to 1866, and pnbliahed « oft^atanudeofitaidudgoldaiidrilmltMiMt
namtiTe of tbe ezpediti<ai ("La Plata: the k^ pace with the inoTMabif wealtb and p<^
ArgenUne OonfederatJon and Eteagn^r," New nlalion, wh3« at the aame time the oonsainp-
Tork, 1B69). Martin de Hoobst, a Frendh tionoftheeeinetalainarticIeadedKned farths
Keographer, explored the Plata from 1848 to aame pnrpoaaa ve^ ftr exoeeda afi ftoioer de-
1869, and pjib'Mb.eA. & Itetoription giograpliiqv^ msnda of theUni — In. tLe nae of attidea of
et ttatittiqm d« la eonfidiration Argeatiii« (8 plate, especdallf those of elaboTate fioiah, it ia
Tola. 8vo., Paris, 1860). often found eztremelf difflcalt to protect them
PLATjSA, mi ancieat oity of Bisotis, on the from tarnishing, and indeed to free tbun from
frontiers of Attica, at the foot of Ht Oithsron, the dnet that oclleota in the interstieea of the
about 6 m. S. W. mmi Thebes. Although, ao- ohsaed -work. Tlie following treatment is re-
cording to the ThebanB, Plateaa was fonnded oonunended in Qxe "Ohemicu Guette," 1849,
l^ them, it Tag always diatlngiuahed for its p. 862. The articles are boiled in water con-
peTmstent oppodtbn to their supremacy. In taining to each quart abont an oonoe of finely '
ClBB.O.it allied iteelf with Aliiong, and to gronnd bone ash, and after being dried are nil>-
that city it ever afterward remuned faithful. A l>ed with dry woollen raga that have been sat-
tbooBand of its ritizena shared in the batUe of m-ated with bone ash by introdncing them
Marathon (490). In 480 the city was bnmed by into the boiling mixtnre. The polishing ia
the Persians, and in 4Y9 on its territory was finished with waah leather. The powders em-
foaght the inemorable battle of FUtea. (See ployed for cleansing rilrer commonly contain
Qkcbok.) For the victory gained on thur soil, meronry, and If freely need may in time render
the confederate Greeks granted the Plataana the metal britfle.
80 talents, and charged thun with the duty of PLATED HAlTTJFAOTnRK Fortheaake
pajii^ Bnnnai honors to the tombs of the fulen of prodttcing cheap artidea, hanng the appear-
mrriera, and of oelebratliig every 6 yeara the anoe of genmne pute, and the Bdvant^ea poa-
festiral of the Elentheria ; and in retnm the in- sessed by this over the aame ntenuls of copper
di^ndenoe and inTiolability of their territory or brass in a sanitary yiew, it has long Seen
were guaranteed. In 431, the first year of the the practice to cover the bawr metals or al-
Pelopoimedan war, the Thebana made an nn- loys with a thin coating of ailver or gold, and
eaocessM attempt to seize the city, and it at- in some instances of pl^innm. Covering them
tractod attention from the length of time it witji rdlver is known as plating, and with gold
withstood a ai^^ by the Lacedamonians. The as gilding. The latter process has been de-
dty, defended by 480 men, held out from 429 scribed under its own name, and the meOiod
to the snmmer of 42?, when want of provisions of plating by tbe galvanic process, termed eleo-
compelled a surrender, after which it was razed tro-plating, under £uotbo-11etajxpboi. Sev-
to the gronnd. Plateea waa rebuilt after the eral other modes ctf iJating are in use. and It
peace of Antoloidas, but was again deetn^ed by is stated that one of them was practised by tiie
the Thebans in 874. It was snbeeqnently re- andent Romans. This oonaista in scddering
bnilt by the Macedonians, and is Bpoken of in thin aheets of silver upon vessels of copper w
the 6th century A. !>■ by Hierooles as one of brass by means of some fti^ible alloy — amethod
the dties of Ikeotia, Its ruins are still to be which the French term U doubli, or lining, aud
traced. oareftiUy distinguished from the true ^wng^
FLATE(8p.j>&i^BilTer), the name by which which tiiey term plaeage tiA plaoui. By one
utensils of silver or gold for domestic purposes the silver is applied to the articles heated to
are designated. Articles of this charaoter have dull redness after they have received thur
from the remotest times and among all dvilized shape, and by the other to the aur&ce of the
nations been highly prized, and from their dn- ingots of copper or brass before these are
rabilitj, intrinsic valae, and the beanljful forms drawn down into sheets. In England the
Into which they are often wrought, have been former process is known as French plating, it
esteemed the most precions heirlooms, and having berai practised in France long aiter the
been held among the choicest family treasuree invoition and introduction in En^^uid of the
through snccessive generations. The richest new method. As early as 1742 tbiswaseslab-
treasures of the temple of Solomon were of lished at Sheffield by Thomas Bolaover, who
gold and silver plate, and such constituted the produced by means of it plated buttons and
untold wealth taken by the Spanish conquerors snuff boxes ; and soon afterward Joeeph Ean-
of Peru from the ancient incas. (See Gold, vol. cock applied it to a nnmber of other articles,
viii. pp. 840, S41.) Thongh modem art has as caodleaticks, tankarda, teapots, Ac. The art
soarcefy carried the mannfacture of plate to was soon introduced Into Birmingham, wheri^
higher perfection than that att^ed by skilfnl as at Sheffield, it long oontinned to form a very
workmen of past centuries, it has succeeded extendve branch of manufacture, but which is
in producing substitutes for it in what is called now ddefly dependent upon tiie eleotro-plat-
plated manufacture, equally useful and almost ing process. The Snglish method was intro-
as beautiful as the genuine pl^ at prices duced into France about the year 1806, and
that place within reach of those of moderate rapidly took the place of the other mode of
means what oonatitated the loKuries of the rich, plating. In 1889 it gave employment to about
The consequence of this is, that the production 3,000 workmen, and the value of the products
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
sr,
PLATED UAHUPAOTUBE HATINTJU 878
tbifat 8,000,000 frgnce. The metal to be Uiem is cut ont and tnrned up to form s tnl»e
' Eu; be dtber Terr pure copper or a of the Bsme dUmeter, the edgea being loade to
jwrtMiiliig & TMT large proportion of unite hj lapping and barniehMig item npon a
copper. The luokel aOoTs of copper, though emaller rod of oopper, which ia heated red-hot
preferred for eleetio-plating, do not aoever for and snpported at one end. The large copper
the older proccM, it being fonnd ezoeediDgl; rod ia now introduced, and ia long enongh to
diffienlt to protect the SDr&oe from oxidation, project a little heyond the Bilver at each end.
whiob prevsntB adheranoe of the ailver. In At the termination of the Bilker a grooTe is sunk
thii reqtect the red copper is oltt^ther pref- aronndtherod.andintothistheailTeriswarked
arable to vaj other material, and its want of so as to moke the jonction air-tight. The whole
Miffiieaa ia made np b^ the greater thickneas of ia next heated red-hot, and in this condition
the metal. Hanoe plated artdolee may be gen- the metals arc made to nnite by rubbing the
cnUf knows l^ their weight. The oopiwr is snrface brisklj with a steel hnrnisher. The
ran into ingots in cast iron moulds, whi(m are rod may now be drawn through plates into
rerj carefUlj made and furaisbed with ridng wire and the other ornamental shapes. The
mouthpieces for the sprues. Into these the electrotjpe prooees has, however, nearly so-
imporitiea float np, and the pressore caosed by perseded all these methods of plating.
Oe head of metal adds to the solidity of the in- PLA-TDniU (Sp. platina, ori^nally a dindn-
KOta. The riie of these may be 18 or SO inches ntire for ailrer), a grayish white metal reeem-
UMig, S broad, and 11 thick. Their snrface ia bling silTer in appearance, and distbigoished
Terj carefolly smoothed by flling, so as not to as the heaviest aiid most inf^ible of metals.
lesTeany little cavity discoverable by a micro- Itaohemioal equivalent iaSS.T; its specific grav-
Kope, and a sheet of nlver is then laid over ity in native grains 16.88 to 1D.4, and when
the snt&oes to be plated, equal to ^^ to ^r of purified and hammered 21.68. Pure platinum
the wei^t of copper for each side to be thus is softer than silver, but a very small portion
ocTsred. It is out not quite so large as the of iridium imparta to it a couraderable increase
copper, and when amoothed down upon this, of hardness ; it also renders the metal elastia
tod made perfeoUy dean, the two are bonnd and diminishes its strength. Its tenacity is little
togsther with wire, and a little borax is intro- inferior to that of iron. It ia remarkE^ly duo-
dneed vtonad the edges of the silver, that by tile, so that it can be drawn out into very fine
its mehing and closiiig the opening the tir may wires. Wollaston obt^ed one not exceeding
be excluded and the clean copper surface be n',, of an inch in diameter. It is worked nn-
prcts^ed from oxidation. The ingot is now der the hammer with somewhat greater diffl-
placed npon the bnnuog coke in the plating onlty than cast steel, and when pure may be
mrnsce, and the operator watches through a welded npon itself or upon iron or steel at a
little hole in the door for the shrinkage of the white beat. It is melted by the ox^ydrogen
silver as it draws down to unite with the cop- blowpipe, as described iu the article BiowFipa.
SIT. He then takes it out as quickly as possi- In its chemical properties platinum is remarka-
a, for the two metals are then jast ready to ble for resistiDg the action of tbe most power-
nm together and form an alloy. By cooling, M acids as weQ as of high temperatures. It is
the proceea is checked Just as the alloy is fonned dissolved by nitric add only when it is alloyed
at the Bor&ces in contact, cauung at these snr- with a considerable proportion of silver. Its
&cee a complete nnion. Being now cleaned, true solvent is aqita rtgia. The caostic alka-
tbe ingot is n^Ued out into a sheet of the re- lies attack it, as also nitre and bisnlpbate of
quired thickness, and between each rolling It potash. At a high heat it may be made to
B annealed to preserve its toughness ; and combine with sulphur, phosphoma and ar-
&ully it is cleansed In hot dilute sulphuric senic. It forms alloys with nearly all the
arid and sconred with aand. The sheet is now other metals. Its fusibility is increased by the
rtady for the processes by which it ia converted presence of silica and carbon, especi^ when
mto the articles for whidi it ia destined ; either these are together, and tbe silica enters into
to be stamped in dies, which is the method now combination with the metal. Crucibles made
nmt commonly in nse, or to be rused by the of platinum are injured and become rough and
hammer, or to be spun in the latbe — a process brittie by frequent heating in contact with
dsscribed in the account of the mann&ctore clmrooa]. "When platinum m solntion Is pre-
tf platininn crocibt^ near the dose of the ar- cipitated by an easily combustible organio
tick "PuLtnnnt, These processes, common to suostance, as b^ boiling with carbonate of soda
Os treatment of malleable metals in general, and sngar, it is obtained in a finely divided
win be described under the head of Raised state called platinum black, which may be col'
ToaxuilCsTu- The method of making plated lected on a filter and dried between tissue
wire ud small strips <d! varioos shapes, half paper. The same substanoe may also be pro-
roond, Sat, finted,&o.,anch as have been largely daced by decomposing anlphate of platinum
eni[d<nred for bread baskets, toast racks, and by alcohol with the assistance of heat. In thia
other hgfat open-work nteAmls, ia aa follows : form platinum posseeses in a remarkable de-
Bods of copper li indies in diameter and 18 gree the property of condensing gases in la^e
or 30 indies long are need for a foundation, quantities. When placed in ozyaea the metal
The sQver in very thin sheets intended to cover soon absorbs several hundred tunes its bulk
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
880 HAT
of fiib gas ; and vlien aftervBrd exposed f»
mixtures oont^ing hydrogen it has uie prop-
erty of elimiiiatiag tUs wd determitiing Jta
union with the oxygen. SpangT platinum, a
fbrmof the metal obtained b j he^bg the doable
chloride of ammoniom and platiniun, poMegeet
the flame property in leaa degree ; and in the
artdole A<wno Aotd, toI. i. p. 66, the process
Is deeoribed of producing this acid hy abstract-
ing a portioa of hydrogen tnmi aloohol by
means of this agent. When a Jet of hydrogen
is directed upon a bit of the sponge, intense
heat is prodnoed by the rapid combinalion of
Qie two gases ; so that an apparatus on tliis
prindple, known as DObereiner'a lamp, is in
use for suddenly producing a light ^ee
Lamp.) — ^In modem timea platinmn was first
bronght into pnblio notice in 17S6 br Dlloa,
a Spanish traveller in America ; bnt there are
reasons for Buppo»iw that it was known to
the RonuuB ana worked by them, and was also
employed by some of the alchemists. About
the middle of the last oeatnry it was carried
from South America to Europe, and Hereral
French aOTersmithe were among the first to
apply it to nsefnl pnrposea; and some time
after this Wollaston devised the methods of
working it which have been practised to the
present time. The metal is found in a na-
tive state in gr^ns and small lompa, and very
rarely in nnggeta of several ponndB weight, in
the sands ofthe gold deposits, asBOoiated with
a iinmber of other metals, TFluch are seld<Hn if
ever fonnd except with platinum. These are
iridinm, osminm, rhodium, palladimn, and ni-
thenium. The last named is contained in the
alloy of osminm and iridium found in the plat<
inum ore, and is not fbnnd ia that portion ot
it which ia soluble in agva reoia. They are
alloyed with the platinmn, and this also fre-
quently contains feim 6 to 10 percent of iron;
BO that the proportion of the pore metal tn^
not exceed three foDrths of the whole. Berec-
lins fonnd the native alloys from the Ural
mount^na and from Oolombia, B. A., of the
fellowing compontion :
C^per.....
Tottl...
it appears from these reenlts that the platinnm
of the Ural difFerH from that of Colombia by
oontaining a much larger proportion of iron ;
and it may be this whidi gives to it the deep-
er gray oolDr it possesses. The following anal-
yses of platinucD from various looalitiea are
^ven by HU, Deville and Debray {AnnaU» de
cAimi«,[8]lTL44e):
A...1TW
PI.
irid.
Kb.
P.11U.
8=U.
COT".
i™.
u.«.
i—t.
Oitlw
ifldi
T«l
MM
HLOO
i
i
Taw
i
D.tlS
•.SO
t.'m
au
i
KM
1.M
e.u
i
i
11
aio
i
s
U.DD
t.Si
tS
1S5
sao
ux>
1.00
1«
US
iEEEEE-
1, % uldSinTa ftam Cboco (CdtombliX B. A. ; t, 5, and • tnta Oi
il^l l,0»|imi S,Sp*tn; V ud 10, AnOills; 1
Among the few large lumps of the metal whioh
have been fonnd is one bron^t by Hnmboldt
ftom Bonth America, and deposited in the mu-
seum at Berlin. It is abont the size of a pi-
geon's egg, and weighs 1,088 groins. In the
musenm at Uadrid is a lump from Gondoto in
South America weighing 11,641 grains. Alump
was found in 18S7 m the Ural near the Demi-
doff mines of 11.67 lbs. troy; and more recently
another of 23.88 lbs. troy, which is the largest
piece known, and which is preserved in the
Demidoff cabinet AfowobBcnrecrystalsofthe
metal have been noticed, the forms of which are
rither cubical or octahedral. As platinum com-
monly occurs loose in anriferona sands, it is often
uncertain from what geological formation it ia
derived. Bonssinganlt states that it has been
met with in place in an anri&rous vein of the
syenitio rooks of Antioqnia in South America;
others have found it in very small quantities in
greenstone and diorite rocks. In the Ural moun-
tains it is fonnd in depoiots oomposed of the de-
bris of serpentine rocks, and containing much
ehromio iron, the source of which is in the same
rocks ; and it la withont doubt through these
that the platinum is dispersed so ipanngly as
not to be delected, except when it is concen-
trated like the gold in the lower portions of the
alluvial depoeits. It is not, however, limited to
repositories of this character, bnt has also beeo
detected in very small quantities in the hematite
of the department of Oharente in France ; and
again in Hnates-Alpes in a gray copper ore, which
also contains silver, antimony, lead, zinc, and
other metals. It haa also been fonnd in the
silver coins of Germany, derived nnqnesUonably
from the argentiferous ores which afforded the
silver ; and from the slags of their metailurgio
treatment it was separated in 1647 by Prof.
Pettenkofer of ICnnioh to the amount of IS
ounces. — The commeroiol supplies of platinnm
aredependentnponverymioertwnsoDroes. The
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FiATrami 991
metal TM flrrt obtdned from &» gold rwions Srst diaeritnA In ogus np^o/ bat raoBntlj; the
of Choco and Birbaooas is the state of Oanoa metallnr^ of pMinnm has been mstamllf
and near the head of the Atrato, Sooth Amer- modified. 67 Wollaston's method, uRer the
ica ; and afterward at varioiiB locAlitles along cmde metal has been digested ontil no more Is
the weetent elope of the GordiUeras between diaaolved, sal ammoniMu added to the deeanted
lat.2°uid6''N, From this region it waa carried Hqaid, which cansee nearly all the platinnra to
to EmvH>e In the middle of the laat oentiu7, but separate In the state of sn ammouo-chloride.
was hdd of little Importanoe from the ignoranoe This being separated, metallic iron oanses the
of it] properties and of the methods of working nrei^pitation of the remainder, and this portion
it. Ducoreriea were still later made in Brastl, is then redissolTcd in fresh acid and precqiitated
and for some jeera the workings were verr with sal ammoniae. By the application of heat
prodnctiTe^ bot finall; ceased to afford maoh the ammonia and chlorine ore expelled, koA
more of the metal Theislondof St. Domingo the platinom is ohtMned in porons spongj
also produced small qnantities. Bat the whole maseea. These are gently mbhed to powder,
production of the AmericancoDtlnenthaaprob- and with vster In a wooden mortar are trita»
aUy never exceeded 900 pounds a jeor. Tnia is rated with a wooden pestle until thoronghlT
but Httb more than has been obtained from washed. The heavr metalBo particles which
BcHneo in the East Indies, the annual product mbside are separated ftvm the lighter portions
of which has been &om SOO to SOOIhs. In the and placed in a brass cylinder slightly flaring
Boiuan gold mines platinum had been noticed at the lower end fbr the pTtrpose of foailitating
as far back as 1819 by the miners, who called the removal of the metal. The moisture hav-
it white gold ; and its true oharooter was first ing drained off and being absorbed by bibnlooi
leeognized by Frot Lubarskl at St. Fetersbui^ paper placed in the bottom, a cloeely fittins
in IB2S. It was first worked on the eastern piston is introdooed and powerflilly pressed
(lopes of the ITral mountains, and was after- down. The metal is thus formed into a cotae>
wsrd discovered and worked to much greater rent oake of spedflo gravity about 10, and Itt
eHent on the western slopes. Kuoh the lar- appearance cbaagesfromdiulgTaytoametalUo
pst portions of theproduct were obtained ftom lustre. The oake la next sa^eeted for about
the washings of I^nl Tag^elsk ; and next in SO minutes to the powwM heat ot a wind ftus
icipcrtanoe were those of Ooroblagodotak, nooe ; after which it la forged by hammering
Mir Koshvinsk. From 1827 to 1834 the with a heavy hammer npon an anvil, the blows
uumal yield of all the Russian washings was being always directed npon the ends of the
ftom 4,000 to B,000 lbs, troy ; and up to 1801 oake and not npon tiie rides. It Is worked
the total prodoction was estimated at 2,061 down with more difficulty than iron. Whea
pods (90,843 lbs. troy), of which 1,990 puds a large quantity, as BOO oz., is operated upon
were from the wadiings of Nijoi Tagielsk. at a time, this by the action of the press is Ob-
He metal .was introduced Into the Rnsman tained in a dense block about E inches by 4 and
coinage and made into pieoes of 11 snd 93 3( inches thick. It is heated in a smith's ohar-
niblM each; hot after the year 1S40 its use ooalflre, where it is so plooed that the jets from
for this purpose ceased, and the production two tuyeres strike together upon it. When at
lu stDce greatly fallen off. In 166S and 18G3 the welding point or ^most a blue heat it re-
fliere were no returns from the government ceives a blow fh>m a heavy " drop" or vertical
mines, and in 1BC8 they amoantod to only hammer somewhat like that of a pile-driving
T lbs. 7 OE. 8 dwt., all flrom the washing machine. It is then reheated, and in about 20
of Goroblagodatak. The private mines in the minutes Is again strode, the process being re-
wne years fbmished respeetivety 42 lbs. 6 oz., peatedoontinnallyfbraweekorlOdayatiUtbe
n lbs. 11 ot. 2 dwt., and 898 lbs. 7 oz. 9 dwt. mass is snffldently consolidated for forging Into
hi Forth America platinom has been found in bars and sheets. Tie latter are rolled out, and
ninnte scales and grains fn the gold washings theobjeotof tbeirpreparationin largepiecesls
of the C%aadi6re river, Oanada East ; and as- to malie pans and alembics for concentrating
aodtled with it were small plates of iridos- sulphuric add, which it Is impiortont to have
mtQe, the native alloy of iridimn and osmium, in one piece. Vessels have thus been made in
It vss discovered by Dr. Genth in the lead and IVance weighing In a ringle piece over 2j000 oz.
copper oree of Lancaster 00., Penn,, In traces; ~-By one or the other methods the platmum is
and Prof. O. D. Shepard reports having found taken in the spongy state, obtained as above
in Rutherford go., K. 0., a lump weighing described, and amalgBmat«d with double ita
S,B41 graina. In California it oooompanies the weight of mercury in a porphyi? mortar. The
pAi ores, and is detected in the gold itself that am^gun b then compreraed in a cylindrical
b tiAea to the miute for coinage. In 18S4 it cavity in a block of wood, and the excess of
wet (bond by Mr. George Simpson in the Rocky mercury is forced out by tba applioation of a
momUains, about 160 m. from Fort Laramie; screw press; and after thus renuining for sev-
and eiplorationa were undertaken In 1860 to eral honrs It Is exposed (br a tvw minutes to a
detsRume the importance of the discovery. — white heat, either dirootly upon the coals or is
The methods in use for obtuning [datinnm free a omdble Uned with charooaL As the mer-
from the substances with wbico it is alloyed oury diswpears the platinum contracts and
hare fbr the most part been based on Its being draws itself together In a very oorions manner,
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
8Ba thirmuit
and is fit last obtaimd la A solid man. This is 'WtdoottffibbaoffTew YorIchBflreoeIltl7'<»)IIL-
DeIt forged hj repeated hammeriogB and heat- plated an elaborate inveatiKatioii of platmum
inga. By the Bosaian. prooeaB the preoipitab- and Its assodated metals, which led him to en-
ed ammonia-chloride, dter bdng well waahed Hrelj new methods of separating these metala
and dried, is heated in a cast iron pot till the from each other in the wet way, either for
ammonia and chloride are voUtilited. The practical operations or for quaUtatlTe analy^.
platinam remains behind of a gray color, and An aoooont of his researdies and disooveries
sdll combined with a little indinm. Three is published in vol. lu. of the Bmitfaaonian
pounds of this are groond at a time with an " Oontribntions to Knowledge." — PUannm haa
Kon mortar and peaUe, no difflonlty being ex- been ancoesafnllT worked in New York npon a
perienced in nring iron rather Uian wood, considerable scale by Dr. K. A. L. Boberta, who
Uiongh Dr. Wollaston snpposed the iron might employs the ozyhydrogen blowpipe for melting
prevent the particles of platinmn fkim weld- themetal. (8ee Blowpipe.) Hbobjectiscfaiefly
mg. The metal, being redneed to a fine gray to convert crude platinam and scraps into plates
powder, is wrapped in pi^er to keep it t<^ther and wire for the nse of dentists. To obtain
and endosed in a thick iron ring, which is then the metal soft and tongh and withont flaws, he
placed npOQ an anvil nnder a screw press- It finds thorongh melting and weldiog at a white
in thus solidified into a cake, and after thb is heat essentia The welding is a delicate pro-
heated in a obarooal fire and axain compressed, ceas, requiring that the platinum sLoold be per-
by which it is rendered malleable. — Themethod feotly clean and be heated in a mnffie ontil Ute
formerly practised by the French dlversmitba snrfiice is too hot to be distinctly seen. If
was not adapted to remove the foreign metala visible the metal is too cool to be welded, and
and impurities from the platinum, and conse- hammering upon it will have the effeot of sbat-
quently the artiolea they prepared were defec- tering the piece. The metal shonld be handled
tjve in the properties for which especially the with tongs plated with platinnm, and hammer-
metsl is valued. Their prooesa, which was ed first wiu a clean hammer, weighing not
one of consolidation chiefly, was based on the more than a ponnd, npon a clean anvH ; and
ftoility with which platinnm may be made to both hammer and an^ should be as hot aa
combhie with arsemo and form a very ftint^e possible withont drawing the temper of the
alloy. This they cast in moulds, and then ex- steel. The metal cools very qoickly, and it is
'" g the arsenic by continued high heat ob- with difflcnll^ kept at the higb heat required.
f the metal in a concentrated form and Alter being welded a heavier hammer may be
malleable condition. The latest and most ap- used for forging. Dr. Boberte, having condensed
proved method is to obtain an alloy of plati- the scraps or aponge by partially melting them
nnm and lead by melting the ore with galena very compactly together into a square block
in a reverberatory ftimaoe. The snbstanoea of 10 to fiO ounces weight, places two of Iheao
are well mixed together, and some glass and blocks in the muffle together ; and as soon as
lithai^e are added, the latter for the purpose of they attain the high temperature required he
decomposing the aulphurets. "When fused, the removes one speedily to the anvil, and gives
mass, jirotected from the oiidinng action of It 8 or 4 quick sharp blows in rapid successioD,
the tur, is allowed to remain for some time and retuniing it to the muffle treats the Mher
undisturbed that the osmides may collect in in the same way, and so altemat«l; till both
the bottom. The scoria is then removed, and ore thoroughly welded. By long humnering
tiie upper portion of the alloy of lead and the metal is made tough and fibrous; hut if
etinnm is run off and cupelled to remove the thrown into the water while hot, it becomes
1. The platinum is then refined in fhmacea crystalline and brittle. The partially melted
made of solid lime and heated by a large jet c^es before forging are crystalline and sono-
of oxygen and hydrogen. By prolonged ftimon reus, and break easuy like roelter. — The prop-
in this furnace all traces of silicon and osml- erty possessed by platinum in so eminent a de-
mn may be removed. This is the process of gree of resisting oxidation and the action of
MM. Deville and Debray of Paris, who first heat, of most acids, and other elements of
made it known at the meeting of the acad- change, renders it well adapted fi>T various
emy of sciences in Paris, June 4, 1869, when chemical ntenBUs,forplatesandbandsemployed
they also exhibited two ingots of the metal by dentists for utifidal teeth, and for retorts
weighing^ together 2B kilogrammes (abont 6B and stills of the monnfoeturer of sulphuric acid.
lbs.), which had been f^ued in the same fire It is nsed in the laboratory for omciblea, cap-
ond oast in an ingot mould of wronght iron ; sules, spatulas, wires for vuions purposes, and
also a toothed wheel of platinnm cost in sand weights for delicate balances. The crucibles
in the usual mode of casting iron. These are ingeniously made from a fiat disk by the
chemists announced that by their method plat- process called spinning. The disk, bemg made
inmn may be melted in any quantity, and to revolve rapidly when attached to the end
once tnelted it behaves precisely like ^Id or of the axis of a lathe, is pressed upon by a
silver. An aooount of their researches is pub- blunt point applied snccessively to difi'erent
lished in the Annalet de ehimU et de phyrigve, parts of its sniiace, till it is at last turned over
Aug. 1869, and a translation of the paper is in Into the shape required. The alloys of plati-
thel8tvolnmeofthe"01iemicalNews." Prot nnm have been little used; hut Uie French
pdlingtl
tained til
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
HATO
^MmMs ia flMlr iarttttigatiaia ftnmd Uiat the while others, looUng at single anieets of th»
maUl when combined with some of ita asso- Socratio teaching, framed one-eided ^stenu
latala, as iridimn and rhodiom, ia ma- which rather caricatared tiian adeqnatelj rep-
teriall; improred for most of its uses. Wiib. resented it, Plato developed ita germs in all
21.8 fa cent, of iridinm an aUo;r is prodnoed their fulness and froitfblness ; and his works
which is malleable and almost oompletel; re- are not more a prodnct of his own genina than
aists the aetion of aqua regia. With smiller a tribute to tho memorj of ttis master. A^er
EropordoDS of iridinm tlie alloj is softer, and the death of Socrates, Flato repaired to Me-
j rarjing the proportions oomponnds are ob- gara, where Euclid, a former fellow disciple,
tained of qnalitiaa espeoisllf adapted for par- had opened a school in which he sought to en-
ticolar purposes. Thus retorte for the mann- f^aft the Sooratic ethics on the stock of Eleatio
facbice of solpbnric acid are now msde in idealism. To the ideas and impnlses here ao-
Pari^ which have the strength and stiShess qnired we owe very probably that group of
of roiled iron, Bome of the alloys are found dialogues in which Plato seeks to establish,
when oast in moulds to take the impressions against the Heroolitsn doctrine of absolute
with great exactness. Tin as well as arsenic mollJpUcity and the Eleatic aaanmption of ab-
greatly increases the flisibility of platinum ; solute unity, the tme idea of science. From
•i^ oonaequently it is not asfe to nse it for llegara he visited Oyrene, Egypt, Kagna Orse-
eotdering Ui« latter metaL For this purpose oia, and Sicily. Of alleged journeys to Pales-
gold is commonly employed. When the oxides tine, Babylon, Persia, ^dia, &c., tiiere is not
d eadly reduced metals, as of lead for instance, tbe atighteet evidence ; and even of any philo-
are heated in platinom crucibles, these are in sopbloal fruits of bis sojonm in Egypt his writ-
dutger of being mined by the formation of a ings indicate bat the faintest trace. In the
fodble alloy bSween the platinum and tbe re- Greek cities of lower Italy, however, where
daoed metal. — Two oombmations of platinum Pythsgoreanism had its native home and still
with oxygen are known : the protoxide (PtO), mainly flonrished, he became more thorouglily
tod the binozide (PtOi). These and their oonveraant with the tenets of that philoso-
componndspoaseas no particular interest — Tbe phy. Hence in part probably his iondness
■abject of ptetinnm is treated in much detail in for mathematical physics, for mythical and ,
Gmelin's " Handbook of Obemistry." allegorical imagery, aa& possibly for politdcal
PLATO, a Greek philost^her, bom In specnlation, while ita fbndAmental doctrine
Alhens (or according to some anthorities in of unity developing itself in mnltiplicity far-
ifigioa) in 429 B. 0., died in 846. His fa- nished an sdmirabla solution of the conflict
Uier Ariston traced his descent to Godrus, between the Eleatio and the Heraclitan doc-
aad his mother Perictione reckoned Solon trinea. Plato's general mode of philosophizing
among her ancestors. His original name was was in antiquity regarded as strongly Pythago-
Aristocles, derived from his graadfather; bat rean. After about 10 years of foreign red-
it was changed to Plato (Gr. n-Xamc, broad^, dence and travel be returned to Athens, and
whether from tbe breadth of his forehead, his opened a school in hb garden near the aead-
iboolders, or hia diction, b not determined, emy, where he expoonded his doctrines ia con-
Owing to his Bubaeqaent renown a parentage versation and formal lectures to a large nom-
from Apollo was attributed to him, and bees ber of pnpils (among whom were women dis-
(ettling on his in&nt lips were said to have be- gaised aa men), attracted by his high repatatitm
tokened the honeyed sweetness of bis style, for eloquence and wisdom. He aiso devoted a
Bende tbe ordinary truniog in gymnastics, portion of his time to oomposing and revising
rimar, and muaio, he was initiated by Oraty- nis works. His life thus flowed on in an even
into the doctrines of Heraclitns, and the tenor, broken only by two visits to Syracuse,
itody of AnBTagorHH gavc him the results of the neither of them attended by very flattering rft-
pre^Sooratio physics. The exuberant fancy anits. One waa m«de in the vain hope of re-
«hich he Bobseqoentlylavisbed ondialecticsat alizing through the newly crowned younger
fiist orerflowed in poetical compositions, epic, Dionyainshisidealrepablio. Plato never mar-
tjiio, and dramatic. But he homed hia epics on ried, never mingled in public affairs, and seenu
comparing them with Homer, and when, in hia to have regarded the constitation and charao-
SOth year, he fell under the influence of Socra- ter of his native city with disfavor and almost
tes, be thenceforth devoted himself to pbiloao- despair. He spent a tranquil old age, his men-
phy as that essenoo and soul of harmony of tal faoultdea to the last scarcely perceptibly d&-
whliji rhythmical nombers are but the sen- cayed. — The writinga of Plato were favorites
snoDs and shadowy embodiment. He waa a alike with pagan and Christian antiqaity, and
pupil of Socrates during the last 8 or 9 years have come down to ua in a state of nnasual
of that great refomier's life, and became thor- completeness and teitoal purity. The gen-
onghly imbued with his profound ethical nineness of many of the pieces which bear bis
spirit, and master of his searching and potent name has been (Usputed, but in oase of moat of
dialectioa. I^to alone, of all the disd^ea of them with little approach to unanimity on the
Socratea, seems f^lly to have appreciated the part of the aasailanta. A few of the smaller
intellectual greatness and aeixed tbe profound pieces, together with the letters, are nndonbb-
icienUfic conceptions of his master ; and henoe, edly spurions, but the genuineness of all th«
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
884 n.ATO
sure fmpMtmt mttks Qten is no good reason di«l«stIoi u evtr waa troddan, and m^ a
to donbt. Xb<7 are all in Ute Kvm of di^ b^Io often needlead; and pcoroluni^obaeDrat
lognM, in nearl7 all Socrates hting the chief the etadent of Kato ia 7et drawn (otward bj a
SMsker, and the e^wneut of the anthor'a mo* resistleai attraotion. It is naoeaMrjr to evoi
bments. Their oompoMtion extended over a the moat rapid expodtion of the philoetqthr of
lanepartofhislifoiUidtheraretoberesBrded, Plato to keep in new hia hiitoiical poaitioa.
proDablj, rather as marktog diffi^ei^ sbigea of The field of sdenoe had reoedved as yet no foi'
his pMIoBophioal dareloinnent, than aa expoat< mal diTioona, bat the aeveral gehools befxwa
tionaofaperfectlj'inBtnredBndroimdedBj^em. So(vatea had, each for itself, aon^ht to solve
The methods of philosopher Flato seenis to have the problem of universal being. Bociatea dia-
eettled with great dednituiesa ; bat in regard to carded the whole body of these apeonlitiona aa
the satoeot matter to which thc«o methods aiming at vhat was nnattainable, and wtaHt-
were appUoabk, he to the last regarded him- lees if attained. He tiirew himself entire]; oo
■elf as an inqoirer. NnmeroDs attempts have aaestions of political and personal morally, aa
been made to arrange his dialogaes on some those which alone had an immediate interest
clear princ4>le of olaasificatian, either logical forman, andinTeetigated thesebythataearoh-
or diroadogioel; bat none has been entirely ing process of qneetion and answw in which
snocessfal. The; bear no dear internal marha he sooKht to draw forth an exact ctoie^ption of
of the time when thej were written, and thej Hie anqect, and to distingnish it boia all re-
nsoally admit no sharp diviidoii according to lat«d or norelated ideas. Bia powerful Inter-
their contents. We may perhaps most aotis- rogation went to the core of evwy snUeet, and
botorily class them according to the leading sooght to enadeate ita eieential and d^tin-
epocbs in the life of Flato. Thas some of the gni^iinK charaoteristic. Thns definition and
smaller dialog^aes on specific ethical points, gMieralization were tha eseentiaL dements of
m^ be referred to bis first or more striotly tiie 8ooratie method, which Plato adopted to
Sooratdo period. To hia residence in Ucgara the flill and developed scientificelly. Bat he
we may refer, doubtless, the noble tetralogy of readmitted those elemenU of apeoolation wbicli
"Thestetna," the "Sophist," the " Stateaman," Bocrateshad discarded, bringing tobear npoa
and"Parmenido8;"andfiniilly,tothcp^odof tiietn his new dialeotioal weapi^ia, and uioa
his establishment in the academy, those noble made his system the embodiment and reoro-
eompontions, " Phradras," the " Sjmpodom," sentative of all the wisdom of his time^-Plato
"Goi^ias," "FhEodon," "Phileboa," uie "Be- makes no formal division of sdence. Eeevi-
imblic," "Timfflns,"and the "Laws:" though dentjy, however, regards it aabstantiaOy under
in what order it is impossible to decide, except the threefold division of dialectioa, physka,
thatwemaynatnrallyr^ard"Phedraa"a8tho and ethics or politics. Dialectica, which with
earliestworkofthi8period,whilothe"Iaws," Aristotle became the mere instnunent of soi-
hj nnanimona consent, b among the latesL enoe, logic, was with Plato the edenee of
Hato iaoneof the moetfosoinatingwriterathat aciencee, the science of absolute being. Phjs-
everandertook to exponnd the enigmas of phi- ics end ethics are aoiences only so faraa they
losophy. He spreads the ohanns of an oxhaost- oonnect themsalvea with dialectics. Strictly
less faaaj over the sabtlest oontroversiee of the roeaking therefore dialectics covers the whcde
dialectician. He is at once poet and philoeo- field of pUloaopliy, irhile q>eaking in a looser
pher, with no small measore of the sweet flow w&y it appears aa one angle, thoo^ far the
of diction, the rictmesa of invention, the einbe- moat important tiraneh of iL Matiiematka he
rant tmagery, the never failing vivacity, and we does not regard aa a adenoe, but a help to sd-
mav add the garmlity, of Homer. One of the enoe, iTing midway between its abstdote veri-
hlgheetohBrmeofhiswritingB is their thoroagh- tiessM ^e onoertaintiee of opinlcsL Dialer
ly dramatio character; they are dialogaes aot tics, aa the adenoe par tatbtauty deals <aily
merdr in form bat in spirit. Tbey are con- with the abaolote and invanaUe. Its gaiieCt
daoted with all the freedom and animation of a m^tar oondats of those tranacendttital, apuit-
real conversation between intelligent and high- oal essences wUob Plato calls forma, spedea
agiited men. The writer winds his way into («&■;), improperly known aa ideas. It ia eaay
e diecQssion In the most natoral snd easy to say in a general way wlut these fottna
manner, the predetermined theme bdng often are. They are the etenia], immolahle eBs«i-
made to bang on soma oasnal expression ; Ug oas, removed from the sphere of sense, and
characters are delineated with equal trathfhl- cognisable only by the reason. They pei^
ness and vivadty, and a thoosaad life-like vade the sensible world, being aa it were the
touches interspersed thronghont lend to the snbstance of which it ia tiie shadow, giving
whole an air of perfect veriamilitade. Alight, to it whatever of partial reality it ponooaaeit.
haoyont humor, irony, sarcasm, banter, now lliey thus answer nndonhtedly to Uke intni-
hroad, now delicate, pbtoresqnc illnatration, lions and general troths of modem science, and
and occasionally elaborate and gorgeona fable, tftey are now more generally explained aa ntera
alternate with and relieve the stern dialectical ab^actions, univeraals, the prMuct exdnaive-
processes with which the reader has constant- ty of the mind, and having no objective reality.
T to grapple. No wonder, therefore, that Earlier scholars held them to be veritable, ob-
rongh about as sharp and thorny a path of Jedive existences, subtle, half spiritoal, and
ly to
throng
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
ELATO Sgf
4HMn«d dir«a4r ^ ^* <7^ °f the soul, oa of the bod;. FreCzlBtenoe, the 4dea8 or tbnoB,
Muibla 4>lt}eot9 sre Dy ^le eje of the boaj. and immortality are thus all woven into oiu
Haoh M tMn is in Plato vhioh givea plaiui- iodissolnble web of argument, of which tho
bilitj to th« mora modem view, wo jet incline ideas are, as everywhere in his syatem, the cea<
deddadly to Uie realisCio docOine of former tral point We hold, therefore, to the middle
inteipreters. The ideas or forms of Plato grew age realistio views of tlie Platonic forms or
eat oF bis strong convictioa of the non-reality idea^ and the altempt to reduce them to the
^tmaOar. He adopted fully, in resard to the standard of the Scotch or French metaphysica
lihMKnMaal world, the Heraclitau doctrine of of oor own day is to ignore Plato's historitial
lb perpotoal Sow of all thioga. Thus, deny- poution, and lose sight of the peooliar problems
ing Um roali^ ot matter, whioh never is, bat is of Grecian speculation. Of course it is impoft<
liwaya bMoming, he ironld have denied equal- siblebntthatPlato, in applying to these assamed
Ifthe poadbility of forming a soience by gen- reaIitieshlsBharpdia]ecticalmetliods,ahouldbe
anliabona from matter. Itoonld hare been sometimes inoondstent with himsolf, and resolve
bat the ahadov of a shadow. The same thing the objective essences into the subjective eon-
is diovn by the rriation of Plato's doctrine to ceptions for which they really stand. And as
the Sleatics. The Eleaties were not idealists in these transcendental forms are the essence of
the modern aeose of the t«rm. Their absolnte all reality, and the end of all tme Icnowled^
One was not a mere abstraction, a creatnre of it follows that the sonl's residence in the bod^
t)w mind, bat the totality of the otyeative nni- is an evil, that the phenomena of sense, inter-
TStw, as disoemed by the sonl or the reason, posed between the mind and these absolute ex-
itsalf bnt a snbtler apecies of matter. It b istencesj are constantly deoeiving and allaring
doobtftil if there was any pare idealism in an- it from its proper element. The great busIneeB
tiqatty. Agun, the way in which we become of the philosopher, therefore, is to emancipato
aeqaainted irith the "fonns" ^vea their ob- hims^ as far as possible, not only fi-om the
jcctive and real character. Were they mere dominion of the animal appetites, bat also from
ntnilioaa or generalizations, we conld arrive at the illasions of sense, and to retire into tijat in-
a knowledge <tf them by those prooesses of ab- terior world of reflection in which his mind can
rinction and generalization to which the mind oommnnewithitskindred eternal essences. The
is abondantly competent. But enoh was not "ideas," however, are not themselves all of
the ease. The sonl enshrined in the body equal excellence; but supreme above the others
Bonld not possibly arrive at the knowledge of are the forms of the tme, the beantiibl, and
dnm. It mmt have acqaired that knowledge the good, in which triad agun the last takes
in a state anterior to the present, when, disem- the highest place, and becomes, perhaps, identi-
bodied, it stood face to face with these essences oal with the Bdty, who thus, onder the Plo-
kindred to itself and eommnned with them as tonio conception, seems to fluctuate between
the bodily sense here holds converse with the a personal being and the highest and noblest
dements of matter. Thus all learning is with of the ideas. And as the ideas are the only
Plato merely reminiseence, the knowledge ottjects of true science, and preparation to
wliidi the sonl had in its antwior state being commnne with them, and espeda^y with .the
eyiad up by the action of llie senses opon the good, the noblest of them all, is the great end
phenomenal world, in whose pictured semblan- of philosophical striving, so in the last analyda
esH the sonl learns to recall ttie features of the science and virtue ooincide, and the ideas for-
dhrine original. And that this dootrine of pre- nish the basis not only of all science, but tst
uistenoe and reminisoence is no mere poetic piety and morality. — Phyacs Plato expounds
fietkn, «" imaginative symbol, is shown by the in a great measure ih>m a Pythagorean stand-
Mverity^ of tiia process which he employs in point, and his cosmogony In most of its details
dnamebrnting it, and the high practical pur- aoaroelj rose, probably, even in his own view,
pees to which he applies it. In order to eMab- above the level of plausible cotyecture. The
M the doctrine of preexistence he emi^oys world is origin^ed and not eternal. It la
ne of the sharpest psycholt^cal processes in framed by the Oreator out of a chaotic and
Us entire wwEs, He distingoishee between formless mass, after the model of an immov-
UsM drawn from the senae, and those oonoep- able and perfect archetypal world. The two
tiens whioh sense never Muld famish, but are brought into union tbrongh the medium of
iriiieh exist in the mind from the very com- a world-sonl, placed in the world acoordlng to
nwocetneat of oor earttily being, as standards to the relation of numbers, and constituting a nar-
wUiiA oar sensible perceptions are all referred, monizing link between the Deity and the ar-
aadirtiich eonaeqaently it must havehronght ehetypal world on the one hand, and blmd
with it firom an anterior state. And in thos and formless mstter on the other. As the
■^■Mi^f^g the exiatenoe of tlie soul before work of a good being, the world must be as
eimiog ii^ tb« body, he estaUisbes its isde- perf^t as the untrectable and essentially evil
peoduce of the body, and by oonaeqneiioe its nature of matter admits. Hence the universe
inmurtality. He reasons frinn the Mst to the is a itnity, and has the most perfect of all forms
fittora, and bj diowing Uiat the sonl is not de- and motions, the spherical and the circular,
pendent for its existence npon the body, he The stars are heavenly and imperishable es-
■howB that it is not affected by the dissolution sanoes, and the earth lies, round, self-pcosed,
VOL. xm. — 26
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
886 PLATO
■ud immova'ble. In tbe oentre of the world, dasi is Tisdom, of iba BOOOnd tcmpenoot, ad
The sool, oooordinK to Plato'ii conception of its of the third connge ; vhila in tliB vtUe, ■■ ii
nature, wonld come into the department of the indiTidnaL jnatice is the princdple QM nn
phjeicB. It consisted, according to him, of two through, regalotes, aad harmonizes the wfaok
pordons, tiie Boul proper, the inteUect or rea- Aoco^ng to the ordinary Greek cNiceptiM
son, djvhie and immortal, and a sensaona or Plato makes the atata anpreme, and merg» ii
^petitive principle, material and perishahle ; it all the interests of inturidnal and dcmteciic
vhile LDtermediate between them, bnt ap- life. Household relations and ties are to k
proachiDE nearer to the reason, is a third ele- nnsparingl; sacrificed on the altar of the stiie
ment which he caUa passion, and which thns A community of wives and of goods is to tab
mediates between the divine and the earthly, the place of prirate property and of domow
the intellectual and the sensnons, as the eonl life. The edncation and the employinentt d
of the world mediates between Deity and mat- the dtiiens are all to be r«^plated by the »tita
ter. The immortality of the sonl Plato argaee Plato draws out at length his system of edncs-
at length and with great earnestness. He tion. He wonld baidsh all drunatia poebyM
argnes it A-om the general principle that con- Involving the perHonating of fictitioraa diuw-
trariea spring from contraries, death from life, ters, and thns virtcally sanctioning ftlsebood,
and consequently lift from deatli, from the all mnsic except the Bimpler and more mndr
Bonl's preExiEtence, and conseqnent indepen- kinds, all those fables which exhibit dcgnd-
dence of the body, from its simplicity which ing pictures of the gods, and eveij thii^ Hd
renders it incapable of dissolntion, from its can foster timidity and the fear of death. Tit
superiority to the body, from its beaiing with- governing class in the state should eonnd i'
in it the principle of life, &o. He believes in pbikwopbera, of those who, havinc risen to tiM
Aitnre retribntion, esonerates Ood from respon- contemplation of the real and Uie troe, ru
mbility for sin and suffering, and seta forth in estimate at their worth the shAdowy pnrmitB
elaborate myths the blessedness of IJie virtuous and pleasares of the mDltitnd& A monarchy
and the punishments of the vicious, blending. Is to be preferred on acoonnt of the difficulty
however, with his teaching liie Pythagorean of finding many men qualified to rain, la the
doctrine of metempsydiosls, — In ethics Plato "Laws,"how6ver,PIatoabandonstbeffloiMKb-
holds to the Socratic doctrine that virtue ia a icaltheoryfor thatof amixedgovemmoiL Bb
science and ooneeqiiently matter of instmotion, views are decidedly aristocratic, and he wonld
Virtiie is essentially one, the good, bat has devolve all the privileges of the govemmtiiteB
TarioQs forms of development. He retains the the two hieher classes. whOe the moltitDdtsR
fourfold dividon of the virtues into wisdom, merely to be kept tmoer wholesome reitixst
conrage, temperance, and jnatioe. The three Slavery Plato would tolerata, hut only the s-
first ally themselves to the three divisions of slaving of barbarians, not that of Greeks tiy
tiie sonl respeotiTely, wisdom being the proper Greeks. — A tendency to a trinity of doetriio
virtue of the intellect, courage of the passionate mns through the philosophy of Plato. Ibp^
portion, and temperance of the animal or sen- chology we have the trinity of reasco, pasm
snoQs. Justice ia the principle that pervades and appetite ; in ethics, of wisdcm, coarse, ui
and regulates the whole. In discnssing the temperance; inontology,ofbtiii&bece*iaF,iad
nature of the chief good, which the ancients not being; in knowledge, of science epiaim,
made the starting point of their ethical system, and sensation ; in cosmogony, of Gvi, Ibe senl
Plato avoids the opposite extremes of cynicism of the world, ideas, and matter ; in the (Ute, of
and hedonism, that on the one hand which ex- ms^trates, warriors, and labomi. The £n
eludes pleasure, and that on the other which mi^t be prolonged still frirtber. "We remaik
makes It identical with pleasure. True virtue finally, in general, that Plato, of all tnthon, is
always carriea with it its own eujoymeut and the one to whom the least Justice can be dcs*
the virtuous man, another name for the phiios- by any formal analyns. In the ^urit which
o^er, finds his bi^est happiness in commnnion pervades his writings, in their DDtuing fre$h-
with and asstmiiatiOQ to the good and the divine, neea, in their purity, love of trath and of vir-
Politics with Plato, as with the Greeks general- tue, their perpetual aspiring to the lohHR
a, are closely allied to ethics. The state is but height of knowledge and of exceDenee, modi
e individual on a larger scale ; the individual more than in their poritive doctrinee, lies the
but a miniature state. Hence for pnrpoeee of secret of their charm and of their imfulint
moral analysis Plato turns from the individual power. Plato is often styled aa id«aliat. Bu
to the state, as in deciphering an inscription thisistmeof theapiritratherthan fif tbeHsBi
he would turn from smaller and more otwcure of his doctrine ; for strictly ha is an iuta«
to larger and more legible charactera. His Tealist,and hediffersfrmnhiagrett^MiiMl, Arif
analysis of a state is but on enlargement of tJs totle, far less in his mere pbtloec^hieal methci
iisychological analysis. Its division is three- than in his lofty moral and raUgionaa^iratioBL
bid. The governing class represent the Intel- which were perpetnaUy. wioging his q^irtt »
lect, the essence of the soul, the laborers and ward the beantiAil and the good. Hie tormii
handicraftsmen tta sensaons and appetitive por- errors ore abundant. Ther grow oat of the
tions, and the soldiers or iraards the interme- materials on which he had to work, ttnd tba
diatepasdonateeleiiMat, The virtue of the first TaBtneeaandiDatdubleneaaofOieproblMnswitk
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PLATOFF PLA.UTUB 867
wUdt hegrappled. But «Teii in his errors, the raised to tih« d]0ii(T of oomit. At the peMO
truth is often aeeper than the error; andwhen he reUreJ to his home on the Don,
that his been disoredited, the language adjoste PLATTE or Nbbraska. Bitxb, See Ks-
itself U) tho deeper tmth of vMoh it was rather bbibk*.
■n Inadeqoata exprearion than a direct contra- PLATTE, a itT.W. oo. of Mo., separated Irom
dicfioiL The lai^ and Kenerons spirit of Flv Eaosaa bj the liiUBsoari riTer, vhich bounds it
bnlnaisamonldin vhioh tlia notdest philoso- on the S. and B, W., and intersected bj the
pIiiM of earth may be oast — AmooKthetranshk Little Flatte river; area, 418 sq. in. ; pop. in
Ci(H)i^Plato,tb«mo9tdialinKtiiBhedistheLatin 1860, 18,841, of whom 8,818 were slaves. It
Twdon of Marmlins Ficinns,ln which the print- has a diversified mrfooe and fertile soil. The
«d works of Ftatowere first given to the world prodnotions in 1860 were 1,614,267 bushels <d
ff\onaot, 1463). A Q«rman translation by Indian com, 129,067 of wheat, 127,893 of oata,
SehiMermaoher, never completed, is admirablej 4,866 tons t^ hemp, 8,661 of lia;, 69,78S Iba.
Mbraait goes, for spirit and fidelity, and is so- of wool, and 969,811 of batter. There wen
eompanledbfleamea introdnctionswhichhavB 10 grist mills, 18 saw mills, 2 tanneries, 2
bem translated into English. Yictor Oonsin newspaper offloee, 16 ohnrohes, and 1,734 pupils
h» published a translation into French. There attendimEpablio sohoola. Capital, Platte Citj.
is no good complete tranalation of Plato in PLAriGIBUBG, a township and village, and
En^h. Thomas Taylor, the translator of oai)italof01intonoo.,K. Y.,onOmnberIsDdba7,
his woi^ miderstood neither Oreek nor Eng- an indentotitm of Lake Ohamplain, at the month
&b. The mneh better versions of Floyer 65a- of tlie Saranso river, on both aides of which the
enham embraced bat a few pieces, and that village is bnilt ; pop. in 1880, 8,680. The river
neently published in Bobn'a "OutBeioal Li- afforda valn^Ie water power, and there are
brtrf," by different hands, is not creditable to sereral mum&otories. Extensive barrack^
So^sh Msholanihip. The editions of entire or about 1 m. from the village, formerly oocnpied
cf separate works of Plato are almost nomber- by government troops, are now used for the
leak The first edition waa published by Aldus annual agricnltoral ain. ^e township con-
(Venice, 1513), and another by H. Stepheng (8 tains, bedd« the county building^ a town hi^
vols., 16T8), reprinted in the Bipont edition ooatom house, academy, and 6 onarches, viz. :
with the Latin version of Marsilios Fioiaus(ll 1 Baptist, 1 Episcopal, 1 Uethodist (Wedeyan),
Tds. 8vo., 1781-'6). The text was first brought I Methodist Efnscop^ 1 Presbyterian, 8 Roman
tato a satiafiictory condition by Bekker (Ber- Oatholio, and 1 TTmon. — On 8^t 11, 1814, the
■to, 181S-'18), reprinted by Priestley (11 vols- Americans gdned a memorable naval victory
Loiidon, 1B26), and was still further corrected over the English near this place. (See OiuK-
ij Ast (» vols., Leipwo, 1819-'a7). Perhaps punr, Laxx.)
the best edition is that of Stallbaom, In Jakob PLAUTU8, Tims Uaooiub, a BomHo drama-
tad Host's BiMiolheea Oraea, began in 1827 tist, bom at Barsina in Umbria about 254 B, C,
and notyet ctHnpletad. died in 164. The little we know of his life is
PLATOFF, Mattbi IvmovrroH, a Rnsdao derived from a passage in AulnsGellius, quoted
gmeral, born among the Oosaaoks of the Don, &om Yarro. He came to Borne when youngs
Aug, S, 1757, died at Elantchizk, on the Don, and went into the service of the actors, and
Jtnte 8, 1816. He was desoended ftom an an- having made sufGcient money, left the city, and
dent family, and entered the army at a very set ap in bosineas for himBeif. But failing, ha
eviy age. His first campaign was agunst the returned to Rome, and was ao reduced in cir-
Turks in ITYO and ITTl, and he was made oomstanoes that he was employed in tominf; a
' ' 1 of the Cossacks of the Don by the hand mill, grinding corn for a baker. While
ir Alexander I. iu 1801. He held the thus occupied he wrote three oomedies, whinh
k ot lieutenant-general in the Russian army were EucoessM ; and firom that time he wrote
Knt to assist Prnsma against the French, serv- constantly, and became the fiivorita comic
tag in the campaigns of 1806 and 1607. Upon dramatiBt both of the higher and lower clawes,
tits condnsion of the peace of Tilsit, he was His plays continued to be performed after his
«in[doyed agidnst tiie Turks in Uotdavia, and death, cert^nly as late as the reign of Diocla-
was made a general of cavalry in 1809. He tian. The grammarian L. jJSlina Stilo declared
became celebrated chiefly through his services " that the Muaes vonld use the langOKS of
sgainst the Ft^eoch upon their invasion of Plautns, if they were to speak Latin." Cicero
Bnsria in 1812. Though defeated at Grodno, considers his wit as eqnsl to that of the old
and eompeBed to retire into the interior, he Attic comedy. Aulas Gellins calls him htnm
returned upon the abandonment of Uosoow, lingva atgu« eUgantia in teriU Latina prin-
lod with 30 regiments of Oossaoks harassed oapt. With his works St. Jerome used to re-
terribly the French retrest. He was active in fresh himself after spending nights in tears for
•very ime of the many battles to which the his sins. There is great nnoertaii^ as to tho
French ware fbrced, both in Rnsda and Ger- nmnber of the plays of Plautns. When Varro
nai^, and eroeoiaDy upon their retreat trota wrote there were 130 which went tmder his
the battle of Leipsic In 1814 he entered Paris name, althongh some were not oonMdered his,
widi the allies. In ISlfl he ag^n commanded being supposed either to have been written by
flw Oossaoks desUned to Invade France, and was another pWBon of the same name, or to havo
r^^li
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
been old pliTs rawrltteo and fmproT«d by tlie the AiithmeUa of ImpoMibIa QnliititiM^ wu
poet himself. Yorro could enumerate only 31 pabliahed in the S81J1 volume of the " Fhtlo-
vhich were without taj qaesttoD mthentio. topbioal TraDBactiona." In 1T63 he reetgued
L. ^lioB placed the namber U. 2S. Those bis living to beoome a private tutor ; uid in
mentioned bj Yarro were the oomedies most 17S6, In conseqnence of an arrangement be-
carefally preserved, and are all extant with one tween Dr. Adam Fergnaon and Dngald Stewart
exception, the TibJuZorJii, which being last was for an exchange ofcE^rs, he became joint pro-
prubablj torn off in the mannscript. HoUdre feasor of mathematioa with the former in the
Uuitatedthe.JmpAttni0lnhisJi«(MtrfrMt,and nnivendt^ of Edinborgh. In 1606 he was ap-
QieAulularia in his Jeora,- and Shakespeare pointed general secretary of the £dmborgb
QieJTsTusoAmJin fais " Oomedy of Errors." The rojal sooietjr, and in the same 7ear saoceeded
^mpAttruo was also imitated b/ Dryden in his Dr. Robison as professor of nataralphilosophj-,
"Two Sodas;" the MotteUaHa b^Fieldingin which position he held nndl his death. His
"The Intrigotng Obsmbennald," and by Beg- literarv pivdnctions comprise contribations to
nardin''TheTJnexpectedRetum;"andthe7n- the "Transactions of the Edinburgh Bo^al
nummus bj Leasing in his &Aa(B. The CaptM Society" and the "Edinburgh Review," sod
isnsnallycouBidereo the finest work of Pluita% a namber of separate publications, ot which
and has been pronoonoed bj Leasing "the best a otdleoted edition appeued in 1829 (4 vols,
piece which has ever come npon the stageL" Svc, Edintrargh). In 1795 u>peared bis " ^e-
Eis plots were mostly taken trom the Greek meats of Qetanetry," prepared for his Dniversil/
writers of the new oomedy, alUiongh in his eieaeM, and of which many editions have been
treatment <rf the Bobject he does not stavishlj paUished. It was suooeeded in 1808 by his
adhere to his models. Horace censures him " lUoBtratlons of the Hottonian Theory of the
fbr the inharmonionsness of his lines and the Earth," bis most labored work, and one distin-
ooarseQesa of his jests. It is a singular fact gniahed alike by clearness of reasoning and the
fiiat the real name of this poet was not known skill and eloqnence with which facts are made
nntil it was demonstrated in an essay pnb- to support and explmn the sys(«m. Ial8ie-'1S
lished by Ktsohl in IS^ that it was Titns be made an extensive eeologicsl lour in France,
Uaccias, and not Harcns Accins, as It had Bwitierland, and It^j, to procure materials
dwaya been printed. The text of Flantns is for an enlarged edition of tiie " Illustrations,"
very cormpt, some of the scenes having been which however he did not Kve to complete,
forged at a later period. A palimpsest mann- In 1814 he pnbliahed for the nee of his clasBCS
script was fcnnd In the Ambrosian library of "Outlines of Natural Philosophy" (2 vols.
Ullan, which was as old as the Gth century, 8vo.), containing the sabetancc of his lectures.
and this aim contains inteiroladons. The His last important work was the elegant "Dis-
tditio priaetpt was pablishea at Venice in sertation on the Progress of Mathematical snd
1473, by Qeorgins Uemla. The best modem Fhysieal Science," prepared for the "Encydo-
editions are those of Bothe (4 vols. 8vo., Berlin, peedia Britannica," and left by him in an in-
1809-'l]) and Weise (3 vols. 8ro., Qaedlinborg, complete state. Lord JeSrey says : " He poe-
1887-'8), Thornton and Warner translated dl seeeed in the highest degree all the charncter-
the play B into English (G vols. 8vo., 1767-'74). Istics of a fine and a powerful understanding;
FLATFAIR, Jonn, a Scottish natural phi- at onoe penetrating and vigilant, bnt more dw-
losopher and mathematician, bom in Benvie, tinguished perhaps for the caution and si
Forfarshire, March 10, 1748, died In Edinbnrgh, of its march, than for the brillioncT or r
July 19, 1819. He was the eldest son of James of its movements;" and he adds uiat he "was
Flsyfur, minister of Benvte, and was sent at certainly one of the best writers of the age."
the age of 14 to the nniverailjy of St. Andrew's PLAYFAIB, Lros, an English chemist, bom
to be educated for the Scottish ohnroh. Here In Bengal in 1610, He was educated at SL
he showed so remarkable a talent for mathe- Andrew'a university in Scotland, and in 1834
matios and natural philosophy, that he was stndied chemistry at Glasgow under Profes-
occasionally selected by Professor Wilkie to sor Qrabam, the ivesent master of the mint
lecture to bis classes on natural history; and In England. Subaeqnently he became a pupil
at the age of 18 he ofibred himself as a candi- of Liebig at Giessen, where be took the do-
date for the mathematical chair in the Mar- gree of doctor of nhUosophy ; and upon his re-
ischal collie of Aberdeen. Of 6 competitors turn to England ne publiuied a translation of
two oidy exceUed him, and the soecesaftd one, Liebig's "Iteporta on the Progress of Organic
Dr. Trail, attrlbated his sacaess ohie^ to his Obemistry." For several years sabsequent to
Kreater age. Upon tbe death of bb other In 1848 ho held the position of professor of chem-
1773 he was Induoed, as a means (tf providing Istry at the royal institution id Manchester and
for the support of his mother and the education during the same period was a member of the
of her younger children, to enter tbe minfartry, ccmmtsslon for investigating the sanitary con-
and in 1773 he obtahted possession of his dition of the lar^ towns of England. He took
father's living of Benvie, tbe duties of whieh an active part m the movements preliminary
and the education of his younger brothers to the opening of the great exhibition of 1851,
dueflyoconpled falm dnring the next 0 years, and for his ^cient services during the whole
LilYTVUBflrst sdentiflep^w, "AsEsasf on exhibition was appointed by the queen a
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
rs.1
tom^ioD rf like bath. He mu mtrnqmniij dereli^ on lante, that iM, s ipeetflo matter,
—pMDtod inspMtOTfOural of mnsenmi and which one puij ^nned and the other denied.
' " 'he gorenuDeot, and in 1658 was Whila these pleadings were goiiw on, an offleer
e Dhemieal ch^ in tlie nniTersitf of the court made minntos of me declarations
« fiainDoratk, which porition be atUl oooapteL of the partaea, and added to tbom memoraDda
PLEADCHG. The pleadings in a oanae are of the usne and of the acts of the coart and
die aUemate allegttioni, hj plaintiff and dft- tiie parties during the progrees of the canse.
fflodant, at thoae mattera of bot whioh eon- These official notes formed the Kooid, and
itttate on the <»m hand the groond of action, were completed hj the addition of all the ma-
lad cm the other the grotmd of d^enoe. The tMial incidents in the case nntil It was finally
n«ne of pleading in general consists of the dispoaedi^ Thatpartof the record which pr»-
prindplesM those mles and formnlaaaooording ceded the issae comprised the pleadings alone,
to whleh, for the sake ot method and oertainty, and these, it has been seen, were for a long
these aDmtionB are nnifiHinlT-eipreteed. 8pe- timeoraL OntdnallT the practice changed. At
dal plesmng is the inTentiw of the Sngluh first probahlj the aUegations, though made al-
eemmonlaw; it is partionlarij designed to d«- tem^elyaa befbre, were now entered on the
Telop Om preioiae point in controversy, and to reoord In the first instance, and hy Uie pleaders
present it in a shape fit for decision. Other thenuelvea. ThisseemstobaTebeen themode
i;ptems allow Hie parties to make their Btat»- in the reign of Edward lY., in the latter pert
Bents independentlj of each other and at latve, of the lltth centorj. It was no donbt for the
and then require tiie court, or sconetimes the purpose of aroiding the Inconvenienoes of this
fitigaats themsdvcfli to aeleot tnta the undl- method that the modem plan wu devUed of
nned mass, as predae^ as maj be poedble, {Hitting the pleadings in separate papers, and
Uie matter of dlspote. But it is the distinclJTe either mutually exchanging them or filing them
ftatnre of tfae Endish method that It oompeto in the proper office of the conrt, when at a
the parties dtemselTOS so to Roard and narrow anbseqnent st^e of (be proomdings they were
their respectire statementa, Vatt the partiaiilar all twether copied into the court records. It
qnestioa for dedrion, and nothing else, shaU would be a long labor, If indeed it were posd-
be dereloped in the first instance. The very ble, to follow ont the historical deretopment
enentlal edfeot of this pleading ia to dear aw^ of £^lish pleading. It is enough to Bay that
the nndiqrated or immaterial matter whidi it had become a most elaborate and intricate
eonceds the iasue. The system of English soience, and was so for a centory or more. The
pleading, as it existed brforo its overthrow 10 arstem, which had been dengned to rednce to
years ago, was one of p«at antiquity. Like Uie ntmost simplicity and certunty the contro-
tlte hrmia or write, that u, the fbrmnlas whioh rerues of suitors, had become so overgrown
were essential to tlie InstiRition of different and embarrassed with refinements and techni-
kinds of suits, pleading originated probably calities as to be very often rather a bladrance
smonK the Normans, and was Introdooed by than a help in tho proeecation of causes. That
IbMoTnto E^and at the time of the eonqneet. the system still poMeased great exodlenoe oonld
To so still further baok, it m^ perii^n be not be denied; but it was equally dear that in
i^bh' asserted that the fcveJa and pleading of various respects It was mischieToaBly technical,
tfae B"g'''* law bad a remoter origin in the subtle, and absurd, and that in many wijs It
Bonan jnrispmdei^ ; fi)i it can bardly be oonld be put to bad nses. These abnsee trf
doubted that the forms of procedure, which pleading grew in great part out of the undue
were their immediate models, were, like those promioenoe which had been permitted to its
ofotii6rcontJnttit^natloDSCHFthatage,fl«med moidental and purely formal parts. Its sah-
cnprooedentafkimiahed by the imperial or even stantisl dements, consisting indeed only of
ij the andent law of Rome. It haa been well those plain logical processes which are insepa-
■Mgested, however, that the strict and subtle rabla from the orderly examination of every
teewiiealitUa of the Knglinh pleading, which dispated proposilion, did not deserve the re-
most resembles the eaitier Boman foniu, were proach to whioh the perversion of some srtifi-
not borrowed fhim them, but were rather the oial rules had exposed the whole science of
fruit of tiie school 1(^0 of the middle ages. It pleadine,— 'A aketoh of the more nsoal forma
b to the period ot the later and more liberal of pleading will show the distinction whioh
Boiain law, if to any, that we owe the sug- may be made between matters of snbstanoe
nstion of any of onr fonna of pleading. — and matters of form, and will properly preface
ilie pleadings were once wal altercations in anotice of the presentmodes of process The
open court in the i»«eenoe ot Judges. This mngle design of special pleading was, by elimi-
wsseertaintythemodeofplea^Dgln thetime natmg all else, to reaon thecUstinct point in
of Henry III., in the euiier part of the ISth oontroversy for the purpose of nbmittlug it to
century; and it is supposed to have ocmlinned a court or Jury. In the outset of the ease,
until a modi later period. These oral pleas therefore, the plaintiff set (brth simply the
were made either by tiie snUor himself or by Esota whiob gave Mm, as he dwmed, a good
his pleader, who was c^led rMm)ti>r or odso- cause of action. This declaration, like oveiy
coAw. Itwastheofltoeof tfae presiding Judges other good pleading, oontaioed, or rather in^
to direct the allegations of the parties so aa to plied, a complete log^oal proposition. Its ma-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
890 PLEADJSOt
Jor pT«iiiise wu tiia general principle or rule of snita, all of tiiem ctmMTed to render the
of law, within whioh the minor premise, that procedure more ei&ct and oertain, and all of
ia, the particolftr facts, were anppoeed bj the them essential in greater or less degree to tlie
P tiff to be inclnded, and the oonclnrion or ajBtem. Bome of these rales, however, aa
inibrenoe was that jadgment which he well mbatantial as acddental, conoemed mere
eonght ftvm the cotut or ^nrj. Bat as it is one matters of form. The TioIati<ni of these mlea
of Uie Amdameatal principles of the theory of was good gronnd of demurrer. For example,
pleading that legal propositions are never to be of the mnltiform mles which Korerned the pro-
recited, bnt are preanmed alwajs to be in the dnction of the iasne, of ^oee particnltirlr
mind of the ooart, the mqjor premise and the which demanded its onily, certain^, direct-
conclnaion are eoppreseed, and the declaration ness, and materialitj, man j were tmruT formaL
is rednced to the statement of the mere &ctB. Defects in theee re^>ecta wen ta&en adrantage
Now comes the defendant, who in his answer of by special demurrers, Theee pleas did not
or plea ma^, in the first place, traverse or denT- regurd at all the merits of the case ; they did
the plaintiff's bets. If he does so he also pro- not deny that the par^ whose jdeading was
poses a trial of the point thus affirmed on the objected to had a good groimd of aolion or of
one side and denied on the other. If the plun- defence ; bnt rampir r^sedthe qnealion wheHier
tiff accepts the tender, and he must do so if it the statement or denial of facta was made in
be well made, the parties are at issne and the that partionlar technical wa; wMoh the ralea
EleadingsoreataneDd. Bnt the defendant may of pleading required. Eren though the caoae
e willing to admit the facts, bnt maj conceive of action was confessed]7'Kood,7Bt if the stat»-
that thejaronot inclnded in the proposition of ment was inartificial (and in England, the qnea-
law on which the pluntiff la fact rests, and so tion whether it were or not conM be oarried
do not afibrd a sof&cient legal groond of action, throogh all the conrts, and even to the bonse
or that thej are stated in a form which violntea of lords), the party most anbmit to loss of his
some of the rules of pleading. In neither case eait or pay often heavy costs to the other ude
has he any facts to adduce, and therefore in- for the privilege of amending. The art of
0t«ad of pleadine he demurs ; that is to say, aa pleading possened, then, two distinct BfEtems
the derivation of tbe word imports, he waits to of mles, the snbstAntial and the formal. So
eee whether in the opinion of tbocoart he must far as only the former were looked at, the
answer. This demarrer may be general, eng- science was jnstly prononnced Innniona and
gesting that the declaration is insoScient m excellent. In this view it deserveasach praise
point of law, or it may be special, assigning as tbat of Lord Mansfield, who said that " Its
partlcolarly that it Is and how it is iuartiScial roles were fonnded in strong sense and in the
and BO defective in form. Again, the defend- soundest and closest logic;" of Bir William
ant may neither traverse nor demur, but may Jones, who declared that " the system waa re-
admit or confess, as the phrase is, the plaintiff's dncible to the strictest rules of pore dialectic ;"
tacta, and allege new facts in avoidance of or of Chancellor Kent, who pronounced it *' a
them. In Ehe first pair then, so to speak, of aoience eqnatly onrioos, logiciu, and masterly."
substantial pleadings, thadefendantmastcither Bnt there was another aspect of the matter
demur, or plead by way of traverse, or by way which was not so engaging. Thus Sir £dward
of oonfessioa and avoidance. In the first two Ooke, who. in language often quoted, spoke of
cases an issue, in one instance of law, and in good pleading as the snre oracle of the law,
the other of fact, is necessarily produced. In Qie very lapw Lydtui or touchstone of ita true
the last, the pleadings must still go on until sense, yet admitted that "in diligently connder-
one of these iaenesis reached, the anbseqaent ing the course of the books of years and terma,
[deaa being alternately by plaintiff and defendant from the beginning of the rdgn of Edward IIL,
— replication, r^oinder, sarr^oinder, rebutter, he observed that more Jangling and qneetion
and sarrebntter. Further taan the last the grewnponthematterofpleaclingandexceptionB
jJeadings rarely extend ; for as no case can in- to form than upon the matter itael£" In shorL
Tolve an inexhanslible store of new and rele- the formalities and technicalities devised and
Tant facts, there most aoon be an end of pleas insisted on, tiiough they were for the sake of
in coofeasioQ and avoidance, and an iasne of securing greater nicety, had become eo nnmer-
faot or of law will then be easily developed, ona; so many fictions had been engrafted on
These variona forms of pleas, traverses, de- the system for the same purpose ; so completely,
murrers, tender and joinder of issue, and the by the gradual accretion of all sorts of refine-
varions forms of general and speciid issues, ments and the want of jadioione l^slotive
form the essential parts of pleading. But be- interposition in removing them, had the snb-
side these there belonged to tbe science certain stantial rnlee of pleading been oTerbalanced
accidraital parts, snch as dilatory pleas and and often defeated by those which were only
pleas in abatement, by which a party excepted formal ; by all these means, so many techni-
to the Jurisdiction of the court, to Uie compe- cally fdr but really nn&ir advantages were
tency of the plaintiff, or to the writ or declara- offered to dishonest and quibbling pleader*,
tion ; impartancea of several kinds, profert that at last tbe oomplunts against the whole
and oyer, counterpleaa, new assigiunentB. and sdence of special pleading became so lond, that
nnmerona others incident to the vaiiona phases nothing but its almost entire abolition oonid
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
qirfet &eou Fnrtial and imxntaDt
-vere effected in the reign of William T
nhmm mentativelr, or in the alteniBtive, vUoh ought
7. The to have beea stated directi; and posiUvelT;
statute 3 and 4 'William IV., o. 27, g 86, swept no matter what miiht be in these cases the
aw&750or60foniuofaotions,leaTingthenoiU7 eabatantiTe merits of the oanse, it could easilj
6, or, inaladlDg the 8 real and mixed actions, be hindered and even defeated by the opera-
dotrer, jttara vme^ and ^eotment, 9. The tion of a special demorrer. The oommiBsionera
so osliea new mlee of Hilary term, 1884, eim- wished to retain some of the roles which have
plified these remalLing forms of aotJon, and been just now referred to. proposing to restrict
rearranged the pleadings oonneot«d with them, them within limits whionwonld secure their
so that they recovered in good part some of legitimate operation ; bnt it was special demnr-
their old vigor and eioelleaoe. But that which rers which had partJcnlarly excited the popular
they Bonght to do and partially did, was more dislike of the system of plea^ng, and it was
effectually acoomplished by the conuuon law fomid impoBsihfe to save any rules on which
procedure act of 18CS. In that year the com- these objectionable pleas could establish them-
missiooers appointed to report npou the subject selves. With trifling qualifications, all the re-
propoaed to parliament a system of pleading forms proposed by the commisaionerg were
'which, with slight exception and rariotion, adopted by the procedure act. No ground of
was then adopted, and now regulates the pro- special demurrer was allowed to remain. The
oeas of the English comrte. The commisdoners still surviving fonua of action, assumpsit, debt,
ranked the most prominent objections to the covenant, trespass, case, with their venerable
science of special pleading under fi princip^ subtleties, were aboli^ed. The old terms of
heads, viz, : the admiswon of fictions ; prolixity art and technical forms of pleas were all cleared
of forms ; the aUowance of arrests of Judgment away, and the whole theory and intent of the
after verdict, on the groond of defects in the present mode of procedure under the act are
pleadings once passed hy and then first taken directed to the framing of simple narratives of
advantage of; vagueness and uncertainty in facts by pldntiffs, and plain and fair answers
some cases ; and finally, nnnecessary precision to them by defendants. It is more than prob-
and ondne technicality in others. With re- able that for the sake of method and certainty
spect to the first of these classes, the report some rules of form will still be fonndindispensa-
proposed that all rules wMch compelled ficti- Me, and will be gradually developed; but theso
tious recitab and purely immaterial statements will be framed in consonance wita that modem,
ahonld be aonnlled. This snggestlon reached eqnitahlcL and enlightened administration of
the fictions involved in trover and ^ecbnent; law of wnioh the abolition of the difficult and
the fiction <^ color, that is, the pleading of in great part useless art of pleading is one of
feigned matter by means of which the party the clearest and worthiest evidences. — In the
averring it seemed to have a good cause of older United Stateathe ecienceofspecialplead-
aotioQ, though in truth he had only an appear- ing had heen received as part and parcel of the
ance or color of cause ■ and all the like artifi- common law ; but many of its more odious
cial contrivances. Prolixity was to be avoided features either were never adopted, or were
by the adoption of short and plain forma in the early, or have been gradually, reformed hy le-
S)lace of the tedious verbiage of the old-fash- gislative enactments. Still the system preserved
oned pleadings. Arrests of jadgmeut after enough of its &alta, even with us, to excite
verdict were matter of Jnst complaint. They oomplunt, and to provoke demands for its re-
were granted, for instance, on motion of a moval. Themostremarkablereform thnsmade
plainti^ when, though a verdict hod been found in this conntry was perhaps that effected in
tor defendant, the former could ahow te the New York In 1848. In that year the separate
court that the plea was not a legal answer to equity jurisdiction which had hitherto existed
the declaratdon ; or when a good and a bad there woe suppressed. The code adopted for
count had been Inserted in the declaration, and the regulation of legal processes expressly de-
dama^ had been given generally ; for the law dared that io the future there should be no
held m Bdch a cose, that it was impossible to distinction between legal and equitable reme-
disciiminate between that part of tne penalty diss ; the common law practice and pleading
which was indicted fbr die matter laid in the were put out of the wa^, and gave place to the
good ooni^ and that charged in the bad. These present system, which, in its general featnres,
abases were also corrected by the act, Theob- very closely resembles the equity procedure.
jectionofnndiie]MreeiBion and technicality was One form of action only is allowed. The
also well made. It particularly applied to the pleadings are few, concise, and mnat be framed
BO called rules for the production of an issue, m language eaaUy understood. Allegations are
K their several requirements were violated by to be liberally, not strictly, construed. Facta
false averments of time, quantity, or quality, are to be respected rather than pleadings ; and
eventhou^ these points were immatenal; by the latter may at any time in toa progress of
duplicity, that is, by the allegation of severu the suit be revised and accommodated to the
distinct matters in sapport of a single demand, proofi. In all respects the coda seeks, ij the
or the setting forth of several distinct answers utmost liberality, to assure easy and efficient
to ft plea ; if they offended by repngnancy, am- remedies to suitors. Ohanges have been made
biguitj, (a obscurity ; if they stMeS that argn- in a like epiri^ and in the same direction, tn
U,9,-„zOQbyGOOgIe
808' FLEBEULHS PLESIOfiADBDB
^UMohnsettB and In other states ; and b) no th^ rogatioDB became laws, Aflenrard tho
part of the whole province of jurisprudence baa dictatorship, censorship, prratonhip, and fiaaUj
refbnn odtlreased itself in this conntrf more by the kai Ogvlnia in BOO B. 0. the priesthood
earneitlyand more aoceptAbly than to the re- werethrownopentoplebeians, ThbUxValeria
oonstraction of the forms of process, and to the vas extended by the law of the plebeian dicta-
restoration of its essential efficiency andeint- tor, Q.Fablilioa Pbilo, passed in 8S9, providing
plicity to the necessary science of pleading. that Uie pldnteita ahonid not require the cx>n-
PI£BE1ANB (^Mt. phbtivt, from pUU, the finnation of the euria in order to have the
common people), a claaa of Roman citizens not force of laws ; and it was still farther extended
indndod either among the patriciana or the by the Jfti^ortMMa in 286, declaring Qiatthex
dients. Thdr origin is doabtfU, although it ehonld not need the sanction of Uio BeiiBt«.
baa been mpposed that tbey were Inhabitants Henceforth the distinction between the two
of the conqnered territories, or were clients orders gradnally disappeared,
who had dissolved their connection with their PLEIADES, a celebrated gronp of stars
patrons, or partly both. Originally the pie- sitnated on the shonlder of the oonstellatjtm
beians were ezdnded Itom tiie senate, from Tanms, regarded by Uadler as the central
all offices of state, from the making of laws, gronp of the system of the mUky way. Al-
and Irom marriage with the patriciuis. The cyone, the brightest of the Pleiades, a star of
oonstitation of Serrins Tnllins recognized their the 6d nagoitade, is considered to occnpy the
Klitlcal eiisteDce, and divided them into tribes, apparent position of the central point round
rqainins Superbus, however, aboliahed all the which oar nniverse of fixed stars is revolving.
Erivileges conferred oo them by the preceding PLEODONT. See Lizard.
ing; and altliough on his ezpolston these were PLEBIOSAUBDfi, an extinct gigantio enalio-
profcseedly restored, yet when all fears of his sanHan or marine reptile, foond principally in
retnm had been laid aside their condition was the lias (secondary) fbrmation of England, ia
exceedingly grievons. The first imfiortant step company with the etill larger ichthyosanraa.
made toward their foil consideration in the The head was of small size, supported on a
commonwealth was the establishment of the long, flexible, snake-like neck, the body and
tribnneship Id 404 B, 0-, a privilege which was tail short, with 4 limbs in the shape of powerful
still farther increased by a law of Volero swimming paddles, like those of tnrtiee or
Pnblilius in 4'i'I that the election of these cetaceans; the skin was probably naked. This
magistrates should take place in the eomicia siagular genoa, named by Conybeare, to a lb-
truuta, in which the power of the plebeians ard s bead united the teeth c^ a crocodile, a
WHS predominant. After the overthrow of the neck like a eerpent's body, the tmnk and tul
decemvirs, another point was gained by the leas of a qnadrnped, the vertebra of a fish, the riba
Vattria Soratia in 449, whi^ decleo^ that of a chameleon, and the fins of a whale. The
Uie pU^ucita, or decrees of the wmitia tHbuta, apertnrea throagh which the air was respired
should be of eqnol authority with the decrees are just in front of the orbits on the highest
of the eomitia c^Uvriata, and should become part of the head, and not at the end of the
laws if sanctioned by the senate and confirmed snout as in crocodUcs ; the paddles were proh-
by the curia. A change in the constitation ably invested with a sheath of integnraent, and
was again made in 446, by the law of the from the natnral carvatnre of the bones most
tribnne Caius Canuleins, which legalized t)ie have bod a more elegant and tapering form
marriage of the two classes', but the demand and greater flexibility than in cetaceans. Fnun
of his coileagnes that the consnlship ehonld be the shove details of stmctnre it has been sup-
thrown open to plelwians was so strennonsly posed that this animal paddled along, rather
resisted by the patrician^ that a compromise slowly, near the snrfoce of the water, with its
was finally agreed anon, in accordance with long neck raised and arched like that of »
which waa established the new magistracy of swan, ready to seize any fish or other marine
mDitary tribunes withconsular power, to which animal which came witlun ita reach; at times
mambers of both orders were declared eligible, also concealing itself among the seaweeds ia
Yet tbia was but a barren victory, so far as shallow places, its body immersed, and breath-
regarded its immediate efiects, as the tribunes ing earned on throngh the apertnres on the top
were usually chosen from the patricians. Bat of the bead ; it was neither so active nor so
the greet point was finally gained in 866, bv formidable as the more robnst ichthyosanros.
the passing of the IJeinian laws, one of which There are nearly 30 species deBcril>ed, of which
abolished the office of military tribune and thebestknownis theP. (fo2i<:A«tJ«irut(Conyb.),
declared that one of the consuls should always which attained a length of 10 to IS feet ; Uiere
be a plebeian. The rogation to that effect was were about CO teeth in each jaw; the neck was
C posed in ST6 by 0. Liclnins Stolo and Lucins as long as the body and tail hither, having
tins, and the reading of it was then stopped 88 vertebrre, 10 more than the longest neck d
by the 6 other tribnnes, who had been gained a bird ; the ribs were united in front by several
over by the other party. Tear att«r year these cartilages, enabliog the animal to readily and
two men were elected to the tribnneship in the AiUy infiate the Inngs, and take in s supply of
fiue of the fiercest opposition of the great air for a prolonged immersion; the coraooid
paUdon honses; bat after lOyeara of struggle bones were very large, prodDdng sa donga-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
n£SSIS-MASLY FLEUIOSY 898
tioo of tho stornnn), and indicating that tti« rsrety Mb to render the breathing al^norrosllT'
ai^mol vai aonatio, and able oDlTwithdifflonlt;- frequent. Before oSa^oa takes place the pa*
to dnig itself along on land. The less ttrong tlent oommonljlies on the back or sound side,
and lege Bomeroas teeth show a less camito- rarely on the affected aide; after it the pa-
rous ditpoution than in the Ichthjosaarns; the tient generally liea on the back or on the e^-
dighter general confonnation was snited rather fected side. Fever is commonly present, tbe
for tran^idl iraters tiian to fiocounter powerfdl akin is hot and drj, the palse freqnent and
waTe& Species are foond also in the oolita eometimes hard, the nrine acantj and high-
ud ««tAceons atrata, thoagh lees abundantly colored. In the first stage of acute pletui^
than in the lias, in vhich their nnmerons re- the respiratory mormnr is feeble, and the
nuiina and ooprolltes ahow that the watera breathing, as before observed, is ahort and
most have swarmed with them, For foil de- Jerking ; rerj early in the disease friction
tuls on the speciea, see Owen's "Beport on soanda, either slight sod graring or rahblng
British Fossil Reptiles," In " Reporta of the In oharooter, may be heard ; these depend on
Britiah Association" for 1B39. — The ^nna plu>- the exudation of plaatio lymph. During this
Munu (Oiren} inolndes the gigantic reptiles period the percnsdon sonnd reraaiDs almost or
of the Oxford and Kimmeridge olaya of Eng- entirely unaffected. Sometimes the disease
land, intermediate between the plesiosaums and stops short at this point. Where effusion takes
the lehtbyosaurus; the teeth and the bones of place, the most depending part of the chest on
the limbs and trunk were like those of the for- the affected side gradaally becomes doll on per-
-er, the first being stouter and more trenchant : cnssion ; as this dnlneas increases the respiratory
. „ -, adistant bronchial breathing; the fnction
inlereatins to note that pliosanms did not m- soond Is lost over the part occnpied by the
pear nntil after both the genera which it la fiuld, though it may sometunes still be he^
pait Teeembtes ; no fragment of their bones, above it. The vibratory thrill that is felt by
according to Fietet, has been found in the lias the hand applied to the walls of the chest
or oolite, and nooe nntil the time of the Oxford when a patient speaka is abolished over the
dBy& Tliebestknown speciesis theP.Jrfwfty- seat of the effusion. When the effusion is
detna (Owen), for on aoconnt of which see moderate in amount, the height to which it
Owen'a report in "Reports of the British As- rises posteriori^ can very readily be marked
■ocialion'' far 1841. ont by percnasion, and this will be fonnd to
PIJliSSIS-ltABLT, Setqnxub nv. See Hob- vary with the varying position of the patient.
KIT. It Is at this time, and commonly near the in-
PL&THO. See GnosniB. ferior angle of tjie acapnia, that a peculiar
PLEITRIST {pltniritU), Inflammation of the modification of tiie voice, E^ophony (Gr. oif,
[dearai, the membrane which lines the chest, a goat, and tfiain}, voice), can be heard by
and also covers the Inngs. Flenrisy has been the ear or stethoacope applied to the walla
recognized and described as a distinct disease of the chest while the patient is speaking,
from the earliest times, but practically, before It con^ta of a variety of bronchophony in
the Recoveries of Laennec, it was impossible in which the voice acquires a tremulous, crock-
many cases to distinguish Jt from pneamonia. ed character, which has been compared to
Ibe disease, though rare in old age and in the bleating of a goat. When the efihrion
early infancy, Is confined to no period of lifb. is verv great it distends the pleural sac, the
Prolonged exposure to cold, eiternol violence, long deprived of air being compressed against
■od the existence of tabcrcles of the lungs the spinal column. The diaphragm is noir
Day be considered its most freqnent canses, pnshea downward, the intercostal spaces are
though in many instances we are unable to bulged ont, the side is larger by meaanrcment
trace it to any particular soaroe. The dis- than the oppodte one, and is comparatively
ease may be either acnte or cbronio. Acnte motionless in respiration. The hetut Is dis-
pleurisy ordinarily oommenoes with a ohill, placed, and when the e^don is on the left
which is soon followed by a sharp patn limited side can sometimes be felt beating to the right
to a single spot, and most commonly seated of the right nipple. In cases of recovery, as
Just below tbe breast on one side. This pain the fluid is absorbed the respiratory mrnmor
B often very intense, preventing the patient and normal percnsfdon note gradually return
from taking H foil breath, and increased by ihim above downward; for a long time, how-
motion, by pressure, and by cough. It lasta a ever, and sometimes permanently owing to
variable length of time, bat gradnally subsides the thickness of the false membranes formed
as etfonon ^es place. In not a few instances from the plastio lymph efibsed, the respiratory
pain is altogether absent Oongh comes on mnrmnr is feeble and the percussion sonna
early, is short and commonly dry, and adds doll at the lower part of the side. In some
greatly to the distress of the patient. The cases the side is restored to its natural form;
reniiration eariy in the disease is short and In others it becomes retracted, tiie shoulder
diffloalt; OS the pain subsides the patient being drawn down, the ribs wproiimated, the
hrealhefl more easily ; but when effliaion to spine curved, and the whole side rendered
my amonnt has taken place, any exertion ainaUer and sunken. — Wlien acnte ^enrisy o»-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
SM FLEDBO-PSEUUOfilA
con in a Btrong and hulthj jaaag adolt, gea- ooonpTtns tbe plenn and the sii1»tanoe of tha
eral bloodlattiu mi^ be required ; but in a ma- lungs at the same time. The t«nit plearo-pnen-
Jorit7 of cases looal bloodlettiDg bf means of mouia {s also applied to a pecnliar epizootic
caps and leeches is all tLat is neoessai?, and disease among cattle, which is eepecial^ cliar-
this has a remarkable inflaenoe over the pleo- aoterized bj certain lesions of the tlioracio or-
ritiopain. Homraopathifts avoid bloodletting gans. Although writers have attempted to trace
by the use of aconite, aconite and brjonia, or the bistor? of this affection to the most remote
oolchiccm. A^r bloodletting diuretics may periods, no description sufficiently exact npon
be adminiaterod, and of these the best are the which to found any decided opinion had been
acetate and bitartrat« of potassa, digitalis, and offered prevjona to the year 1T6S, when Bonr-
squill. Where the disease is obstinate It may gelot, the founder of tlie royal veteriua^ school
be advisable to give mercitrj, bnt it ^ontd he of France, gave an excellent account of plenro-
given in small dosea and stopped imme^tely TOieumonia as it oocarred among the cattle of
upon the ^jightest mgns of ptyalism being Champagne. TJntJl 17S2 the diseiase appears to
evinced. Wnea the acute symptoms have have be^ confined chiefly to the cattle of the
subsided, the application of a sncces^on of mountainODs regions, such as the Vosges,
blisters to the affected side has a decided in- the Jura, the Alps, Upper Silesia, and Pied-
fiaence in promoting the absorption of the ef- mont; but soon after uat dote, and until the
fusion; or instead of blisters, resort may be had year 18S0, it extended through the most of
to bromide and iodide of potash, or a course of Europe. Thk period was marted by desolat-
eulphur. The diet shonltt be low, and the pa- ing and bloody wars, and the movements of
tient where the efibsion is extensive or m- troops, carrying with them large numbers of
creasing should abat^ji as mnch as possible cattle for their enpport, are supposed by many
troja fluids. Perforation of the thorax has been writers to have been the cause oi tliis exteusion.
recommended, and it would appear from nu- Prom 1820 to 1827 the disease hivaded the
merons trisls that, performed careMly, the highly cnltiTated regions and rich valleys of
operation is stteDded with little risk ; but in It^y, Germany, and France, where it has con-
acute pleurisy it should only he resorted to tinned to a greater or less extent to the present
in those rare cases in which the amount or time. Pleuro-pnenmonia wss introduced into
rapid increase of the effn^ou threatens the Holland in 183S, and committed the moat tcr-
patient with inmiediate suffocation. In such rible ravages, particnlarly in the sonthem por-
coses care ahonld be tskea by the use of a tions. Aocor^ng to the offl<»al reports, Eol~
proper instmment to prevent the admission land lost, from 1887 to 1839, 28,000 head of
of air into the thorax. — In chrouio plenrisy cattle by this disease sloae. It msde its ep-
the eSHisiou remains for a long time stationary, peoranoe in Belgium in 1837, and in England
and either gives rise to on acute febrile ex- m 1841. During the winter of IBGQ and 1860
citemeut or to one of a hectic character. It this fatal disease became very prevalent in the
may be the resnlt of an acute pleurisy, it London dairies, more portiool^ly upon the S.
may come on in patients debilitated by pre- side of the Thames. Ine attacks were marked
vious disasse, or it ma^ be complicated with with mnch virulence, and the fatality was rc-
the tnbercular diathesis, the last being the ported to be as great as 95 per cent. From its
case in the m^rity of instances. Tbo effused mtroduction into England in 1841 until the
fluid may be either serum mixed witli floccu' present time, plenro-pneumonia has existed
lent lymph or pus. When the strength of the not only in the TTnited Kingdom, hut also in
Satient is good, a gentle mercurial course with most of the countries of northern and western
iuretics and the use of flying blisters or iodU' Europe. — The disease first appeared in the
retted liuiments will often succeed in removing United States, in the states of New York and
theeffnsioo. Bromide and iodide of potash are - New Jersey, in the year 1843, introduced,
often all that is necessary. If the patient be as it was supposed, by a cow imported from
broken down, tonics and cod liver oil with Germany, It nowever did not spread to any
iodine may he advisable, while iodnretted lini- extent, and does not seem to have sttracted
menta are freely employed. In young persons, much notice. In the spring of 18fi9 plenro-
psrtioularly in children, if there be no tubercu- pneumonia made its (qtpearance in Massachn-
lar complication, the operation for empyema is setts, and during that year destroyed many cat-
generally successful. — In some persons pleurisy tie. Aifeotiona of the Inngs had always been
gives rise to extensive efEnsion without causing observed to a limited extent either as the re-
ony symptoms to attract the attention of the suit of common inflammation, or of improper
patient. Sometimes a person may be seen with management as regards stabling and food ; but
one pleural cavity distended with fluid, and nothing possesaina the characteristics of the
yet poraning his ordinary occupations scarcely present epizootic had ever been noticed. The
conscious that he ia ill. This is latent plen- disesse firet made itself apparent in a cow wbi<^
risy, the treatment of which is the same as in had recently arrived from HoUand, having been
acute pleurisy, except that it should be less imported together with two other cows and a
active^ heifer by tb. Chenery. These animals were
PLEURO-PNECMOHIA (Or. wXmpa, the obtained from Purmerend, about 10 m. W. of
lade, and irvcvfuav, the longs), an inflairimation Amsterdam, where no disease was known to
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
njETTBO-PHEmCOKIA 880
«zU at the time. The^ irere aent to Better- the deatJi of tho cal^ one of the oxen of the
dan, where plenro-pneosionia la sud to exiat herd of 40 became siok and diad after two
generaltj to a greater or leu eztMit iitd there weeks' illneBs. Two weeks after thia another
they remaned eeveral days before being ehip- ox rickeaed and died, and afterward at longer
ped. After a paisage of 47 A&jv thej arrived or shorter intervals othera died, nntil 18 oses
at BottoD. On examinstion thej were foond And oowb were lost, and, as robsequentlj ap-
to be in ft bad coaditloa, being maoh emaciated peared, the whole Btoek became greadr die-
ind braised, and one of them unable to stand, eased. Daring the winter, 6 or 8 of the oxen
Thej were taken to Mr. Ohener^'a form, sita- of the herd of 40, where the aiok calf remaned
lied apon a high hill in the town of Belmont, 4 da/a, were emjdoTed in teaming and appa<
ibont d m. N. W. from Boston. The bam in rentljwell. Thej rem^ed a single night with
vhicb they were placed is aqnore, abont 60 a herd which afterward became otBeasea. An-
feet each waj, and the part in which the cattle other anima) of thia same herd was aold to a
ire kept not far &om 8 feet high. The ar- man in a neighboring town, and he also lost a
nngement Is such that the heads of the animals nnmber of his cattle. A 7oke of oxen also
■re directed toward a square opening in the from tlua herd were sold and went into another
centre, from which tiioj are fed. There is an herd in the same town, where they remained
opening in the roof for ventilation, and a few oolj 6 days, and one third of this last herd be-
windows in the aides of the bam. The build- came diseased. Thiasame yoke, still apparently
iag, being closely and sabstantioUy ooQatnioted, in good health, were placed in a team of 23
was undoubtedly deficient in ventilation, par- yoke of cattle employed in moving a building a
ticolarly con^ering the number of cattle whioh distance of 4 or 6 m. The whole of these cat>
were homed within it, 43 at the outbreak of tie are said to have become diseased, and sub-
Um diiwiw**! The first of the cows in a bad aequently 11 other herds to which they be-
oondition when landed at Boston died at the longed took the affection. It is a singular fact
end of a week, on May 81, and the second two that animals which had become diseased in
days after. They were not examined, it being Brookfleld were driven to other towns, an^
toppoaed that they hod died solely from the although other snimals were near them ana
e^cta of the voyage and the treatment they much exposed during their passage, yet the
had then reoeived, and not &om any disease of amount of subsequent disease was veij small,
the lungs. About a month after thia the third aud it did not extend beyond a epace of 10 ta
cow was fbnnd to be sick. She died after an IS m. square around Brookdeld. The appear-
flhieaa of 9 days, and 75 days after leaving Bot- ance of this malady in Belmont and Brookfield
tardam. There was no post-mortem eiamino- caused the people to seek from the legislature
tioQ. The fbivUi animal remaned in good the enactment of such laws as would arrest the
health. Abont Aug. 1 a cow imported from prioress of the disease, and canse it^ extirpation
Hcllaad in 1803 was taken sick and died in £0 if possible. Certain acta were passed, and a
days. Fromthistimeothcrfiitalcasesfollowed board of medical oommisuoners appointed to
In rapid Bacceasion, so that in the course of investigate the subject. Before they had en-
two months Mr. Chenery had lost about 80 tered upon their duties, however, the progress
animalff. Examinations were made, and it was of the disease appears to have been stayed, and
■bnndantly shown that the disease was essen- they were unable to discover aoy case or casea
tially an Section of the lungs and pleura. No of the affection which were recent or in an
Isolation was thought necessary or attempted active stage. Their invtetdgations therefore
until Sept. 1, and then ooly for a short time, were confined to the surviving animab wbicb
This was not practised again until the ensuing were diseased, or which were supposed to have
Sring. No attempts were made to prevent been exposed to the disease. The results
e coramnnicatiou of the disease to cattle in showed " that animals that had been HI and
the adJo'°>ag pastures, and notwithstandmg had recovered their usual signs of health
this freedom of communication no instance lA preeented more or less evidence of previous
■och transmission is known to have occurred disease In the longs, now completely arrested,
within 20 m. of Belmont. Mr. Oheuery lost and that some of those which nad bean freelj
no cattle lirom plenro-pneumonia after Jan. 8, and coatinnonsly exposed presented no evidence
IBfiO. The day on which the first cow died of disease either during life or after death."
(June 89), 8 oalves were aold to a farmer in In no case did the examinationa reveal dis-
Brookfield.atownaboutCOm.'W.ftvWBelmoDt ease in an active stato. Directly or indireot-
They were taken by rulroad the entire dis- ly this epizootic proved fatal to nearly 1,000
taoce, with the exception of tbe last 6 m. On head of cattle in Maasaohusetts. — The most un-
the way, while being driven, one of the calves miatakable ngns of plenro-pneumonia are de-
was observed to <er, and at the end of the rived from auscultation and percussion of the
jouraey was evidently uck. It was then chest, but we cannot by these means alone dis-
placed in a bam where there were 40 head of tlngnish this disease from umple infiammation
ealtle, and remained there 4 days. Afterward of the longs. Among the earliest estomal
ft was placed in another bam oontainiog 20 symptoms is a peculiar short, dry, painful
eattle, where it died in 10 days. The other cough, observed more especially in the mom-
nlvee remaned welL About two weeks after ing, or when the animal rises after lying down,
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
898 FLEDBO-PNEtntOHXA.
orEasnowedto drink. Th«r« la loss of appe- hter. S tlie affeetton bto pnmlUal,
tite and & diminnUim in the Moretion of muk. is great emsdstion ; the exlranitiea, the <«
The animal becomes eloMiali and dnll, and If and horns l>eoome cold, the raqdntjon u nm
at pasture separates itselfmnn the rest of the and more hibored, and life UnolnitM eHe
herd. There is an onnsaal dilatation and eon- from snflbeatlon or eztrtme wcakncM. ii
traction of tlte nostrila, accompanied with a imperfect recoTerj msrMnnetinmbi«plM
diort, quick respiration. In yonng, powerful and the animal afterward die of m tnogi
animals, the macone membrane of the nose is Intotheplenra and pericardium, wafidmat
at the commencement of the disease red and pnlmonarj mdema. OccaMotui&f «)iiipMe»
dry ; bnt as it advanoes the color ohangea to a ooverj t^es place, but this is onlj pMJtlt
yellowish white, and there flows from tiie no»- when the disease ia checked at the «maa»
trils a clear and thin, or a Tisdd and varionslf ment or at an earlj period. — The dimW ^
colored fluid. Uasaee of hardened excretiona, pearancee in pteuro-pneamonia yirj Ktor^
sometimeH as large as the finger, are often to the period at which the inimtl diutri
thrown off from the brraichial tabes. Ohilla killed. In animals killed earlj in tlft&M
occur from time to time, and the horns and no exndationis found, bnttJieiitOTloiokid-
earB ore alternately cold and worm, A pecn- Inlnr tisane io, in isolated portioai, moreaW
liar stiffbess afi^ta the mnscnlar ajsUm gen- with blood than is natural. If thediKWiii
erall;, and the animal shrinks from pun if little more advanced, we find tUgtiwHiiii^
pressure is made npoa the cbest behind the ened hj a deposit into its neabw wikki*
shoulders, or upon the Inmbar regions. The ders it firmer. The pnlmonirj tivw ■kk'
local signs are often present in a slight degree comes more or less <eaeniatO)U, or SDtd nd ■
for monj weeks, withoot the manifestation of vatciT' flaid, ao that in some parti w urm
onj oonstitotionol eymptoms. At the com- enter, while in others it is only ptrtiil^^''-
mencement of the disease in strong young ani- ed. At the oommencement th«^f«mii«
mals the pulse is full and hard, from 2S to 40, aregenerallrseatedinthedeeperpMKaxftbt
tnstead of from 33 to £6 as in health ; bnt in Inng, the pleura not beiiig ifficM. Itbi'*-
those which are weak and badly nourished it erer,snperfida] portions oreatttAsilkpl'*'
la soft and full, finally it becomes in all soft ra partioipotea, becomes opaqn^ ndidllltUt
and rapid. "When the febrile symptoms first is covered by a whitish layer spa Hi Kbt^
set in, tlie animals stand with the back curved and by adepoalt beneath it liiDDtrlotUiitt'
upward and with the head and neck out- tioned as oconrring ha the faitsrioMirlia^
stretched; as the disease advances, they al- In very rare oaaae, these ebangsstakeilMW
most always stand witl) the anterior portion of only in the intertobnlartinnt,orkttviM
the body immovable. They rarely lie down, the pleura, hut also in thoTwynWiws
and then only for a short time, resting either the inng itselfjWhich is Ha stal indiiivM
upon the affected stdeor upon the breast bone, mdemaonly. The disease genenllyitlt^f^
Toward the close of the disease, when suffoca- one long. In a more advanced rtipllKn'l
tEcn ia immiaent, they lie with the head and nndereoea aneh obangesostopnserif^'*
neck stretched ont and the mouth open. The a marbled appearance ; this sppt*™^'^
hair loses its lustre and stands up, the akin in masses of variable sin, sotnetiiBaii™''!
becomes dry, and the perspiration has a pe- one qoart^ or one half of a wbcte li^F. ^
onliar odor. Appetite and rumination cease the same time the pleora is ^t*"*','^
entirely in the febri la stage. The act of drink- layerof folse membrane, the thickiwi>™5
ing is difficult and excites cough. The eye hss varies In different coses. A andUi F^
a wild, staring look in the well fed, bnt In the Is fonnd also npon tha nlesn eo'ffi'i '^
weak and impoverished it is snuken in the ribs; also upon the diapfirsgin tni ti' I?*
orbits. From the dry month there fiows more cardinm. ah eflnsion of Smi tAfw""''
or less viscid, dirty, offensive fluid, or a frothy the cavity between the two P'*""!?*^
saliva. The urine ia of a dark brown color, less compresmngthe lung. Still UC,"*^
and has a strong odor. The fecal matter at the ore found much enlarged, mi '^.'^
oommencement of the disorder ie leas abundant, mnch increased, from 4 or Bib- in '1*'?*^
firm, and is also of a dark brown color. At a mal condition to 20 or 80 lb»._ ^*I'^"*^
later period in the disease there is either con- compact, liver-like, and there '"''*^^^
atipaUon, or the fieces become hard and black, crepitation. The cot surface presents tM^
or green, watery, and offensive. The duration marbled appearance as hefore,oaIriM'^
of the disease depends npon a variety of eir- marked dwree. ITiia pecnlisn^ i" ^"^
cumstanccBjUpon thecharacterof the apizootic, the deddedcontrast in color bew*^''*^
the strength and general condition of the ani- of infiltrated interiobniar tissue, vU^Ji-^
mal, and more especially upon the length of times from one to two lines thiA ■" , j
the uon-febrile or chronic stage. If ^is be ules themselves which thoy *°'i miri»
long, the disease may last several weeks or even of network of a somewhat irrepusr l™*^
months. If, on the contrary, the febrile period eral form, not miHke the vaining "'J'"*, p.
make its appearance early or at the commence- of marble, is thus formed. From w' ^
ment of the disease, the latter may terminoto fiice a TtA aerum or watery fimd ^o*^^
ia Ctom 7 to 11 days, seldom eariier, and often when removed leave* &» hniS p<ni**°''
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FLEUBO-TNEUUOSIA. 89T
OndsM enwUtaUon tk« rau]ler^tab«sd0 After the diaeaw Lad raaoh^d ft o«rtain BUg*i
aat pnaeat b trtoe of eznd&tiDu, and in th« postoles were formed, and each piutnle oon-
kigw ones the muootts membrane is perfeotl; turned the some morbifio matter u was origi<
BoimgL The neir sabstftnca found in the in- taiij inhaled. It was not the oaae that eTery
terlobQkrtisaaaTarieaindifferentparta. When animal ezpoMd was infected, anf more than it
it is in ocoktsoC with the lobulea it resembles was with man. Thtf e must be a rasceptibilitr
odIiiIartiMiMiniffooeaaof fbrmation. Atthe sa well as a oanae. . . . The malady itself waa
aonw lime it oannot be distingnlahed from that not an InflammatorT', bat a local and speciflo
wlueh forms in other inflammatory conations one. The morbiho matter enters into the blood
in the nei^borhood of organised parts. The by respiration, and tiien ooneentratee itself in
portion of now material furthest ronoTed from the Inngs. This amotion was in many reapeols
the liriagtusoe is frequently not orgaoiEed, and ver7peoaliar. It is an eminently fatal diaeaae^
may fonn a oheesy l^er very fHable and com- ... It always was a fatal disease, and always
ptwd of distinot Isnunn. As the disease ad- would be. In no one oaee t^aa an animal ever
TBDoea, in many oaaes irregolar portions of the been cured; the disease ia aometimei arrested,
long of Tariona uses are partially or entirely but never onred. . . . 'When does its oontafpou
■eparated, and afierward become enclosed in a cease t is a qnestdon npon which ttiere iias
■as of organised tissue sereral lines in thickness, been mnch disonssion, and wUch is stiU nnde-
This change is not imlike whet we find in tuber- oided. As soon aa the animal siokenB, thedia-
eolar dbease, exoeptjua that In this last the en- ease is couta^oas. If it was arrwted, it was
erited masses are mnoh smaller. Theee'masaes not easy to say how soon the animal might
are not liw^v completely detached, bat are safbly mix with others." Delafond gives the
ratuned in connection with the snrroan^ng following as a portion of the resnlts of his in-
rortawia. dms remaining for scane time partial- veatigatioas: " The malady, while in a herd of
Ijroigsmied. Within this sac in recent cases cattle, presents all the general characters of
pni is found, sometimes amounting to a pint or oontagioos affectJooB. The number of well
more; and loose, fioating in the pna, is the antbenlioated examples of contagion amounts
hard mass of s^>arated lung tissne, easily reo- to 605. It is not certain that those who ti^a
ognized by its atmotore. In &rorable eases, care of affected animals can communicate the
tbe fluid ootttained in the sac becomes gradual- disease to those which are healthy. Twenty-
1)' abxwbed, learing behind a yellow, {p-uiular, six veterinary snrgeona of high standing in
brittle mass, somtfimes 8 or 4 indtes in diam- France, Germany, Italy, Switzeriand, Belginm,
ttts. The smaller of these in course of time and Holland, have published their opinioa in
nndergo fiirUter change, by which they are favor of the contajgiooaness of tbe disease.
eoDvwted into dulky concretions. As a geo- The time of incabation is fhon S4 to S5 days ;
eral mle Ihwt lie as inert masses, unconnected but as it is difficult to settle precisely the mo-
vilh the n^hbonng lung tissue, althoogh ment of contagion, we must admit that the time
iometimu giving rise to a good deal of iirita- is from 80 to 40 days— more often within, very
tioii, sad not noneqnenUy thus causing death, rarely beyond this. The nature of the virus.
The ooDdidon of the blood in pleoro-pnenmo- like that of all contagious diseases, is stilt un-
aia has not been saffldently examined to enable knoorn. Its seat appears to be the affected
mtodeddewithanyoerbantybow&ritTanes lung. The expired air, the nasal mucus, the
from the healthy standard. In the other or- saliva, the emanations from the affected organs,
gsns asnalty no changes are fomid, and if any are the ordinary vehicles. Finally, the conta-
taxt they are not essentiaL^As to the nature ^onsatmoapherearomid the animals is limited,
of plearo-pneamoDla, there exists a great rarift- and cannot be carried far by currents of air."
^ of ofrfnioaa. Many regard it as a local and The evidence upon this point of contagion is
qxelSo disease, and as eminently oontaf^ns; exceedingly contradictory, and yet it b one of
vhile others regard it as diflaring in no req>ect the most important questions, so f^ as the
bnt wdinary inflammation <tf tbe innga, oc- prevention or exCvpauon of the disease b con-
eaning in an eindemie form, without the prop- oemed. Those who oppose the view of con-
tttiea of oontagion. As regards this poiiU, tagion see a safflcient cause in certain combined
Fro£ Simonda, who may be properly renrded iniuenoee. They believe that the atmoepherie
M the bif^eat Enr^ieaa antoority on this snb- conditions and those drcamstaaces, of a ohar-
}Mt, aaja : " Pleuro-pnenmoida rignifles inflara- aoter but little nnderstood, leading to the spread
natiMi of the plenra and the snbstanoe r>t tba of epidemics generally, ore also in action in
Inngs; the disease itself was not really of an this. Both oontagioniata and non-contagionists
' y charaotar. On the quwtaon of its admit tJiat the disease may and does arise nn-
'"■■ " "' IS which preclude the probabil-
i^on, that the disease in iact
, -__ „ .„_. , spontaneously. "^"sajsWymaa,
of In bot, mSt disease wss an eidsootio. ... "it arises epontaneoosly, then the circom-
Hany dieeaacs were diiseminatea both ways, stances for its propagation, if contagions, are
The morbific matter entered the system, and the most f^orable poBnbla, and the disease
*hen seated there pt^sonone uhawions were should spread with the greatest certainty and
pvea aO, This wss the esse in small pox. rapidity ; but tiiis certainty and rapidity have
eontagfomoesa, we had but too strong evidence du ciroumstsnces whic
that & was camtog^OBS, and onbapmly for the i^ of any cmita^on, t
country this &et had been too mnen lost sight may arise spontaneous)
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
I conutoi villi B oera Biianoe navrng a nnau oi imaaia, uj r>^
wsB fuid to be fol- the hair b matted tt^edier, wd tii^l'"*^
i of the herd ; bat to an extraordinary length and iwnit™
were driven to other vennin, I>eoomeB horrid/ filthj ud dtam
not been observed to aeoomMny ^Mnttamona ridted Ital^ where hebeamauqadnMitt
derelopmNiL"— As K^aida the origin of the Oimarosa, Ga^idmL P^aialle, lad Pi^
diaease in Uusadknaette, there is no poeribility Inl787he waa ^ipomtad eh^cbnutniDdi
tlut the first animal wUeheiokenedeonld have oathedral of Sttasbon^, btit lot ttds ;«
been expoaed to any animal ill of the diiooao dnring th« revolotlaii. A few jsm las
within 75 days, niUeea we asaame that the having removed to Puis, he lieauMipiIM
two oows which died front Boppoeed ill treat- er ofmnaie, andaiterwitdcatiUidiMlitiW'
ment on the voyage died of pleoro-pnenmonia, forte mamiaotory. He wrote ttio, quntt
of which there is no evidence whatever. There and sonatas for Uie piHio, whidi m nnai^
ie no reason to BnppoBe that the disease existed able sncoeas in thdr time.— IBs an, Jon
previously among other cattle of the herd, and £tikmie Oudllb, also a eanposer ud Dit
we are therefore compelled to admit that it nist, bom in 1T88, died in 165(S,B>Mndgdbi
remained in a state of iucnbation diiring 7S in the direetion of his mamtfoebicj, ud wi
days, or that it arose spontaneooaly at Belmont, varions impTovements in the eaMrtdM rf
On the other hand, the oatbreak of the disease the instnunente. The i^aniit K^Unw
in Brookfleld npon the introduction of the calf was his partner. — Oandlle's wift (Uh M
from Belmont looka very much like the prod- Mocke}, a papil of S^alkhrumK, m <at
net of contagion. At the same time^ there are considered one of the greatest firng {ana
many points which are not ea«y of exphotation. Bhe stall eaj<^ ft high rMmtafion.
There ie no donbt that animala became tick PLICA POLOinoA (Let. j>Jws,t« bats'
after the introdnction of the calf among them, gether), a disease of the hair ti(i]bt]«ciil>r1t
but it may be ^neationed whether the ontbreak Poland, and bo named trim ihemma's
did not oconr u conseqnenoe of certain other which the hair is matted toeetbff. hlUifr
eonditiona, exiatin^ in a limited territory. How ease the hair bnlbs BTeaddtoboBMrnta
also can beexplamed the &ct, that if any of and aontelysensihle; ttieysBCfclainMJnt
the diseased o^tle came in contact with a nerd stance having a smeUof ranodfi^ttr*™
in Brookfleld, the contact — .-■!..- i. .1 .. ... .... ... __ ._iiii.__™.
lowed by disease in 8om<
when the disaaaed animals , , , _
towns, and mingled with other herds, such ex- The general opinion i& hoverfr, tU btv
posare was not followed by disease? The dis- ease is merely theprodnctof fiHtuitW
appearance of the disease was also peculiar, and requires for its cure notfung t"t ^"'*
and not Bach as wonld be expeot«d if the con- nse of the ecissors and the nit«e4iio'*IP
tagioaa element was as great as has been rep- cation of so^> and water. Th« *"'?''''*/''
resented. Withont pursoiug this subject ftir- a Polish female patient wLavu aid toB"*
ther, we may remark that we do not consider plica, in whom ue growth of Wr "* ^T
ttiat the contagions properties of pleuro-pnen. mens, and this, nntooihed Sw J*'''^f'|?j
monia are by any means clearly established, formed a tangledmasBta«vewdl>T"°JJ*'
In other conntries this disease has gone from vermin ; bat nnderthe sDperiDcniDlMtBlt|''>
Elace to place in the form of an epidemic, and hairbnlbswMe perfectly sound ffidi'i'''*^.
as not been controlled by measares whidi, as PLINY. I. Toe Eidxb (Oihib f'^^'V^
a general role, are foond to control other ooa- arnxDva)^ Roman anthor,jK)m AJ*. A ^
tagions diseases. It pursoed a similar coarse in 79. The two cities •^^srown'^^
in Hassachasetts ; it took its origin in Belmont, Ocmom (the modem Gome) conlO" ^^
Bpread for a time in certain locuities while the honor ctf being his brrthplsce, ui ^Tf^
epidemic inflnence lasted, and then disappeared, of anthority seems to incline in *""?r'!^
llie most stringent measares of slanghtermgand ter. He belonged to a noble sad "^^
isolation did not prevent its diSltdon.— With ily, and when S8 yean old serred ^"^
regard to the treatment of plenro-pneomonia, under L. Pomponins BeenniiB, vh*^ .
very little that is satisfactory can be »wd. By afterward wrote, and was made ?'*'^^
way of prevention, the diseased animsls should a troop of cavalry. While *"™', ^>(
bo immediately eepsrated from the healthy, aion he compoBed a treatlie ^jSJJZa
X^eoially shonld all overcrowding he avoided, Efutifri, and began a history cf '^'j^j^
and strict attention shonld be paid to proper wars, which was flidshad *" ''.r?''^,;-^.
▼entilation and food. Experience has amply taming to Rome in CS, he ^'^rj^^
juwuiniiuii UBS Deen practised in tsjioos ooqd- eaacaaon o^ an oranir, bui.ih<^^j|-^ ^
tries, by inserting the Beroas fluid taken from during the reign of Nero '"'^''nljiiij*
the langsof animals affectedwithpleDro-pneQ- malical work in 8 books, ""Jl-jrTiiil
monia into the bodies of the healtliy, but with mo. Appointed procurator of V^'u ,^
no aatisfaotonr results. that oflSce until a little b«ft»T_~r; '!! g^
PLEYEL, I0KA2, a German compoeer, bom he retamed to Borne, and J*^, ^. j*
at Eappelsthal, near Vienna, in 1767, died in mate friend of Vespflnsn- P™S3^^
at Jtappolsthal, near Vienna, In 1767, died in mate friend of VespssiBn- '^ITvli^ta.
Paris, Nov. 14, 1881. A pn01 of H^dn, he time hecontinnedtlje bistoiyrfAoMW
FLINT 899
•1^ En 81 booki, vUch bnn^t tiiie namdon vt.X fi^m qtoplezf flawing Tmimal ezertioa
of enota down to his own tim& An aooonnt or excitement, or poai^bl; from a fatal crisis ia
of his death ia given in a letter of the yonnger some disease of the heart previonslir ezistJiif^
Jfti:if to Tai^toa (^pitt. tL 16). He was sta- Three da^s aftenrard his bod^ was fotind, bear-
ticncdat lOsennm m conuoand of the fleet when, ing no marks of violence. — Pliny was one of the
on Ang. 24 A. D. 79, fais attention was di- most indostrionsof vrit«ra. AsanloataQoe of
leotedbjrhSs sister to a cloud of very unusual Hieeconomicalnseofhistiniejhisnephewr^tes
ax and ebape, which ^tpeared sometimes that when once his reader did not pronounce a
white and sometimes blackuili and spotted. It word correctly, some one present told him to
wai afterward discovered that it proceeded repeat it. Plinj, asking the persoa whether
from Tesnvins, and was the precnrBor of the he had understood it before, and receiving an
greet eruption which destroyed Hercnlaneum offlrmative answer, said: "Why then would
lud Pompeii. He immediately went to an em- yon make bim go hack again t We have lost
inenee near at hand to obtoia a closer view by this interruption about ten liueB." In Roma
of this phenomenon, whloh shot up to a great he always rode in a ohariot to save time, and
hei^t. Desiring to make a Mler examino- once bluned his nephew for walking so mnoh,
tint, be ordered a light vessel to l>e got ready, inasmuch as he thus wasted mnch tmie which
and provided himself with t^leta to take down might be profitably spent in stndv. &o great a
his oboervations. At the M^idtation of the mass of Imbrmation had he eoUected by this
mariners of Retina, be went to their aaristanoe, course, that while he was procurator of Sp^
snd oranmooded the ihipa to be lannohed to he was ofiEbred for his materials 400,000 sester-
Mve the inhabitants of other cities npoo that cee l>y Largins Liolnina. He bequeathed to hia
eossL Proceeding to ihe very point of danger, nephew 160 volnmesof£ZsetM*u«nC(>ffm«ntar^
be dictated observations upon the phenomena written extremely fine on both sides. The only
sod attendant terrors of the scene. So close work of his extant is the ffittoria Jfaturalit, m
did he oome to the monntain, that there runed 87 books, which embraoes astronomy, meteof
mion iiis ships a storm of pumice stone, pieces ology, geosrapby, mineralogy, zoology, botany,
a bnnung rook, and hot cinders, whim kept ana medimne, beside treating of painting and
constantly falling thicker. Uoreover, the sad- statnary. Tbe nnmber of authors quoted in
dm retreat of ttie sea left them in danger of tlds work amounts to between 400 and GOO, and
UUng aground. In this emergency the pilot the number of volumes to about 2,000. " Ha
sdvised him to return ; but Pliny, remembering waa," says Onvier, " an anther without critical
the maxim of Terence that fortune favors the Jud^ent, who, after having spent a great deal
bnve, ordered the steersman to carry him to of time in maUng extracts, has arranged them
Pomponianus, who Wss at Stabice. The latter under certain chapters, to which he hse added
was aboat to set s^ in the greatest constema- reflections, which have no relation to sdenoa
tion; but Riny, in order to quiet bis appre- properly so called, but dlinlaj alternately either
bensiono, ordered a bath to be got ready ibr themostsimerstitionBorednlity, ortbededam^
tdiosell^ and partodcofbisBupper with apparent tions of a disoontented philosophy, which finds
niKoaceni, aasnrine his friends that the names, fault continually with manldnd^iUi nature, and
to which the darlcneBS of the night ^ve a with tbe ^ods tbemselves." There have been
terrifia appearance, arose from the ouming of many editions of his work, the first of which
tlievillagM which the peasants bad abandoned, was published at Venice in 1469. AmoQK tha
He then retired to rest and slept soundly; but others may be mentioned those of Hardoolu (5
tbe ooort of tbe house was fllliug so fast with vols. 4to., Paris, 1685) ; Lemaire (10 vols. 8vo^
ebtders, that he was aroused and Joined his Paris, 18a7-'8B); Panckoncke (20 vols., Paris^
bienda, who were in doubt whether to renuun 16S9-'8G) ; and Sillig (C vols. 12mo., Leipsio,
in the boose, which was now contiunolly rock- 1881-6). It has been trauslated into Euglisb,
isg vidently from ^e to side, or to trust Oennsn, French, Bpanish, Italian, Dutcb, and
themselves to the fields. They decided upon Arabic. Au Enslisb translation waa puMiBhed
the latteroonrse,^ing upon their heads pillows byPhilemon Holland (London, 1601), and there
to protect tbemselvee from the storm of stones is another by Dr. Bostock and H. T. Bilev in
idJ cinders. It was now dav, bnt the profound Bolm's "Classical Library" (6 vols., Lonoon,
dsrknMS was relieved only by the light of the 1B5G). U. The ToTmaxs (Ouus Pumue Om-
tordiea. Odng to the shore, they fonnd the otuce Sboubddb), a Roman author, nepheT- *
o t«mpeetaoas to embark, and Pliny lay the preceding, bom probably in Oomum ii
n upon a sul 8|wead out for bim. Astrong or S3, died abont 116. He stndied rbetori
Hoellof anipbur, the (brerunner of approaching Rome under Nicetis Sacerdos and Quintilioi
flames, oUigod the friends to retire ; bnt no He composed at the age of 14 a Greek tragedy,
r had PUd^'s slaves raised himfromhla In his 19th year he spoke freqnently ii "
reenmbent poaition than he fell down dead, forum, and afterward waa employed to plead
niflbeated, according to the generally received causes before the courts of the centnmvin and
" ' -..■.., . . » 'in Syria as a military
EBstor CEOsaria, prmtor
L 100, and in 108 pro-
of Pontics, where be
theory, by some noxious vapors, for he had tlie senate. After serving in Syria as a military
nataraSy weak lungs ; according to another tribune, he was made qnsstor CEOsaris, prmtor
theory (" Transactions of the American Acad- abont A. D. 98, consul in 100, and in 108 pro-
<aj of Arts and Sdenoea," new series voL pnetor of the province of Pontics, where be
4O0 PUOCTE^NS FL0TIN1IB
remuned uearlr two jeata. Ee was also en- tioa of stadTing the phOosopIir of the £ast;
rstor of the cbaimel and banlu of the Tiber, bnt on the deau of tbe monarch he barely es-
snd it would seem from hia epistles that ha caped with his life to Antioch. Id hia 40th
also attained the raiilc of aenator. He and )u» year he went to Borne, and there taught the
friend, the historian Tacitus, were considered doctrines of hia loafiter Ammonina, bnt only
the two most learned nien of their time. Eis orally, aa he had agreed to keep them secret;
only extant works are the Pantgyrieut, writ- and althongh his fellow pupils, Herenniua and
ten upon his appointment to the consulship Origen, began to publish them, he did not fol-
ia 100, and which has been seTerely criti- low their example nntil the first year of the
cized for its fblsome pruse of Trqjan ; and his reign of Gallienns. When 10 years later For-
JEpittoU) in 10 booKs. The firat B Doota of phyry became his scholar, he had written SI
the latter are addressed to variona individuals, books, and at the instigation of the latter Enb-
bat the 10^, which b most important, is eeqnently composed 24 more, to which after the
taken np with the correspondence between retnm of Porphyt? to Sicily he added 0. In
Pliny and Tr^an. In this book occors the Borne he remained nntU his death, and vas a
celebrated letter in regard to the early Chris- great favorite not only with men of science, bnt
tiana, in which he eharacterizea their reli^on with senators and statesmen ; and so great coc-
as a "perverse and extravagant soperstjtion," fidence was reposed inhim, that many Bomans
and the reply of the emperor, which shows on their death beds intrusted him with the
him to h&ve been the mora enlightened man of guardianship of their children and of theb es-
Uie two. The first edition of Uie Epittoli* is tates. Somuchattachedtohimwastbeemperor
that of Venice (4to., 1471), aa well as the Gallienns, that hod it not been for the eSbrts
first of the Panegyrieut and Ihitiola toge- of some of the conrtiers he wonld have rebuilt
tlier (Svo., 1503). Among the best editions two cities In Campania for the purpose of al-
of both works may be mentioned that of lowing Plotinus an opportunitv of foundins
J. M. Gesner, by G. B. Schufer (Leipsio, 180G), a commonwealth, whioh should be modelled
which contams a life of Pliny b^ Cellarius, after the ideal republic of Plato. He died from
and that of Gierig (2 vols. Svo., Leipsio^ ISOS). an accumulation of disorders at the country
The edition of tiie S^ittola by Cortius and honseof afriend. Plotinus never corrected nor
Longolius (4to., Amsterdam, 1734) is said to be read through a second time his manuscript, aad
the best. A life of Pliny, more elaborate than paid no attention to spelling or the division of
that of Cellarius, has been written by Masson syllables. His handwriting was so execrable
(8vo,, Amstardnta, 1709), There have been liat, owing to a weakness m bis eyes, ho could
two English tranidations of the ^Utola, one scarcely read it himself; and aa his thonghts
by Lord Orrery, the other by Uelmoth. were pat down as they occurred and without
PXJOOEKB (Gr. irX<iwii^ more, and Koaiot, anysystematioconnection,heboneof tbemost
recent), in geology, one of the tertiary groups obsonre writers to be fonnd in any language.
as arranged by Lyell, ao named because the So consdoua was ha himself of this fi^nlt, that
plnrnlity of its fossil shells belong to recent he chose his pupil Porphyry to revise his pro-
species. The term post-pliocene is applied by ductions. These are m. 64 books, called the
I^ell to those more recent groups in whioh no Enneads, and treat of the most abstract snb-
eztinct species of fossil shells are fonnd, bnt jects of thought, such as "Entity and Unity,"
which are below those that contain relics of " The Essence of the Soul," and " The Uni^
man, (See Geoloot.) of the Good." According to hb biographer, so
PLOCK, a eovemment of Bossiui Poland, ashamed was he that he existed in the body,
bounded N. £. by Angustowo, 8. and S. W. that he wonld neither reveal hb parentage, bb
by the Bu^ and Uie Vbtula, which separate it ancestry, bb naUve country, nor even hb oirth-
m>m Lublin and Warsaw, and N. by Prnssb ; day. When an effort waa made to have hia por-
area about 6,000 sq. m. ; pop. 570,000. It con- trait drawn, he answered : " Is it not enou^
usts of parts of the old palktinstes of Uasovia to drag after ns whiUiersoever we go that
and Plock and of the territory of Dobrzyn. image m which nature has shut us up I Do
Beside the Vistula and Bug it b watered by you diink that we ^onld likewise transmit to
the Norew, Wkra, Prewenz, and other rivers. Aitnre ages an image of that image as & sight
The soil ia level and fertile. The capital, worthy of their attention !" So great indeed
Plock, on the Vbtnla, b one of the oldest waa hia contempt for the body, that he had no
towns of Poland; pop, 11,000. concern in regard to hb healtn, and was very
PLOTINUS, a philosopher of the Keo-Pla- scanty >n the use of food, generally refraining
tonio school, bom in Lycopolis, I^ypt, about altogether frtim eating meat. Although hb
A, D. 204, died at Puteoli in 262, At the age writmgs are obscure, they have exercised (xxt-
of 28, having a great desire to learn phQoso- siderahle inflnenoe upon modem phUosophT,
iihy, he wont to Alexandria, and attended the having been diligentTr studied by Cudworth,
ectnres of Ammonius Saccas, the founder of Henry Uore, Norria, Gale, and oUiers. There
theeclontic school, wiih whom he remained 11 b moreover a striking resemblance between the
years. When in 242 the em^or Gordian nn- doctrines of Plotiniis and the pantheistic ideas
dertook hb expedition agamst the Persians, of Spinoza, evinced in the treatise of the formra
Plotinus accompanied the army with the inten- written to show that all b^ng is one and the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PLOUGH 401
■me. Bis life, wrhten hj his most fflnitiioas ploughs the colter vaa also introdaced, b«ing
dbeiple, Porphriy, is the only uithoiitj upon a sort of koife depending from the Ixam for the
]aibiatOTj. Hie Enneads were first truudated porpoae of oatting throngh the Boil and roots
]iitol4tinbjUar8iUTisFlc{niiB(FloreDoe,149S). in adTuice of the Bhare. Small wheels atthe
In ISftS th« entire Greek text was first pnb- (brward end of the beam were in use aboat
li^ed by Oreozer (8 toIs. 4to., Oxford). The the time of Pliny ; they serve to prevent the
"Select Works of Plotinna" (London, 1834) have share from entering too deeply into the ground.
been trandated into English by Thomas Taylor; Among the ahorinnes of Kbrth and Son^
andsFranch version of the Enneads by M.Bon- America the plongh appears to have been al-
aietwss completed in 1861 (8 vols. 8vo., Paris), most entirely unknown. The Pemvians. who
PIX)nGK, an instrument for breaking up, were the most skilled in agrionltore, employed,
tDnungover,mizing,orlooseningthesoil, drawn as described by Presoott, a mde substitute oon-
by horses, mules, or oxen, and goided by a man strncted of a strong, sharp-pointed stake, trsv-
who follows behind, holding the plongh by the ersad by a horizontal piece 10 or 12 inohea
hsDdles. Bt«am power baa also been recently from the point, on which the ploughman mi^
applied to ploogbs. The plough of the ancient set liis foot and force it into the gronnd. Six
^^tians was altogether of wood, a siogle or eight strong men were attaohed by ropes t«
crooked stick serving for the tail, which, ex- the ^oke and dragged it fordbly along, acoom-
tending below the point at which the horizontal paniedby women, whofiillowed to breucnp the
beam was secured to itj formed the point or sods with their rakes. — Until the middle of the
share, irhi<^ was forced mto the gronnd as the 18th century wronght iron was used for tbe
inimala attached to the beam drew it forward, parts of the plough that entered the ground,
The share was stiffened by a rope which passed each part being mdely forged by itself with no
«p from it to the beam, and the handle was di- little labor. Qist iron monldboards were first
Tided so as to present a hold for each hand of substitnted for those of wrought iron abont the
theploa^man. A horizontal stick slso connects year 1740 by James Small, a Bcotchman; in
«d the two handles by which the plongb might 1785 Robert Ransom of Ipswich, Eng., patented
be gnided. Wilkinson thinks it probable that the east iron share ; and before 1790 the " land
the point was shod with a metal sock either ride," orthat portion of the ploughformlngthe
of bronze or iron. In the Old Testament me- side oppodte to the monldboard, was also made
tillic i>Ionghahares are allnded to more than 7 of cost iron, thna completing bH the wearing
centuries B. 0. : " They shall beat their swords parts in this material. In the United Btatee a
into ^looglisbares." (ba. ii.4; Micahiv. 8.) In 0ftstironplonghwaspatentediiil797by0h&rle3
the ume of Heaiod two eorta of ploughs were Newbold of New Jersey, and as early as 1800
ID use among the Greeks. One was formed of such ploughs were In nae near New York city,
1 limb of a tree having two opposite branches having a share and monldboard in two parts.
diverging like the arms of an anchor from Tbe construction of tbe monldboard engaged
iUsh^k. The main stem aervedas the beam in 1798 the attention of Thomas Jefferson, who
Of polo by which the plough was drawn ; wrote an elaborate article on the subject. In
one arm, sometimes shod with iron or bronze, 1804 David Peacock obtained a patent for a
entered the ground, and by the other the im- plough having the monldboard and land side
plement was pressed into the gronnd and of cast iron and separate, while the share was
gnided. The other was oonHtmoted of three of wronght iron e^ed with steel. In 1618 a
iticks aecnred toother by nails; one was the patent was granted to Richard B. Ohenaworth
beam, which at its lower end was joined to of Baltimore for a plough having the S parts,
Ibe newly horizontal share, and fh>m this pro- monldboart^ land dde, and share, all distinct
neded the tail or handle. The ploughs now and of cast iron. Several other patents of sim-
ised in Greece must be nearly or quite aa aim- ilar character were granted previous to the
[Jess the ancient Egyptian piongh, being made year 1830. In the m<wt approved ploughs now
of two curved pieces of wood, one longer than in nse, of the breaking-up class, the monld-
the other. The long piece forms the beam, board is made of plate ateel, its external snr-
tnd to its lower end is secured the other stick &ce concave and corresponding in its curve to
in sod) a manner that one end of it passes np the segment of a oylindsr, of which, however, it
lor a huidle end the other end projects a foot would comprise bat a small portion. Affixed
or more forward of the lower end or tbe beam, to the plough with the proper obliquity, mould-
forming the share, which is iron-shod. The boards of Uiis chsracter are sud to torn the
iban is braced bya cross bar connecting with sod more completely and with much leas fric-
a beam above. Virgil (O«orgics, i. 169, 170) tion than those of any other ftrm. They are
describes how the limbs of the elm may be made separate from the share, which is also of
forced by continual pressure to grow into the steel or of cast Iron hardened by chilling, and
fona of the crooked piongh. In his time upon the front of this rises the colter, instesd of
earth or monld tioards were in use, attached being attaohed as in most ploughs to the beam
to each side of the share, from which they a little distance ahead of the share. Thebreak-
RM bending outwardly, so as to turn to each ing-up ploughs are the most important of the
■ide the soS as it was broken and looeened several sorts of this implement. They ore made
by the share. In some of the old Roman of many sizes adapted to the soil to be broken
TOL. II 1 1. — 2(>
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
402 PLOUGH
up, and duj be drawn hj one amall horae, or in lue, vhich arc not veipr ^ffereot from acana
regatre the fall strength of 4 strong horses to of the plonghs of the ancient Greeks and Egjp-
carr; them throagh the hardest gravelly soils, tians. One claasofthese, known as bnU-tongna
The depth to whi<^ thej penetrate is regulated, ploughs, are lu'g^ i>sed in tbe sonthem cotton
as in other plooghs, by ue contrivance at the and com fields. The share is pod-ebaped, and
end of the beam oalled the doyis, to which the is drivca tlirongh the ground with the convex
draught chain ia attached. This is a sort of rack surface forward. Other plonghs ^eclallj de-
or elongated iron staple, into which the chain is supcd for soathern use, and larg^; nipplied
hooked, high up fordecp ploughing, and lower like the preceding from northern manufactories,
down if the plougliing is to ^ shallow. The are known as tlie rice trenching ploo^t, the
greatest depth reached bj those of the lat^eet scooter plough^ the cotton scraper, &c The
fiiEe is about 18 inches, and the width of the chea[)est bretJong-up ploughs for this trade are
fnrrow about 34. As the breaking-np ploughs sold in New Yort at only $1.S5 each, and the
are mn through 8oU of some tenacity, as prai- heaviestof them fbrcottonfieldscost only ^4.60.
rie or grass lands, the furrow is regalsTly lud The cost of ploughs of thia class for sugar cnlti-
Bti over to one side; and as Uie plongh vationTarieBfrDm$4.60to|16. Themostpow-
comes round again another a^oining slice is erfnl brealdng-np plonghs are made for (S5.
laid against tiie former one ; and so the work Subsoil ploughs are designed not to torn up the
Con till the whole field is covered with the surface, but to loosen the soil below the depth
OTertnmed eUoes of earth and sod laid ordinarily reached in ploughing, for the pnrpoae
flat or slightly lapped at different angles on of admittmgafteerciroulation of aJraud moist-
each other, a* the nature of the soil may ore under and abont the roots of the plants,
require ; in stiff clayey soils sn angle of The plonghahare, long and slender, is strongly
abont 45° is best Side-lull ploughs are break- seemed to the lower end of an iron bar like a
ing-np ploughs with the mouldboard so ar- colter, which extends downward from the
ranged that, after mnning through the furrow end of the beam to the required depth. This
along the side of a hill, it may be instantly bar onts through the soil without disturbing it
shifted round and secured on the other side of at the surface, while below it is shaken and
the plough. By this contriTance the plongh lifted by the passage of the shore, — A form of
may pasa directly back and tnrn the next fiir- plough called the potato plough has of late come
row down the slope of the hill against the one into nee for digging potatoes. In the place of
which preceded it. Another modification of the mouldboard iron bars, set about 2 inches
the breddng-np plongh is, presented in the apart, extend back 1^ or 2 feet from the share
double mouldboard plough, which is designed on both sides, rising up toward the plough tail.
fbr tnming two fturows at once in opposite di- As this machine ia ran onder the potato hills it
reotions — a very expeditious mode of breaking liRa up the tubers and throws them to the snr-
gi the gronud for ditdiing. This clasa of face, while the earth lalls back on each side and
onghs is again modified in the variety known through the bars. A trench plough of great
as the skim or Uiohigan plough. This has in power, invented by ^ir. A. B. Allen of New
the nsnal place of the colter under the beam a York, was put in nse in 1861, designed to break
miniature plough, with its share and monld- ap and inUmately mix the subsoil and surface
hoard. This, running near the surface, takea soil to the depth of 8 to 8 feet, especially for
off the Bod m advance of the deeper plongh- vineyards, nnrseries, plantations of forest trees,
ing, and thus, it is found, materially diminiEhes and the cultivation of crops which require a
the amount of draught reqnired to do the whole deep tilth. It is drawn forward by a strong
work stonce. Uost of the modified forms of wire ropeoonnectedwith a horsewhim orcap-
monldboards, ploughshares, dec., are introduced stan; thisisfirmlysecnredon the border of the
wUh the special olfjeot of reducing the frio- piece of groond to be ploughed, and ia moved
tion to a lYiinimnm sod thereby lessening the along this border on the completion of every
amount of horse power. The be^na and handles half dozen furrows or thereabout.— In Sept.
ofplonghsarefbrtheaakeoflightnessgenerally 186 S, a practical testwasmade of the ateam
preferred of wood, though some are still made plongh of Mr. Joseph W. Fawkes of lAocaster
in the manner much in vogue a few years ago, co., Fenn., at the fair gronnds of the Illinois
especially in England, entirely of iron. Some state agricultoral society at Freeport, 111., and
double or triple ploughs are oonstmcted so as to it was recommended by the committee that
cut 2or8 fnrrowsatonce. The plonghs arose- the first prize of $3,000 be awarded to him for
ouredinBframeatsnchdistancesapartastotnm its satisfactory operation. One great obstacle
all the ground over which they pass, leaving no in the working of very heavy plonghing ma-
untouched places. They are adapted only to chines ia the necessity of passing over wet and
light soils, and penetrate to no great depOi. By Ixwgy placea in which Ihe wheels of ^e m&-
redncing the aize of the plough bodies and in- ohme sink and the whole l^ecomcs immovable.
creasing their namber, the implement becomes To guard against this liability, Mr. Fawkea
the cultivator, which ia made to cnt at once a made the weight to be borne by a hollow cyl-
namberofparallelshallowfluTowB. For merely inder of wood 6 feet long and fl feetindiame-
stirring and loosening the eoil to produce the ter, which ia set under the platform on whi<ji
effect of hoeing, plou^ of great siinpUuty are the engine and upright boiler are fixed. Tbia
ejltadflr being made to rerolre aotaMAdiiV' ii6raoffheflrEune,BiideftohoftlieBeploaghBl)as
iDg whoA, oanTing &I1 the maohiiiaiy along projeoting in front of its abara an ArdiimedesD
' with ik In front o( the dram is the fire box, ecrevr, ^ioh being made to revolTs In the
md belkifid it is the water tank. In the ez- gronnd aids to draw the machine along while it
traM &THit Are two Iron guide wheels 8^ feet also loosens the soil before the plough. Mr. H.
in dfmMter and IS inches brood, making a M. Flatt of New York has also patented a ro-
steniag track, whidi ia turned by a wheel on Tolving screw share, which takes the place of
tfae pimiim above in charge of the engineer, the ordinsiy share, and by its revolntioit lifts and
He engine ia of 80 horse power, and its oompletelj octa np and polTerizes the hrrow.
reight wiUi IS barrels of water and fael 10 Several patents have been granted in England
tons. ltd entire length is abont 18 feet. The to Ur, John Fowler, and prizes also (one of
ploachs, 8 in nmnber, are attached to a f^ame, 600 sovereigns in 18S9) have been awarded for
•hid) ia snapended by chains passing over his methods of ploughing hy means of one or
grooved pnlleya in two beams or davits that two steam engines. Ia the former case the
project backward from the platform of the en- engine, having two upright dmms or capstans,
gine. The chains pass forwai^ to a windlass b7 Issetatapoint inthefidd whiohmajbecalled
Thieh the fireman may raise the whole gang the apex of the triangnlar space occupied by the
up from the ground or let them down. The apparatns. At each of the other angles is set
(rBae of plooghs is drawn along b;r other a guide pnlley through which a strong wire rope
chaios passing under the platform. In opera- passes from one of the drums to the other, and
I'um it was found that an acre could be plough- to this rope between the pnllejn the ploughs an
ed in IS minntes. " A strip of land 348 yards attached. By the movement of the engme the
loog and 20 feet wide was ploughed in 4 mia- rope is first wound around one of the drmng
ntes; and the headlands of 60 feet were and unwound from the other, and, the flirrow
crossed, one in S7 seconds, the other in 80, being ran through, the motion is reversed snd
ibe plondis htSng elevated and lowered in the the ploughs are mn back in the other direction.
dme." Jta daily c^iadty was considered equal Eight and even la ploughs have been worked
to idon^ing 9S to 40 acres, and at an expense on the single rope, half of them pmnttng in
•m the nodler amoont aooompIiBhed of 64 one direction and the other half in the other.
«Qtg on aore, allowing for consumption of one They are attached to a frame whioh is balanced
ton of bituminous coal and one cord of wood upon the axle of a carriagejand is moved up
(S, labor of S men $4, oil |] , wear and tear fS, and down like a see-aaw. The guide pulleys
tod interut (10 per cent on $4,000) (1.19. The are moved as required to reach the unplonghed
codiaaiTPi^o^ for prune breaking is |2.G0per portion of the field. In the use of two engmes,
KK. — iliehigbly cultivated soilsofEnglandare one was placed at each, end of the furrow and
espedally •we& salted for st«am plou^tng, and an endless wire ro^ve was employed, which
Ksuiderable anooesa has attended the tri^ of was passed several times around Uie drum of
theseveralmediodsthereattempted. In some each en^e, and thus the ploughs between
oftheee methodatheenginemoves throughthe them were ^awn in either Erection bytheir
field draning the ploughs after it ; in others joint action. They were held in place by being
the plonks are nnaer £e engine platform, to attached to low tracks loaded with earth, and
which they are firmly attached ; and in others having thin sharp wheels which penetrated info
the en^ne is stationary and draws the ploughs the gronnd. These were easily moved along
bj wire ropes passed around drums on the en- the margin across the ends of the furrows as
r) and through pulleys seonred at a distance, the ploughing proceeded, but were not readily
1SB6 Mr. Boydell exhibited atOhelmsford drawn sidewise from their places. For ao-
SDengineofShorsepowerfordrawiogplonghs, counts of other steam ploughs, see the "Me-
vtuch weighed with the water it carried D chanica' Magazine" for I85fl and 1667.
teas, and moved npon a portable track in pieces PLOTEK, the common name of the chant'
£ke an en^eaa chain, wnich the wheels them- drina, a large group of wading birds, very gen-
Klvee Wd, and, after taming on them, raised erally distributed over the world. They have
up to be again l^d down in front. The ma- a moderately long and slender bill, with cnl-
enioe was steered by a truck of two small men depressed at the base bnt vaulted at the
wheels in fronL It was reported capable of tip, much as in the pigeons ; sidea compressed,
drawing 10 plongbs in light land at 6 inches and tn the groove are placed the nostrils;
depth at the rate of S miles on hoar; bnt the wings long and pointed ; tut moderate, broad,
ploughs are said to have been little larger than and generally even; tarsi usually long and
cultivators or gmbbers, and the engine was rather slender ; the outer and middle toes more
noable to overcome with them any little as- or less united at the base, the hind toe want-
cent A number of machines having the engine ing or very small ; claws compressed and onrv-
■nd ploughs all attached to the same frame ed ; the head is very lat^, the neck short and
have been exhibited in England. In one of thick, and the folded wings reach beyond the
these (Consin's), described in the " Mechanics' tail. The genus tantlhit nJnn.) has been de-
Ksgaiine," vol. Ixix. p. E6 (1868), a series of scribed unaer Lipwiuo. — In the genus ehant-.
Ploughshares and monldboards are arranged on drw» (Linn.) the bill is shorter than the head,
diagonal lines proceeding from the front cor- stivng and strai^t; the 1st qnill the longest;
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
404 I1X)TEB
hind t«6 vantmg. The preTaUing color b jel- pnriJedota Aitd dailc brown qiots; It ifl rerj-
lowiah grey, gpotted; ttaa tail tmurrerielT' plmnp in antnmn, and iaezoellent for the table;
banded; no collar on the neek; taniandlow- it feeds both vj night and day. The ring
er thighs nuiformly retioolated; 1^ Unitb plorer {0. aMnqwAnohM, Bonap.) ia a little
green. Thej are nHaallj' aeen in small flocka smaller than the last, light ashy brown nbov^
near the sea, in the sonuner often going in- tinsed with olive ; under parts, traat, throat,
land ; the food consista of small inaecU, inol- and ring aronnd the necK, white ; a black
Insks, worms, and berries, and ia oanall]' songht band acroaa the breast, extending aronnd the
in the evening or at night; the j are strong and back of the neck below the white ring; biQ
n^id fliers, though for ahort distances, and fast orange, blaok-tipped, and 1^ yellow ; cemale
mnnera ; Uie note is a plaintiTe whistle easily ^mllar, bnt lighter ; jxinng wiUiont the black
Imitated, as sportsmen well know; the nest u fronts! bsnd, and Uie pectoral band asfaj
a alight hollow in the sand, lined with dried brown. It u fonnd thronghont temperate
grass, and the egvs, conunonly 4, are placed North America, and is common on the Atlan-
with the small ends together ^ the yonng leave tie coast ; it breeds in the north, in Labrador
the nest as soon aa hatched ; if distnrbea on or abont Jnne 1, in rocky mossy districts in tbe
near the nest, the parent birds nse Tsriona interior; the neat is a cavity in the mow, shd-
devioea to lead the intruder from it, pretend- tared from the north winds and exposed to tbe
ing lameneiB or inability to fly. The gdden son, near the pools formed by tiie melting
plover {0. FMVJnwwa, Borck.) is abont 10^ mow; itgoessonth abont the middle of Aa-
inchea in length and 2fti in alar extent; in the gast; the flesh of the yonng birds ia jidcy and
male tbe npper parts are brownish black, with tender ; it assocdatea with other birds of ^mi-
nmnerons q>ots of golden yellow, on the upper lar habits, and is not at all shy. The piping
tail ooverti generally assaming the form of plover (0. mtlodut, Ord) is abont as large aa
transverse bmds ; entire under parte In the the last, bnt of a much lighter brown, aJtnoat
breedingseasonblackwitha brownish bronzed ashy, the feathers with a whitish ed^ng; there
lustre ; Dill black. Aiter the autumnal moult is no black band fron the bill through and nn-
the black of the under parts gives place to light der the eye ; the white collar aronnd neck, and
grayish with darker spots and streaka. It is tbe black frontal and pectoral bands leas, tbe
found all over North Americ^ and in Bonth latter nsnally not meetiog in front ; rump and
A^atf^^ w Anig^gnd Europe; it is called bnll- upper twl coverts almost white; tail white at
AmerioijN
head and fi
head and field plover ; it breeds in the north, base, tipped with black. It is fonud thiougb-
mlng sooth in winter. It ve^ much resembles out eastern North America, as ftur as Kebr^a
UielmTOpean golden plover (f7.p2uDva2if,Iiniu), oocssionally, and in the eonthern states; it
exoept tnat the Bzillariea in the latter sre white breeds all al<H)g the sandy ooasts from Labrador
instead of ashy; the egga are said to bedell- to Florida; it rarely goes far inland, snd doea
dons, as also are the young and old birds, not fr^qnent rocky or mnddy places. It is a
The dotterel of Europe (O. morintlhu, Linn.), very rspid flier and runner, and is so nearly
very oommon, is blaokiBh ash with a white the color of the sand on wUeh it squats dose
band behind the eyes and another above the when alarmed that it is hard to detect The
breast; breast and flanks reddish brown, and notes are very soft and mellow, approaehmg
end of tail white. Bole separsted from ehara- those of a song bird, whence its nameL It is
dritu the genus agiaiitU, oomprimng several seldom pursued by sportsmen, on acoount of
smaller spe^ea, with lighter and nnuorm nn- its email aiie, thou^ its flesh is very delicate
qiotted plnmage, with neck utd head generally and savory. The European ring pWer {G.
Mndedwithdul^andwitbontoonllniiousbladt hiatieuUt, Linn.) so nearly resembles the C.
on the abdomen. The G following plovers be- temipdhnatv* of America as to be with diffi-
lony to thia genua of Boie. The kildeer (C. ouHy distinguished from iL There are about
VM^trvi, Linn.) has been notjced under that 40 other spedes of the genns eharadrivM. — In
title. Wilson's plover {C. WiUoniv*, Ord) is the genus HuotoraZa (Ouv.) the biH is nearly
about 7i inches long and 144 in alar extent ; aa long as uie head, strone and straight ; tail
bill 1 inch, robust ; entire under plumage, fore- long, broad, and rounded ; iiind toe very small,
head, and stripe over eye, white ;bw&d of Uaok not touching the ground. Two qtedes are d»-
above the white one on forehead; wide trana- scribed, found In both hMnispberts, migrating
Terse band on breast brownish Mack; npper from the temperate to arctic and antarotao re-
partaliajit ashy brown; aringof whltearomid gions, where they pass the warmer mmiths;
the badt of neck; bill black and legs yellow, they frequent river maigins and marshes as
In the female there is not the black on the well as the sea abore, mnning with rapidil?
forehead, and the pectoral bond is reddish and uttering at the same t^e a Eiurill piping
and ashy brows. It is found on the Atlantic whistle ; the food consists of worms, singe, and
ooaat of the middle and southern states and varlona insects ; the nest is a sli^t hollow in
in Brasil ■ It is a oonstsnt reddent in the the gronnd lined with dry grao. Tbe Uack-
Bonth, snd breeds there, sometimes gtnng as bellied |doTer (A .ffoIeetM&Cnv.) Is the largest
far north as Long island; the breeding aeason of the American birds of this gronp, having a
commencea about June J ; the eras are 1^ by length of abont 13 InchM. Most or the lower
1 inch, dull oream-colored, wiu a &w pale part^ the frunt of the neck, and aronnd the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
IXOWDEIT FLUU 406
biM of th« bin to the e/ea, tre black ; above oftlteIavIn1he90Uir«arofMaage, ^ I68T
rti(e,iMarij pore Ml the forehead, barred with and 1580 ho was reader, or leotnrer, of the
browniabblaf^onthebaokaiidt^ and tinged Middle Temple, and at the end of the reign <rf
vilh ash7 on the eidea i abdomen, under t^ Qaeen Mar; was made sergeant at law. He
ooTuts, and tibiie white ; qaiUs brownish wrote " Oommentariea or Reports of Divers
bluk ; bill and legs black. In winter the pin- Oases in the Belgns of Edward YI., Matj, and
mags is dark brown above, spotted with whito Elizabeth" (London, 1671, 1578, IC 99, 1818,
and jellow, and white below, with dark brown and 1816), and "QDerieB, ot a Hoot-Book of
Edcs and ^ots on the breasL It is widelj die- Oases, translated, methodized, and enlarged"
triboted over America, and along thesea coasts (8vo., London, 18SS). His worlu are reguded
of most parts of the world ; it migrates ohieflj as the most aoonr^ and anthoritative of the
bj nigh^ resting and feeding bj day ; it U verr old reports.
■hf exoept in Ute breeding season, which is the PLUU, a hardy fruit, wMob orwn&ted tram
•ame as to time as in the other species. The the bnllaoe (prunus wuittCta, Lum.), a vft-
itme plover, ^plied to the varioos birds of this rlety of the sloe (P. t^tiota, Ijnn.), and from
ETinip, is a oorraptioa of the French pbantr, the P. domattiea of LinnEens. The sloe is a
aerived from the fact that their flocks are in large, spiny shmb, or small scmbby tree wiUi
the habit of migrating daring the rainy sea- a dear stem 8 to 4 feet high ; its bark is blaok,
wa in aotnmn. — The bird called the upland whence it is termed blaok thorn; ita leaves
or field plover is Bortnun'a sandpiper, be- dark green ; its flowers soUtsry, white ; Qm
longing to the snb-familj totanina, and is the atamans, SO to 80, have orange anthers; the
tctiluna BarCramitu (Bonap.), or tringa Bar- style 1 or sometimes 3 : the frnit a globose
mnia (Wile.). This bird IS 12 inohes loug ; black drupe covered with a besntifal bhie
the bill is not longer than the head, carved at bloom when ripe. It is a native of S. Russia,
the tip, the cleft eztendiog nearly to the eyes ; Uie Caucasus, and the banks of the Yolga, but
the npper mandible is grooved for i of its has spread into other parts of the world. It
length, sod the feathers eitend on it ftarther belongs to the natural order dng>aeea. (Boa
than on the lower ; wings and legs long; tar- Peaoh.) The bullaoe has apiny bran<^a8,
ms longer thsn middle toe ; outer toe most flowers in pairs, ovate or lanceolate leaves,
webbed; tail more than half the wing, gradn- and ronndiAi fhiit ^The domestic plum (P.
ated. The general color is brownish blaok domMtmi has spineless branches, mostly aoU-
sbove with a greenish lustre, the feathers tary flowers, lanceolate leaves, grows IS to 20
edged with a^y white and yellow ; lateral tul feet high, and ^ows a resembtanoe to the
corerts yellowish white, with black arrow- sloe, though larger in all its parts. The orif^
heads; wide strip« over eye and under parts nal species and its two principal varieties have
pale ydlowiah white, nearly pare white on sb- a wide geographical range, extending ttcaa
domen, with brownish black lines on the neck; Norway to Barbary, and from Portugal to
lug light yellow. This is the most terrestrial Cashmere and even Nepant. Damasoos was
of the &mily, frequenting as ita name imports fbrmerly oelebratod for this fruit, and the
Die upland dry places, sometimes in the neigh- many Unds known as damsons probsblv orlgi-
boibood of and at others &r removed from the nally came from there. The cOierr)' plum or
MS. It is spread over eastern North America, myrobalan has a huidsome red globose frnit
Soath America, and Europe, very abnndant in which is depressed at base ; its not is fbmi^ed
the interior of the Atlantic states, preferring with a small point. It is a very interesting
pJ«ns and onltivated fields ; It is one of the fruit, and may be regarded ss the first remove
few species which have not decreased with ex- ftom the bnllaoe. The myrobalan is spoken of
taoded onltivation. It pssses the winter in the favorably as an ornamental tree, deserving a
nat prairies of the sooth- west, going in spring place in ^dens on acoount of its early flow-
sod tonunar as for north even ss the Saskatch- ering. The aprioot-Uke plum has t^e appear-
flvsD, rebtming in the antninn; it is seen in anoe of an intermediate state between the wild
Ivge and small flocks, and sometimes In pairs ; apricot and the wild plum ; it is regarded
itisverr wary, a swift flier, and a rspid runner: however as a sub-vane^ of tlio domestio
tbenotM are pl^tive and mellow: the fbod plum. The finer kinds of garden ploms are
MiiMta of beetles, grasshoppers, orieketa, seeds, ibnnd to varr greatly from each otner in tha
«Ddb«n1ea; it is fat and jnioy hi the antomn, aise of fbliage, earlier or later blossoming, fazo
sod euMltait eaUng ; the nabits are the ssme and sh^>e of the fruits, and in the nnoouin«M
ai in tti* tme plovera, which, though ranked or downinesa as well as vigor of their yonng
smoag waders, rarely enter the water except ihools. The ninnber of approved kinds, aooord-
oa dte VM7 edge of the sea and ponds. ing to the latest English catalogues, is 274; the
PLOWOEN', Erannnt, an Sn^ish lawyer, beet American authorities reduce Uiat nomber
bora abont 1517, died in 1C84. Be studied at considerably. A large number of ohoioe sorts
Ounbtidge and Oxford, and In 155S was ad- have originated in the TTnited States, and some
■nittsd to practise physio and surgery. He of great size and beauty of fruit Those known
^en itudiea the common law, aooormng to as the Lombsrd, red gage, golden drop, Ao.,
Wood ; bnt Flowden In the pre&oe to his with all the damsons, besr fruit well in sandy
" Oimimeataries" aays that he began the stad;' loils ; while the Smith's Orleans, Washington,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
406 n.m[
Doaiw*! porple, &o^ BMm anited to ft nortli- olofl6mQ>6BtoT«&aafiidi(A&rMlionn; th^
emoliiiute; and the imperial g«ge, Gem's gold- are than Uk«n out and n^daood after ttieovAns
QD drop, and Hnling'e saperb are better Bnit«d have been sUghtlj Teheat«d. On tbe next daj
to a Bontbern. In this oonatrr the garden tliv are taken out and tamed bfili^tljahak-
phms are nsnallr pnmgated hj soiring tbe ing tbe rieres on wbidt tiuj bare bew laid.
SQts or Btones of anj free-growmg Unds, and Tbe orens are beated ag^ and tbey are pot
budding tbem with tbe ohoioar aorta wben in a third time ; and after remaining S4 bonn
tbef are two jears old. Tbe seedlings of tbe thej are taken oat sod left to get quite c<^
Mirabelle j^om are used when dwarf trees are After soma maoipnlation thefare Enbrnittad to
wanted. The plum will grow well in almost oren heat twice more, and then put looeelj into
anrsoil, bnt withsomeeioeptionsheaTjloams small, long, and laihtx deep boxes for aale.
and earths aboanding in riiaj eeem best. Unok From the oniised palp of plams and firom the
from salt water marahee and from docks bos kernels fermentod with honej and Roar, and
been found verj serrioeable. Oommon salt the rasss snbjected to distUlation, an ezouknt
promotes the hesltJi and laxnrianoe of the gar- R>irit is obtained in tbe sonth of France. — The
oen plum, and is disagreeable to insects wbiob uoe and bnlloce have both become naturalised
infost it — The plom is liable to a Bingolar di»- in the United States. Foot natire species are
ease, known as tbe blacik wart, vbioh, seisng also known to our flora. ThoGbiokasaw plnm
ivion UieTOiuig toanohee, ends bjdeslroTing (P. (AMb)aiLKx.)iBaBbmborDnall tiee,wUli
them. From some exsmination we are led to thin, lanceolate, acnte, amootb, sbarplr ser-
thjnk that ila orlg^ is in the too great tendenoj rate, glandnlar'toothed leaves ; short-pedonded
In some soils to make fruit buds, and sn insde- flowers ; smooth oaljz, and a ydlowisb red
qnste sopplr of inorganio materials in the soil globose drupe, of i inch diameter, thin-ekin-
to ripen and perfect the wood. This tendency ned, and of an agreeable flavor. It is foimd in
oanses a tmnid sweBing of the tender tissnee, old fields and thiokets in the eonthera states,
wbi(^ is mistaken hy tAe plum weeril for the bat probablr is only native to tbe oonnti? west
fridt, slinging whiob to d.epoBit its oks odIt of tbe Mla^ippl river. The wild jellow or
aggravates tM evil ; after a while the bark red plnm (P. Amerietma, Marshall) is a bnshj
borsts and cracks, and a small bnt gregarions free 8 to SO feet hi^ with ovate or somewbat
fongos (fpharia merbtma, Fries) appears upon obovate, oonspicaooslf pointed or doablj ser-
the sarfaoe and finishes the work. The plom rate, rerj veiny leaves j thefrnit roondi^oval,
weevil olladed to is the rhf/rteAoawt netiavhar f inoh ia diameter, with a torrid stone ; tbe
(Harris), a small coleopterous insect, which skinistonghandacid,batthepu[pisof apleaft-
piereestbejoimgfniitB as booq as thej are aet, aut taste. This species bass wide range, along
and oanses than to prematnrelj ioll, so that banks of streams in Canada to Qeor^ and
vaJtuble crops are thasaoniullf lost. The best Texas. It has been introdnccd into caltivation,
prerentiTeoisooTered is shaking Qke trees dail7 and bos nndergone some modificatjons in the
for a ftw weeks and Mfj^tiing tbe beetles in torm and stmctare of its fniit. Tbe beach
ontapread dieeta, wben they mnat be killed, plam (P. maritima, Wangenheim) is a low
The fallen plnms shoold be aJso CBrefiillj gath- shrob with straggling brancbes and aolgect to
ered ap and burned. — The ohief uses of tbe several forms ; its irmt is often an inch in di~
plnm are for dessert and for preserving in ameter and pleasant to the tasto, but sometiniee
rirops. In France several distinct sorts are astringent It b pecnliar to sandy coasts, tang-
raised ezpresslj to manufoctare into a sort ing from MasBochnsette to New Jersey ; and in
of dried preserve called brifrwUt. The frnits the variety with smaller red or purfjish fruit,
are not gathered nntU tbe snn has dried off it reaches to Yirginia and Alabama. The P.
the dews; the trees are slightly shaken so glandvloia (Hooker) has been noticed in Texas
that onlytbe ripest mayfall Into cloths Isid byI>mnimond,havingastemless thanone foot
nnder them for the purpose ; tbey are then high and Terr crooked thorny brancbea, amall
spread In shallow baskets, which are kept in a ovaL obtme leaves, and umbels of 1 or 3 flow-
oool and dt7 place. The next day the skin is ers, bnt with nnknown frnit Borne other epe-
removed witboat tbe aee of any iron instm- ciee of plnms have been described by Tbanberg
meut which woold spoil their oldor, when tbey and others as natives of J^^on, China, Ac, bat
ore dried in tbe sim on wooden sieves or wicker little is known regarding them. — The wood of
frames, after whiob they are threaded at the the plom, espeiua]^ of tne wild BpecieB,ie hard,
tip on little rods so as not to touch each other, and bears a polish, bnt is s^it to crack, and fit
and hang np to dry in the son and air nntil chiefly for handles to toou and for walking
every puti Je of moistnre appears to be evap- sticks. Tbe spiny branches of tbe sloe are nsed
orated ; the stones are then removed and the for dead hedges and to protect the stems of
Bb^»e of the plam restored. After a second Talnidile trees from cattle. Its leaves dried
oareftd drying u tbe son tbey are arranged in loake a snbstitnte for tea, and sU kinds of do-
little ronnd flat boxes and are ready for s^. — mestia aniwalt are fond of them ; the bark is
Tlie best prunes are made of the variety known nsed as a febrifbge, and the frnit isstyptio ; tba
astbeStOatharinejdnmandtbepfiiMtr^sA. barkslso has been nsed intsnningj a decoc-
ASier being exposed in the dr for several days tion of it in alkali dyes yellow, and in solpbate
till they have beoome soft, they are shot np of iron it lonaa a beaatiflil black ink ; its on-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FLDICB LINE FLUTABOH 4ffl
rtpe frrdt has been pickled as a sabstitDte tat oat he gtm professioasl ud to the patriots,
ofiraa, but tbe flowers are pnrgative. The gum and was pnbliclj acoosed of being an associate
of theoonunon plom treereaembleetraKacaath. In their prooeedings, bnt the olurge was dis-
PLUVB LINE, or Plthimet (LaL plumbum, proved. Ha entered the Irish parliament is
l«ad), nn instniment consisting of a weight, I7S6 as member for Oharlemont. He opposed
Dsn^ of lead, han^g to a string, nsed bj the legislative onion with England in 1800, and
■ztiflcere and others to fix vertioal lines, or more his speeches in the debates on that measare
cmmtHj those in the direction of terrestrial raised him to the first rank of his part; ; the;
grsnt;'. This instmment was in nse by the also greatly increased his practice at the bar, to
aacienta, and is referred to in the books of whichheretorned when the union wasacoom-
Amoa, Tii 7, 8, and Isaiah, zxviii. 17. One pUshed. In 1803 he was made solicitor-goD-
fimb of a carpenter's square being set in a ver- eral for Ireland, and on the outbreak of Em-
tioal position by aplomb line attached to it, the met'a rebellion was selected by the crown as
otiier Umb mnst be horizontal ; and so the in- one of the lawyers for the prosecntion. His
BtnmuDt may serve to determine horiamtal as speech on that occasion enwsed him to mnch
wdl as vertiiUl lines. By means of a qoadrant obloqny, and to the abnse of Cobbett, whom he
aeala between the two legs of the square and snocessfiilly prosecnted upon a libel suit. In
s {jomb line anspended from the central point 1B05 be was made, by Pitt, attorney-general for
of Junction, anajes of inolinatioa of the sot- Ireland, and was continned in that position nnder
Ace apon which the instnunent stands from Lord Qrenrille. He held a seat m parliament
the horiEontal or vertical may be read. In dnring the same period, and made several able
■srreying and astronomical instruments the speeches in favor of Oatholio emancipation.
phimb Ime is sometimes nsed as a means of On the dissolntion of tbe ministry in 1807, he
n:diig and regnlating their position, bnt the retired, bat in 1812 reentered parliament as
l^irit levels generally employed instead, memberforTrinlty college. He was again made
PLUitBAGO. See Gsaphite. attorney-general for Ireland in 1822, and one
PLUUER, WiujAV, an American poUtidan, of his fb'st official acts was to prosecute a large
governor of New Hampshire, bom in Newbn^, nnmber of Orangemen for riot. Made master
Mass., Jnne 2S, 17S9, died in Epping, N. H., of the rolls in England in 1827, be was corn-
Dec 33, 1860. WhenhewasonlySyearsof age pelled through thejealonsy of the English bar
his &mily removed to Epping, and in that place to abandon the office, and soon after was ele-
bs lived antil his death. He was admitted to rated to the post of chief Justice of the common
tbe bar in 1787, became q)eedi]y snccessfol as pleas in Ireland, and was ennobled. In 1880
a lawyer, and for many years took an active he was appointed lord ohanoellor of Ireland,
part to the political movements of New Hamp- and held the office, except for a brief interval,
•hirs. He was 8 times elected a represents- 'nntill341, whenheflnallyretiredtoprivatelife.
tire to the state legislatnre. of which he was FLUSH (Fr. pehuhe), a textile faoric distin-
apeaker for two years, ana snbseqiiently he goished by its velvet nap or shag on one side,
was a member and for two years president of It may be entirely of worsted, or of cotton, or
the rtate senate. In 1793 he was one of the silk \ but it is nsnally composed of a woof of a
delegates to the convention for revising the single woollen thread and a twofold warp, the
eouotttation of the state, in the proceedings of onewool of two threads twisted, the other goats'
which body he bore a prominent part. In 1803 or camels' htur. As the h^warp is nusedby
be was ejected to the U. 8. senate, and in 1812, one treadle and the woollen warp is depressed
1810, 1817, and 1818 was chosen governor of by the other two treadles, the woof is passed
Kew Hampshire. In 1820 he was a presiden- between. Afterward the hur warp is cot with
lial elector, whidh was the hkst pnblic office he a fine-pointed knife, thas producing the velvety
filled, as from this time he devoted himself to appearance. Flush is especially aFrench man-
literary pnrsnits. He contributed largely to nfactore, though It was long since made by the
du periodical press, but otherwise published English and Dutch.
Utde, attiioagh he left many manuscripts. — A FLUTABOH, a Greek biographer a&d ^•
fife of Gov. Flumer has been written by his son, losopher, bom in Ohteronea in Bieotia. The
ITtlliam Flumer, jr., and edited by the Eev, A. little that is known of his life has been col-
P. Peabody, D.D. (8vo., Boston, 1866). lected chiefly from his own works. He was
pi.TTUirKT, William OoirraaKAK, baron, studying philosophy under Ammonina at Delphi
an Irish lawyer, bom in Enniskillen in July, when Nero visited Greece in A. B. 63. He alsa
17M, died Jan. 4, 1654. He was the second visited several parts of Italy, and remuned for
•on of a Fresbytoriaa minister, who removed some time at Bome, where he lectured daring
to Dnblin while WUliun was still young, and tbe reian of Domitian. It is probable that he
dying toon afterward left his family to the care spent the later years of his hfe at Ohsronea,
of his oongregration. William was graduated where ha says that he wrote the life of Be-
at Tiiidtf oollege, Dublin, obtuned a scholar- mosthenes. Here he discharged the duties
■bni, entered iXiooln's Inn in 1784, and was of a magistrate, and was also a priest of ApoUo.
oiiud to the Irish bar in 1787. His profes- He was married to a lady of his native city
rional progress was slow, but he became king's named Timozena, and had 6 children, to one
eMmsel la 1Y98. When the rebellloa broke of whi»u,Lamprias, is attributed the catalogne
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
408 PLUTO PLTHODTH
of liu prodncdoiiB. The statement of Snidae andlame, when going from them swift-whiged.
that Plutarch was the preceptor of Tr^an is He appears to have heen nsnallj represented aa
probably unfonndod. Ot the time and mimn. ' a hoy with a comucopia.
of his death we have no knowledge, altliong FLTMOUTH. I. A. B. E. co. of Uaaa., bor-
it is certain that he lived to an advanced age, deredE.h^ltlafieachiiBettBbay, and B. partlj h^
Fabridua oonjeotared that he died when 70 Buzzard's hay, and watered by Taunton and
years old, in the reign of Hadrian. The great North rivers; area estimated at VOO sq. m. ;
work of PIntarch is hia "Parallel Lives." In pop. in 1860, 68,784. Ita soil is not fertile,
thtahe writes abiography of a Greek and of a The agricnltnral prodnctions in 1866 were
Roman, and then nmkes a comparison between 189,617 bushels of Indian com, 281,696 of po-
the two, although in some cases the compari- tatoea, 19,046 tons of he^, 8,628 lbs. of V0<^
sons are now lost There are 46 of these lifes and 899^876 of butter. The coastmg trade and
extant. The other works ascribed to him, fisheries occupy much of the indnatry ot the
nmubeHngabontSO,are ranged togethernnder county. In 1866 there were 18 vessels of
the general title of Moralia, but 11 of them 8,619 tons ei^aged in the whale fishery, and the
ore on historical subjects. Some of these receiptsof oil were: whale, 46,108 galle., value
essays were probablj not written b; Plutarch. (83,881 ; spenn, 108,766 galls., value |188,291.
Bis "Live3"iie himself preferred to his other The mackerel and cod fishery employed 96 ves-
worka. The first edition of the "Xiivea" in the aels of 7,368 tons, returning 12,666 barrela of
Greek text appeared at Morence in 1617, and maokertj, and 89.792 qnint^ of cod£sh. There
the latest and beat is that of 0. Smtenis (4 vols, were 6 cotton mills, 20 forges, 28 rolling, slit^
8vo., Leipsio, 18S9-'46). Of the nmnerons ing, and nail mills, 16 Aimaces for hollow ware
translations of the work, the excellent French and castdnga, 12 tack and brad fitctoriea, and 83
one of Amyot waa rendered Into English by Sir establishments for the mann&cture of rail cars,
Thomas Korth in 1612. Dryden's translation coaches, and other vehicles. In 1868 there were
ia really the work of other hands, the poet 127 churches and 6 newspaper offices. The
himself having written scarcely any thing but Old Colony and Cape Cod railroads, beside
the dedication to the duke of Ormond, and the branches, give the county eitenaive commnni-
life of Plutarch. There is another English cation with the large cities of Ifew England,
translation by John and William Longhome. Capital, Plymouth. U. A N. W. co. of Iowa,
A revision of Dryden'a has been edited by Ar- bound^W. bytbe Sioni river, and interseclea
thur Hugh Olough (B vols, 8vo., Boston, 1860). by Floyd river ; area eBtunstad at 850 sq. m. ;
Theflrstedltionof the ifomZto, very incorrect, pop. in 1669, 112; productions in 1869, 400
was that of the elder Aldus (foL, Venice. 1609). bushels of wheat, 866 of oata, 11,126 of Indian
The best is that of Wyttenbach (8 vols. 4to., com, 2,626 of potatoes, and 817 tons of hay.
Oxford, 1795-1821). It baa been translated PLYMOUTH, the shire town of Plymouth
into French by Amyot, into German by EaJt- co., Mass., 871 m. 8. E. from Boston by the Old
wasser, and into English by Howard (London, Colonyrsilroad; pop.inl860, 6,274^ Thetown-
1603). The first edition of the complete works ship is one of the largest m the Btat« in point of
is that of H. Stephens (18 vols. 6vo., Geneva, area, extending on the coast about 16 m.fromN.
15^. toS. PlymouUivillaaeissitnatedattheK.end
PLUTO, In andent mythology, the god of of the township, and Is compactly built, chiefly
the lower world, usually known m Greek my- of wood. It is a port of entry, and the harbor
thology as Hades. He waa a son of Satnm b formed partly by a beach 8 m. long, which
and Bhea, and was brother of Jupiter and extends N. and B. and protects it from the wa-
Neptune; and when the world was divided ters of Massachusetts bay. The harbor is lai^
among the three, he obtidned for his share bnt ahallow. A considerable number of trading
" the darkness of night." His wife, called by and fishmg vessels are owned here. The man-
the Greeks Persephone and by the Romans ufactnres of the town ore of more importance
Proserpine, was the daughter of Ceres, and than the coasting and fishing trade. They con-
was violently carried from the upper world, dst of cotton goods, as cloth, duck, and thread:
Of all the gods, he was the most hated of mor- iron ware, as hoops, nails, rivets ; cordage, of
tals, and his temple and statues do not seem to which the factories are extensive \ sails, boots
have beon numerous. In Homer he is always and shoes, articles of clothing, &o. The most
called Hades, but among the later Greek writers noted odSce is Pilgrim hall on Conrt street.
that term came generally to be applied to the built in 1824^'5, which contains a large hall
abode of the dead itself. By the Roman poets and curiosities relating to the pilgrims of the
Dia, Oroua, and Tartarus are used as synony- Mayflower and other early settlers of Masaaohn-
mons with Pluto. setts, together with historical paintings, and
PLUTOS (called also Pluton), in ancient my- portraits of distinguished citizens. Among the
tholo^, the god of wealth. He was the son antiquities is a chair that belonged to Gov.
of Jasion and Ceres, and is aaid to have heen Carver, the sword of Capt. MUes Standish,
blinded by Jupiter so that he might distribute and a variety of aboriginal weapons and imple-
his ^ifts without regard to merit, he having ments. — Plymouth is the oldest town in New
nrevioualy granted them to the good exclusive' England. The pilgrim fathers landed her«
ly. When coming to mortals he iadow-footed Deo. 11, 1620, O.S., on agrsnite bowlder lying
>y Google
PLTKOUTH PLYMOUTH BRETHBKN 409
on the ibore, near wbioh it has been proposed peoted to meet then. In the afternoon or even-
to erect a moanment, tho oomor stone of which :iig of the Lord's dav thej preach to each as
TU laid Abo. 1, 1S59. n^ not j-et oonverted. — The Plfmonth Breth-
PLYMOtJTH, a fortified aoaport of Devon- ■ a spread first through Great Britwn, and par-
Aire, England, sitnal«d at the head of the ' onlarl? in the town of Fljmonth, where
eowd of the same name, on the river Plpn, 220 they gained perhaps 1,S00 belioTors ; faenoe ti)e
m. W. 8. W. from London ; pop. in 1851, 63,321. name. Thej soon became divided into three
Talen in ita widest sense, the name compro- parties. At the head of one of them was Dar-
leods what are called the "Three Towns," viz., hj\ at the head of a second Kewton, whose
Pljmoath, Devonport, and Stonehonse. Ply- pecoliar doctrines respecting the person of
moatb proper is a very tluiving and handsome Orist were generally repndi^d by tno donom-
town, covering ahont 1 sq. m. of ground. The ination as heretical, and afterwsrd retracted
rayal hotel ia an extensive stmotore with a y the author. Among the other congrega-
theatre and assembly rooms attached, erected uons which refused to ho involved in the bitter
ij the corporation of the town at a cost of porsonal controversies between Newton and
££0,000. IntheOottonianpublicIibrarythere Darby, the Bethesda congregation of Bristol
are many rare and valnable works, a large col- was prominent. The leader of this congrega-
lectioQ of USS., puntinga, drawings, &«. The Uon, George MQller, is the author of the well
plaeo owes its celebrity to its fine harbor and known aatobiographioal work, " The Lord's
dockyard. <^ee I^vompobt.) It ia supplied Dealings with George MQller," repnbliahed in
with water bronght from Dartmoor by a chan- America, with an introdnction ^ Dr. Wayland,
Del 24 m. Ions. The mann&otnres, with the under the title of "A life ofniisl" (Boston,
exception of those conneoted with the naval 1631). Notwithstanding their internal ^vi-
eetablisbments, are of littie importance. The sione, the Plymouth Brethreu have of late been
fijlierie« are very productive. — Plymontb was a making great progress in Great Britain, and in
plsix of some importance inl438. ThoBritish 1860 a revivalist of some note, the Itev. Mr.
tieet rendezvoused here at the time of the Guinness, was baptized by one of their leading
threatened invasion of the Spanish armada; men, Lord Oongleton. In 1860 they had 133
and the port equipped 7 ships and a fly boat as placoa of worship, which number, we believe,
ib share of the fleet. It sided with the parlia- lias since been considerably increased. At pres-
Dtent against Obarles L, and was sereral times ent gatherings of them exist, varying from a
DDsncoessflilly besieged by the royal foroes. It small number to many hundreds, in most of
returns 3 members to parliament. the cities and large towns of England, Scot-
PLYMOCTH BRETHREN, a Ohristian de- land, and Ireland, also in remote country dis-
Domioation which arose a little mora than SO tricts and villages. — Darby wss induced in
years ago in Great Britain. Among its early 18S8, by the opposition which he met ia Eng-
prominent leaders was John Darby, an Anglican land, to remove to Switzerland. He gathered
clergyman, after whom the members of the a number of adherents in almost every town
denomination on the continent of Europe have of the canton of Tand, and in several towns of
freqaently been called Darbyites. From a Geneva and Bern. A French periodical, Le
donbt as to the apostolic snocession in the Umoignage dei dUeipltt dt la parole (afterward
ohnrch of England, Darby proceeded to r^ect called Sbudtt teripturairei), was started for
sUogetber the idea of a still legally existing the propagation of their tenets, and a kind of
GhnsCian church, and muntained that Chris- seminary established for trdning missionaries,
tiaos of like opinions should gather together They suffered some losses from the political
in HmAll bands to prepare for the second advent revolution in the canton of Vaud in ISiS, and
of the Lord, which Darby hoped he woiUd live later from the organization of a free reformed
to see. The Brethren have no written creed church; yet they Htill have congregations in
v confession, and every one is allowed entire most of the towns of Vaud, of which the most
freedom of belief; yet they hold the total de- numerous are those of Lausanne and Yevay.
praTitf of man, the necessity of regeneration From Switzerland they spread into France,
by the Holy Spirit, and the atonement by the where they havooongregations inFaris,Lyons,
nfferin^ and death of Christ They rdeot Uarseillos, and a number of other places. They
iS special deugnation or ordination to ti)e office have been still more succesaful in Italy since
of the ministiy, hut regard all true Ohristians 184B, where nearly aU the numerous so called
as priests, who, if they are fonod able to edify free evangelical associations, under the leader-
Uie bretliren, are authorized to preach and ad' ship of Dr. De Sanctis, Professor Uaszarella of
nunister the sacraments without any human Bologna, Count Guicciardini, and others, have
can or ordination. As a body, they practise adopted their prindples to a greater or less
adult baptism only; they do not make it aeon- extent, A few scattered congregations are
dicion ot membership, yet generally succeed in foond in Germany, at Oape Colony, ia Anstra-
ctMivinetngtheirmembersof theimportanoeof lla. New Zealand, and Canada. They made
beinf rebaptized. Their worship counts um- their appearance also in the East Indies, where
ply In adoration, praise, and thanksgiving to Bishop Wilson of Calcutta published a pastoral
Ood. They partake of the Lord's supper every letter against them. In the United States there
Smd»3 morning, and believers only are ex- are gatheriogB in Philadelphia and various oth-
UigmzoQbyGOOgIC
410 FLTUOUTH SOUSO PKSDUATIOS
er places. Here aim diiMiidotu bsva aliown out qiparent resistance, ft isinrealitr a material
thenuelTea: in Kiiladelphia, for exaiuDle, there mass, poBsessiiiK eoiuidcorable denoU^, baTii^
is a Beooad meetJng, not T«oogiii2«d by the the propertr of Inertia in oominoiiwiut all mat-
others, on aooonnt^ni^ding views on the non- ter, and actoallj oppodog redstauoa to aU ef-
etemitj of ftitiire ponl^unent irbioh the Breth- forte which direotlf tend to finpart motion to it.
ren genenHj oonrider heretiosl. A {aH acconnt Usnj gases, ss the air, are pennanent, preserr-
of ue dissfflOffions among the Pljmonth Breth- ing their gaseous form tmder sU Aegrees of
ren of England is nren by Est6oale, £s Fly- temperatDre or oompresrios to vM<^ aey have
moathitmt tPamW^fiti* et U Darhyitma cPtm- yet been sabjeoted. Other gases, as (Uorine
«iwvrAu» (Paris, 1868). The best, thooghverf and ammonia, are by the agency of cold and
brief^ ^etoh of their origin, rise, and progress, preaoire oaneed to change their state, beooming
(rf their present condition and principles, and of nqoida or solids, and for the time, of coorae^
the literary productions of the denomination, losiof; the pecnjiar properties of the aCriform
may be fonnd in Urs. H. Grattau GnlnneBs's condition; these are non-permanent gases. By '
" Answer to the Qaestion : Who are the Ply- like agencies, all vapors jwoper are inade to re-
mouth Bre^renf" Philadelphia, 1861). tnmtothe Uquidfonn. As ordinarily mider-
PLTUOUTH SOUND, a large inlet of ^ib stood, pnenmatics treats of the action onl; of
English channel, situated about 12 m. N. N. E. bodies in tiie form of the pennanent gaaes, of
fromtheEdd7stoiLeUghthouse,Sin.wideBtthe which common ur is conveniently taken aa
entrance, and extending inland about the aame the representative: and vapore in the perfect
distance to the town of Plymonth. The coast or "diy" state, as inTimble steam, before con-
ia genenjly rocky and abrapt, and the rookf densation has begnn to charge them with moist-
latand of St. Nicholas rises OQt of the water at ore and Jiminiah their enaunve force, aa well
its head, near the N. shore. On theV. side is as the liqaefiable gaaea when above their point
Oawsand bay; and ftirthernp in (he N. W. cor- of liqneraction, belong to the same class, and
ner of the sonnd is the estnary of the Tamar, follow the same laws. But the principles of
which is called Eamoaze, and forms the harbor this science can be so extended as to investigate
for the ships of war. Theestuary of the Flym the elasticity and action of the vapors and non-
or L&ira forms another harbor, which is called permanent gases, throngh all stages of conden-
Oatwater ; it is capable of oontuning 1,000 sul sation, down to the iiqaid condition, tinless
of ordinary vessela, and is generally used as a when otherwise stated, the principles whicli
harbor for meroliant ships and transports. The follow will relate to the permanent gases onl?,
Oatwater opens into the N. D. comer of the sir being taken as the common type. — The die-
Bonnd, and is not so deep as Hamoaze. There tinguishing characters of these bodies grow
are both wet and dry docks connected with it. ont of the foots that their molecnles do not sen-
Bntton pool is a tide harbor, also used by mer- ribly cohere, but can move with perfect free-
chant vessels ; and a pier at Mill Bay acoommo- dom both about and awaj from each other ;
dates the largest steamsbipB at all states of the and that between these molecnlee there exist
tide. The harbor of Hamoaze is 4 m. long, repolnve forces greatly exceeding any forces
has moorings for nearly 100 s^ of the line, and of attraction that may act, canmng them at all
lis fathoms of water at ebb tide. An extensive times to strive to recede from ea(£ other, and
^breakwater protects the sonnd agunst gales with conwderable energy. Prom these eircnm-
from the sonthward. (See Bbsakw^tkb.) stances it follows : 1, that all gases can be com-
PNEUMATIOS (Qr, inwfw, vrind, air), that pressed, or if allowed will expand, and so far
branch of general mechanics which treats of aa yet known, in the case of perfect gases, these
the eqnilibnom and motion of elastic or aSri- results take place to an indefinite extent ; 3,
form fluids, <. e., of gases and vapors. Many that, when compressed, a perfect gas'vriU al-
mortions of this subject being embraced and ways exert a pressure in the contrary direction,
[treated under special topics, aa AmosPHSKa, or against the compressing ftrce, thus mani-
"Bait.oow, B&BOvCTKn, Divnro Bsll, Wrans, festing the peculiar form of claslicitj possessed
fto., a statement of the general theory only, by these bodies, or what is called their expan-
iwith such applications as are not elsewhere sive force, and the measnre or amount of which
made, will here be in place. The fact that for a given case is termed the tension of the
air is material, and of course that all dmilar gas or vapor ; S, that, wherever a gaa or vapor
bodies are so, as truly and in. the some sense is fonnd to exist as a body, having approci^le
as water or iron, is one that requires to be density, this is Invariably the r^nlt of some
adm!u«d and kept in view from the ontset. confining pressure applied to it from without,
It may be mentioned, in illustration of the and compelling ita particles into a certain de-
materiality of air and other gases, that in run- gree of proximity ; 4, that when a body of
ning, swinging the hand, or standing in a gas is kept frxnn Branding, this is because the
wind, we become senfflble of the contact of pressure from without equals and balances
the air. Any one attempting to run, drawing its tension at the time; and G, that when a
after him an open umbrella, with the concave body of gaa is at rest throughout all ita
side toward him, will become convinced that, parte, this is becaose, st every point within
however imperceptibly ur glides ont of our way It, the various pressures exerted in different
in our ordinary movements, making room with- directions are in equilibrium. The difference
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FNEUHATIGB 411
betwewi liqnida Mutgases in the lost re(n>eot is, in a nmllw wtj ; 6, that the free Bor&oe of
tiiat in a bodj of the former, at rest, were is Kty saoh hodv, tiB the upper aerial Borfitoa^
eqnilibriam at eveij point between an applied tends to a level at anj place ; and S, that vith-
preanue b^ v^ht or otherwise, and reootion in any hodf of gas, at any given depth, then
of an incompressiblft mass; bat in the gas the is exerted a supporting or buoyant power,
eqculibriiim is betwe«n an qtplied pressnre and vhich is as the cUasity or tenmon of tiia gas
die minlfflTe £>roe or tennon from within, at the place. The di^rence in the two sets
Heat, iiwriuuiing tliis repnidon, aogmeuts the of oases is, that while liqaids balanoe by simple
t«iiaten; and nidess a coire^ndingly greater pressures, gasee and vapbra always balanoe by
eitemal presBore is then brought to hear, the their tensions. Sven the hydrostatic paradox
eqinlibrinm ia destroyed. If this take plaoe at finds its connterpart in the case of gases ; any
a point vithin the gaseoQB body, the result is a quantity of the latter, however small, btdanoing
iwaying or cnireot ; if exerted thronijioat its any other quantity, however great, so long tw
entire volume, the poshing oot of the enclosing the tensions of the two are eqnal. Thus it is
ban^r? by expansion. IllostrationB of these that, so long as the elas&uty of the included
principles are nomerous. If a little air only he equals that of the snrronndjng air, the vast
perfectly enclosed in an India mbher bag, and mass of the atmosphere does not overbalance
heat caationslj applied, the tension and volome the minnte body of air in the lungs, nor the
of the enclosed air are so Increased as to swell still less ooUecttons of air distribnted tbrou^
out, or even to burst the hag. The same results our tissues, and eo act npon these as to oompreea
can be secured in a precisdy opposite way, by them and destroy the o^;ans. And the whole
placing the bag, prepared as before, in the re- mechanical operation of breathing is simply a
ceiver of the air pnmp, and Kradually exhaost- finx and reflux of so mnch air as will restore
ing, i. «_ reducing the density and tension of the eqnality of tensions, or equilibrium, of the
Che confined atmosphere about the hag; the air within and without the Inngs ; such eqnilib-
compressing force on the enclosed air being riam, however, being, under nervous and mns-
thns lessened, the tension of this body of air cular action, as often disturbed again by ^-
ii ia excess, and expansion follows, going on largement and diminntion of the cavity of the
unto tikis teuaon is so lowered as to eqnafthe thorax. Man is permeated hy his atmosphere,
tain of the oater pressure and the cohesion of and like all animftln fitted to exist only in a
the mbber, or until the latter gives way. So, stratum extending between oertain Utmts of
tl>e atmosphere is a confined and compressed density. If he ascends from ordinary levels to
body of air, gravitation holding and squeezing the height of 3 or 8 miles, the outer tension
it clnwn to a stratum of moderate depth, over becomes deficient, and the finids of the body
the earth's whole surface. Bnt in any body ruptore their enclosing vessels ontward ; if ha
of gas BO sitnated, though rigidly under this descends to great depths, the outer tension
confiniiig pressure, the particles will still pos- preponderates, and the air cells of the lungs or
teas complete freedom of motion about each other membranes are hurst inward, or the pre»-
other -, and any diminution or increase of pres- sure cansee congestion within the unyielding
sure at points within the mass will be followed walls of the cranium. So, upon eiplONon of
by currents, such as winds ; in other words, the large amount of powder m a mill or mag^-
notwithstanding any degree of compression sine, the saperinonmhent air being lifted up-
from without, such a body is still perfectly ward, that in the vicinity is rarefied, and hoiues
fluid. Now, the fiindamentol laws of the rest situated in this portion, if closed, often have
and motion of liquids are consequences, not of their windows burst outward by expansion of
their propertyofliquldity, but of their fluidity, the sir within them. Air oould be snhstitntad
Hence, with snoh modifications as are required for water in the hydrostatic press, and with
by the want of cohesion in the gases, their the same gain of power, were it not that its
compressibility and expansive foroe, all the laws oompresdbihty enables the load as well as the
of hydromechanics become strictly true also for power to descend noon it, bo that a part of the
airiform twdies — the same principles which work is lost in prooucinK compression. — Aris-
operate in the ocean (of water) or in the totle asserted that air has weight, and sag*
Teasel of water, also having place in the oSrial gested, thongh in an impracticable form (the
ocean or in the enclosed volume of perfect use of a bladder of ur), the eiperiment by
vapor. Among these may be named: 1, which this troth was finally established. Many
that equal pressures in every direction are suhsetjuent writers supposed in a general way
exerted upon and hy every point in a gase- that air is heavy, and thus expliuned such facta
oua body at rest; S, that a pressure made on asthedifBcnltyof raising the piston of a syringe
a confined body of gss, as in a liquid mass, when sir is not allowed to enter it. Galileo
is perfectly transmitted in every direction, and still more clearly conceived of the air as a pon-
in the atmosphere to great distances; 8, that derahle mass, and proceeded to adduce some
sach pressare is proportional to the area of sur- of the hydrostatical principles already referred
fiKe receiving it, and so multiplied when the to. Torrioelli proved the weight and pressure
receiring mr&ce is larger than that oommnni- of the air, and measured its omonnt, in the ex-
Gating it ) 4, that pressure on a given surface periment which led to the oonstmotion of the
It a given depth, due to weight is oalonlated Darometer (IMS) ; and Fasosl confirmed theee
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
412 FHEtnUTIOS
reeoltfl by showing tliat fit h^hta abore the gasea, and in tlia nae of air in mantMneters, or
ordinary level tbo meromial column eapported pressure gauges, it mar be overlooked. 6ndi
bf the air is shorter (IMT). The weight of a ganxea are of two kinds, according as the in-
colnmn of air resting on a horizontal square tention is to estimate rarefacitioii or iacresMd
inch, at the sea level, is, at an average temper- density in a confined body of air, steam, Ac.;
atare, very nearly 14.6 lbs.; and a pressure of the former being called vacanm eanEes, iht
this amount ia oonvenientl/ termed a presanre latter condensing gauges. Essentially, the sini>
of one atmosphere. The first pnenmatio law, pie manometer, in either fbrm, la bnt a tube,
inveatigated t>y Boyle in 16G0, and by Uari- straight or bent, containing a oolnmn of mer-
otte in 1676, and known as Mariotte's law, cnry, the space at one eitremity of which Is is
afilrmi that, at a given temperature, the volume communication with the enclosed gaa or vapor,
of an aeriform body at rest is inversely aa the Above the other oitremity, if the object be to
compressing force. Direct cousequenoea are, meaaore rarefaotiOD, the atinoephere ia allowed
that the density and the tension are propor- to press, or a vacuum ia left ; rAreffinR the
great law of tension and pressure is that of reason of diminishing aupport or preponder-
Dalton and Qay-Lossao (1801), by both, of ance of the outer air, and tike amount of de-
whom it was independently discovered, ao- scent ahowa, on a prepared ,scale by the side
cording to which, when the tension of a gaa or of the tnbe, the degree of rare&otion. The
vapor IB constant, the density diminiahes as the atrught vertical colomn of mercory aopported
increase of temperature ; in other worda, for by the atmosphere, being about 80 incaes in
equal inorements of temperature, a gaa or per- height, a descent of 1 iach ahowa Uie snbtrae-
twA vqoor expauda by the same fraction of its tion of ^ of the density and tension of com-
ownbiuk; thiabeingrtsof itavolnmeat82°r., mon air; and thia quantity ia convem'ently
andforeachdegreeabove that point, orabont f spoken of ae " 1 inch of pressure," or "1 in^jk
of ita volume between S3° and 212°. Amon- of mercury," half the atmospherio tension
tons compounded the ratios given bythese two being IB inches of pressnre, and so on. In
laws, obtaining a third, which expresses the the condensing gauge, the confined body of sir
relation of tension t« temperature, when the in the outer end of the bent tube is of course
denwty is constant. Professor Potter (1863) compressed to half ita volume, that is, in a
adds a fourth, an empirical law, for cases in uniform tube, to half ita length, when the ten-
which the quantity of heat remuns constant ; aion within the engine or apparatus >* 2 atmos-
namely, that iu any sudden oondensation or pheres; toonefourth, whenitialatmospheres;
rarefaction, the difference of temperature varies and so for any number of parta, as shown by a
as the cube of the rarefaction. Of air, or any scale. The earth's stmot^bere being subject
other permanent gas, the tension remains nn- to oompreseion by its own weight, it results,
impaired under compressing force applied for aa stated more at length in the article At-
any length of time. It waa found, however, mobpbebb, that at heights in it increasing in ip
not long after the announoement of the laws arithmetical ratio, the density and tension u-
of Hariotte and Dalton, that vapora and non- >niniii1i in a geometrical ratao. Kow, all uis
permanent gases undergo compression in a relations expressed in Mariotte's law sad lU
ratio greater than that of the increase of pres- consequences are conveniently exhibited in a
anre upon them, and that near the point of table like the following; and by inolnilinE'.^^
condensation thisdeviationbecomea very great, last column, that of heights, the 0 of height
Mote recently, Mariotte's lew has been found bdng the sea level, and the height 1 denotwg
to need still farther qualifications. Deepretz that experimentally found as i.TOG miles, all
(1829) announoed that carbtmlo acid, ammonia, the relations in the first 4 columns become rep-
cyanogen, and some other gases, undergo at all resented as they exist theoretically, ana ^^^
temperatures a compresmon more rapid than nearly actually, in oor atmosphere:
that of the increase of pressure, and in a ra-
tio uniformly increasing ; while above 14 at-
mospheres the result with hydrogen was the
opposite. R^piault has confirmed these re-
anlta, and has even shown a deviation from the
law in the case of a confined body of pure air.
He obtained, forinstance, a 10 and 90 frild densi-
ty of air by applying respectively 9.9 and 19.7 at-
mospheres of pressure ; of carbonic acid, by9,2
and 18.7 atmosphorea; of hydrogen, by 10.05 In the atmosphere, however, other cansea oi
and 20.26. The slightly diiFerent results since alight deviation from the relation of *'°*','^^
obtained by Natterer are regarded as less trnst- height exist Among these are: '• "'^^^
worthy. It follows that Mariotte's law ia to be earth's attraction diiMniahes somewhBt.awj'
accepted as but approximately true, the varia- tr'n P^ for each mile near the earth, at pj^
tions being different for difibrant gases; bnt ti^en in ascending through the a^ospK^'"'
the deviation, especially In air, is so slight, that 9, that the attractiona of Uie son ud ^<m^
for ordinary determinations of the volume of aome times and places coB^ire with, at ""'*"
_-
■>-.»
«— .
r*_
'1
1
i-
it.
D,o,.^oob,Google
PKEUMAHOS 418
oppoae, tbe ftottcnt d tiie «Brtli; 8, T&riations that of the Magdeburg hemitrpheres, ore all
dne to changing temperatares; 4, admiztnre but lUoBtrBtioiu o^ and \6tj obviously es-
of vapors, &a., in the lower atmosphere. The p]uaed hj, principles sacli as those now pr«-
general efieot is a. slightly more rapid diminn- sented. la Hero's fountain, s conden£ation of
lion ot dm^tf than that abore giren, with air going on by the iofliiz of wat«r into one
ioereMo of allitQde. £xemplifloations of the vesBel, is made by tnereose of tension to cause
aflfeota of eqnilibiinm, and of disturbance of a Jet of water from another reesel with which
«qailjbriam in 1>odie9 of gas or vapor, and of the former commniiicates. The action of the
ttfe relations of tension to Tolome expressed bellows, of fan wheels and blowing machines,
by Mafiotte's law, are nnmerons, and iji view for foniaoes, ventilation, &o., may be nnder-
of thosa prindplee very readily imderstood. stood npon simple pneninatic principles ; and
Then upon the la^e tuiks inverted and dip- the phenomenon of mtermitting springs is snp-
fong beneath in water, called gasometen, em- posed to be dae to the presence of a sfphon-
ldo]r«d at gaa works for eontuning the illnmi- abated condnit leading from a cavity within
"■ting gases to be distributed, any increase of elevated ground to the point at which the
p««esare is applied, this presaore is speedily spring emerges. The phenomena of natural
felt throi^hont the bodies of the flnid fiUing otrcnlatlon of air through mines by means of'
tiie mains and servioa pipee, branohing in all two apright shafts of nneqnal length, henoe
diractioiis and miles in length, and from the containing atmospheric columns which, throngh
tboasanda at bomers in which these pipes ter- difference of temperature within the shafts, are
ninate tbegas jets with increased velocity and of nneqnal weigh^ as well as the dranght of
Tohnne. Taa action commonly called saction chimneys, ventuation in all its ftmns, the land
b in all oaees porely mechanical. Performed and sea breezes, and indeed all winds, are oV
1^ the month, uie air in its cavity is first psrtly vions examples of onrrenta dae to a disturbance
expelled, and the cheeks dilated, while ingress of the atmoei^eric eqnihbrinm at given places.
of more air tiwongh the month and nostrils is The oaosea leading to each distnrbanoe, In the
prevented ; hence, the body of air included latter oases, are considered nnder Mxteokol-
nthin tbe month, and between it and the sor- oax. — Afiro-dynamlo problems, or tliose inres-
liee to whioh the saction is applied, or, in case iigating the flow and delivery of gases through
of raising a liqaid, tliat also in the tube reach- onfioes, in tubes, and In onrrents, and the con-
ing from the month to the li<quid, is conudera- seqneaoes of the impact and momentum of
Uy rarefied ; its temion diminishea in proper- moving air, are of too intricate a character to
Cian ; the external ^ preponderates, and the be presented Atlly except tn spetual treatises on
nrfiioa or llqnid is impefled toward the month ; the subject. Torrioelli's prindple for liquids,
if it be a liquid, by repeating the operation, a that the velocity of discharge from an orifice
eMtinned flow, thou^ not to a greater eleva- is that whioh the body of liqnid would acqnire
ti<a than abotit 83 feet, is seoored. With this in fidUng freely from the height of Its surfac«
■elion and e:q»lasation that of the common to the orifice, applies quite as strictly to gases
pmim ia identioaL In the eshanstlng syringe, as to liquids. Now, a heavy body, in filing
a tight piston asoending through a cylinder, Uirongh one foot, acquires a velocity of 8 feet
^luh is below in oommtmloation with a con- per second ; and the velocities of discharge
fined body of air, enlarges the space presented being as the sqnare roots of the depths, and
to the ur, and this expands to flll the whole the height of the snrfaoe of a homogeneous
•pace; ' ......
wsrd,t] ...... . ...,_... .__
peDed. The air pomp, in its most perfect con- velocity with whioh eir shonld jet into a vaca-
■tnedon, is no more than aooh an exhausting am through an opening not too small, will
rge, in a form and with additions securing eqnal nearly the product 6 VST, 720=1,883
greatest conveaietice of use. The pro- feet. Experiments ^ow that the aotnal velo-
«M ot enpinng depends on the preasure of the city, aa in the case of wat«r, ia somewhat leea ;
gownl atanorohere, which fi>roes a poriion of that for orifioes in a thin wall it is abont 6S
tbe fliuds of the body, chiefi^ blood, into the per cent of that named ; for short cylindrical
partial vacnnm in certain ways aeonred hi the eponts, .98 ; and for conical, narrowing ont-
enpping ^aaa. The siphon, the pneumatic ink- ward, .94, Theee fkcts correspond in a a<«ree
itKid, ud the pneumatic bracket, alike be- with the resolts in sponting liquids, and show
come serviceable throngh the pressure of the that, as well as in these, tbe "contracted vein"
■ir. Tbe balloon is rendered practicable by exists in the efflnx of gases. The movetoent
tbe Moal upward preseore, or bnoyancy, which of gases throngh pipes U also subject to retar-
afloia, eiperiendng at any ^ven depth a oer- datTon similar to tnat afibcting the delivery of
tain i)wnward pressnre (m this case, its liquids ; and ronghoess of the iDside of tabes,
ni^), mnat exert. Tbe numerous instmc- sharp angles, ineqaaUties of size, Ac., here also
lira or amusing experiments made with the increase the amount <rf retardation. This re-
ar pmnp, inolnmng that one so famous In the tarded flow has proved, nnezpectedly, a chief
UMotyof the sdenoe, beoauaa so efficient in diffionlty in the way of using the pnenmalio
nljglitening the pnbUo mind in r^ard to the power transmitter proposed by Papln — in enb-
fntt truth of Btmoq>heiio pressure, namely, stance a hydrostatic preeo containtng air, with
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
4U FHEDHOinA
a long p^ coniiMtiit^ Qt» two pistoiu, so u aa almost inrwiaUe BTmptom, ooonrring ooa^
to allow <a acUoD at distant points. So, in the monlj' at the conuBencemeiit of Uio disease ; it
esse of a blowing tabe isnstnioted in Wales to is not paroxjamal, and is not aggrsTated at
oatoh the air impelled by a waterfall, and con- night In a great m^ority of oases the cough
vey it to a distance, in order to feed the blast is accompanied by expectoration, which is
of a fonndery, the time estimated for the deliv- pathognomio of the disease. It is tenscioot,
ety of the sir being 6 seconds, it was foond semi.transpareDt, little aerated, and of a lemon,
that the Jet of ur did not arriTe until after the orange, or ntst color, according to the amount
l^ee of 10 minutes ; and being then but fe»- of blocHi with which it is combined. When free
ble, the plan proved worthless. The remark- blood occurs in the enectoradon, aooordiiigb)
able retardation of gases in tnbes most be due Wabhe, the pnenmonia ia eonrriioated by the
in a oonsiderablo degree to adhesitm of the presence of tnberolei. As the disease Enbndca
eases to the soUd eurfiwes, a prmdple well the expectoration gradoally beoomes tqwqne
ntown ; and Bobison has also sapposed much and bronchial. In some oases, instead of bwig
of it due to au undulation arisiiiR from this transparent and risoid, tin expectontion ii
and other causes in the trsnamitted air. It is diffluent, watery, and of a dark color resem.
well asoerbtiued tliat, beetde varying in the bling prune or licorice Joioe. This is slwajo a
force of horizontal movement, producing gosts, serioos symptom. The pulge b most common-
winda also undnlate vertically, ss do water ly frequent, fUU, and strong ; the Hkin is hot;
waves. HoreoTer, winds are retarded by ob- during the height of the disease the face is
vions canaes near ttie surface of the earth, Jnst often deeply flashed, sometimes almost lirid.
as a ttream of water flows slowly at its bottom; The pathognomonic phyucal mgnof thefiist
and thus they are always less violent in dtMS stage of pnemnonia is the crepitant rhcmchns ;
than in the open oomitry. Similar inflnenoee this is fine, diy, eqnsl, and b«>rd chiefly at tfas
most modify tlieir flow at llie eidea, and above, end of the in^iration. To distingnisb it fully
and espedally where winds flow in unlike direo- itisoftenneoesssryto make the patient ooogb.
tions akug an atrial plane dividing them. In a short time the crepitant rhonchns is re-
PNEUUOKIA, PxBiPNBTnioNU, or Ijrrsa placed by bronchial respiration; the breathing
Fbvxb, inflammation of the proper substance is loud, blowing, and tabular, and when the
of the Imtgs. Pnemnonia is one of the most patient speaks the voice hss the difliiBed reso-
ft«quent forms of inflammation ; it is common nance to which the term bronchophony is ap-
to all ages, attacking equally the old man and plied. At the limits of the bronchisl respira-
the newly born infant. It prevails more fre- tion, while the inflammation is extending, the
quently in spring and autumn than in smnmer crepitsut rhonchus is still heard. As btcncbf^
and winter, in oold and temperate than iu rcBpiration replaces fine crepitation, percussion
trcmieal climates. The prolonged exposnre to beoomes dull over the affected portion of tbe
oold is the caase to whidt it is most frequently luig ; at the same time the vibratory thrill felt
attributed, but in many instances car^U re- when the patient speaks, by the hsnd pUced
search cannot assign an exciting cause ; it oo- upon the chest, becomes more msrked. nhen
curs oftenest among the ill fed, the intempcr- pneumonia is central and the inflamed put of
ate, and those who sttfier from crowding and the organ is separated f^m the pariet«e by
want of ventilation ; consecutive pneomoaia, healthy lung tissue, both peroossuw snd an*-
as it is then termed, often srises in the course cultation may give negstiye resnlts. Vhen tbe
of typhoid, of typhns, and eruptive fevers. In attack of pneumonia resnlts in reooveiy, ss the
many cases the patient is feverish and unwell general symptoms d'ltni'^h In iutenu^ >nd
for 8 or 4 days Defers the aotnal invasion of the expectoration becomee vhite or grajiah,
the disease ; this is almost invariably marked the bronchial respiration becc»nes less Btrtn^
by well deflned rigor, followed by pain in the ly marked, and over the parts last attacked a
ode, cough, accelerated breathing, and fever, coarser and moister crepitatioi] recnra; thiaiB
The ^ain in the side, commonly felt beneath the redox crepitant rhonohns. With the return
the nipple, is no goide to the seat of the die- of the crepitant rhonchos tbe percasaioa note
esse; it is generally caused by accompanying becomesclearer,untilgrsdnalIytheIungrecoT-
inflammation of the pleura, is lancinating in era its former condition. When on the other
character, increased by inspiration and by mo- hand the attack is SeXai, the general sjni^
tion of the tliorax ; according to Grisolle it toma, with tjie exception of pain, per^st, asd
occurred in 272 out of 801 patients. Accoler- are aggravated ; the expectoration Wones of
ated breathing is an invariable symptom, the a dirty gray color, atrii^ed, and flnslly perhsps
respirations varying from SO to 50 in a minute, wholly purulent ; tiie complexion grows pd^
though they may be aa frequent as 80. The yellowish, and earthj looking ; the skm is cov-
pnlae does not increase in the same ratio as ered with a viscid sweat, and death is pr«M;
the reapiration ; the ordinary relation of 4^ ed by the tracheal rhonehna. In genMvi u>*
pulsations to a respiration is disturbed, and is intelligence remains unimpaired to tbe last—
redaced to 8, 3, or even less. Br. Walshe says On post-mortem examination the Inngs an
be has seen this perverted pulse ratio prove found in varions stages of inflammadon, and
the first sign of pneumonia, atipearing befbre frequently the three stages commonly re««-
crepitation or rusty expectoration. Oongh ia niied are seen in the same podent. In tbe
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PNSOICONU FOOAHONTAB 41S
ftnt ati«e of tnfliiTmnrthm, sngivgenuoc, taa tha KStseted part, vith feeble, harsh, or bron-
lang tabatmaot i» heavier, of a darker color, ohial respiration, and increased vooal fremitiu.
loe« not oropitate when preand between the When it affaote the npper iobe of the long, the
fingeia, mnd on buns oat into mrea exit to k diaeuoua between ohronio pnenmonia and
frothy, Mro-oangainolentliQnid. JntheSdstage, phthisia mnst be ezoeedingljr difBoolL Ths
that of red hepatization, the Inng ia dark-ool- oisease is seneraUj a fatal one, and the treat-
ored, eompaot, friable, ite tieeae being easily' mentonuUjrconcdatainBapportingthefitreiwQt
brokflQ up by the Soger; its sabetance when of the patient and allajing the aymptomswMoh
Bot into, or bettor when torn, preaeuta a mtd- may arise daring its progrem.
titoda <^ amall ronnded granolationa. In the PO (sno. Padut and .EriiUmta), a river of
ad stagtt, grav bepotkation, while prosentkig K. Italj, whioh has its sonroe in two springa
maof of the warttoteristioa of the 3a, the Inng abont 6,000 teet above the level of the sea,
tiatmo bi of A gray or yellowish oolor. At first near ist. 44° 40' K., long. 7° K., oa the K side
this grayidi color presents itself in scattered of Monte Yist^ one of the Oottdon Aipa, and
points, bat these gradoally coalesce. The Imtg flows into the Adriatic by a delta, the most im-
» stall more friable than before, and is easily portantbranohesofwhioharethePodellal&e-
Woken down into a palp ; on being incised a stra and Fo di I^imaro, between lat. 44° fil'
thiok fluid of a diaagreeable odor, a mixtore of and 45° K, and long. 13° SO' and 12° 80* K,
blood, pns, and mocns, escapes. In rare in- after a very cirooitona bat generally E. oootm
tfaaoes abscasMS are formed in the Innga aa a of rather more than 460 m. It reo^ves a great
DCHueqaenc« of pnenmonia. — The dnration of nambei of tribntariea both from the Alps on
pneumonia is rarely lees than 7 or more than the S. and the Apennines on the S, The most
SO days. Very &tal in yonng influitg and in important of the former are the Dora lUpaiiB,
old people, it is attended with bat little dan- Oloaone, Sangone, Dora Balt^o, Stnro, beaiB,
ger between the ages of 6 and 60, when imcom- Ticino, Olona, Adda, Oglio, and Mincio; a^
plieated and ooonrring in patients of good oon- of the latter the VTBita, Tanaro, Scrivia, Btaf-
■tttotwo. When pneunonia is doubl«s when it fora, Trelna, Nara, Taio, Fairu, £ikza, Seo-
is ecmi^cated wiUi heart disease, with albn- chia, and Panaro. Abont 60 towna of oonald-
Hunoria, or with delirium tremena, when it erable rise are eitnated on its banks or thoaa
ooeon in ooostitatious deteriorated by f^goe, of its tribntariea, and boats can aeoend to with-
privations, or excess its gravity is very grmtly in 60 m. of its sonroe, bot the current is so
mcressed. IteometunesoconrsBsanepideniio, r^nd as to render navlgatioa difBcalt. D»-
and is then a saveter disease than when it is stmctive floods are liaue to happen ^ aH
spotadic — Bnt a few years ago not many wonld seaacms from heavy rains, and daring the anm-
luve boon bold enough to qnestion the oorative mer months from the melting of snow on the
iwllneoce of bloodletfijig in pnenmonia, and yet moantalns; and the flat ooantrytbrongh whioh
it is now Twodiated altogether by many prac- the lower part of the river flows renders artir
tatioDers of the highest anthority. It is oer- floial embankments necessary to oonfine it to
tain, however, that in strong, healthy, yonng its channel. Below Piaoe&Es dikes have been
•dolta, a single full bleeding will often relieve formed, bnt extensive inundations oocariooally
the bresthiiig, remove the psun, and diminish happen. The bed of the Po, like that of Qm
ths force and frequenay of tne pnlae ; in other Nile, is being continually raised by the depodts
OMes, where the pain in the ude is severe, it is made by the river. This riung of the level of
best to have recourse to cupping glosses. Af- the water renders it ueoessory to make a cor-
Hrward small doses of tar^^te of antimony responding increase in the height of the em-
comlHned with morphia may be given every 2 bankments, and the effect of tbeie operotionB
or X hoars. The patient should be kept in has been that in many places the surface of the
bed, the ohest should be covered with an oiled river is firom 16 to 20 feet higher than the
dk jacket, and the diet shoald be bland but country through whioh it flows. The breadth
antritions. Where patJonts are feeble, broken of the bed of the Po fi-om the junction of the
down, or advanced in years, general hloodlet- Ticino to the formation of the delta varies from
ling is inadndaaible, aad even antimony mast 400 to 600 yards, and the depth from 12 to 8ft
be osad with great oaotlon. A nntritions diet, f^t. The badn of the Fo indades an area of
and the administratjoa of carbonate of ammo- abont 40,000 sq. m., and comprises the whole
nia, and frequently of stimulants, form, in such of Piedmont and Lombardy, parts of sonthem
esses, the appropriate treatment— -Ohronlo or ItaUan Tyrol, western Venetia, and the
pneunooia, except as an atteadant upon tuber- Swias canton of Ticino, a part of the canton (tf
els or canoer, is an exceedmgly rare aflection. Grisons, the duchies of Parma and Uodena, the
In it the long becoflies dry, gray, reddish, or territories of Bol(wna, Ferrara, and Bavenna,
black, indurated, and impermeable to air. It and a small part of Tuscany. Fish are abon-
may ooeor as a primary dUease, or may follow dant in both the main stream and its tribnta-
sn attack of acate pnanmoi^ The patient ries, the most valuable kinds being sslmon,
grsduaUy loses flesh and strength; there is shad, and stargeon.
ooogh witb trifling expectoration and no hta- FOAOHINQ. See Gakx Laws.
ffloptyais, and slight bat insular fever. The P00AH0NTA8. I. A oentral oo. of Ya.,
phy^cal sigos are dulnesi on peronssion over intersected by Greenbrier river ; area, 710 sq.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
416 rOOASOSTiB FOOOOK
m.; pop. in 1860, S.OfiS, of whom 2S9 vwe shovason tiie point of embwkiii«. EOieleA
slaves. It has &n eleT&ted sad moontaiDons one bod, who waa educated bj his nnclc^ ■
Borfaoe, being traverscid hj the Qreenbrier London merchant, and iu after life -went to
range Mward the W., and bonnded S. £. b? a Virgima, where he became a peraon. of not«
niiun range of the AUeghaniea. A large ^rtion and inflnenoe. A number of his deaoendanti
of the land ia infertile. The prodnotione in 1860 still exist in that state.
were 61,91B bushels of Indian wm, 11,80S of POOOOK, Edwaxd, an English diTine and
wheat, 53,fl98 of oata, 6,911 tons of hay, 24,423 orientalist, bom in Orford in Nor. 1«04, died
lbs. of wool, and 76,080 of butter. Therewere there,SepL10,1601. He was graduated at Oi-
1 chnrcbes, and 200 pupils attending public ford in 1S23, and taming his attention to tlM
sohoob. Value of real estate in 186S, fl,216,- stndj of the oriental laugaagea, prepared an
147, being an increase of 27 per cent, since edition in Sjriao of the 2d epistle of St. Peter,
1360. Capital, Euntererille. U. AKW.co. theSdand 8d of St. John.and that of St Jada
of Iowa, drained by Lizard and other small parts of the B;riiao Kew Teatament which bad
riyersj area, 626 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, lOS. not previonsly been edited. Having been or-
It produced in 1669 1,866 bnsheb of Indian diuned priest in 16SB, he went ont to Aleppo
com, 1,186 ofpotatoes, and 288 tona of hay. as chaplain of the Engliah merchants ia tut
POCAHONTAS, danghter of Fowliatan, an dty, and there renudned 6 or 6 yeara, stodyiiig
Indianchtef of Yimnio, bora about ISSG, died Hebrew, Syrian, Ethiopio, and Arabic. Be-
in Gravesend, En^and, in March, 1617. Bhe taming in 1686, he was appointed first incom-
was early remarkable for the mendsUp she bent of the Arabia professorship foimded by
manifested for the English colonists of Virginia, Land, by whom he had been commisdoned,
a strikinK eridenoe of which was ^ven when while in the East, to procure aneient coins and
she was about 12 years old. Oapt John Smith manuBoripts. He somi went again to tbe East
iuiwing been token prisoner, it was decided to at the instance of Land, remained at Oonstan-
pat hmi to death. His head was laid npon a tinople nearly 4 years, and having obtained
stone, and the savages were farandiabing their many valnahle mannaoripta, oame home in 1 HO
olnbs preparatory to dashing ont his brains, by way of Italy and France, making at Paris
when Pocahontas threw herself npon the cap- the aoqoaintance of the oelebrated Haronite
tive's body, and saved his life. When Smith Qabriar6ionits,andof HngoGrotioi. Beeom-
bad returned to Jamestown, be aent presenta inghisleotnressnd stadtosattheamTU^ty, he
to Pocahontas and her father; and after this was preeent«d in 1648 to the rectory of GbU*
the former " with her wild trun visited James- dray- in Berkdiire ; and eo little ffisplay did he
town as freely as her father's habitation." Li make of his learning that he was cbaracterixed
1609 she passed one dark nigbt through the by one of his pariftoioners as " a plain honest
wood to inform Smith of a plot npon the part man, but no I«tiner." In 1647, thioagb the
of her father to destroy him. Is 1618 she was influence of Selden, he obtained the restitntian
Eving in the territory of the Indian ohief Jiq)a- of his salary as Arabic profMsor for the preeed-
aaws, having probablv gone thither on acoonnt ing 8 years, whioh on Hm exeontioD Ot Land
of the resentment of her fitther at her oondoot had been withheld from him- Chariss I.
Oapt. Argall bribed Japazaws to betray her while a prisoner in the isle of Wi^t in ISK,
Into his hands, and havmg gained poaaearion nominated him to theprofecsorahip of Bebnw
of her person b^an to treat with Fowhatan with a canoory of dntiatehorch added ; but
fbr her restitution, but the psrtiee were unable in Mot. 1600, he waa ^ected flrom the latter,
to agree. While on shipboard, however, an and was aboat to be dqirlred of the formu
attachment sprang np between her and an Eng- when a petition from the heads at hoasea and
Ushman nsmed John Bolfe, and the consent of themastersandaohoIaraatOzfbrdwfiatofaTor-
Bir Thomas Dale and of her father having been ably reoeived, tliat he was pern^tted to enjoy
gained, they were married at Jamestown in bow places. In 1666 an information waa iud
April, 1618. A peace of many yeara' duration against him by the oommisrionors appointed
between the English and the Indians was the l^ parliament " for «jeoting ignorant, soandu-
conseqnence of this anion. Before her mar- ons, insufficient, and negligent mlniateni" ud
riage^e had become a Christian, and had been probably be would have been ronoved from tw
baptized, receiving the name of Rebecca, rectorahlp had it not been for the it^ignaat re-
in 1616 she accompanied Bale on his return to monstrBnoesofnumy<fhisOxfi)rdfriends,e^
England, where she waa an otgeot of grmtin- dally Dr. Owen. Some time before ha had pub^
terest to all claasea of people, and was present- liahed i^teimmSittona Araium, c<^>^'^v
ed at court by Lady Delaware. When Smith extracts from Abnlbra^na isQie Araldowiua
went to visit her in London, after salu&ig him Latin trandation and noM ^>pended; ano^
ahe turned awt^ her face and hid it in her 1066 appeared at Oxford hiai^(ajr«d*,vuH
hands, and remmned in this position for 2 or 8 wereepiflbtorydisooaraeatotlieceinnieBtiM*
honre. For some reascm she had been tangbt of Uoaee Maimontdea upon th« IGshna. i»
to believe that he waa dead, and then ia bnt had a oonaiderable abtte in Ae preparatxa N
little doubt that her husband was a party to Walbnt'a pcdyglot KUe, whioh appeal^ *;
the deception. Pocahontas prepared to leave 1667; and hi 1668 he pabHshed at Ozfoid,in x
Xinglaod with regret, but she snddenly died as voU. 4to.,hia Latin tranelation of the "^'oi*''
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POOOOEX FODOLU. «1T
tf&tycfcfafc AttherealontiiHiIiewMiiiids OaOioIIoBibntiiil^SoaieOalLrtiDeittismpbed,
canon of OhristohDrob, u tbe mnt vas origi- and in 1451 Podiebrod vas recognized aa mler
uQj, and Bbortlf after piJ>liBDed an AraUo by tbe whole connby. Hisantboritj ^u con-
refwja of Orotios'a tract i>e V«niat«, and an firmed whan the depatias of Hiingtu-;, Austria,
Arabio poem of Ata lamael Thogim with a and Bohemia root in Vienna to agree npon a
I^tia baoslattoo and aotes. Bis great work, plan for the goTenunent of tb^ retpeotire
bowOTer, was the translation of the Eittoria ooontries, and tbe gaardlanship of tite jooaa
Djfu^UoTvm of AbnlibraKina, with tbe text kingLa^das. After th« death of that monartu
and Dotee (S vok. 4to., Oxford, 166S). Ha pub- (1467), Podiebrad was elected king of Bohemia,
lidiedinlS74 as Arabio version of the ohnroh Ha? 7, 1468, and was orowned in 1461 ; andin
Mbwhitini and litorey ; in 1677 hie " Oommen- this poaition he m^ntainodbimmlf both against
tar; npon the Fropheoies of ICoah and Mala- forwgn and domeetio enemies. Ko sooner had
ehi," in 1686 that on Hosea, and in 1691 that bo ascended the tbrone than he baniahed, ao-
m Joel. At the time of his death be had iong cording to agreement, the Taborites, FicardiL
MUoyed the r^utatioa of being the first orien- Adamites, and all other religioas sects not
talist in Europe. — Pooock'a son, Edvabd, pnb- Catiiolie. The pope, however, annolled the oom-
fiebed in 16T1, nnder bis biher's direction, the pacta entered into between the Oalizlines and
philosophiceJ treatise of Ibn Tofa;], with a Lat- the Catholics, and ezcommnnicated Podlebrad
in verson and notes, being the same which in 1468; bat throogb the mediation of the
was afterward b^inslated into English bj Ook- emperor Frederic the contest was settled for a
Isf, Haalsotran^atedintoLatintheworkof time. But tbe new pope, Panl IL, deposed
Abdallatif on Sgrpt, bat it waa not published Podlebrad, and caused a crusade to be preaohed
until 1800. Another son, Tboius, made an against him throngbont Oermanj; and on this
^'■"g''*^' translation of the work of Uenasseh aoooont the king of Bohemia in 1468 declared
b«a Itroel, S>e Termino Vita (l2mo., London, war agunst the emperor, and ravaged Anstria
18W). — An edkion of Pocock's theolo^cal asfaraBtbeDannbe. The emperor now induced
rritbiga ^poarcd at London in 1740 (3 vda. llatthiaa Ooninos, king of Hangar;, to take
fiA.), with an account of bis life and writings up arms wainat Podlebrad, and the Oatholios
b7 Leonard Twells, M.A. of BohemUt were ^bo excited to insurrection,
POOOOKE, RiOKABD, on English traveller, Podiebradrecalled theezi]edberetics,snppresa-
a distant reUtion of the preceding, bom in ed the domestic insnrreotion, drove back the
Sonthampton in 1704, died in Mestn in Sept. Hungarians who had invaded bis territory, and
1765. He was graduated at Oxford in I7S1. negotiated an armistice with Matthias, April
In 1737 be began his travels in the East and 14>, 1469. The latter, however, soon broke hi*
after bis return in 1T43 published bis " Obser- agreement, and was chosen king of Bohemia
ntioitB on Eg^rpt," the first volume of a work by a mock diet held at Olmfttz ; bnt Podlebrad
^derthe general title of " A Desoripdon of ineceeded in having Ladisla^ eldest son of
the Eaotand some other Oonntriea." The seo- Oa^mir IV., king of Poland, of the house of
ood TfrinoM, uititled " Observations on Pales- Jsgiello, ohoaea aa his sncoessor. The war
tine, or the Eolj I^nd, 8;ria, Mesopotamia, oontinned nntil an armistice was agreed npon,
Ojpros. and Ouidia," appeared in 1745. In Julj 23, 1470; and npon his death in the fol-
tbe same jeex he was made archdeaoon of lowing year he was succeeded \>f Ladislaa,
Diblin, in 17&6 bishop of Osscry, and in 17GS while bis two sons, Ylctorin and Henry, re-
bishop of MeaUi. turned to the position of Bohemian nobles.
POblKBRAD, QcoKax, king of Bohemia, PODOLIA, formerly a ^viuoe of Poland,
btn in 14S0, died Uarch S2, 1471. He was and ilow a goverumeut of Ensua, bounded N.
Uw son of Herant of Podlebrad and Knnstat, a by Yolhynia, N. E. by Kiev, £. and S. by Obsr-
HuHite noblraun. The Hussite war, which son, 8. W. by Bessarabia, and W. by Austrian
Tis agitating Bohemia during his youth, en- Galicia; extreme length 3G0 m., breadth 140
Iktad all his feeliogs; bnl while tbe Bohe- m.; area, 16,8T6sq.m.; pop.inl856,l,7S0,C47.
■ion king and Qennan emperor Sigismund Eunieniec, or EamenetzPodolskoi, the capital.
Brsd ha acted with the moderate party, is tiie only town of im^rtance. An of&et lA
After that monarch's death, tbe Hussites repn- the Oarp^hian monntsins enters Podolia froia
£a(ed Um election of Albert of Ao^tria, and Galioia and traverses it in a B. K direction, bat
iluin ta their ruler Oosimir, brother of Lstdis- in no part exceeds 600 feet above the sea. The
1m nL, king of Poland. Albert, however, sno- surface in other directions is fla^ with a gen-
otedad in driving the Hnssites and Poles to eralslo|>e to tbeS.E. The prim^pal rivers are
Tdwr, and began the siege of that fortress; bat the Dniester and sonthemi Bng; the former
B)dielH«d by a soooessM sally forced hiin to constitutes the S. W. bonndary, and the latter
iaiseit,aDd toretresAtoI'ragne. Among the rises on the N. frontier, and fiows S. E. There
Hassitas he now became aeoond only to Henry are no lakes of any considerable size, but small
Ptacak tf Iipa> and after the death of that ones are numerous in the western part. The
Isadar fa 1444 be sncoeeded him as regent dnr- most valuable minerals are saltpetre, limestone,
isg tiwiBiiiori^ of LadJtlM, the son of Albert, and alabaster. Tbe climate is mild, Mtd the scdl
"9^ a kmg brae he waa engaged in confiiota partioularly futile. DiSferent kinds of grain,
with M^wd of ITeahaas, tiie leader of the potatoes, hemp, flax, and tobacco are raised in
VOL. xm. — 27
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
418 VOE
abnndanoe; andTiUM and mnlberrieB sDooMd Tolnmeof poenu, "A1 AbtmS^ Tamwlane^ud
well. La^ nmoberB of horses and cftttle are Ifinor PoeniB" (Baltiinore, 1886), which hex-
reared. The inhabitBnta belong chieflj to the serted were written at the age ^ IS or 16, u^
Greek oboroh, but there are considerable nnnt- which receired eonaiderable praieo for thur
bers of Roman Oatholios and Jews, and some real or Bappoeed precocitf. He did not at BiA
Protcetanta and Mohammedans. There are few saoceed in his attempt to earn a living bjwrit-
■chools. — Poddia beeame a province of Bnsaia ing, and enlisted as a private soldier in the U.
bj the eeeond parfitioD of Polgnd (I70G). S. arm^. He was soon recognized hy offioen
POE, EII0.1A Allut, an American anthor, who had known him at West Point, and ibej
born in Baltimore in Jan. 1811, died there, exerted themselves to procnre his dischuxe,
Oct. T, 1849. His father was the son of a dis- bnt before the applicadon Booceeded Poe d»-
tingaisfaed officer in the Maryland line during serted. The jniblisher of a literary jonnul tt
tie revolutionary war, and was edncated for Baltimore having offered a prire of flOO fora
the law ; bnt becoming enamored of a beanti- tale in prose, and the same siim for a poem,
fill English actress named Elizabeth Arnold, Poe became a competitor and obtained both
he married her, abandoned his profeaaion, and priees. Kr. John P. Kennedy, the noveliit,
went himself on the stage. The conple led a wss one of the committee who made the sward,
vanderlng life for & few years, and died with- and becoming acquainted with the young an-
hi a very short time of each other, leaving thor, who was in a state of utter povert;, fur-
fliree young children entirely destitute. Edgar, nished him witli means of support and procur-
the second ehiid, was a remarkably bright and ed him a sttualdon aa editor of the " Soothem
beautiftil boy, and was adopted by John AUan, literary Messenger" at Eichm<md. Id this po-
a Vfealthy oitJien of Kichmond, who had no tAHon he labored for some time with indosby,
children of his own. He was educated with and wrote many tales and reviews; but at
Eeat care, and while etdll very young wta Bent length his old habits returned, and after a do-
a school at Stoke Newington, near London, bench he quarrelled with the pnbtisher of the
where he remained 4 or 6 years. Soon after "Messenger" and was diamiseed. He married
his return he entered the nnivenity of Virginia while in Richmond his oonsin Vir^iinla Qemm,
at Oharlottesville, where he led a reckless a young girl as destitute as hmtseU; with
and diaaolnte life; and though he excelled in whom, in Jan. 1887, he removed to New Tork,
his studies and was aiwa^'s at the head of his where he lived precarioualj by writang for the
claaa, he was finally expelled on account of periodicals, and where in 1888 he published a
profligate conduct. Although hia adopted &- Action entitled " The Narrative of Arthur Gor-
tiier bad made him a very liberal allowance <^ donPym." He soon went to Fhiladelplua and
money, he quitted the nniversity deeply in- becameeditorofBnrton'a "Gentleman's Hags-
volved ; and Mr. Allan refosing to pay his gam- zine." In this post he continued for a year,
Win^ debts, Poe wrote him an abusive letter during whi»jh be frequently quarrelled with
and set out to join the Greeks, who were then Burton, who was at length forced to diBmiss
stmggling for their independence against the him after an attempt by Foe to wpropriste to
Turks. He did not however reach Greece, bnt himself the enbscription list of the maguine,
after a series of adventures during a year in during Burton's temporary abeence. He next
Europe, of which little is now known, he ap- became editor of "Grahun's Haganne," but
peared in 8t Petersburg in extreme det^tntian in little more than a rear qnarrelled with the
and threatened with punishment for some in- publisher and abandoned hia editorship. He
discretion. He was rescued from the police pnblished about this time " Tales of the Gro-
by the intervention of the American minister, tesque and Arabeeque" (8 vols., Philadelphia,
who sent him home to Richmond, where on 18M). He next went to New York, where,
his return he was received wiOt kindness by in Feb. 184C, he published in the "Americia
Mr. Allan, by whose influence a cadetsMp was Review" the poem of " The Raven," which at
procured for him in the U. H. military aoademy trsoted much attention and firat madehia &■
atWeatPomt. He here applied himself for a vorably known to the public. Inthesameyear
while to his studies with energy and success, he became aHSOoiated with Mr. 0. F. Bri^ in
but at length relapsed into habits of diasipBtion, editing the "Broadway Journal;" bnt this is-
and at the end of 10 months was ignominiously sociadon soon ended, and Foe continoed tli«
expelled. He returned to Richmond, and was Jonmal to the end of the Sd volume, when it
ngun kindly received by Mr. Allan, who in the stopped. He was soon aft»r reduced to soeb
mean time had become a widower and bad struts that public weals for pecnniary aid
married a second wife. To this Isdy, who were made in his behalf by tlie newiftwen.
was young and handsome, Poe's conduct was He was living at this time in a ootta«e at Foid-
of such a nature that Mr. Allan was forced to ham, Wectohester oo., H. Y. His wift died, ana
tnmbim ont of doors; and djing soon after, in 1849 he went to Biohmond and there formed
in 1884, he left a will in which Poe's name was on enguemMit with a lady of considerable for-
not menticmed. Thus thrown upon his own re- tnne. llie day was pointed fbr thor mv-
sonroea, Poe devoted himself to literature for riage, and he quitted Kiolmund on « vidt to
a profe«on. He had already published, Jnst New Tork. At Baltimore he m^ some of bis
tibn hia expnlsiou ftom West Point, a small former boon oompwdona, eprnt a night in
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOfi BIBD POR UmtEATE 418
drinking, vbs found in the morning in the (tffliea and other small inseota, wonng, and th»
flb«et insstateof delirimnandbikentoahoa- iweet jmoecof fhiite; ite flesh is uid to be de-
j^tal, where he died in a fow honra. — In tiia lidons; the nest is mode in shmbs, of twigs
__. utoePoawas ■ingnlarljr inter- and moss, and ttie eggs are 4 in namber. ItJs
«stiiw. H« had an erect and somewliat mill- called in New Zealand the mocking bird; in oon-
taiT Bearing, vith a pale, intelleetoal tMOj and finement it learns to speak long sentences with
babitDallT sad expression. Bis oonversational eaae and flnenoj, and imitates a bark, mew,
povera were of a liigh order, and his attain- cackle, gabble, or an^ other sound.' There are
nents were ooosiderable in literatore and in several allied species, like the friar bird of Am-
TanoQB branches of sdenoe, aa indicated in bis tralia (tropidorhj/uchut oomieulatia, Lath.X
" Gonoholo^st's first Book" (IBmo., Fhilo- whose notes resemble particular words; thft
delphia). His tolee have great rhetorical fogonorMi eineta (Dab.) of New Zealand has
merit, and exhibit a very aolitle faonltj of anal- remarkably long erectile tnfta over the ears.
7ws,aiid a wild, sombr^ and morbid imagin- PO£TLATIBEATE,apoetoffidaUjcrowned
ttitm, wiUt an abamoe ca moral sentiment al- with laor^ The onstom of crowning (he poets
moat nnezampled in Uteratore. The; abonnd snooevAil in a mndoal contest sprang np first
fa TiiU and dabtuvte desorlptiona of ^tastic among the Ch-eeks, and from them the praotioa
Boenes, freqaentl; Aetohed with wondeiM was uopted bj the Somane, doring the ezist-
power, bot pcMeas little homan intereet or enoeof theemj^ It was rerived in the ISth
Bjmpttiij, uieir snl^eots being as grotesqna oentniy bj the emperors of Germanj.b^ whom
aiid weird as their treatment. The most re- the title of poet laureate was inrented. Hemy
maAable of these strange productions are T. crowned his historian, and Frederic I. the
'* The Oold Bog," " The Fall of the House of monk Gnnther, who had celebrated his deeds
ITsher," "The Morders in the Bne Uorgne," in an epic poem. Bnt no great intAreet was
" The Purloined Letter," " A Descent into the attached t« the title nntil Ute coronation of
UaelatrOm," and " The Facts in the Oaae of M. Petrarch in the oapitol at Rome in the lUh
Valdemar." They have been translated into century. Taaso died jost as the honor was
F^nch, and are greatly admired in Franoe. abont to be oonf^red on him. The onstom,
His poems are few and short, and .their gSn- aftwhaving apparently fitllen into disnse in
eral tone bverynmilar to that of his prose Germany, was restored by Qie emperor I^«derie
tales. They were written, acoording to his nl., wh6 crowned with his own hand ..fineas
own scconnt, with the ntmoat care and elabo- Bylvioa Piooolomini, and also in UQl Oonradns
ration, and their most obvious charaeteriatios Oeltea, thought by many (o be the first poet
ara ii^aalty, melody, taste, and a peniBteat laureate in Germany, probably on acconnt of
selection of gloomy, unreal, and flmtastio topics, the lines in Us own poem :
— ^The works of Poe wero e^ted, with a m»- PrliiiM<(stitalimi|Mtiadiniinitpag:c^
moir, by B. W. Qriswold (4 vols.. New York, C"«MiiinMibqiiMiM«B«i«miu.
1850). Urs. Sarah Helen Whitman of Provi- KaAnJHaii L crowned Ulrich von Eutten, and
denoe has irablished In defbnce of Foe's char- gave to the oounts paUtme the ri^t of be-
acter a volume entitled " Edgar Foe and his stowing the laurel crown in their own name.
Critic^' (New York, 1860). Under snob dronmstanoee its importance d»>
FO& BIBD, a tennlrostral Urd of the snb- dined, and when Ferdinand IL gave to ths
fjpTiily mtliplUigina or honey eatera, and l^e oonnte of the Imperial court singly the right of
gcnaa prMthmiad«n (Vig. and Horsf.). The conferring the lanrel, its valoe sank almost to
biU is long, carved, aoote, sH^tly notched at nothing. After Ulrich von Hntten, the most
die tip; wings moderate, tbeSth and 0tb quillB prominent poets crowned in Germany wcra
eqaal and longest, the M and Sth more or less Gaorae Sahinns, John Stagelins, Nicodemns-
notched in the middle of the inner webs ; tail Fris(£lin, snd especially Usrtin Opita, who In
long, broad, and rounded on the sides ; tani 16211 was crowned by Ferdinand II. at Vienna,
short and stout; toes elongated, the outer unit- and was the find; who received the laurel tot
ed to the middle; tm^elong, oapable of be- poems written in the vulgar tongue. The last
ing protmdedj ending in a p«icil of fibres ot poet crowned in that ooantry was Karl B^n-
KT«at service in extracting honey and insects nard, editor of Bor^'s poems. The imperial
troia fiowers. The poA bird, or tui (P. Ifova privilege waa also given to universities, and the
2MJan<ita,8trlok.), is a native of New Zealand octree of postolaurMtut was conferred by oon-
and the AncUand islands ; it is sboat the sise tinental and also by English aniversilies. The
0f a tlinuh, at a fine glcsay black color, with French, though they had royal Ppeta, seem
green and violet rafleonons ; on each side of the never to have had any laoreatea. The tide ex-
neck are S small tnfta of white locee feathers, isted in Bpain, bat Utile is known of those who
elegantly rolled in sidrals ; these tofts have bora iL . There is a passage in " Don Quixote"
been eompsr«d to a pair of derioal Iwods, suggesttTeaetotfaeoharacteroftheSpanishlaa-
wfaidi, contrasting with the black otAor <rfthe reatee, where Sanoho Panza, in attempting to
body, have obtained fiw it the name irf parson ocmsde his ass when the^ had both &iQen into
bird. It is an lodtative, reatlees, snd pugna- the ditch, says : " I promise to give thee double
ejoos bird, idnging with sweet whistling notes; feed,sndtoplaoeaorownof lauelonthyhead,
tiMfflghtianirisy and heavy; the food oonuts that tboa mayeat look like a poet laureate."^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
4Si FOlET laijbeaie foutdexteb
The earljUftorjof tiielanreateahip fa Eng- tti'at » atrang fecUiw iraa raised in ftiTor «r Ha
land ia traditioiial. The common 8(1017 Is that abolition. AA&t t£e dcraDftOMnt of Oeorge
Edw&rd in.lnlSST, emulating the orowidiig nLin ISlOthepeifonnuiCBof the annnel OM0
of Petrarch at Some, granted the offioe to wasaiupeiided,aitdiiU>eeqiKntl7ftJl complete-
Ohanoer, with a je»rlj pensioii of 100 mariu I7 into. diBoae. Upon the de^ of Pye, the
and a tiwce of ValToisie wine. The legfflid ofBee was ofitoed to Walter Scott, who de«Jia-
probablj arose oat of an amiiiity of 30 maib ed it, hot reeonunended Bonthej ; and the lat-
granted bj that monarch to his " valet Qeofifre^ ter waa^qxrinled witli tlte vbtnal ooooeeelon,
Ohaccer," with the GOQtrdUerslup of the wool which haaoinoebeooinetiwnile, that heahootd
and petty wine revenuM for the port of Lon- write obIj whea and what he ohoM. Wotda-
don, the daties of which he was required to worth wrote nothlnff in return for the distino-
perfarm in person. There is no evidence tion, and Tenii;^n has writtMi but little.
even that tliis laborioQe office was conferred FOETBT (Qr. itomm, to make), ireacinatiTQ
on the groond of poetical merit. Heniy Soo- oompoaltion in melriau or hj^il; fandltd lao-
gan Is mentioned by Ben Jonaon aa the Ian- goage. In this woii: the bi^ory <^ poe^ is
reate of Henry IV. John Eay was court poet traced In oonneotton witJi the literatore oi
nnder Edward TV., and Andrew Bernard held tlie aeveral naliona of the woiid, and with
the aame office nnder Henry VII. and Henrr the biography of indiridnal poeta. See alao
THI. Jobn Skeltoa recelred from Oxford, Baoobakaxuk Soaoe, Bau.u>, Psaxa, Eno,
and Bnbseqnentlj from Cambridge, the title Eusy, Ltkio, and Bomorr.
of poet laureate ; and Bpeneer is spoken of P0GOENrK)I{F, JonAin* OHmmuK, a Oer-
as the laoraate of Queen Elizabeth, on the man natnral pliilosopber, bton in Hambniv,
gronnd of having received a pension of £60 a Dec SO, 1794. Having dffvoted ccautderam
year when he presented her the first books of attention to pharmacy, ehraoiatry, and sattiral
the " Faery <^een." The names of Samnd philosophy, he went to BmUu in 1890 for the
Daniel and Michael Drayton were also asso- ponioaa of proseentinghisetndiM, andin 18S1
dated with the laareateihip,althongh the latt«r pnblished in theJ«fia treatise "On the Ua^-
" was one of .the poets, says Boathey, "to netifan of the Voltaic Pile," in which were do-
whom the title of Unreate was girm in that veloped for the first time the prfat^des of the
age, not as holding tiie offloe, bnt as a mark application of the mnltipUeator. In 18S4 lie
of honor to which thej were entitled." Dp to was appointed editor of the " Annals of Kat-
thia time the lanreateuup had not been e^ab> oral Ptulosopby and Chemistry," wUoh onder
lished, nor can there be fonnd any certain trace his direction became one of t£e flnt euent^o
of wine or wages. Bnt the tntrodnction into jonmaia of Qermany. In 1B84 he became i»o-
England from Italy of masqnes dnring the fessor of natural philosophy in tlie oniveni^
reign of Elizabeth rendered necessary the em- of Berlin, and in 1888 member of tbe academy
ployment of poets, and in 1619 James !., Qfob- of aoleneea. He was engaged .with liebig in
aUyto eave expense, socnred the services of edltiiiga"DidionaryofChemiiitry," for which
Ben Jonaon by granting hhn by patent an however be did little after tjie first volimM. In
annuity for lifb of 100 marks. Although not laSS appeared Itia^Btodies for a History of
mentioned in the document as the lanreata, the Exact Soienoe^" tbe foramniwr of a " Bio-
he was doubtless deemed such. In 1680 the graphioal, fiibOographical, and Hiatorical INc-
lanreateehip was made a patent office in the tionary of the Essct Bdwees," began in 1B68.
gift of the lord ohamberlaiiu the salary was His soientifle inveatigBtiona Ikave been directed
btoreaaed from 100 marks to £100, and b tierce chiefly to eleotrid^ Mod magnetism.
of Canary wine was added, which, however, FOOGIO BRAOGIOLIHI. Bee Buooiousi.
was oommuted in the time of Bonthey fbr £97 POOGY ISLANDS. Bee Nassau Islutm.
ayear. From that time nstit the presentthere POINDEXIEB, Gkobob, an American pdi-
basbeenaregalarsQccesBioiLofUnrestee. The tician, bom m LtHdaaoo., Va., died inJaduon,
fidlowing is a list of those who have held the Min., Sept. 5, 18SS. He began his career as a
offic^ with the dates of their accesnon and lawyer in Milton, Va^ bat in 1809 removed to
withdrawal : Hiansaipp] territory, where aooK after he 11
mllwl
■■ !^!^ wmmissioned by OoT, Claibome a« attoraey-
^ ...»».:: iral^iTW general, which appofatment he held when
I uuiirJuneapjs. itw-iaia Aaron BtuT was arnsted by the tenitMial an-
S SS!^!;SS5&h;JatSS «"^«*«- HewasinvolTeiifamanyquarTel^
_ _ 1 AifMdT*iiDj«wB...u» personal amd ptfiltou, and fKan one of theae a
Aa might be inferred from manv of tlie names dnet resulted fa wfait^ be killed AbUah Hnnt,
fa this list, political oonBideraa<His often eon- then the moat eztcnrivemenhant of uw Booth-
likiRUoaKDgdaD;. ink-IISO
trolled the appcdntromt to the offloe. Snob Vest Kfterandprt^ongedccmtroverriasmi
eonrideradons removed Dryden and sabstltnt^ out of tliis a&ir, and &, Fofadexter and lu
' ' " ' " charged with gross nn&ln
» were never aadsfaetorilr
07 he was oleeted delegati
e he soon be<Mine diatingnii
He remiUned fa oongresa i
ed in his place Shadwell, whose iqtpointmeat aeoonds were oharged with gross nn&lnMat,
the earl of Dorset vfa^oated, " not beoaue bnt the ebn^M were never aadsfaetorilr ane-
fae was a poet bnt an hobest man." To snoh tafaed. fa 1607 be was oleeted delegate to
an extent was the degradation of the offioe oar- congress, where he soon be<Mine dJaHngniahed
ried i>j ita ocmnMtion with nnwortbj nastBa, aa a debater. He remiUned fa oongresa nstil
F(HSBBTT POIHT OOUVOBX i^
ISlliiAanfagalutCUi^iiKMlnDMrf amft- adoommnioedaeatndfofUielaw.'biitfhMa
J«rilT«ftb«barefMlsdMipp),lkanoeiTedtlt« iU health he ratarned in 1801 to Europe, and
uppomtHieat of tF.B. Jodge for th«t diiCriot reiit^edaiimnberof7esrs,riBituiKnearl7the
b VM an oAoft thtt dsnaaded the hi^est irtiole of the contineDL BetnrnlDg to the
graAe at profeatoOBl atteuunent, owing to the United Statee in 1809, he iras sent b^ Presidait
etHifliattiigUianieaandsxiMairelitigaaonari*- Hadieiw to Sontii America to aeaertain the
^ from iD daftrted ud fraodolent graota of twUtieal condition of the ooontrr. He vinted
had mada b; the Bpaiuab and Brftieh antiuHt- Bio Juudro and Boenoe .^ree, and tiienoe
tfattfeniMrtrpiiomieibmofthapabliodomain; cnMsed the ocoitJBent to CMl, efitabliahing
and, aotwiHwtanrUng the prevfooa enmitf to friendly rdations in behalf of the U. S. govern-
bim-attddonbtaof his bit^ri^, ttisaoknowl- meat; On Us rotnrn to Booth Carolina he be-
sdgad that Jndge Fofaidexter diaoharged the came a member of the legtiUtnre, and in 1831
datte«<rfU«offiee«lIlt«minentBbiUtTandim- vaa elected to oongieas from the Oharleston
partiaS^. .Alter tha admlstlon cf Misrinlpid diatricL In .the ancoeeding year he vidted
•a a atat* la 1617 he va> eleeted its fint rep- Uexioo in a semi-dipIomBtio oapacity to report
leaentattre fal congnaa. In tli« great debate apon the condition of the ooonttr and Uie pc^
in tta hoiua in the beginning of 1819 on the icj of opening diplomatio lelatiaDs with the
ooadaot 4^ Gen. Jaolu<» in the BeB^nole war, emperor, Itorbide. He waa twice reelected to
tbeapeeohof Poindeiter waa Agarded aa the eoDKreea, and npon theaooeadcmof Hr.Adaioa
•bleat d^vered, and to h more tiian to auj to t^^e preddoncy received the appcdnlment of
olber Jaokaon owed hia triumphant acquittal, miniater to Vezico. The diatraoted atate vS
After the clea* of hia term he waa elected gov- the ooimtrv at that time rendered it difflcnltfcv
«ner of Ifiadadpi^ notwiUutandlng the moat a dipltanatio agent to av<rid committing himaelf
vkitoBt aaaaulta nprai his character, inoloding in fltvor of one <a another of the vuiona &o-
• ftlae charge of groaa cowardice in t^e battle tkau Into which the people were divided, and
of K«w Orleaaa, where he served as volunteer Kr. Poinsett waa aoonsed hj the ariatooracr
aid to U^or-Qoi. CarrolL In 1881 he was and the dinrch parly of interfering against
ohoaan a member of the U. 8. senate, where, them. He Juatifled lua oonrae In a pamphleC
frvm beii« a personal and pohtical friend ot published aiW his return. He held the offioe
' ~ , he gradaally t«ok hia place in the at ooualdeTable personal risk for 18 month^
rmfca « the oroosition. He oooufded. as he negotiating during that period a treaty of limite
' 1, a ndddle ground between the pai " " ' •< < • -
ooDtonded, a ndddle ground between the par- and one of commerce, and was recalled by
tfea of C9iy and Oalhonn ; but there waa little President Jackson. Ketoming to Oharleston
prttotieal oflbrenoe between Oalhoon and him- in the midst of the nullification excitement, he
ael£ He beoame ezoeedingly obnoxioua to attached himself to the union party, of whioh
Owl. Jackatm, and waa nupe^ed by him of he beeame the leader, and vudt, Ihou^ aa-
eonqtUoity in the attempt inade npon hia lift aer^ng the atate rights doctrines, h<ld thid nnl-
at tke OKKtoL In 1885, ^sgusted at the con- Ufleatuni was disunion, and that the passage by
doot of aia own fttate, and influenced also by congress of a protective tariffdidnotjnsnl^ to
the promot of political promotion that had extreme a measure. After the defeat of Hia
been held out to bfm in Kentucky, he removed union party, for whose cauao Kr. Fdnsett la-
te Loirfaville, bnt his ezpectadona were dis^ bored with great esmestnesa, he retired fbr
Minted. He waa eommisdoned by President several years from pubtio lift. In 18S7 he waa
^ler to investigate Mrtaln fraoda in the New appointed by Freeident Van Bnren aeeretary
"York cnatem honae, and finally resomed his of war, in which oapadty he nrsed the main-
wt iiiiaiiibi|i in lOsdsrippi, and his owineodon tenance of a portion of the muitia on a war
with hia oMpriitioal friends. footing — a measure which was dmounoed as
P0IN8KTT, a if. E. 00. of Ark., bordered an attempt to organize a atanding army. Dop-
E. by the St, Franoia river and Lake St. £Yan- ing hia rasidenoe in Washington he took mooh
MB, and d^ned by the L' AngoUle and several Interest in the welfare of the cin, and endowed
fttlier rivers; area, 1,900 sq. m.; pop. in IBM, the national institute with a v^uable mnseum,
S,m,ofirii(»nl.086w««slBveB. Ithaaalavel beride distributing large ccJlections of otjeota
•arftoe and fertile soil The productions in of antiquarian interest among tiie putilio InsU-
16H were 164,098 bnahek of In^ corn, S,716 tntlous of New York, Philadelphia, Oharleston,
ofwbeat, 8,800 ofoats, and 1,017 bales of cot- and other placea. The last 19 jeara of his lift
tmi. In 1650 there were 5 diorebes, and iSO were paaaea in retiremenL On hia return friMB
pn^ in pabKe schools. Oa^tal, Bounr, ICezico he published a vohone of " Kotee" on
POINSSTT, Joan Bonsra, an American that oonntiy (Riiladelphia and London, 182^
stattaman , of Hngnenot deaeent, bom in Oharlea- and he waa an occasional contributor to the
ton, a O., Hardb 2, 1779, died in Stateebnrg, "Southem Qaorteriy Review," the "Demo-
& 0., in Deo. IB51. Hia edocotion was com- oratio Review," and other periodicak. He left
^ated in Europe at a private school near Lou- a large body iit ooneqfondenoe, notes, end me-
wm, and he studied medidne and the naturd moriala relatfaig to the greater part of bis ea-
■cwees St the onivwsity of Edinburgh, aftsr rear, bnt whioh have not yet been edited.
wUdi he entered the miStary aoademy at POINT OOMFOBT. Bee Ois Pom OoK-
We<rfwWL iQlSOObaretonedtoCbarleston Mar.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
422 POINT rm GALLB tOJaOXC
POIKT DE GALU, a fortifled town in Oejr- fhese is derigiuted toxioologr. trnUl of lata
Ion, mtoated upon a rock?' promontory At the yean the tnie nature and efTeote of poboat
8. W. eitremitj of the iabrnd^ ?i m. B. B. K were little nnderstood, althoa^ ptMsonoiii
fi>aiu Oolombo, 972 m. Iroin Madras, 2,160 m. tniztnrea were mnoh naed among the ancient
from Aden, and 1,S18 from Penang ; pop. about Qreeks and Romans as a means of deatrojing
6,000. It is the coaling depot ana port for Ufe. What the preparations were of this
tranaehippiiiK passengers and goods from one character which vtey employed we have do
line to another for the steamers that ply be- means of ascertaining, and it is altogether aa>
tween Galontta, Australia, and Snez, Bombay, certain whether the deadly heml<>ok was a
. Penang, Sinff^iore, and Ohina, with branches plant we can now identify. (See Hdilook.)
to the Dnt^ and Spanish possessioDs in the Among the moltitnde of BobsbinoeB that rank
Lidian archipelago. The native artisans are as poisons are many, some poaaeering the most
celebrated for t^ir skill in making gold and active ^nalitieB, which are also na^Ql dmgt^
silver omaioflntB. workboiee, Ac and which, administered in suitable qnantitica,
FOINTE OODPEE, a B. £. parish of La., are rec(«iiized among medicinee in tmivetsd
bordered E. by the Mississippi nver andW. by employment and of' tne most beneficial obar-
Uie Atchafklaya ; area, £76 sq. m. ; pop. in aoter. Snch are the preparationa of opium,
1860, 17,780, of whom 18,908 were slaves. It tobacco, the salts of mereory, and even aneoio.
has a low and level snrface, snlfject to oversow The active ingredients of several articles need
by the river, and a fertile soil. The prodno- for food are also in a concentrated state rim-
tions in 1600 were 109,790 bushels of Indian tent poisons, as caffeine, Ac. ; and various ollt-
com, 48,648 of sweet potatoes, S,G60 hhde. of er articles of food, as shell fish and ^gs, at
ansar, 881,646 galls, of molasses, and 1,S3S times affect some persona as poisons.— The
bsles of cotton. There were 8 church^ 1 action of poisons npon the human syst^nis
newspsperoffice, and 160 pupils attending pnV variously exbibited. Some merely corrode
lie schools. Ospital, Pointe Ooupie. and destroy the teitores they come in contact
POINTER (cant* atievlarU), a well known with, and the sympathetic inflaenoe of each
sporting dog belon^ng to the race of homida, iiynries may reach Uie vital JonctJons. Others
which it resembles m general aspect, character, prodaoe local inflammadons, and some only
and colors. Though frequently called Spanish, act npon the nerves of the parts they reach,
and probably introdnced by the Phaemcians Some poisons, most virulent when inbodnced
into western Enrope throagh Spain, the breed into the circulation, as the venom of snskea,
is generally believed to have originated in the may be swallowed with impnnity. But most
East Their habit of standing fixed and point- poisons, however they may oe introdnced into
ing to game is the result of a long course of tlia system, whether through tbe cuticle, by
severe training ; and, from the suocesmon of respiration, or by the alimentary canal, are
generations educated to this purpose, tbe fac- rapidly disBeminated, probably tnrougfa (he
ulty has become Innate to such a degree that blood, and their influence is felt in those or-
J'onngdogsof tbepurebreedpoint wiUiBoarce- gans which are peculiarly aensitive to their
y any instruction ' good dogs have been known action. Many soon reach the bn^ sod pro-
to stand pointing for an hour at a tfane. When duce a fatal coma. Arsenic attacks the elcm'
shooting supplanted hawking and coursing, in ach and intestines. As remarked by Dr. Chris-
tbe latter part of the 17tb century, the pointer tison : " The spine is affected by nnx vomica,
and otber trained dogs took the place of the the tddneys and bladder by canthsrides, the
more powerful, fiercer, and swifter hounds. The lungs by tartar emetic, the heart by oialic
hairof thepointerissmooth.sometimesmarked acid, the liver by manganese, the ssUvtrjor-
like the fos hound, but generally with more gans by mercury, and many of tlie glands by
'■ ' ■ • > fodine." Some of them, moreover, as arsenic
spreading dark colors; and some of the best ._ ...__, ._, .
breed are entirely black. The thoroogb-bred and mercnry, affect at the same time different
Spanish pointer has the nostrils separated by a o^ans. The quantity of many of these sub-
deep groove, and their wings dilated and veiy stoooes required to produce poisonous effects
sensitive. The porition of the pointer, witn is extreme^ minute ; in the case of poisonous
hu head to the game and one fore foot raised, reptiles and insects, and the virulent flnida id
is familiar to wl ; a good dog will not only dead bodies after certain diseasBS, it is quite
stand thus at the scent of his game, but will insignificant Strychnia and pmssic add msj
instantly back if he sees another dog point, in either of them prove fatal in a few minntM to
company with him. a strong man when taken in the dose of a
POISON, any substance which, introduced grun. But various circumstances greatly
in small quantities into the animal econtmiy, modify the action of the poisons. Some pc-
serioualy disturbs or destroys the vital fnno- aons are much more susceptible to their hifln-
tions. Under this head are obviously included enoe than others. Many are almost sure to be
a vast numf)er of bodies belon^ng to the min- affected by pasang through a wood where cex-
eral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, some t^ poisonous plants grow, while others may
solid, others fluid, and others gaseous, and even handle the plants tbemselvee with impo-
deleteriouB vapors and miasmata imperoqitible nity. The olassinoation of poisons into three
to the senses. The science which treats of great divisionB, founded on (he symptoms tbey
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOffiON ITT FOITIEBd 43|
ftodoeek ia noticed in the Krtide Kidioal Jir- 1)rUiuUBasrAujfaxiead«ndrm,orwh«nctfaiib-
MWTMUUUHCX, vol si p. 339 ; the treatment fng trees, £. TodieaTii, It BsoendB trees and
adi^tad to correct the effects of the severol rocks, attaching itself to them b; mnltitndM
pa^OB in the artlole AxnDCfraa \ and the ohar- of stroog root-like fibres that prqjeot from th»
aetois of the most importsnt poisoDoos enb- stem, uid maintain a strong hi^d npoa th*
■tances are given under thdr respective names, bodies the^ reach. The le^eta grow 8 to-
— In th« case of the bites of poisonous snakes, gether at the end of long petiolea ; thej are
nr«al effeetiTe modes of treatment are re- rhombic ovate in form, mostly pointed, smooth
ported of lata u having been introdaoed in the and ebiuing on both ndes, and rather downj
vastem statue. Popnlar remedies have been beneath, A jellowiah milkj jnioe eiades
la^ drangbts of whiskey, and chewing and from a broken leaf or stem, and becomes 1^
swallowing tobacco, and also applying it to ezposnre of a permanent deep black color,
the woan£ The alcohol does not ^parently "i^iring a most perfect indelible ink for lioeti ;
Mt M an antidot^ bnt it stimnlatea the ner- this is solnbte Jo boiling ether. If when ob-
TiNU KjOtaa, keeping it above the depressing tained by ponnding the leaves is large quond-
inflaenee of the poison till this is overcome by ties the jnice retained this property, it might
the nabval onratiYe action. The tincture of prove to be a valuable dye ; bnt snch is fouid
iodine applied externally hasproved a very re- not to be the case. The Juice and efSavinm from -
narkable ranedial agenL The method of as- the plant exert a poisonons indoence to which
ing it in reoeat cases or within IG hours after many persons are eitremely sensitive, wltfle
the bite is to iqjeot the cellular tissue in and others are not at all affected even by chewing
about the woDod with the tincture by means the plant. Xhoughthepoisoningrareiyproves
of A iharp-poinCed diver syringe, and apply fstat the eruptionB and Bwellings produced are
the same upon the swollen parts and 2 or 8 attended with much pain and distress, which
_. B beyond them, H Uie case is ftirther however usually yield to the ordloary treat-
advaaoed, wine or brandy is pven in addition, ment by purging and external use of sugar of
wMi iodide of potasriam and chloride of potas- lead, ito. The variety common in Oaliforaia,
wiui iodide of potai . , ,
■am largely diluted in water and followed by there known as the poison oakj sometimes at-
Umioa. Dr. B. J. D, Irwin of the TT. 8. army tains a diameter of stem of fl inches. It ap-
nporte the disoorery of an antidote to the pears to be much more virulent in its action
poiaon of the rattlesnake, ia common use with than the poison ivy of the East, and cutaneous
imivwBal snooess by the Uexioans and Indians, diseases resembling salt rheum are sud to fre-
Thia is a plant known among them as the ;<>• qaeatly follow its attsoke and resist the com-
lamidrin«ra, and which proTOd, when exam- mon remedies. They are, however, cared by
ined by I^f. John Torrey of New Yort^ to what ^pears to be an infallible antidote to
tv a qMcies of saphoTbia, several of which, the poison, a decoction of a pl^nt called tha
aa the E. eapitaCa, E. eorotlata, E. paluilrii, grwidelia (6. hinatuJa or 0. rvfrruta), a per-
and K viUoea, are also celebrated as specifics enniol shrub of the natural order eompotita.
gyrinrt the bites of poisonous animala The The plant grows from 1 to 8 feet high, and
colondrinera is the E. prottrata, a plant of been from June to October heads of small
ni^ delicate appearance, somewhat like the yellow fiowers like sunflowers. The buds and
Mid-thread, and having long reddish stems other parts of the ehmb contain a white and
that spread and interlace with each other, sticky resittons matter in which the remedial
lb flowers, whioh appear from April to Ko- virtue chiefly resides. The same application
ranber, are very nuJl, white with dark pur- ia found alike benefloial for many cutaneous
pie throat. They are axillary, and have 4 pe- diseases. The leaves of the poison ivy have
tab and 4 sepals. AH parts of the plant, even themselves been used as a medicine for the
tta lam root, oontaln an abundance of milky same diseases, being administered internally in
Jaioa, m whioh its medicinal properties reside, doses of a grun each several times a day. A
U grows plentifi^ in dry gravelly and sandy tincture of tiie plant ia also administered inter-
&by roadndes and in &rm yards. Its nally by the hoDUBopathists as a remedy for
extracted by braiung portions of it in varions eruptive diseases, and tbr some paraly-
a mortar. A eoniMerable portion of water is tie aflbctions.
added, and aeveral oimoes of the mixtore are POISSON,BnfteHDiRiB,aFrenchgeometer,
^mimatered to <Hie bittw by any of the ven- bom in Fithiviers, Loiret, June SI, 1761, died
omooa makes, sora^tions, tarontiUas, or other in Paris, April 26, 1B40. He was educated at
poitODoas reptiles, which abound in Arizona the ptdyteconic school, where he became a tn-
aad Scmora- The remedy ia said never to fail tor and professor. In 1809 be was made a pro-
of e&cting a cure, and its administration is feasor in the faculty of soienoes, and in 1811 in
•Hnded with no danger. Its action is that the normal school. Eis most important pro-
af inwnetio and cathartic. dootion is the Traitidt micanigvsls to1s.8vo-
POISON' I VT, or Poisotr Oix, a poiaonous Sd ed., I8SSj. His last work, Thiorie du eaievX
dtrnb or vine common thronghout the United detpnibiAiiUit, appeared in 1888.
SUw, and oalled sometimes by one and some- POITIERS, or FoKmcBs (ano. Ltnumum or
timw by the other name. It belongs to the ZtfnMtu]n,aftcrwardPiittfm'),atownofFrance,
BMoral order anaeanUoMCt, and was named .coital of thedepartment oiYieane, 211 m.&.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^.
4ai ForriEBS poke
8. W. ft«m PBito; pop. In 1806, S6,9tt. It ii part of tiie prorlBoe of Aotdtmla, mm eat-
■Unated on aronnaMeiniiiMioeoQuie left bank qnwed bytbeTisigotlia in tbe beflnniDgof th«
ct the river Olain, and at tiie month of the Sth oentniy, felt into the hands ^ OIovu, kin;
Boivre. Theae two rirera anoivntl; fomud a <tftheEVauka,ln607,uid(mderhiaHen>vinfiaa
Mtoral fboM witliont the runparta of the town wieeowora was held hj the dukes of Aqsf tanii.
and entirely mrroonding it, except at a point Daring the reign of Pepin the Short it bei»ine
tn the S. W, where waa an iBthmoa defended ))j part of tbe Oarioringlan empire, aad reoeiTed
a strong wall andanartifioialditeh. Thliipaoe coontBof Itsown. It pasaed into the hands of
ianowoonTertedintospromaiiade. The town the ftunily of Plantaceaet hrthe tnorriage of
is endoaed b; old tnrreted walla, pieroed by 6 Hemy II. of England with £leasor of Poitoa
gates, 4 of which open on bridges oyer the and Aqidtaine, waa taken from John Lackland
Glaiii. Ooane woollen olotba, blankets, horierj, in laMbyPhHipADgnsta&and waarecsptored
laoe, &0., are mannfectnred. — The ancient Le- by the Englith after the Iwttle of Poitlen fn
monom waa the chief dtyof the Celtic Pictonee. 1856, remdoing in Uieir hands until IMS, when
It waa pillaged by the Vandals in A. D. 110, OharleB V. again salifeeted it. Before the rem-
and afterward fell Into the hands of the Yiai- olntion of 1789 it was divided into Upper ud
Cs, who were driven ftom it by tjie Pranks. Lower Poiton. Before the execution of Loois
■ it the YlsigothB under Alaiio were do- XYL the Poitevins rose in insarreotion against
™ . "T^esn.
cisively beaten byOlovis in SOT, and tn 79S Ab- the convention, andnnderUienameof Tot
derralunan and his Baraoens were defeated and tbe leadership of their lords waged a ler-
a fbw miles N. G. 4^ this town by Oharlea Mar- rible war. They were pardr sabdnMl by Oen.
teL By the marriage of Eleanor of Goienne Hoche in 1796, bnt remained royaliata at h(«rt.
to Henry Plantagenct, who beoame king of Attempts torenewcivil wartook place in I8U
England, Poitiers came into the hands of that on the ftll of Napoleon, and after that of
prince, and was held by the English nntil 1S04, Charles X. in 18S0 and 1882, but Mled. Pdtoa
when it waa wroated from them by Philip An- is now divided into the depanments of Deai-
gnstOB. OnSept 19, 1866, afewndlesfVomthe Bivres, Yienne, and Yendte.
d^, was fought the famons battle of Poitierfi, POKE {phitolaeea deeandm), a coromon
In which John IL of France, with sn army va- plant, tbe typical genna of the Datoral order
rionsly stated to l>e G0,000 and 80,000 strong, pAytolaceaeea, with a stont, hetbaeeons, smooth
was defeated by Edward tike Black Prinoe at etern, growing from 6 to 0 feet high ; large,
Hie head of 8,000 English and Gaeoon soldiers. Bpindlo-shaped, branching, and perennial roots;
The Enf^iah were ported in anch a manner that scattered, petiolate, ovate oblong leaves, smooth
dtey oonld only be approached t^rongh a nar- on both sides, ribbed beneath, entire and acnte ;
row lane, In wbkh 4 men eonld scarcely ride flowers in racemes, the sepals white and metn-
abreast, and which was covered npon both aides branonsoothemargin; atamens 10, with whiter
by very heavy hedgee. In the hedges were the roundish, fi-lobed anthws ; ovary round with
Engliah archers, and at the head of the lane In 10 short recurved styles, whkh anitin| fonn a
hr^en groond and among vines were the men- celled berry, eeob cell contuning a vertical seed.
at-arms. The cavalry or knights were held in Itiaanativeof North America, and bas 1mm»i)s
reserve. Upon this strong position the French, naturalized in some of the sonthem parti of
■are of an easy viotorr, threw Utemaelves with Enrope. Other species are Indiaenom to Amer-
great impetnosity. The first volley fr<nn the ica, Africa, and India, both wiuiu and withoet
archers pat them into a confnEdon from which the tropics. The commoa poke delists ia
they did not recover. 'Dieir charge npon the ridi soils, and partionlarly llirives on oa^ij
men-at-arms entirety &iied, and being chained cleared and burnt woodlands, where itaBsnoM*
fai torn and already in great disorder &ey were the habit of a strong and kixariaiit weed. Even
completely rented, and King John was cap- after itsfoliageliasaDai,ltanMmes<rfAiiih>g
tared. Poitiers again reverted to France In black berries, contmsting with ita bright nia^
1879 by the volpntarr Bnrrender of the towns- son stems and branches, render it coB^nunfc
men to Oharlcs y. while tbe EngUsh were In These berries contain an abandanoa of deep
poesesdon of the larger part of Fruioe, Oharles purple juice ; and tinotnres prqMUwd of it hare
Vn. held his conrt and parliament at Poitiers been conwdered a popnlar remedy fbr ch'^
fhr 14 yean, and dnring that time great addi- rhenroatism. The root is » violent emetie, m
tions were made to the town. During the war the leaves are extremely serid, yet tbe T*"^'
<tf the lei^ae it was taken from the Ha^enots shoots jost springing fhnn tbe gromtd are niM
by the OaAoticB, and Admiral Ooligu Oiade as a snbstitnte for asparagna. Emph?*^ el-
an uuDooessftil attempt to retake it In ISOS. temally as a looal atlmalant, tither in the form
FOrriEBS, DuiTA OF. Bee Diasa. of extract or In ointment, tb« |dant has been
POITOn, an ancient province in the W. of found efficadous in itdi and acald head. BtaM
EVanoe, bonnded N. by Brittany, Anion, and repnte has been given to poke in tnatmeirt <h
Tonraine, E. l^ Berry, Ifarohe, and limonrin, oanoer, bnt it ia praanmaUa Oat some tmlw
8. by Angoomois, Saintonges and Annia, and disease had been mistaken for it. Ibe sersnl
T. by the bt^ of Biscay. Previous to tbe nameaof ooonm,poean,poke^pokflweed,pi^'^
eonqpeat of Gaul by Casar, itwas inliabited by berry, mechoacui, and garget nave beoiapplw
tka KoUvi vr Piotones; It afterward formed a to tAa same tptOm at fkfMacea; oi *"*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
_ a hdlttboM (MrafrwM mrtA^ -Afton) b tts montb. The Itlemen, wMdi luu Its Bonroe
VkMHa»- caUed lodian poke or pokeroot (see in the goTemment of Minsk, having trftversed
HblbobkX ^ f^ more valiiable {dant, and rft- lithnanift, rencliea Poland near the town of
Ided to the EnropMHi flpedes, which is in high Qrodno and flows slong the Uthnanian fron-
lefnta. The berriee oi ths eommon |>oke are tier toward the Baltic The Warta, the sonroe
Mtan b; birds. Their Jnioe has been ased to of which is near that of the Piliea, and its affln-
giva oolor to wines, but tbt praotioe is dlsoonn- ent the Prosna, which partly separateB Poland
tsDiooed as injorioiu. Some yalnft is likewise from Silesia and Posen, ore MhutarieB of the
attaohed to ita root in veteiinarj' mediuna. Oder. Host of these rivers are navigable, and
POLA^ a fortifled oi^ of letria In Austria, form ahannela for the exportation of produce
oa ti» Mf of Porto d^ Booe, 10 m. S. S. E, throngh the Praasian towns of Dantzic, Stettin,
fiomTneetejiMqi. 11,000. It is nutoonded by and ^HMt.to the Baltio. There are lakes in
TenatiaB. wuls of tbo ISth amtnry, has a co- the northern part near the Pranian boundary,
thadiml, a Oreek chorohj and 8 convents, and bnt none of mneh size. The «limate is healthy
OM of the beat harbors in Earope. A colony bat severe^ the snmmer l>eing very hot and the
w»s astabliahed at Pt^ by Angnstos, when it winter very long and exceedingly ooM. In the
was oaDed Retaa JnUa ; and snbseqnently it former season, espedolty wben the B. £. winds
bacama so fioorisUng that In the reign of 8ft- blow from the steppes of BoMia, the thermom-
varu it amnbered 50.000 inhabitants. Some eter sometimes risM above 90° F., and in the
ofttsminsbavebeanuDgQlarlyweUtiFeserTed. latter it more freqnently descends to 10° below
Of Qkeae the most lemarlcable are the amphi- Eero. The rivers are sometimes Ice-bonnd and
Misatra, 48S feet in length by 844 in breadth, the fidds covered with snow for 4 or S months
twotemplM,on«of whiehwsaa&ytmtestndy ocotinaonBly. lie soSiemo^yafertile sandy
of Qm ItaBan architects, trinmplial arches, and loam; but there are nmneroos wiprodnctive
prntlMi of the ancient walls. tracts covered with sand, heath, or swamps.
POLAND (PoL Pobta), Edfodgu or, the Rich paatnreB and vast forests abotmd. The
veeternmost province of Russia in Enrope, region between the upper Bag and Vlstnla is
BtaaCed lietween lat. SO" i' and 5S' 6' N., and the most fertile, that between the Ylstnls and
kmg. 17° 80' andB4''S0'B.; areaalyrat49,6Se the RUoathe most varied and pictnreaqne.
M m. ; nop. In 1867, 4,T80,8T(>. It is bonnded The principal productions are wheat, rye, bar-
H.S.ana£. by theRnasiaaproTinoeaof lithn- ley, oats, and Wtwheat; varions legnminons
■ni* (the goTermneDts of Kovno, Vilna, and plants ; apples, ezoellent cherries, and other
Sradao) and Yolhynia, B. by Aastrian Oalicia, frnit ; many kinds of berries, especially straw-
and W. and N. T, by the Pnudan provinoes berries, wliioh are eqaally delicions and abnn-
<rf ffikeia, Pomo, and West and East Pmssi&i dont ; pine, fir, birch, oak, ash, hoEel, lime, and
AJl thaae aarronnding provinces, as well as other forest trees; nlver, iron, copper, lead,
nimeronB others, were fbrinerly parts of the and rinc; cattle, hogs, bees in great swarms,
oooa faidapeiidant utd powerftil state of Poland, poultry, sheep, and horses, some breeds of the
of which the jweoent nominal Idagdom is thna last two being among the best in eastern En-
qaadrtMdar territory, (iom the N. K oomer the deer, fbz, marten, polecat, weasel, and
of wUeh a Imw and narrow tract, boonded by Ttolf, the last of which in very severe winten
T jfhaanis and E. Pnisda, stretches northward, frequently infests the rural districts ; among the
The average l»«adth of tiie quadrangle from singing birds are the skylark and tiie nightio-
E. to W. aa w^ as ite leag& frmn NT to S. is gale ; the prindpal flsb is the pike.— The bnlk
aboBt 200 m. By far tlio greater part of the of the populalicn conksts of Poles, of whom
eaonlry ia a plain, sinking gently toward the the higher classes are generally well fbrmed,
Ballio; only the sonthem regiinis arehiUy or vlradoaa, warlike, hospitable, and patriotio,
riightly mountainous, being traversed by the but often rash and violent; the women are
aotthemmost offihoots of the Qarpatbians. graoef^tt and spirited, and the peasants sturdy,
Th* Vistula, which flows from that mmmtiUn good-natured, but slavish, the Jews, who
rsago to the Boitio, enters Poland a little bdow form i of the popnlation, and are allowed to
Oaoow, ninniug N. E. along the southern or Ure only in separate town quarters, are mostly
Oalidan fhintier aa far as die month at the poor, careless in dress, speech, and manners,
Baa, sweepa in a northerly and then north- bat benevolent, religtons, and Intelleetnal. The
wtBtarly direction through the middle of the Germans, who live chiefly in manu&ctnring
kiagdom. and leaves it a little above the Pros- towns and in separate agrionltnral settlements,
rian fitrtress of Thorn. On tite right it re- are distingaiBhed above all the other Inhabit-
eeives the Wieprz, which rises in the 8. E. ants by i^ostry, economy, and cleanliness, hot
eoner of the oounlj?, and the Bog, whioh rises are little hked in other respects. Russians (ez-
in Oaticia and flows along the E. or Rosrian cept the garrisons) and (mtsiee are not naroer>
frontier ; on the left t^e Nida, the Pilioa, which oua. The Poles almost ul belong to the Roman
rises In the 8. W. oomer, ud the Bsnra. The Oadiolic chnrch ; the Oermans are mostly Lti>
Karew, which rises in tbe Rossian government therons ; the Rassians have chnrohes of Qio
of Gfodno and receives tho Bobr, is an affluent Greek rite. The main resouroes of the coantiy
of the Bog ftoB Um right, Joining It aeav are agrieoltim and mining. OommeroeandtM
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
«19 POULHD
tndMsntoagrutext«iitiiitl)ehBiidaofth« hli duster 'Wanda, wbo b >^ to bave dfr
Jews, and mannfaotnree in thow of the Qar- featod m battle a German anitor, Hjtjfftt,
mans. Woollen oioth, cotton gooda, flannel, whom her patriotism did not allow h«r t« mai-
merinoes, shanls, hooieiT', leather, paper, glass, 17, and then to have drowned herself in thg
beet root sugar, beer, spirits, iron and zino, VistiUa; and the tyrant Popiel, aaid to htn
mosioal inatnunents, clocks and watches, and been devoured bjmice in hia caetlS in the mid-
curiageB are among the prinoipal manafao- die of Lake Gopto. Theelectdonof I^BBt,apioiii
tares, some of vhioh are exported to the and benevolent peasant of Ernszwioa, aa Vina
▼arions provinces of Bnssia. Grains, aeeda, is also regarded as mTthio, his eon ^emowit
oil, hone^, wool, metals, and timber are ex- being considered the firsthistorioalralerofPo-
ported to the Baltic porta, moetl? down the land (660). Little, however, is known of him,
Vistula to Dantzio. A striotl j gnarded onstoma or of his BDcoessors before Miecislaa L (963-
liue protects home mannfactores against for- 9SS), who having married Bombrowla, a Bo-
eign competition. A railroad, nmning acroaa bemian princess, was induced bj her to con-
the oountrv in a K. E. and B, W. direotion, vert his people to Christianity. He divided hii
connects the capital, Warsaw, with the Bua- dominions among hie sons, bat Bolesla^ the
nan, Austrian, and Pmsgian provinces. Some eldest of them, snmamed the Brave or th«
of the other important towns are: Sando- Great,madehimself master of the whole inher-
mir, Pnlawy, the fortreas Kew Iwaogorod, itance, extendinfr it b; oonqnests even bejond
Pr^a, a suburb of Warsaw, the fortress New the Oder, the Carpathians, and the Dniester.
Georgiewak or Modi in, and Plock, on the He was acknowledged as an independent mon-
Vistula ; Gzenstoohowa, Bieradz, Eolo, and anih by the emperor Otho III„ who came to
Eonin on the Warta; Kalisz on the Proena; Poland to visit the tomb of Bt Adalbert at
Piotrkow, Lodz, and Raws, between the Warta Gnesen; but he afterward carried on long wan
and the Pilica ; Lowicz on the Bzora ; Eielce, agunst Otho'a snoceasor Henry IL, with whom
Opatow, Konskie, and Radom, between the Pi- he finally conclnded a peace at Bautzen (1018).
lioaand Viatala; Lublin, Lenczna, and the for- Diaaensions between theBUCcessoraof Vladimir,
tress ZomoBo, near the Wieprz ; Wlodawa and grand prince of Kiev, called him to Bussia, aud
Nar on the Bug; Biedloe S. of it; Lomza, Oa- he entered that capital in triumph, atrikiiie its
trolenka, and Pnltusk on the Narew ; Bnwalki gold-covered principal gate with a sword re-
and Kalwarya in the K. K prqjeotion. The ceivedirom Otho, which was afterward known
last division of the country is into S govern- among the insignia of the Folieh crown under
menta, viz., of Warsaw, Radom, Lublin, Plook, the name of «n»^rifM (notched). Eewaanoless
and AngUHtowo (capital Snwalki), which haa successfnl in peace, promoting commerce, a
anperBeded a former one into 6 palatinatea, viz., atrict administration of justice, and the spread
of Uaaovia (capital Warsaw), £alisz, Cracow of the new religion, and strengtiiemng t£e in-
(o^iital Kietoe), Saudomir, Podladhia (capital temal defencea of the country. This waa, hoir-
uedlce), and Lublin. The present govern- ever, still in a comparatively rude conditioD.
oris Prince Micliael Gortchakoff. — The Poles The principal places were little more thanamaU
form one of the principal branches of the towns; most of the inhabitants were agricul-
Blavic family of nations. Their ancestors are turists bonnd to do military service ; those who
believed by the best historians to have occu- were able to equip a horae were regarded u
pied the same regiona during or aoon after the nobles ; prisoners of war were held es serfe ;
time of the great migration of nations. A and the government waa entirely SDtocratic
ftw centuries later they appear under the name Boleslas was fond of splendor, aporta, and mil-
ofPoIans between the Oder and Yiatnla. of Len- itary displays, and shortly before his death
ozycauaB. of the Warta, of Masovians between (102G) had himself crowned as king bj hit
the Yistala and the Narew, and of Eq}avians, biahopB. The reign of bis eon Uiedslas IL
Kassubs, and Pomeranians on or near the lower waa short. His widow Biza, a granddaughter
Tistula, being surrounded by kindred tribes, of the emperor Otho 11., reigned for swM
theObotrita, Wenda.Sorabiana, Luaatiana, Bile- time badly in the name of her eon Gsonur,
dans, Bohemians, Moravians, and White and and finally fled with the treasure and the royil
Bed Oroats, on the W. and B., and by the Prns- insignia to Germany. Oaaimir followed her,
aiana, Lithuaniana, and othera on Uie E, The and a period of anarchy ensued. The national
Folans, probably so named as inhabitanta of heathenism prevuled over the imported wo^
the plain (FoL poU, fleld, plain), formed the ahip; the Ohristian priests were mardered, tad
most conspicuous group, and eventually gave their churches destroyed. Bussians and fie-
thmrnametothe wholenation. Their leader or hemiana, grasping the opportunity to take re>
prince Lech, the founder of the city of Gneaen venge for lat« defeats, invaded the country.
(about A. D. 6G0), is the first among the heroes Oasimir, who had lived for years the life of a
of the earlioat, that is, legendary Polish history, monk, waa now recalled (1040), and by tbe rN-
But as Lach is still ubm for Pole among ^e toration of peace, order, and Christianity, guaed
Bussians, the name of the fabnlons brother of thesumsmeof "theBestorer." HissonBolM-
Czech (Bohemian) and Ens (Russia) probably las II., or the Bold (1058-'81), waa warlike.
belonged to the people. Bqually fabnlona are, like the first of that name, but without his abil-
among others, Krakua, the founder of C^aoow ; It; as a ruler. He triun^ed over the Bohe-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POLAND ^
Blns,d«dt(led l^jhiilntemnHmfitedifpntea unong t&e nobles. The IntereBtfl of the lower
about the Hongarian throne, and on a similar olasws, too, were after Uie death of the Tirtoona
eipe^tioD to BoBaia occapied Kiev. This aitj, Oadmir more and more ^wegarded ; domaJni
however, proved a Oapna to his warrlora ; the and single sstotes were gnm^ as present! or
war was protraoted for jear^ and lawlassness rewards to faTorites or pablio offioen, vrith the
and proflincj prevailed in the nteanwhile in right of jnrisdiotioa over the peasantrf ; the
Poland. On his ntxaa he oommitted acts of obligotionB of the Utter were gradaallr eitend-
^rannr. and even stained bis bands vidi the ed, while the higher nobles were exempted
Hood of 8L Stanislaa, bishop of Oraoow, who from all pablio hardens. An attempt of Mie-
had reprimanded him. This roused the people cistas the Old to reoover the orown after tbe
(giinat him, and he died in eille. Kb broth- death of Oasimir failed. The son of the former,
er Iddldu (Wladfalaw) Herman (1061-1103), I^dislas, was also set up as a rival to that of
weak-minded and slagsish, reewned the regal the latter, Lesoo (Leszek) I., the White, bat
title, bong taliisfied wttn that of doke, and hi- generonsl; resigned (1207). Thas the fomigeet
tnistadairaffi^r8 0fatatetoafaTorite,8iedeoh, line of the boose of Boleatas Crooked Month
whom be rdsed to the ^gnit; of palatine (<w- remaned in possession of power. Lesoo him-
jt»>da\aad whose sway cansed general dboon- self took the provinces of Oracow, Bandomir,
tent. EGb two sons flnallj oompelied him to and Fomeronia ; his brother Conrad roodved
banish the fevorite, and I^slas Herman died Uasoria, Knjavia, Biaradz, and Lenozjoa,
ioon afterward. His son Boieslas III., the Lesoo, a wor^7 son of Oasimir the Jnst, re-
Orooked Month (11 OS-'S0), warred with sno- peatedlf interfered in the affairs of the dis.
eem ag^nat the PmsMans, oonqnered Pomera- tracted Red Russian principality of Halioz
nia, eonvertins its Inhalutanta to Ohristiani^, (Oalioia), protecting the honse of bis former
aad defended Eulesia against the emperor Henrr enemy Prince Roman agtdnst native factions as
T. ; but, no less passionate than brave, be took well as agunst the Hungarians. He then tnmed
ft bloodf revenge on bis half brother Zbigniew hie attention to the affiora of his own province,
tor repeated provocations, and died broken- Pomerania, in a part of which Bventopelk, a
hearted after having been worsted br the Hon- native governor, who had delivered the ooast
gfT'S"*, Bohemians, and Rnssians. By his will land of the Baltio from the Danes, strove to as-
be dirked his dominions among hia 4 eldest some absolnte power. Lesco tried to bring
eons, the yonngest, Oadmir, receiving no share. al>ont a peacefol settlement, but was treacber-
Bsnry received Bandomir, Miecislas III. (the onsly mnrdered by the Pomeranian. The prov-
Old) Great Poland for Poland proper) with ince, a conquest of Boieslas IH., was lost. Oon-
Fosen, Boieslas IV. (tne Cnrly-hatred) Haaovia rad, too, who wasas rash and cmelasbis brother
and K^javia, and Ladislas IL Pomerania, Bilesia, was mild, was nnable to oope with his beatben
Bieradz, Lenczyca, and Oraoow, with the gnardl- Pmasian neighlwrs. He oailed to his assist-
anship of bia broUiers and the title of monardi. anoe the Teotonio knights, wbo were not satia-
Bnt the humonv among the family was of fied with the conversion of the hslf savage
short dnration. Trfl'''"'iW| indted by his Ger- people, but made oonqnest and power thdr
man wife, tried to dispossess his brothers, and principal object, carried their arms into litho-
was deposed. Boieslas was dected monarch in ania and Fodlachia, and aoon became terriblo
Ids ataad, but after a war against Frederic Bar- enemies of Poland. Boieslas V. the Baahfol
barossa, who intervened in favor of the eldest (183T-'T9), who encoeeded bis father nnder the
hne, finally oeded Silesia to the sons of Iddislas, gnardianship of his nnde, and grew op to be-
nd this provinoe eventnaUr became severed oome "an ntynst iadge, peace-loving knight,
from Poland and Oermanlzad. IGeoialaa, who and oareless ruler," was not the man to restore
■Heeeded Boieslas aa monarch, shared the fate the power of the state. This was almost annl-
of the eldest brother (117T), and the crown de- hilated by the great invasion of the Mongol
ndred npon the yonngest, Oasimir II., snmamed Tartars. Boleslaa esoaped beyond the Oarpa-
the Just, who had snooeeded Henry in Sando- tbians, whence be oontinned his flight together
mir, and had snbseijnently also inherited Ma- with King B^la of Enngery ; the people sooght
sovia and Ki^avis- He was snooessfal both in reflige in the vast fbrests or behind the walls
peace and war. Important reforms took place of tbe scanty fortressea. The Mongols bnmed
doling bia reign in the administration of the Cracow, and carried death and devaKation even
eonntry. An assembly of hishopa convoked at beyond the Oder. Duke Henry the Picns of
Lenozyea In 1180 established the rights of the Silesia fell with bis knights on the great battle
peasaata and the dergy. A senate was formed fleldof WablatattnearLi^nitiinlMl.bottha
oonrfating chiefly of twu^ palatines, and cas- invaders now conunenoed their retreat, piUag-
toDans, or governors of the fbrtifled castles, ing, burning, and carrying off men and cattle.
Thnathemonarehybecamelimitedbytheintro- The decay of the conntay was general and
dnction of a kind of oUgarchy, which bysuhse- gradual. The heirs of Conrad enDdivided bis
qnent changes was developed into a powerfal possessions. Various western districts were
aristooraoy. Thia was in part a natond oonse- pledged for loans or ceded to neighboring
qnenoe of the divinon of the country, which German princes, especially to the margraves
ight about the appointment of nnmerons of Brandenbn^, and Ae Bohemians occupied
T palalinea and trther offioers, ohosen ftom parts of southern Bilesia. The nnmurons Gei>-
brought
dood p
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
nun MtUen in dw Itxirna, UnnA vkM Hm dainu, and BMm«d flia ilBaiiM of TTiiiigiij
their iaiiiurj, eztanded the inflaenee d hy adopting m wooiof hJa nmJiwr lack tiha
tbeiriiatiTeooiuitr7b]'tlieq>ra«dciftli«irliiu Oreal, Ungof thstoomUiy. Homaue and <b-
giugeuidtbefaitrodi>otionofOeriDme(utomi ligliteiMd above bis ^a, tluH]^ Fn>fligBt«,kB
and even Uira,eq9edal]j those regotetingMnn- eamedtiietitlaof "kms of thepeManta," pro-
meroe and trade, and ahnoot denaCionalizect tectedthe JawB, hadatumblacodaof Uwafiar
parts of their adopted land. Oerman vanion both Folands promnlgatad by the diot irf Vi»>
and adventDrera flocked to the ahores of tb» lioa in 1U7, and founded the nnirWMtf of
Baltio, where the Tentonlo knis^ta, preaMd hf Cracow, the fint in uorthem fiut^e. Bat ba
the PrasdaDB, Lithnantana, and SveDtopelk of also took oare to atrengtheo and oztntd his
Fomerania, allied themselreB vith the fcnighta power. He boiltaitieB and tetn«ea, and after
sword-bearerB of Liyonia fbr oommoa omaad' thedeathwithoatiaaaeof Boleelaaof Haaovia,
ing wars on the oonfinea of Poland. The Jews, who reigned over H^ioz, amiezed hia vaat fom-
too, who in the time of the orasadea were acamona to the Polish crown. To dfAnd it*
driren b7 penecntios from Qermanv, retained righte to these prorincea, he Ibnght wtth varj^
hi Poland the language whicJi the; nad adopt- ing snooeu agalnit Tartars, I.iMin)^iii||ni|_ ud
ed on the hanks of the Rhine and Dannbe. Wallaohiana. Sia death (1S70) oloaed the kn*
Tartars, Red RnsBians, and even the Litha»- raign of the Plaat dTiias^, the fint oentorr of
nians, who fonnd an able prince ia Undog, which (80&-l>0S) tnajr be regarded aa htJf hia-
made occasional incnrslonB. Still Boleslas ana- toiioal, the following 180 ^ears (nea^), froB
oeeded in annexing Podlaehia. He left the the aooeari<n of lUeoiBlaB L to th« dealh of
oonntr; In a distracted coitdition, which grew Boleaiaa OroAed Xontti (1189), aa a time cf
Will worse during the short r^gns of his sno- growth and ctnqoesta, the 190 yean preoediiv
oesBorsLeeeoII. the Black, a grandson of OoU' ut« ooronatton of King Tjaui— I. flte Short
rad, Fronislaa (Pmmjslaw), dnke of Foean, (1819), as a time of division and deo^y, and th«
who was crowned king at Onieeen In 1S09, but laatpmodof 50 rearsasoneof rea(»atnictfa>n
soon after murdered by Brandenbnrgiana, and and renewed ezpaonoiL — ^Looia <tf Hnngarj
'Wenoeslas, king of Bohenda, who was elected possessed the title, legally confbrred 1^ th«
by the people ^ Greet Poland as a rival to La> diet, of Polish king, bnt hardly deserved it, his
dislas ue Short (Lokietci), a brother of Leaoo poUcy remaining ezdnsively HmwariHi. H«
n. Ttds prince, who had saved his life <mce qfcmt all his time in his native kington, and
befbre by esci^ing in disgnise, again booome a even commenced the annexation to It of th»
fiigitive, and mam a pilgrimage to Rome, but, Halic^an territoriea. The l^slativo rights of
growing manly, steady, and reeohite In miafar- the nobles, however, he confirmed and extand-
tnne, retoroed to Poland in 180^ was w^ r«> «d, being bent on seonriog the Polish soooss*
oeived in Oracow and Sandomir (Little Poland), rion to one of his two dan^tera, Uaiy and
hat had to rtmg^e hard ag^st fbctione in Hedvig. Of these, the yoanger, a ^il diattn-
Great Poland and dsewhere, the eneroaob< gnished by beanty as well aa wtj and mUd-
ments of the Teutonic knights, and nonwrons nees of ohararter, was acknowledged altar hia
deeply rooted abnees. He saecieeded m reator- death (1889), but bmg romalned ahoont from
ing order and the unity of the larger part of Poland, which was in the meanwliilo a aosM
theoonntry (8iledaenl^tingitMlf to the Bo- of dvil war. Bhe flnal^ arrivad, and, fidhxsr-
heniian kinge); made Oracow its permanent Ing the advioe of the Polidi iilaliwiiiin. gsive
capital, where he was solemnly crowned In herhandtoJi^iello, graitdprinoe<tfIJlhnim!a,
1810; reformed judicial abnsee; aboliahednn- oonqnering not withont a otrnggle an early
nOTons ill<^ally acquired privilwes ; convened love for an Aostrian dnke. The pagan piinoe
an assamUy rfsmators, miancellors, regal offl- was bsptiied as T^i«|ig« (IJL), uid pranused
oers, and <Akw nobles for le^slative purposes to convert hia people, in whieh h« was aa ' ~
at (Aenoiny in 1S81, which may be reguded by the seal of Hedvig, and to unite his p<
as tlie first Folidi diet (tefn) ; and in aJlianoe slons with Poland. These, the limits of which
with the powcrftd prince of Lithnania, Qedt had been extended by the oonqnesta of his
niitt, carrwd on a vigorous war agsJnst the grsndfother and &titer, Gedimin and CHMrd,
Teot<»iio knights. Betnmlng Itom hia last from tiie Beltia and the Dtkna to tti« Dnieper
' 1, the septaweaarian monarch was and Black aea, comprised T.itlinfmit pn^tar,
. illed as tiie fiitlier Of hb country by 8amogitia(N.ofth«}rienien),Polada(DBhoth
ttie people of th« csi^tal, bnt death fbllowed aides t^ the PripeU), Volhynia, Podidia, and
dose upon his triumphal reception (1888). Ckr^a, and in extent axoeaded the twntoriss
ized Poland; peace was the foremost desire of the two powerfol states was ex«eatad gradnal-
his aon Oa^mir lH. the Great, who made it ly and with dlfflonlty. JagWlo, aoknowkdgei
powerfbl and flonriiMng. He endianged the as king <tf Poland (1886-1484), vamd swoeew
eastern part» of Fomerania, which had been fiUly against the Teutonic kni^ts, rontingthsB
regidned under Premisla^ for some disbicts on at OrOnwald in 1410. ffis coorin Vitotd ta
the Yistnla restored by the knights ; ceded Si- vain conQ)ired with the vnperor Siatemmd to
lesia to B^cnla for a redgnation of fortiier uaka Umself indapondwit kkig w litbsania
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
mim hk frattttim. Aflv *b» duth rf Ja* Iheoon^iraojrofClliiuU, MtubftiMuIithii-
gidlo, hi>w«T«r, his older bod LadialHa IIL waa anum, howerer, which wu baffled, involved
aAnowledgad o«l7 ui Poland, th« lithuaniaus Sigisiaiind in a war witih Kaaoovj, in vhioh
pnferrin^ to b« ruled aeponttelr under the fimoleiiBk vaa lost) though Frinoe Oonstantlnq
TOniuer, Carimir. Both were >tUl nnder guar- Ottrogski won a brilliant viotorr at Orsha. A
dian^^ Ladiahw waa enbeeqnentlr eleoted lai^ put of the Teatonio order having adopted
king of fiongaTT', and after a BniioeHflil e:qiedi- the teneta of Lnth^F, their laat grand maatar
tloo amnst the Torka, aodabvorable peace Albert of Brandenbnrg, Sigismnnd'a nephew,
•ODDliiaedaBder oath, which he waa peraoaded waa eatablished, as vaaaal of the laj;ter, diike of
to braak in tbo intereat of religion, fell in a eaatern Pmsaia at Eonigabe^ in 1626 ; the
neond eampaign in the bloo^ battle of Yaroa western part of that ooimby, with Caatxic,
is IMl. His brother Oaaimir IV. now rwgned lenuuoed ia the immediate poaseasion of Fo-
arer both lithnania and .Pidand. The flrat land, under the name of Bojal Pnuna. A
part at hia loo^ reign waa 0108117 ooonpied b; peaoe with the Tnrks, who had advanced to
fiPTipit't'Y' agauiit me Xeotoaio koighta, whope the northern shorea of the Black aea, aacnred
aUortioBa drove the people <f eaatam Fomera- the aazeraint^ of Poland over UoldaTia. The
ala, or aa it was now called ProsMa, to rebellion, tranqoillitj of the good king was disturbed
■^ in the peace of Thorn (1446) finoll; Barren* toward the oloae ot his rei^ br pettj poUtii»]
tend the territorka of Dantzio, Gnlm, aad£r> intrigoea of his qoeen Bona, an Italian piineesii
neland to Polud, kewiii^ the eaatern part as and the nndeawred eomplaints of the nobility,
Taaaal of that crown. The Polish oobiUtj, who who, having been oallea ont for an expedition
br their bravery deuded the protracted oontert, to Wallaoua, asMmbled in the vicinity of
riiiiilliiiiiiiiiiilj extended and regulated their Lemberg, abont 160,000 in number, declaimed
ligfata aad legialative ^i1ril<fea ; the diets were agtinat eneroaohmenls, drew up a liist of gnev-
Oiguiied by the Inatitntion of preceding dia- anoes, and diapersed. Dying aoon after, Bigia-
kiet aoemMiae, and tlie introdnction of regn- mnnd left the thnaie to hia son, SigiBmnnd IL
lar npr«eentat»Ht ; eqnality among the wamor AngoatDa, an iaespttienced yootb, who had
slaaa gr ooblea more and more prevailed ; prince- bewi trained to efTeminaoy by hia mother, Bnt
\f and otiier tillea wwe despised, bnt £unily in apite of many foiblea, he proved a worthy
ims gcaterally introdnced ; in Lithnuia alone snooeesor of his father as aoon as he waa der
&e higher noUlity preserved their titlea and livered from the "■T^f'"^' tyranny of Bona,
eligtar«iuo infloense, and thair pretanriona and who, after pereecnting him for aone time fiw
tarbolent ^rit otnaed nnmerona tronblea, and haviog secretly married Barbara Badalwill,
even gnve loaaea. The long wars were fol- finally withdrew with her rich treaaorea to
kiwed by a period of relaxation. Western Italy. So circumscribed waa already at that
Praesia, reviving after a dreadful devastalioni time the power of the king, that the affection'
became A great otiannelibr£cvMgn commerce; ate hosband waa nearly compelled to aacrifloe
lasnry, eKtraraganoe in dreas, and refinement, the orown ta hia lore, and aaved both only by
nd the oae <x foreign langoagea, inclnding timely directing the attention and Jealonay ctf
latin, apread through all olasaea except that (Uf the lower nobility, the ao called "younger
the paaaants. Thb latter class waa atill more brethren," to the abusea and encroachments
(aprcaaed doHBg the foUowing short reigns of of the higher, the " elder brethreo." The re-
Ibe sons of Oaaimir, John (1.) Albert (1493- form of the republic^ aa the state was called,
UOl) and AlAZaadar (lfi01-'6). The former now became one of the principal otjeota 01
Bode nusnooeaafal attempta to limit ttko sway the diets, another bdng the final milon of
flf tfaa ntrfilea, and only aronaed their Jeatoiuy Lithuania with the orown. To achieve both the
nd anqiiciona, an unezpeoted dd'eat in the kingandthenobleewerelnde&dgableln thdr
bnata of Bokovina during vi expedition endeavors. The T.jt.hngnian lorda, however,
■niasfe WaUaohia in 1496 b^ig attribated by who glwiedin princely titlea and ei^yedgreat
awB to a plot mmiw at tbdr eztenninatioQ. feudsJ piirilegea, were alow in aabmltting to
Dndor the utter the old and reoentenaotmentei Polish equality; bnt ffigismand Aagustna set
irttid^ had' already oonoenbated almost all agoodexamplebysaoriSiunghiaownfeiidslas
powfll in tbe two honsea <rf the diet, the sen- well aa hereditary rights. After the death of
its and the more powerftil dmnber of denn- Nicholaa BaddwUI the Black, one of its prin*
tin, were d^estea in ^e form of a revuar oipal opponents, the union was proclaimed by
soda bytbe ohaneeDor La^ BigtamoiKl I., the diet of Lublin in 1566.- Ostrogski, Oiarto-
snather aon of Oasimir IV., anoceeded (LBOi- ryski, and other powerful lithnaniana signed
'48). Bteady, diligent, actiTe, and a friend of it. Lithuania ceased to be a hereditary poa-
peaee, ha waa the hntueet king of hia age. seerion of the house of Jagiello, but waa t»
He was beloved by the whole pei^e, and form a common repoblia with Pdand, nnder
obeyed bf «f*«a the tarbslent nobility. The the mle of an eleotire king, with a conmun
TMnnrsM of tiM ootmtry were developed, and diet and senate. The two component parte,
it attafied aa nnweoedenled pro^erity, eqoy- however, the grand principality and the crown,
iag peace and orderwhtlealmaat the wbcdo of ndntalned their a^arate titlea, armlea,flnanoei^
luope waa distraeted by waia resulting from and statutes. Podlaotua, Volhynia, and Ukraine
HiigionadkMoakniaorthaBmlntHHi of princes, were tranefbrred from tlufonner to thalatten.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
4M POLAHS
liTonia, reoentl; oonqaered br Siglonnmd An- the im]T«rri(7 of IHlna, wUeh lie httnutod Ut
gnHtos from the knigbtssword-bearen, and de- the Jesnita. Ho reformed Che Jndidary, in-
fended againBt It&u the Terrible of ibiaoovj, ititDting independent high tribonale, Btiangth-
i«mained a common duchj. Wanair In Mk- ened tbe miUtaiT forces of the coantry, ae-
■ovia wtut ohosen to be the r^nlar eeat of die omred the friendahip of the Tarten aronna tlia
diet The power, proeperit^, and opnienoe of Black eea, organized the Ooasa^a of the loirer
the state approached their height Peaoe pro- Dnieper as gnordiana of the S. E. ftvntiar, and
moted eoinmeroe, refinement, and the deTelop- In a war against Koaua hnmiliated Ivan and
jnent of literatore in both I^itln and the rer- oonqoered Polotzk. His prindpal advlMr and
naonlar PolUh, wliloh also gradnallj took the right arm was John Zamojaki, who nnited the
place of the Rnsrian in the Lithnanian parts, dignitiea of chancellor, ceeteUan of Oraco'w,
Toleration and ho8]^Ull^ attracted foreigners and hetman or commaiider-in-cMef. Thoasft
of aU sects, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Bodn- a favorite also of tiie nation, he arooaed t£e
iana, while western Enrope was the scene of anger of the nobiU^ agalnit the king by an act
intemedDe religioos strifes. The popnlatioii of extreme thonghjnet eeverltjr, tlieexecntkHi
of Poland waa doubled onder the two Sigis- of Samnel ZborowskL tor mnrdar and rebel-
mnnds. But, a prey to disease, and to male and lions condnct; and B&thori, vlio freqnentl,
female fitvorltea and charlatans, the yonnger made use of Enngarian troops, waa r '
died poor in mral solitude, and withont issne^ of aiming at the snbvernou of the con . . . _
the last in the male line of the Jagfellos, the and the establishment of a strong, hereditarr
happiest of all the Foliah dynasues (1G72). monarchy, when he died. He closed the pe-
Daring the interregnum which now followed, riod of Poland's greatcet power and proeper-
the cudinal righta of the nation were estsb- it;, which, commencing with the acoeealoa of
lished, each elective head being required to the house of Jagiello, lasted full SOO yeora,
enter into a r^Iar covenant with it and to The Independence of Poland snrvived this pe-
take the oath of fidelity to the pacta eonoetUa. riod for two more centories, bat these were a
He was botmd to convoke the diet every two time of ahnost continnal decay. Bigismoad
yeara, to have a permanent council consating Tasa, the Bwedlah crown prince, who by hia
of senatora and aepnties, to reE;>ect the rights mother was a descendant ot the Jn^tOoi, and
of the diaudenta, not to declare war or to aend an Anatrian archdnke, Maximilian, were tha
ambassadors abroad witboat the consent of principal candidates after BAthori. Zamojski
the estates, and not to marry withont that of carried the election of the former, bnt Mb
the senate. AninfTaotionof the compact was enemies the Zborowakis and their followers
to absolve the people item allegiance. A diet declared for the latter. The hetman, how-
of convooatiou, assembled by the archbishop ever, rooted the arohdnke's troops, made him
of Gnesen as primate, preceded the diet of prisoner, and compelled him to resign. StiU
election, which waa held on the field of Wota &igiBmimd,afHend ofthe Jeflaits,whoM Cath-
before Warsaw, every nobleman having an in- olio zeal cost him hia hereditary Bwediah orown,
dlvidaal and equal elective vote. The arch- entered into dose alliance with Anatria, lika
duke Ernest, a member of the then all-annex- many of hig predeoeaaors marrying a prineeM
ing houae of Anstrla, and others found little of that house. His long re!^ (16^-168S)
sympathy ; the ohtace fell upon the moat nn- was distingaished by great men and snmerooB
worthy candidate, the profligate Henry of ' wars, bnt by no fiivorable resnlts. In hit flnt
Yalois, duke of A^jon, brother of Charles war against Sweden, where hia node Charles
IX, of France. A s^endid embassy escorted IX. ooctmied the throne, he lost ahnoat the
the duke from Paris, and a splendid corona- whole of^ livonia, In spite of Zamojiki'a mic-
tion took place at Craoow, in IGH; but the cesses and Ohodkiewicz'a brilliant victory at
effeminate prince and the hardy nation were Kirchholmin 1S06. litnisaech, Visniowieckl,
soon heartily disgusted with each other ; and and others in v^ aacriflced their mea and
after a few months, having received the news riohe8tosetthedanghteroftfaeformer,Haryiia,
of the death of Ohvles, he secretly ran off to together with the Fseado Demetrius on the
France to succeed him as Henry III. Another throne of Moscow ; the pretender fell by tM
Hapsburg, the emperor Uaximilian II., an- Bhniskia in 1606; Zoltdewaki, the heroic Polish
peared as candidate, and was even arbitrarily hetman, took the latter prisoners, and had his
declared elected by the primate Uchanski; king's son Lodisloa crowned as ciarin 1010;
bnt the great statesman John Zamcgski pro- but Sigismnnd, who umed at oonvertdng Rna-
posed to give the crown to Anna Jagiello, an sia, ^toiled the afiair by a eeparate eipedilion,
elderly and virtnoas sister of Bigismnnd Ac- and all bnt Smolensk and Beveria was lost
Sistns, choosing for her husband Btepben Ba- again. Zam<^^ sneoessfblly inteiAred, at his
ori, prinoe of TransyU-ania, and hia advloe own expense, in the affairs of Holda^a, but
prevailed (1676). This Transylvanian was other pcwerfld nobles who followed hia ez-
probably the ablest monarch Pound ever had. ample were made o^ttives by the Tntka. Zol-
A eealons Oatholic himself he was animated kiewskl conqoered peace f»iu the Turks, but
by a q>irit of toleration toward others, and as fell in a new war at Ceoora in 1620. COiod-
a patron of acience and friend of eaucation kiewlos revenged his death at CSmcim, where
fbnnded nomarous InititDtionB, among others he doaed hia (Morions career in 16S1, In an-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOLAiro 481
oditr mr acafaut Sweden, irhen Sigismtrnd Oadmlrretnmed, the king of Denmark proved
eonnted, bat m Tain, on AofitrEan and Spanish a useful bIIt, and the sword of OzomiecM iraa
ud agiUnBt the ooimnon enemj Qastams Tiotoriona everywhere and against all enemie^
AdolfAiw, not onlj waa Livonia not recoil- from Oracow to Slonim, and from the coast of
anersd,bat Biga was lost (1631), the Polish Denmark to the shores of the Block sea. Peaoe
Beet on the Boltio destroyed, and a part of was conquered, but at great Baorifices. Dacal
FnuBiagiven op by a traoe in 1629. In inter- Frossia was definitely ceded to Brandenbniv,
tial afiaira Sigismimd was not more sncoessfol ; almoat oil Livonia to Sweden, and Smolensk,
tiie Oreeks and other disaideats comphuned, Beveria, TchemiROT, and DkridDe S. of ths
eoiwpired, or rebelled, the regular army ertort- Dnieper to Russia, by the treatiea of WeUa,
ed its arrears by mutiny, ana the roytu dignity Oliwa (ISBO), and Andrngzow. Poland was
was mors thaa oooe humiliated. Bigismnnd's half a desert John Oa«mlr, despairiiiK of the
brave son, I^dialae TV. (1682-''4S), defended fiitnre, resigned, and retired to an abbey in
Smolensk againat Rnssio, and regained Fmasia France, where he died. Michael £arybiit
in a peace coaclnded with Sweden in 1635, Wimiowieoki was elected bis BQooes*or. He
but m domestio ooncema was not more fortn- was the son of a commander who made him-
nate than his father. Having by some in- self terrible to the Cossacks in the wars of the
tended reforms caoaed snspioion among the no- preceding reign, but himself possessed neither
bility, he had to sabmit to flirther limitations distinction, nor wealth, nor confidence in his
of the regal authority. The dominant class, own abilities, and had almost to he compelled
the tarbment warrior brotherhood, now eier- to ocoept the orown. The primate and the
daed its sway in every direction, tyrsnnioally hetmon John Sobieski openly and secretly agi-
gniding the king, prohibiting superior titles, tated waLost him ; and when on an iDonraion
entirely exclodiog the non-nobles from all of the Tnrka, in which they overran Ukraine
le^slative inflaence, and more and more bur- and Fodolia and captnred Kamienieo (1S7^
doling and degrading the peaaantry. Simitar he concladed with them a shomefbl peace,
oppnoAon, aa well as reugions persecation, Bobieaki caused its rtjjeotion by the senate, im-
woe now begun ogahist the Oossooks, which mediately hastened to the seat of war, and
at Uie time of Laoislos's death resnlted in a rented the Uoslems at Ohocim(16TS)- Michael
dreadM riaiitg noder ObmielulckL who, ^ded dying ahont the same time, the hero repaired
by the Tartars, eonied death and desolation to the diet at Warsaw, was himself elected hia
Bto the very heart of Poland, alternately oon- successor, returned to meet the foe, and re-
qaering and conquered in battles, extorted lieved the hard-pressed fortress of iVembow-
IreaUes and submitted to others, and finally la. In another campaign, however, he was
tnbjeeted the rebellions warriors to the czar of surrounded by the Turks and Tartars at Znraw-
Hoscow. This war and defection, next to the no and barely saved his army, ceding Eamie-
qririt of religions intolerance which cursed the nieo and a part of Ukraine in a treaty. At the
rei^ofthe VasastheprinoipalcaoseofPoland's instigation of hia ambitions and intrigaing
nsH decay. Was only one of the calamities French queen, he again took np arms against
which befell the brother and suooessor of La- the Turks in 1083, when he delivered Vienna
disloa, the religiooa and brave bnt flekle John and filled Ohristendom with the fiune of Polish
(IT.) Oosimir (IdiS-'SS). Some he caused him- arms, but obtained no benefit for hleown conn-
lelfbv injustice, aa the treason of Bodziejowski, try, Eqnallj frnitlesB were his later nndertak-
and Uie &tal insurrection under Lubomirski ; ings, and he died little beloved by his people in
b«t the chief soorces of misfortune were legis- 1696. His sons found no support at the eleo-
lative anarchy, culminating in the liberum veto, tion : the diet was divided, and two foreigners,
■ ■ -itof as • • ^ . . - - . „
predict in the diet the fliture dismemberment of Vienna enabled him to regain Kamienieo,
of the country by Brandenburg, Austria, and without a war, through the treaty of Oorlowitz
BosaiA. In bis own reign, Nmultoneonsly so- (1 699) ; bat hia alliance with Peter the Great of
saolted by the Russians and Oossacks, Charles Ruada and Frederic IV. of Denmark, againat
Onstavus of Sweden and his ally the great eleo- the young Charles Xn. of Sweden, proved a
tor of Brandenbni^, and George Rak6czy of source of calamities to himself and the country.
Transylvania, Poland was on the brink of ruin ; The Bazons fought Augustus's battles, and the
the new capital, Warsaw, as well aa the old, Poles, who had not been oonsulted about the
Oracow, fell into the hands of the Swedes, war, were little inclined to aid him. Charles,
Wiloa and Lemberg into those of other ene- having humbled the Danish kin^ at hia ospital,
miea; the king was deserted, and fled to Silesia, and routed the czar at Narva in 17O0, drove
The fbrtiSed convent of Ozenetoobowa, how- back the Saxons ttora the Dtlna, marched
ever, woe s^vedbytibe patriotism of the friars; through Lithuania, where he was received with
a confederation for defence waa formed at open arms by the Bapiebas, who were jurt en-
Tyssowce by the Potockis, Lauokoronski, and gaged in a bloody Kud agunst other &miliaa
ouier patziota ; heroic efibrte were made, John of the grand priiudpality, oroased over to Po-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
kndl, ottered Wamwf 'dACaatod Aagatbu at rnler. H» eiwoanj^ tba dtMidents md mm-
EliMOW ia 1703, and ocoiuaed Or&ooT. Tlie miea of reform, who fonned nomsroiu nnall
j-onng Qonqneror preferred riving Awar the confederstioOB, united them into one at Radom,
orown of Poland to taldog it nimsel^ and had and bj force of anna compelled them to accept
his friend, the jonthM and noble-hearted ^ala- the goarantj of the unlimited repnblicaii 'Sberty
Une of Posen, Staiuslaa Leazczjiislu, sahsbtnt- by Bnagia. To ailenoe the indignation <rf tbie
ed for the vdi^uous Saxon (1706), whom he people, he had the patriotic biibops of Oracoir
pnrsued into his hereditair electorate, where and Kiev, goltyk and ZslnsU, ana the p^tine
%j the treat/ of Altranetadt in 17DQ be com- of Oracow, Bzewiuki, with bis son, arrested in
polled him to resign his olums to Poland. But the ni^t, and sent as prisoners to Bosna in
•carcalr had Oharlee lost the battle of Pnltowa 1767. The patriot^ however, now took up
(1700), when Aogastos returned, and with the arms in dafence of independence and iibertT',
help of the Russians recovered the resel crown, against fbreisnaagreirion and regal ascrpatioai,
Stanulaa joined bis protector in Turkey. The but unhappily tSo against the tnflnence of the
fallowing period of peace was one of public and dissidents. The confederation of Bar took the
£rivat« corruption. The nobility was infected lead 0768), Its soul being the Pnlaskis (prop*
/ the effeminacy of the court, and abandoned erly Polawskie), especially Gasimir, and En-
the defence of oonstitntional rights ; reli^oua mnakl, bishop of Eamleniec The a&mggle
fuaticism not only ocoasionallj showed itself agunst the Bostdana, tLe Porte too dedaring
aa at Thorn in 1721, in a bloody shape, but also war agtunst them, was carried on long ana
legalized the long exercised eicloMoii of the fiercely in yarious parts of the country, bat
dissidenta from office ; and Bosaian interference only by a part of uie nobles, under Pulaski,
became permanent. A Bossian army helped Sawa, Oharlee BadziwiU, Zaremba, Koaakow-
a faction ot the nobles to establish the son of aU, UginskL and others. An attem^ in 1771
Augustus as his successor in 1788, instead of to carry off the king from the coital Cailed
Qia reelected Leezczjiiaki, who was compelled when almost executed, and broo^t great odi-
to retire to Dantzic, where he was besi^d, um upon the confederates. Ueanwhue Oatha-
and theace to esowe in disKoise. Louis aY. rine concerted a divi^n of Poland with Frt>d-
of france, who had married the daughter of eric the Qreat and Maria Theresa. Tbe Ptqb-
Laasozynaki, commeEced awarof Foush sue- tiaDsandAustriansenteredPolandinl7^;tlte
oesuon on the Rhine, at the termination of confederates, already greatly weakened, dis-
which the latl«r received the duchy of Lor- persed, and tbe dismemberment of liie conn-
raine, but AagustosIIL remained on Uie throne try began. A diet was convoked In 1778 to
of Poland, continuing in peace the enerrating eanctdon the deed; but few of the members
misrule of the preceding reign. I>nring the 7 appeared, and these remained ^ent. Rnasia
years' war Russian armies crossed and reorossed took tbe palatinates of Polotzk, Vitebsk, and
the country without opposition. Oonstitutiou' Mstislav, and some adjoining parts; Frnada,
al anarchy made legislation almost impossibla. the Polish proviuce of uiat name, with the ex-
Bnt already the more enlightened of the nation, oeption of the towns of Thorn and Dantzio,
aeeing the depth of degradation into which the and a part of Great Poland on the Netxo;
country was sunk, began to think of vital re- Anstri^ Red Rassie. a part of PodoUa, ana
forms. Not only was the liAerum e«ttf attacked psrts of Little Poland between the Tistnla and
by the great Piariat Eonaraki and others, bnt the Oarpathiana, uniting all nnder the name
monarcnioal opinions too gained considerable of Qalioia and Lodomeria. The old ccmstdtn-
ground. To transform the republic of the tjon with oil Its abnaea was fastened upon tiia
noblea into a regular constitutional kingdom remaining territories of Poland, under tli«
became the scheme of ]>[iahae] and Augustus guaranty of Russia. To save and BtrengQien
Ozartoryski and their friends. In order to con- the conntry by reforms now became a general
qner the opposition of BadziwiU, the Potocki^ t«ndency, and in a short time an immense
and other adherents of the old republican con- progress was achieved in culture, Itteratnre,
ititation, they secretly sought the aid of Oatha- commerce, industry, and legislation. The gen-
rine n. of Russia, who readily bnt treaoher- eral reform of the state was the task of the
ooslf granted it After the death of AuguBtoe double diet of 17BS~'9S, called the great or
m. m 1763, Stanislas Anguatos Poniatowski, a long diet, and presided over by MalachowsU
favorite of the empreae, and nephew of the and Bapieba, which by a new constitntion,
Ozartoryakifl, was illegally placed upon the first promulgated May 8, 1791, and most sol-
throne by a oonfederaUon of the reformers, emnly adopted by the king and the peo^e,
aided by Russian bayonets. The regal pre- abolialieduie JAerumvufn, gave political righta
logalive was somewhat enlarged. The com- to the cities and civil rights to the peasantiT,
mencement of tiie new reign was splendid and and made the throne hereditary, ocerhtg the
promisiog. But Poniatowski^ though enlight- sncceosion to the elector of Saxony. Frederic
ened, good-uatored, and a friend of progress William II. of Prussia encouraged the reform-
and literature, was feeble to fickleness, and al- ers, and offered his aid against Rnscda. Bnt
lowed himself to be used as a tool by the de- the idd of Catharine H. was invoked by the
tigiung empress. HerambatHodor, Repnin, who defenders of the old constitntjon, who under
bad an army at his disposal, became the real the lead of Felix Potooki, Frauds Xavier Bra-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOLASD 4tt
■Mi, and Sttverln BEevnakl, in 1793 formed memberment b«en eonninunated, what tl»
the oonfbderation of Targovitza against the sarviving patriots oommenced matdDg new
new order of things. The BuBsiaua entered eodeavors for the restoration of tbrir nationil
Poland; the Polish armjr, commanded bj- independence. Secret craiferenoeB took place
JoMidi Pcmiatowski, the nephew of the king, In the Polish provincee, and oommitt«eB were
retreated to the Bog ; the arrival of the king ^pointed abroad, the principal beiDg at Paris
in peraoa was waited for in vain ; Prasna and Venice, Ojrinaki and others invoked the
prorad traitoroos, and Eoeoinazko'a glorions help of France, Turkey, and Sweden, and Dom-
flght at Dobienka (Jalj IT) was useless, browski succeeded in forming in revolationized
After long wavering, the king virtnallj ended Italy Polish lepons, whose bravery sooa rival-
the Btmggle by going over to the confedera- led that of the moat renowned French troops
tion ; the Raseiana occupied the capital, and a under the bannM« of Napoleon. After 10
diet eonvened bv the viotora at Grodno in Tears' glorious service abroad tbej victorions-
1T93 was compelled at the point of the bayo- Ij reentered their native land. By the treaty
net to sanction a new division of the country. (^Titsit<180?)N'^)oIeontranBformedthegreat-
The ostensible defender of the old "republican er part of the Prussian share of Poland into a
liberty," Oatharine, with her own hand drew duchy of Warsaw, which received a tolerably
a line on a map across lithnania and Volhy- liberal oonstitntion, and a ruler in the per-
nia, taking all the land E. of it ; the late ally son of the king (formerly elector) of Saxony,
of Poland, Frederic William, secured himself Frederic Augnstoa. This little Polish state
i^ainst "Polish Jacobinism" bv taking the re- made immense exertions in beh^ of tta
mainder of Great Poland and the towns of Froich ally and protector, and the Polish
Thorn and Dantiic. The despair of the nation armies under Prince Joseph Poniatowski,
broke ont in a great insnrrection in 1794, for Dombrowski, Z^onczek, Chlopieki, and oth-
which the brigiwlier Madalinski gave the first era, shed their blood profuse^ not only on
rignal. Koacioszko was called from abroad to their own soil, as in the last war against Austria
Ind it aa dictator, and, appearing at Oraoov, (1809), when the dnchy gained a large part
hastily armed the people of the rioinity, partly of western Oalicia, but also in Spain and else-
vitb pikes and scythes, and rooted the Bus- where, and especially in the great Bnssiao
■ans at fiaclawioe (April 4). The Bossiau gar- oampoigo of I8I2, which promised the resto-
rison at Warsaw, commanded by IgelstrOm, was ration of the whole of Poland. This hope soon
soon after almost annihUated by a revolt of vanished with the reverses of the grand army,
the inhabitants under the lead of the shoe- and the dachy Itself was destroyed in 1818,
maker Kilioalri ; a supreme council was form- after a gallant resistance by the fortresses of
ed, embracing among others Ignatius Potocki Zamosc, Modlin, and Thorn. PoniatowsU
and Eallont^ ; Lithuania rose tinder Jasinski ; perished in the Ulster at the close ot the
nnmeroos scattered detaohments ot troops battle of Lupsic, but liie remnants of the Fo-
flockedto the banner of £osdaazko; the king lish troops fought to the last with the retreat-
was ignored, fint the means of the exhaostea ug emperor, and some followed him even to
ooontry were scanty, arms were wanted, unv Elba. The territorial limits of divided Poland
aimity could not be prodaoed, and the Ros- were now rearranged by the congress of Vien-
nans were soon ioined by Pnudaa and Aus- na, which, while creating a shadow of Polish
trian armies. Koscinazko was defeated at indep«idence in the miniature republic of
Baezakoeiny, and Zqonczek at Ohelm. War- Oracow, natorally gave the lion's share to
■aw was bedeged by Frederic William in per- Alexander of Bossio. The cur, flushed with
•on, and distracted by popolar outbreaks of rage viototj and popularity, formed his new ao-
igauut real or presomed traitors ; and though qniridons, extending ftom the Niemen and'
it was saved by a rising, under Uniewski and Bug to the Prosna, into the present so called
Dombrowski, in the rear of the Prussians, kingdom of Poland, to which he gave a con-
Koaeinszko was no longer able to prevent the stitution guaranteeing s biennial diet, cun-
JBsctioa of the Busman corps under Snwaroff posed of a senate for life and a chamber
and Fersen, and in the bloody battle of Maoie- of deputies, a separate responsible ministry,
Jowioe (Oct. 10) was taken prisoner. The an independent judiciary, a national army of
storming and maasoore of Praga and the ca- 60,000 men, and the freedom of the press. Of
mtnlation of Warsaw (Nov. 8) followed ; the this separat«d and privileged part of his vast
Poli^ troops were disbanded; most of the com- Polish poeseesions the czsrwas the king, and
maaders and nnmbcrleM other patriots were his brother Oonstantine, its military governor
drafEgedintocaptivity; andPoni^wskiresign- and generalissimo, the virtual viceroy, Gen.
edhiBorownat&i}dnoinl?9(l,anddiedbroken- Z^onciek being the nominal. Most of the
hearted at St. Petenbnrg ri798). The third sur^ving Polish officers of the Napcdeouic
divioon annihilated the existence of Poland, armies took service in the national ranks.
efiSurlog even its nsrae. Russia took ail the Bat the harmony between the foreign rulers
prorinoes £. of the ITiemen and Bug ; Anstria sad the people could be but superficial, and
those between the latter river, the Pilica, and even so it was but of brief doration. Mn-
the Vistnla ; Fruaaia all the remainder, with tnal dlstmst prevailed from the beginning ; the
the .capital. But soarcety bad the last dis- opposition to the measures and projects of thft
vol.. XIII. — 2S
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
4M FOLAHD
gorenunent gained ■trengthfWandkt to diet; rerolntioiiiie ToDtTnia, bad been oompelled
TlolationB of the oonsUtnuon grev freqnent, as to retire into Galioia, and there to enrrender
the more or leu uitcere liberftliam of Alexau- to the AiiBtrians; another corps, sent nnder
der declined aa he grew older ; Oonatantine Gielgnd and Chl^>oirski to the aamatance of
tortured the armr bj ezoeaaire drilling, and the Samo^tian and Lithuanian inanrgents,
drove the best offloera from its ranks and into shared the same fate on ProsBian territorj in
hctttilitj bj oatrageone insnlla; aeoret patri- Jnl^, Dembinski alone aaTing hia detach-
otio affiliations were formed in vaiiona Polish meut bj aa admirable retreat; the main
provinces bf Dombrowaki, Umineki, Lokaein- armj remuned inactive aroand the capital,
akj, Zan, ErzyzanowBld, and others ; nomerona allowing the new Bnsnan commander-in-cliief
Tlctims of the terribly organised secret police Paskevitch to cross the lower YiHtnla on the
were thrown into dungeons or transported to Prnseian frontder, and to advance toward War-
Siberia; and after the acceeaion of Nicholas saw on the left bank of that river. The people
(1625) thereoould be no longer anydonbt that growing impatient, Skr^necki was deposed,
an open rnptnre was only a matter of time, presumed traitors were massacred in a night
Nevertheless the outbreak at Waraaw, precipi- of horrors (Ang. IB), and Emkowiecki enc-
tated b; a small band of yonthfol democratio ceeded Ozartoryski as president of the govem-
oonspirators under Peter Wysocki, which drove ment, but the management of aSmrs grew even
OonBtantineand the Buasians in the night from worse than before. Samorino having been
that capita (Nov, 2B-S0, 1880), took both the sent to the 8. £. with a part of the Polish army,
emperor and the nation by surprise, thonah Paakevitch finally attacked the fortified capl-
ensniDK i months after the revolntion of July tal, and after a mm^erons struggle, during
In Pans. The whole people immediately de- which KrDkowie<^ negotiated, a car^tnktjon
otared in favor of the revolution, but the aris- virtually ended the war (Bept 8), The main
tocrats took the lead with the intention of amynnder Bybin3ki,accompanied bytbegov-
moderating its conrse. To this party belonged ernment under Niemcjewski, hid down its
the patriodo Prince Adam Czutoryski, presi- arms on Pmesian territory; Bamorino in Gali-
dent of the provisional government ; the old cia, a corps tmder Kozycki at Cracow, and the
poet Nlemcewicz, formerly Eosunszko'a com- fortresses of Zamoso and Modhn surrendered.
panion in arms in America and Poland; the Depopulated at once by the sword and by the
minister Lnbecki, a man of dnbions patriotism ; no leas frightftd ravages of cholera, the country
Oblopicki, for a short time dictator (Dec 1830, lay bleeding and ezhansted at the feet of the
Jan. 1831) ibis successors in the chief oommand czar, and mercy was neither expected nor eser-
of the army, BodziwiU, Skrzynecki, Dembin- cised. Numberless patriots were sent to Siberia
akl, and Oaamiir Uala<dtowBki ; and the gen- andotherp]scesDfconfinement,theprivateEol-
er^ Dwemicki, Chrzacowski, Bem, Urainski, diers compelled to serve in the Buesian army,
Kybinski, Prondzynaki, and others. The agi- the estates of refugees confiscated, the con-
tajions of Lelewel, Mochnacki, and other dem- stitutionand the laws of the country abrogated,
ocrats, in the diet or clnbs, had no other result the nniverdty of Warsaw and other principal
but an increase of difficnltiea, and finally fatal schools abolished, the rich literary collections
disorder. Much precious time was wasted in carried to Bt Petersbnrg, all marics of natioual-
att«m])ted negotiations with Nicholas ; the ar- ity prohibited, the most rigorous censorBhip of
dor of the masses was checked by too long thepressandatorriblepolioesyEtemintrodaced,
continued observance of conetitnlional andter- a citadel at Warsaw and other new fortiflca-
ritorial limits; the peasantry was left in its de- tions erected, the most arbitrary measures taken
mded condition ; the army increased slowly ; to denatioiialiEe and Eusdanize the people, and
uiesendingof troops into Lithuania, which was new attempts at iuanrrection in 1838 and ISU
anxious to rise, was delayed until it was too punished with the gallows. This system was
late; and a powerful Russian army under Die- continued throughout the reisn of Nicholas,
hitach was allowed to oroas the Bug without re- though at times moderated by the milder dispo-
uatance, and to approach the capital. The in- sition of the governor, Paakevitch. The same
dependenceofPoland sndtheeicluBionofthe denotionaliziog policy was zealously prose-
house of Bomanoff havinK been declared (Jan. outed in all other Polish provinces of Bnssia,
SB), a series of bloody hatdes was fought mostly Prosria, and Austria; the republic of Cracow
in the vicinity of Waraaw, especially at Dobre, alone preserved for some time its nationality.
Wawre, and Grocbow, and at Stocsek, in Feb- In the meanwhile the Polish emigrants, rend-
mary, again at Grocbow in March, at Iganie ing moetiy in France, and embracing the most
in April, and on the middle Narew and Bug distinguished men of the nation, thongh split
and at Ostrolenka in May, in which the per- into violently opposing fsctioDs, were nnremit-
■onal courage of the Polish commanders was ting in their enoearora to pave the way for a
(u more conspicuous than their strategetio reetoradon of their country. The democratio
talents, The bravery of soldiers, of whom a party, consisting chiefly of the younger genera-
part could be armed only with soythes, never tion, partook in numerous revolutionary move-
shone brighter in any other conteaL But the menta in western Eurcme, and fomented con-
time of dearly pnrctused victories and glorious q>lracies in Poland. Toe most extensive and
' defeats was now over ; Dweraicki, sent to iMft organized of the lattei^ led to dmnlta-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POLAND (LtsaviAt iSb Iitzutdxi) 485
BeooB oatbresks in Hiusiaii Poland, Qalido, words &nd In eompoands, Is ooustenlly on flie
Cncow, and Fosea (Feb. and Uarob, 1846). penultimate : rBdah, oonntrymBU, gen. roddJea,
AH ended disaateoaslj. The leaders in Po- tiBLrodakdwi. As in Lattn, there is no article:
land were banged, those in Poaen, Mieroslawski onota, virtue, a virtae, the virtne. There are
Knd others, imprisoned, and the patriotio nobles 7 esses of declension, nombative, genitive, da-
of Gslioia bntchered bj the peasants; the tive, aocnsatiye, vocative. Instrmnental (mie-
repobllo of Oraoow, where alone the insurrec- owm, by or with the Bword), and locative (after
Hon was for a short time suooessfii], was nbol- certain prepositions, as w Bogu, in God). The
ished and annexed to Gallcia. Uieroalawskl forms of declenrion depend apon the tenninfr'
and his associates, being saved from death hy tion, the gender, and Uie kind, words of the
the revolution of Berlin in March, 1848, fought same termination denoting persons, Animal b,
soon after, with hastilj collected Polish bands, and lifdess objects having In the mascnitne
bravely bnt nnsnceessfully, against overwhelm- eeverallj different forms. The gender of noana
ing Prassian forces in Poaen ; Bern, Dembinski, is mostly determined by the termination. There
and Joseph fTysooki commanded Hungarian are throe genders for nonns, adjectives, pro-
armJM and Polish volunteers against Anstrtana noans, verbs, and participles, as : MSj dohry ko'
and Roasians in lB48-'9 ; Cti^kowHlii and others fAany (mieepUoLaj good beloved father wrote;
fboght against the Istter In the Tnrkish war ; Xoja dobra hoehajui matia (mother) piiaia ;
bnt all these efforts directly or indirectly to ben- Mme dohn Icochaat diUeho (child) pUabi. Tha
afit Poland firom abroad remained fhiitless. At following may serve as examples of the deden-
home, however, considerableameliorations took sion of noons and ai^ectives in the masculine
pUoB in the Rnasian Polish provinces after the and feminine mngnlar : wUlhi lot, (a, the)
accesmonofA]exanderII.(13S0),nnmeronsref- large fonet, viUI^mo Imu, ioUIkkrtM loMout,
ugees returned, and new reforms were hoped wMki lot, mUlhi lau .', aUlhim laiem. (u) uiel-
for, when a gradually Increasing a^tation and him Utia ; viidha rztka, (a, the) large river, ai«l-
lively popular demonstrations at Warsaw on Ke; rteki, vielkUj neee, viUlkq rukf, uielha
Feb. 27 and April 8, 1S61, indnced the new neko/, atslhq reehq, (v>) wUltiM ruee. The
goramor, Gort«nakoff, after some concessions, comparative degree is formed by tiie sylla-
to nnploy the military force, and a large num- ble ay (nom. mas. sing.), the superlative by
ber of lives wero socrifloed. Similar demon- nty and «y, thus: ttary, old, ttartsy, older,
■trationa and more or less serious collisions najitamy, oldest; moeny, strong, mceni^-
. tookplacc inotherpartaof theconntry. Simnl- ny, tuijnwenimsty. The numerals distinctly be-
taneoosly a Polish diet was convened at Lem- tray a pure Indo-Enropean derivation ; jedm
betg(April IS), Austria havi as been compelled fflans. eka, compare also the Heb. ehadanA the
byue consequences of the Italian war of 18B9, Hnng. egy), dwa (Sans, ifoi, Qr. 8uo, Lat dao),
and mpeciaDy the new movements in Hungary, tny (Sans, tri, Gr. Tprw, Lat. (r«), eiUfy (Sons.
to grant oonslitDtions to its various provinces, tehatur, Let. quatwr), pifS (S^s. pantekan,
— Among the principal works on thehistory of Gr. ntyri), «»? (Sans, sftoift, Lat. lex, comp,
Poland are, in Polish, those of Naruszewic^ Heb. ihM), *iedfii (Sans. *aptan, Lat. Kptent.
Kiemcewicz, Bandtke, and Lelewel; and of comp. Heb. jA«fi(i'),0fm (Bans. tuAfan), Ateifi^
Oginski,RuUti3re,8alvandy, Bronikowski, Sol- daiekfS (Sans, liai'an, Lat. (!««m), tto (Sans,
tyk, Brzozowaki, Boepell, ICeroslawski, and $'itta^ljtX.cenUar^,tyiiqt:(fiunuana). The verb
L. Chodzko in other languages. is exceedingly rich in ^nns, serving to express
POLAND, Labohaob usa LirESATnBE or. Itequency, intensity, inception, duration, aad
The Polish language belongs to the north- other modes of action or being. The forma-
western group of the Slavic division of Indo- lives consist chiefly of prepositions and other
European tongnes. Its principal dialects, though particles, as in German, thus: enai, to know,
sot materially differing from each other, are Got. hennen; pcmai, to recognize, Ger. er-
those of Uasovia, Little Poland and Galicia, leTtnen; rwai, to tear, vyriBoi, to snatch, Ger.
Ijthnania, and Great Poland, be^do the more entrtitten ; rotennae, to tear asunder, Ger. eer-
degenerate Sileuan. The alphabet consists reiuen ; rozrytoai, long or frequently to tear
of the following letters: a (short Italian a), q asunder; corvwr^oe, to tear asunder to the last.
(French on), b,S (soft, like Eng. iy, both con- ffmarks theinflnltive,'f the past :fnaffi,Iknow,
sonant), c (U\ i {tch, very aim), e» (tcA), cA btuk^, to know, enofcm, I knew; the persons are
(U, Ger. e&), a, » (short Italian), i (compressed, distinguished by the termination : miam, I
asin y«),j(Fr,ia),/o (hard), A,i (short Ital- know, tnait, thoa knowest, ma 0ie, she. It)
iaa), J Qr consonant), h, ( (t, very hard), { (It. knows, cnamy, enaeU, enajn, we, you, they
gl^ m, n, >t (Fr. ^n), o (short Itahan), 6 (com- know. Diminutives, denoiunatives, and other
pressed, ^proachmg«^,jp,jS (soft, like py, both derivatives, are abundant. Compounds are
coasonant),r, rzfFr.rjmone}, t, /(jA,verysoft), rare. The words of a sentence con be
■z (lA), t, u (short Italian), u^), z, y (resem- arranged almost as freely as in Latin, mis-
bling the Qer.u),s,«(Fr.y), j (Fr.j, very soft), understanding being precluded by tlic dis-
/ serves to soften vanous consonants, replacing tinctness of the fbrmadve terminations. In
the ' : driS, Kttle poultry, gen. dtiAiu ; iy6, to fleiibility, richness, power, and harmony the
live, «yeu, life : ixn, horse, gen. hmia; witi, Polish Is hardly excelled by any other language
village, gen. vn. The aooent, except Id foreign of Europe ; Its groDUaatical stmotnre is fully
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
4M POItABD (LuxaiiA.iim uta lamuTUBi)
derelopttd and flnnlf eBtibliahed, tta ortfaogrft- Latin: Orzechoweki the AnnaUt Pobmia;
plij preoiM and perfl»ot. The prindpal kcbiu- E^omer, archbishop of Ermeland (died lESD^
man are by Kopczynski, UrongOTinB, Baodt- Dt Origine et BAu* OutU Fol<moru.m. Szj-
ke, ICroannki, Popliaaki, and UnoEkowaki monovicz (Simoiiides),ao antbor of celebrated
(Oraoow, 1846) ; Uxe pnndpal dictionariea Latin odea, and of equall; excellent Polish idjli
by Linde, Bandtke, MrongoTina (KOnigsberg, (-SieZanii), and Zimorowioz, his rival in the lat-
16SE}, and Trojanski (Foaen, ISSS-'JC).— The ter species of composition, flourished daring
oldeet remnants of Polish Uterstore consist of the reign of Sigismnnd IH. (1G87-1632); but
Eroverbs, popolar songs and tales, and a re- in the second half of that reign Polish litera-
nooB aong in prtuae of the Virain ^os<i ^^ tare began rapidly to decline. The Latin iru
nea) attributed to St. Adalbert (Sty. Wojciech), the principal ol^ect and mediam of iustraction.
who lived in the time of the first Ohriatian The disastrous wara and civil strifes ot that sad
monarch of Poland, toward the close of the the following reigns of the Yssa dynasty cier-
loth century. The Latinizing influence of cised a peraidons influence. Bobieaki restored
Ohristianity, and of the universities of western only the gjor? of Polish anus, and the Gocceed-
Europe, vMch were generally frequented by ing Sazon rule inaugurated a period of general
the Poles, prevented t£e development of a na- reTaiation. During a century and a qaarter
. tional bteratore in Poland during the middle pedanti^, bod taste, and impurity of language
ages ; and all the literary productions of that prevailed. Of the better poets of that cpocb
period, as well as the laws of the country, wore may be mentioned the Jesuit Barbiewaki fs&r-
written in Latin, Among the most important bievins, died 1640), who wrote in Latin oslj,
of the former ore the ohronloles of llartin Gal- and earned the title of the Barmation Horace;
Ins (about 1180), Eodlubek (1320), Sognphalus Opalinski, a writer of satires (died ie5S) ; Twar-
(1360), and Uartin Skrzenliui, anmamed Polo- dowski (died 1660) ; Eochowaki, who accom-
nua(1270), and the celebrated " History of Po- panied John Sobieskl to Vienna, and In Wiediri
land" by Dlugosz (1460). The principal centre wytuolimy (" Vienna Delivered"), an enie, eang
of Boholarsbip and science was the university of the glory of bia hero ; Bardzinaki ; Morszljn,
Oracow,theflrBtfonndationofwhiohwaalaidhy the translator of Comeille; and Elizabeth
Oasimir the Great (1347), and which among its Druzbacka (1667-1760), whose Faehv^ lativi
t«achers and alumni counted some of the most (" Praise of the Woods"), Cttery pory mht
distinguished scholars of Europe, among others (" The Four Seasons of the Tear"), &c, ap'
Copernicus, whom Poland claims as ita son and pear as the precursors of a better literary age,
citizen. The first Polish printing press was The historians wrote mostly La Latin: Piasecki
established at Oracow toward the close of the (1666-1649)aliberal historyof his timeB(£^7'»-
rdgn of Oa^mir lY. (14flO), Among its earliest ntcon Qtitonxm tn Europa) ; Btarowolaki (died
productions is the great collection of Polish 1666), among other works, a iS(a(uj£<jr'>''''o'^
laws by the diauoellor of King Alexander, nia 3eeriptio ; Kojalowicz (died 1677) an eicel-
John Laski (1606). In the succeeding reigus lent^utoriaZitAuanio; Fredro(diedlSTT)bit
of Sigismund I, and his son Sigismund Augos- Proffmeata; Andrew Weng^erski (died 1649]
tos, the laat two of the Jagiellos (]606-'73), and Lubioniecki (died 1676) histories of the ra-
Folish literature was first and rapidly devel- formed church in Poland. Among those who
oped, the 16th oautury being rwarded by many contributed most to the introduction of a better
as ita golden age. Tbo poeticu style especially era were the brothers Joseph and Andrew Za-
roee to an astonishing degree of perfection. The Inski; theformer, who wasbishopof F>«v(died
satirist R^ (bom 1616), and John Eoohanow- 1774), espedally by the collection of alibrary of
aki, the great lyrical poet (1682-'84),*« both more than 200,000Tolumea. More powerful atifl
called the fiithers of Polish poetry. Of the two was the inflneuca of the great refbrmer of pub-
younger brothers of the latter, Peter translated lie education, the Piariat Eonarski (died 1773).
Taaa</B "Jerusalem Delivered," and Andrew The courts of the exiled Idng Lesaujnski in
Virgil's Mamd. The poets Szarzynski, Ey- Lorraine, ond of Poniatow^ In Warsaw, as
binski, Elonowioz, Miaakowaki, and Grochow- well as tlie residences of the prinoesOzartoryski
aki were contemporaries of the Eochanowskia. and Jablonowskl, were centrea around which
The reformation, which found an easy spread the representatives of reform in politics, sodsl
in Poland, caused numerous translations of the life, education, literature, and science gronped
Bible into the national language, Ibr Luther~ themselves. The politically unhappy reign of
ana vtd Bociniona as well as for Catholics. Poniatowski, the last kins of Independent Po-
Amoo^ the theologians of that age the great land, thus became in a hterary point of viev
Oatiioho pulpit orator Skarga (died 1613), and the most distinguished. Kramowiczwrotefor
the Protestant author Niemtyewsld, deserve schools; Bobomolec translated French dramas;
particular mention. Martin and his son JoS' TrombeckJ,Eniaznin, and Wenglerski composed
ohim Bielski, in the latter part of the 16tb oen- fine lyriool or descriptive poems : Kamszewifi
tury, wrote h £ivniia poltba, Gfirnioki (1636- a great "History of Poland "and an admirable
'iiyjkinttt hn-onu pohki^ (" History of the translation of Tacitus; and Uie genial Krasickl
Polish Cfrown Lands"), Stryjkowski (died 1B821 misoellaneoua works in verae and prose, bj
a " Cbronlole of IJthuanio," and Paprooki (diea whidi be merited the distinctiou of being called
1614) irorka on heraldiy. Others wrote ia Uie Yoltdie of Poland. Thia purified litecai?
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOLAB EXPEDITIONS FOLASIZATIOK OF UaHT 487
activity BnrriTed the dlvidona and ftll of Po- the polished or tranBiwrent enrfkoee on which
knd. The poeta Godebski WeDi^k, author of the^ may impinm. The antiijeot ineliides doable
OMiee KnUunea ^" The Environa of Oraoow"), refraction, which iB one of the chief means of
and I>mochowBk:, the dramatists Felinsld, prodnoing polarisation. The pheDomeiu of
Eroidnaki, O^oski, and Bagnslawsld, and the polarized Ught are Jnatlj regarwd as the most
en^ent historical or political writers Ozacki, cnriona in the soience of optics; bnt the snb-
AlbertrandT, KoUontqi, Stanislas Potooki, Os- Ject has become so extensive and complez, that
solinati, and Staaiyc, belong principally to the it can be presented fdllj only in the laiver
beginoiog of the present century. The most special treatises of optical Bcienoe. Bee Sir
popnlarpoetsof the next following period were D. Brewster's "Treatise on Optica" (new ed.,
Karpinski, Brodzinski, Woronicz, and especial- London, 1858), and Pereira's "Leotarea oa
ly HiemcewioE, who was also distin^isned as Polarized Light " (London, lS{(4).~-<}ommoii
a historiso, and in his ballads {^leiay kitUh light, as that from a candle or gas flame, and
tyane) aarpassed aD hie predecessors. He waa. In a d^ree that of the direct sunbeam, can,
however, soon after himself surpassed in epio by properly presenting an opaqae mirror in
poetrybyMioUewioZithefonnderoftheroman- ita course, be mainly reflected, and eqnallj
Be school of Polish poetry, aronnd whom nu- well np, down, to right or left But a per-
merons young disciples grouped themselves at fectly polarized beam, if reflected beat np or .
Tilna. To Uie romantia school belong most down, i. a., in a vertical plane, is totally ex*
of the more recent poets of Poland, many of tingnished if the mirror be then so tnmed as to
whom wrote, afterttie revolntion of 1831, in eX' throw it to right or left, i. «., in the horizontal
ile; the Ukrainians Ualczewski, author of the plane, and viee wna. The ray of light here
admirable epic "Maria," Ooazczynaki, Zaleskf, behaves as if it were flattened, and accordingly
and Padura ; Odynieo, author of the drama of is differently a&cted aa it strikes flatwise or
/boto ; Eorsak, who wrot« elegiac poetry and edgewise on the surface of a ndrror or medium,
lyrica; Alexander Ohodiko, translator of Per- There are several varieties or degrees of polar-
nan and other oriental poetry ; Gorecki, Bie- lEation, the names of which have been given
mienski, Oaro^nski, Bielowski, Julius 81o- with reference to the nndulatory theory. (See
wacid, Groza, ^a^nski, and numerous others. Lioht.) To account, bv that theory, for the
Kovela were published in the earlier part of phenomena of polarization, a ray of common
Qiis centory by Niemcewiez {Jan Tmetjmtt^ light must be oonaidered as being propagated
Xaria Czaloryska (Jfalunna, originally m by vibrations that are transverse to the course
R^noh), Bematowioz (Niiiax, Pojata), and of the ray, the particles of ether moving In
Bkarbel^ and more recently by Orabowski, curves that have the form of ellipsee, and a
Gz^kowakl {WeTT^/hora, ^rdtali, (hamien- great number of these ellipses being described
ii), and especially Eraszewskl. Dramas have at once or snccessively in all possible directiona
been written by Skarbek, Eominski, Fredro, croesing the path of the ray. Bat by impin-
UagnnszewsU, and others ; the best historical gence of a ray so vibrating on a reflecting enr-
works, beside Lelewel, by Bandtke, Maci^ow- face, or its passage througn some mediom, we
ski, Narbntt, Eduard Baczynski, Plater, and can readily suppose the forces acting on tti«
Lnkaszewicz ; the moat popular edncational molecules to be resolved in some way, so that.
works by Clementina Tanska-Hofibiann; and first, all the varying elliptical movements shall
philosophical works by Sniadecki, IVentowski, be reduced to two sets of rectilinear mov»-
■nd libelt. The most important works on menta, crossing each other, as well as the path
Polish literature are by Mochnadd, Uuozkow- of the ray, transversely, and hence vibrating in
■ki, BentkowsU, Ossolinakl, Ohodynicki, Wist- two planes at right angles to each other, when
niewski (JSutorya liUratftry' poUhi^, 7 voIs^ the common or heterogeneous ray is resolved
Cracow, I840-'4S), and Lukoszewicz (Posen, Into two rays, plane-polarized; or secondly,
1680). — The centres of Polish literary activity, the light striking a reflecting sur&ce may be
and eroecially of perio^cal literature, are War- partiy absorbed or transmitted, and the part
■aw, Wilna, Posen, Oracow, Lemberg, and reflected may consist of elliptical movementa
Pans, the latter city as the principal seat of the of which the less axis has become 0, so th^
Polish emigration. Warsaw, however, In spite all have been brought into a tingle plane, when
of very severe restrictions on the press, basal- we have a tingle plane-polarized ray; or thirdly,
ways miuntained a decided preeminence over the dliptical movements, though not rendered
all its rivals, as the literary no less than politi- linear, may be bronEht to coincide In a given dl-
cal metropolis of Poland. rection, giving partially poluized or elflptically
POLAR EXPEDITIONS. Bee Ajtahotio polarized light ; or fburthly. the resolution of
Reskabcbks, Ancrno DteooraBT, and IboCuit- the forces mtintidning the vibration may be such
TOOK, Bib FnANOie Leopold. that the axes of all the ellipses tnay be brongfat
POLARIZATION OF LIQHT, a change that to coincide in direction, while the two axes in
may be produced in the rays of light, such that each become equal, when the light la drcnlarlr
thay ^ipear to have acquired different prop- polarized. AH the contideratlons fWnn whi<£
ertica on dl&rent sidea, and ao that they are these names are derived are thus extremely by-
no longer like common light In being reflected pothetical ; yet the conditions prodndng the
or transmitted indiffbrenSy in all pnritlona of variona kinds of polarised light, and the results
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
486 POLASIZATIOK OF UOHT
tfbtaiiwd with ndi U^t, «re ■bown bj nuthe- TioM naolt la termed donbla nflseticm trf tlu
ButicalaiiAlfnstooommondri^dlf wilhttMM light; the oiia along which no aeparation oocnis
snpporittonB. IightiiifijMT«r7nearlyor<s<»n- b called the optic axis. Anj plane aeetuxi con-
pletoljplane-poUriied ia4 wsfi: 1,67 doable taining tbia axis, called a principal Roction,
reitaotion ; 3, by one reflection from & traospar- givm a like resnlt. la cryitala of the kind now
«nt bod^ ; 8, bj aeveral refractions through oonaidered, one of tbe ra;a is Te&aot«d alvirf a
tranaparent Harfaoea ; 4,bf absorpUoaorditper' acaordiD^ to the law of simple nfeuetioa (law
sioaofpartof the^ht. (1^ Ijght can emerge of the amea), i. «., it ia in the ^ane of in-
from a medium simplf refraoted or disperaed oidence, &c. ; and if the light fall on an arti£<aal
- oolj when the medium te a gaa or fluid, slaae &oe parallel with &e optio axia, and ao as to
bIowIj and eqaallj cooled, or a oijatalline body paaa throogb the cry atal in a plane at right
of the monometria ajstem, as the cube or the an^es to uie axis (eqoatorial section), tbongh
regalar octahedron, &c, end this baTing the there are two rajs, they both obey the law of
same temperature and density throughout its simple re&oction. Bat in any other diiectioo
mass, and not exposed to pressore. Batwbena than one of the two now indicated, one of tie
ray or beam of light passes tbrongb crystals of rays is tamed out of the plane of incidence, and
oilier forma, bone, horn, shell, hair, the crystal- at angles departing from those repaired by tbe
line lens of the eye, or elastic Integnment; or law of the sines. This ray is therefore ulled
porticnUr leayes, stalks, or seeds ; or aach arti- the extraordinary ray ; the other, tba ordinaiy
ndal bodies as goma, resins, sod jellies; or ray. In Iceland spar, tonimallne, Ac, the
tran^iarent bodies of varying density, owing to former of tbese rays diverseB more from the
transient passage of heat, or to anequal temper- axis or perpendicalar than uie Utter ; its angle
fttare, or pressure; it will, in all these cases, is ereater, *'. 0., its index of refraction is 1ms;
eave generally in some one direction of trans- ana crystals of this kind are termed n^^tive.
mistion, anffer a division into two rays. Ia In quartz, ice, Ac, the relation of the two rays
the greater number of inatanoea, botii these will Is reversed, the path of the extraordinary ray
emerge, though in different places and direo- being within, or nearer the perpendicular ■ and
tions ; and the ray of light ao affected is said these crystals are termed positiTe. It will have
to be doubly refracted. The aubstanoea effect- been aeen that in all cases an optic axis, also
ing this change are said to be bi-refringent, or called an axis of doable refraction, is not a fixed
doubly refracting. This phenomenon, deacribed line through tbe crystal, but a fixed direction
by Bartholin in 1669, and first sacoesBfolly through it, and related to a line or lines abont
studied by Huy^hens Id 16T8, was first oV which the faces of the crystal are symmetricaQy
served in crystallized carbonate of lime (Iceland placed, A large class of crystals, including tlie
spar). As tbe eye, receiving the divide^ri^, trimetrio, have two chief axes of form, and
sees doable images of objeota observed throagh accordingly two optic axes, or lines and direc-
the crystal, the effect is conveniently witnessed tions in which a ray Buffers no separation ;
by placing it over printed letters or other small while for all other bioidenoes neitber of the
objects, ^e crystal to be quite transparent, and rays obeys the law of tbe sines; i. «., both are
better if an inch or more in thickness. The extraordinary rays. These crystals are hence
crystals Hhowing no double refraction are such distinguished as bi-axal ; those with one axis,
as have 8 equal, rectangoJar axes; and Sir D. as ani-axal. Among bi-axal crystals are mica,
BrewsterbelieTee that toe absence of allappar- aelenite, feldspar, £c. In rarer inatances^ 8
ent effect in these is owing to the fact of tneir optic axes are found, or, as in anoleime, there
having really 8 axes of no separation of the are several planea (not OMitaining tbe same
rays, the combined effect of which is to neutral- axes) of no re&action; in all such oaaea the
lie a tendency to separation in the directions results become extremely complex. Cabea of
intermediate. The ordinary crystal of Iceland homogeneoas glass become doubly refracting
Bpar b a rhombobedron, bdonging to Ibe hex- upon ceing nnequally heated or preaaed; and
agonal system, the crystals of which, as well as a laminated structure, traction, and electro-
those of the dimetrio system, have bat one ua- magnetism are prominent among tbe agencies
eqoal axis <tf crystalline form. Now, singnlarly inducing a like result. Kow, il, by means pres-
enongLifnpontheor^etal named we plane down ently to be indicated, we examine tbe two
and polish fitoets at nght angles to &is unequal rays obtuned in a ease of doable refraction, we
axis, by taking off tbe two obtnse solid angles find them both, and whatever the color of the
in whioh this axis terminates, we then find light, complete^ polarized, and this always in
that anyrayperpeadicolarlyinadent on either pumes at right angles to each other, A nj
of theae Itae^ ao as to be transmitted in tbe oiling at any angle on glass baa a portion re-
oonraaoftheazitiOrparfliklwitbit, ondergoes fleeted from the flrst surface, and, n^lectioc
no sqwiotitHi, and, as we wonld expect, it is other partioalara, a aecond portion transmitted
not refracted ; while a ray falling obUquely on throagh the glass. At any an^e, both tbeee
•nob facet, or &lling in any manner on any portions are partially pcJarized ; the most oom-
oQier &oe of the crystal, is sepsrated into two plete (maximum) polarization of the reflected
rays, generally both refracted, divernng more ray occurs when the angle of jnoidence is M*
or leas aooording to the direction and place of 4£ ; and at tbe same time tbe greatest polar-
Inoldenoe, and emerging at different pointa, bation of tbe transmitted petuul possiUe by a
FOLABIZATION OF UGHT
rind* ^ato takm i^aee. Koir, tbo fint -ny !■ eerres u ... „
Mid to be poUrizfld in tike plane of the iota- as Ute mirror of blackened glasa, a bimd^ o
denoe, <» ia the plane of reaction, which la glass plates, or Btill better, a donblf refracting
tito aame. That la, the plane of polarization crfstal pr<R>erl7 prepared, are most coUTCnient,
for reacted light cobcides with the iilane of The best of these is a tonrraalioe platck or that
fauudenoe ; and with this corresponds tne plane known as Kicol's prism — simpl j an elongated
d polarization of the ordinary' rof in double prism of Iceland spar, cat into two hy a section
refractioa. Bat the transmitted ray on emei^- tbtongh an obtuse solid angle, and making an
in^ is fbond polarized in a plane at right angles angle of 32° with the opposite obtuse solid
with that of tite incidence on the first earfaoe. edge, the temunal tacoa being gronnd to such
or with tliat of refraction (the two aurfscee of an utgle that, while tbey are perallel, o
the glass plate bein| supposed parallel); and them shall make an angle of 00° with the sec-
its pUoe of polarization corresponds with that tion. Then the two portions are reunited with
d' the extraordinary ray. Unfortnnatelj, how- Canada balsam, and tne lateral faces blackened.
ever, the plane io which the vibrations of plane- In this prism the ordinary raj is totally refleot-
polarized ligbt are believed, from the latest ed by tne film of balsam, and absotl>eil by the
researches, to take place, varies in any case blackened sides ; the extraordinary ray pasaea
ftom that now fonnd by 90° ; ao that to the through A polarizer and an analyzer, with
psrticnlars already atated must be added this: graduated arcs for reading degrees, and suitable
the plane of vibration of plane-polarized light connections, constitutes a polarisoope ; and by
ii always at riglkt angles to that which is ca^ed meana of instraments of this kind most of the
the plane of its polu^zation. When the two bets of polarization are asoertuned, and applv<
rays emerging mnu a donbly refracting body cation of its principles made. (2.) In reqwct
are allowed to pass through a second, the to polarization by rafiecUon, the general law
imnoipal eectjous of the two parallel, the rays arrived at by Brewster in 1814 is this: the
ire merely further awarated ; tnmed, so that angl«^ for any anbatanca at which maTimiiin
the principal section cf the one ia perpendicolar nolanzation ooonrs (callea the polaming angle),
to that of the other, the ordinary beoomea an is that the tangent of which is equal to the
extraordinary ray, and the reverse ; in posi- index of refraction for that substance. This is
liens intermediate, both ra;^ nodargo separa- tme, whether the snbstanoe be transparent, or,
tion anew, and 4 images are seen, save that in for ordinary thicknesses, opaque ; and the polar-
a single position all 4 images coalesce into one. izaldon decreases both ways from tiiSs angle of
Hence, a beam of light bemg passed, or bodies maximum. Aa a oonseqnenoe, maximum polar-
being eeen through two such cryatals, and one ization of refiected light alwaya occurs when
of them meanwhile toraed, a ancoessioa of the aum of the angles of incidence and ra-
images appear, aeparating and reblending, dur- fraction eqnab S0°. Again, the different colon
ing a h^reyolation, in the numbers and order, have different aosles of nmiimum; ao that
2, 4, 2, 4, 1, Ac. So, a ray polarized by reflection polarization by reflection is never qnite corn-
is perfectly refiected if impin^ng on a second plete. The polarizing angle of glasa for the
mirrtH- BO that the perpenoiontar to the point mean ray is that above given; that of water,
is in the plane of polarization; but tnrn the for the mean ray, BZ' 11', At other anglea
mirror ao that the perpendioalar is at right than the maximara, light is polarized t "~
■taaeas where this ooonrs to ptdarized light refieot ; yet, in ordinary oases, for every an^
striking a reflecting surface, pwfect transmis. the amount of polarization in the refracted
BOB occnrs if a refractog medium b« presented eqosls that in the reflected beam. Thaeflbot
to it in the corresponding position, and etea is greatest at the polarizing angle; but even
tana. Hence, of any two polarizers, whether here the Uansmittea li^t is bnt partially polar-
by donble or ordinary refraction, or by refleo- ized. By passing this Ikht through a saooesskai
tion, uther one may be used to impart polarity or handle i^ plates, the polarization may be
to a beam of common light; and the seocmd made complete. With 12 plates of crown
then, properly placed to receive this beam, glass, this occurs at T4°; with 34, at 60° 8', &a.
determines, b^ diminishing Its brightness or (4.) Certain crystals, especially those of smoky
extingoiahing it in oertwi positions, that it had or dark color, absorb a portion of the U^t,
been polarized. Or, if certain light be known apparently one of the rays due to their donUe
or snroected to be polarized, a e^stal or mir- refraction, and transmit the other oompteteily
ror placed in its path, and turned, determines polarized. Of these, tonrmshne is the best ez-
wh^er the light is polarized ; and if so, shows ample. Light passed Uirougb one plate oi this
by the portions in which the beam is made anttstance is almost completely extingnished by
wholly or most nearly to disappear, in what a eecond, ooly when the axes of the two are ^
plane polarization bad oooorred. Any contriv- right angles. — Beside the 4 methods now stated,
ance capable of pcdsrizing light is termed a there are some other actions capable of pdaiv
polarizer ; and any one capable of determining iang light, aa that of ^e sor&oes of some
the condition of the li^t exsmined by it, an crystals. EUiptical polarization is espeoiaDy
analyzer. Of coarse, any one of tiie fbitner found in the case of the metala; and it ia feeble
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
440 POLABIZATION OF UGBT POLE
in degree. OrdiuarilT' we see Just as well bj- inch in ftiokn«MBbows the extreme red rotated
polarized as hj oommon liglit; bot tliere are 17" SO*, tbe middle green 2T° SI', the extreme
droamstsnceB in which a difibrence ooeara. -riolet 44° G'. The roUtorj power of a gjivea
The crystalline lens of the eye being an an- depth and density of proper cano simp beuif
alyzer, apersonwhoh&sleamed todetect them known, the rotation produced by any given
will discover hi polarized light, from whatever sample becomes a measnre of its density and
Bonrce, an appearance of yellowish tnfts or purity, and hence of its value ; and this js the
bmahes crowed at the middle with violet principle of Soleira saccharimeter. This rota-
(Eaidinger'a tufts, or houppai), which to Other tioo ia from ]eftto right ; indifferent Bpecimens
E: are wholly nndetected. Glare from water, ofqnartzit isright-handedorleft-handed. Mag-
ed nictnres, &o., consists largely of polar- netio rotatory polarization ia the same chonge,
light. Hence the water telescope con- as indncedorangmentedbytbeactionofanelee-
taining a Niool's priani, placed in a certain tro-magnet on a plane-polarized ray while being
porition, CQta off the polarized portion of tranemitted through certain media. Breirster
the refleoted light, and enables one to aee end othera have determined that the reflected
the bottom of a fallow body of water, or light received at the earth'a snrface fhnn the
fish beneath the Burfaoe; and an opera glass atmoaphereispolarized, depending on the angn-
oontaining such prisms shows p{ctu4s in their lar distance from the son, save at certun change
trae colors and withont glistening, even when log nentral points. (Bee this anbject in John-
looked on obliqnely. Ilie aame means has slon's "Physical Atlas."} Forliea, Helloni, and
lately been proposed for enabling the eye to others have, by means of diathermanons media
penetrate to greater distance into fog. If, be- and the thermo-electric pile, shown the eiist-
tweeu a polarizer and analyzer, a plate of ence of both a polarization and di-polarizatioD
selenite, mica, or almost any bi-refringent, of of heat ; but no important results have 3'et
proper thinness, be introdaced, one ray can been deduced. An application has been made
iw retarded, by di^rence of path, Just so far of the principle of polarized ligbt to the con-
as to interfere with the other on emerging, and stmctlon of a polarizing photometer, the object
the most beautiful colors are the result, which of which is to eliminate that part of the nn-
Tary with the thickness of the film and the certaintyin onr jadgmentofthe brillianciesof
position of its azis. In this way, fine crystals two lights viewed at the same time, which de-
crfaalicine, of bitartrate of potaKa, and others, pends on differences of the colors of the lights;
shavings of bone, Ac, yield remarkable dia- but the apparatus seems not to have oanie into
plays of changing color; and as these colors nse. — The discovery of polarization was first
are strictly characteristic, or vary with the distinctly made by Ualus so late as the year
substances examined, a teat of nncommon deli' ISIO. Itsdevelopment since that time has been
oaoyand accuracy is UinsnnexnectedlyBuppUed, due to the labors of Toung, TVesnel, Brewster,
by which to determine, witn the aid of the Biot, Arago, Sir John Eerschel, and others,
microscope, the nature of such substances as POLE, RsaisAU), cardinal and archbishop
are capable of polarizing light, to delect adnl- of Canterbury, bom at Stoverton casUe, Slif-
teratioQs in food, chemicals, &o. The change in furdshire, in 1600, died In 1568. On his moth-
the polarized ray in these cases has been named er's side he was related to Henry VHI. Be-
de-, «r more pro^rly di-polarization. These ing destined for high positiona in the rburch,
plates (^ many bi-refringent crystals exhibit he was seutwhen Tyeara old to theOarthtinao
each a charaoteristic set of colored rings, mark- monastery of Shene, near Richmond in Bamj,
ed with a cross ; the rings, as the plate is ro- and was graduated at Magdalen college, Oxford,
▼dved, obanging their colora to those comple- in IG16. InlSlT he became prebendary of
mentsryto them, and the crosses alternating Baliabury, and inlGlSdean of Wimbome and
from black to white. The differences in the Exeter. About 1B20 he went to Padua to fin-
dark cross of starch gruns fhim various plants ish his studies. Betuming to England in I5ES,
fktmish a ready means of determining their he was received with great favor by the king,
source. A beam of common light Is drenlarly and was much admir^ for his learning and
S Diarized by rock crystal (quarti), and by many abilities ; bnt preferring to spend bis time in
quids, among which ore most easentisl oils, study rather than in the gayetiea of the court,
and ooncentrated sirup of cane sugar. This he retired to Bhene. He nod been here aboat
eoadmon isDotreadilydetected bythe ordinary two years when Henry began to question the
analyzer, hut bya peculiar pohhedron of glass, legality of his marriage wiUi Catharine of Ar-
known as Presnel's rhomb. In the bodies just agon ; and Pole, foreseeing that tJiere would be
named, it is replaced when the ray entering trouble, obtained from the king permission to
them ii previously plane-polarized, by a rota- visit Paris. Eetnming after a year's stay, hi"
tion of the ray abont its own axis, the amount retirement was again disturbed by the deter-
of rotoUon being as the total thickness and the minion of the king to tlirow off the pope'*
denrity of the medium. This phenomeuon is supremacy, and his deiire to gain the appi^hsi-
called rotatory polarization ; and it ia detected tion of his relative. As Pole reftised hia c(^
bytbeordinaryformeof analyzer, as the Nicol'B aont, to avoid the anger of Henry he p«tf«
-- — the diffbrent colors being rotated in over to the continent and dwelt suoeosfli»dj »
it degrees. Thus, in quarti^ every ^ Avignon, Padna, and Venice. Meanwhile Hen-
priem, th
diflbrent
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
rj lud married Anne BoleTO, aod caused s de- in fh« ROoretion of tlie anal glands, whicli at-
fance of his title of bead of the English church taohea itself even to tlie fur, preventing that
to be written by Dr. Sampson, bisaop of Ohi- nae of it to which its flnenesa entitles it. The
chMter. This was sent to Pole, who replied female generally makA her nest in a rabbit
toitinawoik entitled Pro UhilaU Beclegiai- burrow, having previonaly killed or driven
tka, m which he compared the kins to Nebn- away the rabbit. Its habits and manner of
ohadneizar, Henr^ was bo incensed with this killing its prey are the same as in the ferret
treatise, that he withdrew from Pole Lis pen- The common fur called fitch is that of the pole-
aon, deprived him of bis preferments, and oat, one of whose popular names is fitchet.
caused an act of attunder to oe passed against POLEMO. I. A Grecian philosopher, bom
hnp Poal HI., vho was then pope, created in Athens abont 840 B. 0., died abont 2T2. In
him a cardinal, and sent him as nundo to France his youth he gave himself np to sensuality; bnt
and Flanders, and afterward as legate to Yiter- chancing one day, when half intoxicated, to
bo. Here he remained until the council of enter the academy while Xenocrates was die-
Trent, which he attended in the capacity of a coursing npon temperance, he was so moved
papal legate, and la there said to nave main- by the wonls of the teacher that he beeama
tuned the doctrine of justiScation by faith, one of his disciples, and went to the other ex-
Althongh suspected on this acconnt of a lean- treme of rigid and anstere temperance. He
ing toward Protestantism, he was nevertheless succeeded to the chair of Xenocrates, and was
employed by Paul in the affairs of the papal the teacher of Arcesilas, Crates, and Zeno.
court, and npon the death of that pontiff came II. A Greoian geographer, whose birthplace is
near being chosen his successor. Upon the uncertain, flourished in the early part of the
scceaaion of the new pope, he retired to tlie 2d century B. 0. He wrote a " Voyage round
convent of Maguzano near Verona, and there the World," from Pontus to Carthage, and po-
remuued nntil called to Enf^land by Queen lemical works agfunst Timens and Eratosthe-
Mary. He landed at Dover, Nov. 2D, 1SS4, in nes. An edition of his fragments by Preller
the character of papal legate, and was re- was published at Leipwo in 1888. UI, A king
ceived with great honor by the court He was of Pontna, died after A, D, 3. He was orig?
made arobbiabop of Oauterbnry after the bui'n- nally of Oaria or Phrygia, and was the son of
[Dg of Oranmer, and was also elected chancel- Zeno the rhetorician. He obtained his kinr<
tor of Oxford and subseqaently of Cambridge, dom from Uark Antony, whom he served effi-
In the cruel measures which were taken at that ciently in the war against Pnrthia. He was
time for the extirpation of Protestantism, it made prisoner, but obtained his liberty at the
has been a matter of debate how br the pri- time when the civil war broke out between
mate was censurable; but the weight of evi- Octavius and Antony, and immediately marched
deiue seems to favor the conclusion that he his array to the assistance of the latter. The
was inclined rather to lenient than to harsh battle of Actium ended the struggle, and Fole-
p«eeedings. He died 16 hours after the death mo was easily reconciled to Octavius, who ad-
of the queen. His life was written byT. Phil- mired his fidelity, confirmed him in his sover-
Hps (8 vols., 17fl7). eignty. And added to hb realm all the terri-
FOLEOAT (jmtoriut ecmmvnii, Cuv.), awell tory npon the Bosporua In a war against the
known animal of the weasel family, spread Aspurgians, a barbarian tribe, he was made '
over Europe and temperate Asia. It ia about priaoner and put to death. IV. Son of the
IS inches long, the tail 6 inches additional, and preceding. His mother Pythodoris held the
6 or 7 inches high ; the general color is dork sovereignty after the death of Polemo I., her
brown, fading into yellowish below, the legs son assisting her in the administration ; and
and tail black, and the face whitish with a upon her death (A. D. SO) he was recognized
brown mask across the re^on of the eyes ; the by Caligula. Three years later the emperor
eolors vary considerably. The form is elonga- Claudius ceded Cilicia to him in exchange for
ted, the head short and rounded, the teeth the the Cimmerian Bosporus, which was given to
•una as in the ferret, the feet 5'toed with sharp a descendant of ULutridates. Polerao II. em-
clawa, tlie niamuue 4 and ventral, and the fur braced Judaism in order to espouse Berenice,
soft and thick. It is a very active animal, famous for her amour with Titus; but tliat
pnming living prey npon the ground, and princess having left him, ho returned to hia
rarely ascending trees; very sanguinary by na- formcrfaith. He abdicated during the reign
tore, ita uze limits its depredataons to small of Nero.
animals, sneh as domestic fowls, ground birds, POLEVOT,NicotiiALBiETKvrfon,aRnsHiaa
squirrels, rabbits, and other rodents ; it is strict- anthor, bom inlrkootsk, Siberia, JuDeS2, 1798,
ly noctnmal in its habits, remaining concealed died in St. Petersburg, Feb. 2S, 1846. He was
during theday in some outhuilding on the farm, the son of a manufacturer and brandy distiller,
as it generally lives in the nei^borhood of was edncated at home, and at a very early og«
man, and committing its havoc at night in the wrote plays. " At last," says he in his auto-
hen roost and dove cot; it is destroyed by biography, "I became my father's walking dio-
the farmer when possible, bnt it is so wary tjonary in geography and history, for my mem-
u generally to escape traps. When alarmed 017 at that time was sncli as I nave never met
or uritatei, it emits a very disagreeable odor with in anybody else. To learn by heart a
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
442 POU FOLIOE
irholv teagedj ooft me nothing. Jn a vord, if POLICE (Gr. mAmto, gOTBnunent), & jndi-
I most describe mj menUl progress up to tliQ <aal and execntiTe system uad an orgamuA
year 1811, it vas this: I hod read about s civil force for the preserraUon of order tJA
thousand vdames of «11 Jdnds and sorte, and the enforcement of the lavs. There are trace)
remembered all that I read, &om the Terses of of a polioe, or something analogooB to it, in
Earamun and the artjoles in the ' European Athena, Corinth, and Ephesos. la Rome t2ie
Messenger' to the chronological tables and the daties of the policenum seem to hare beoi
Bible, from which I oonld repeat whole chap- sliared hy several classes of o£Bcials ; the lio-
tero by heart. I woa known in the town of tor arrested criminals and condooted them into
Irkootek as ' the wonderfnl boj,^ with whom o^^Qij^ uid the inspectors, SQbprefects, and oth-
the governor himself Dsed to oonverBe, and the er officers, either personallj or by their subor-
director of the grammar school to dispnte as dinatee, performed moat of the civil datieg nor
with a learned man." Having while atilljonng devolvbg on the police. In despotio goveni-
removed to Moscow, he was forced to flee on the ments the police nave exercised important and
wproachoftheFreucharmy. Betnnungsever- often oppressive fiincdons. Its beneficent action
al years afterward, he eetabliahed a newspaper in sanitary matters, in preventing and detecting
called the "Moscow Tele^npli," which inan- franda, larcenies, and petty crimes, and In pro-
gnrated a new era in Bngsmn literary criticism, moting the reformation of Jureidle ofiendera,
cut was finally sappressed on accomit of its is of recent date even in those countries when
liberal tendencies. In 1838 Polevoy went to the system has been lon^t and mo«t «._
8L Petersburg, where he tpent the remainder pletely organized. — The pohce system in Franc*,
of his life, writing eesaya, romances, transla- thon^ not bo oppressive, except for some com-
tions, tragedies, comedies, and farces. His in- paratively brief periods, as in some of the otbei
ceasant labor gradually broke down his con- coontriea of Earope, ia of considerable acd-
■titutiou, while the rapidity with which he qnlty. Previous to the middle of the ISth een-
Cdaced his works had the same effect upon tnry, the provost of Paris and his lieatensnU,
fame. The I>eet of his dramas are'Taia- civil and criminal, were charged with maintain-
sha, the Siberian Girl," the antbor's favorite ; ing the peace of the city, and with the suppres-
the "Grandiather of the Busdan Fleet;" and a uon of vagrancy. About 1446 or 144? the citr
trviBlation of Hamlet. He wrote the "Life of was divided into ISdistricla, over each of which
Sawaroff," one of the most popular books in a commisaary of polioe preuded, having un-
Bossia, the "life of Peter uie Great." and a der him a certain number of sei^esnta, the
"Life of tjie Emperor STrnwleon," which ex- whole being under the control of the provost,
tended no further than the burning of Moscow, to whom in 1448 Charles VIL committed a
but was completed by the author's brother. He general Jurisdiction over the vagrants ondmalc-
alao annonni»d a " History of the Enssian Peo- factors of the kingdom. About 1520 Francis
pie," to be finished in 62 volumes, but of these I. deprived the provost of the city of bis ex-
6 only appeared. — His brother, Xesopboit tensive jurisdiction, and created a provost mar-
Albxxievitoh, ^ter having been for many years shal (pritSt de marichava) for the city and dis-
abookseller at Moscow, la now living at 8t. trictof Paris, who was authorized to spprehead
Petersburg. He has written several works of and punish vagrants and disorderly pereono,
considernble literaiy value, one of which is the without appeal. Under his orders were placed
novel of " Michael Vasilevitch Lomonosoff" (3 SO constables, and the number of ecmmi^fa-
vols., Moscow, 1S86). riea and sergeants of police was doubled. Bat
POLI, CiusEPFB Xavxbio, an Italian natu- even with this increase of force iheio wets
ralist, bom in Molfetta, in the kingdom of as late as 16Q0 only 600 men of all ranks in
Iffqiles, in 1746, died in 182S. He entered the the Parisian police. The superintendence of
army, and was appointed by Ferdinand I. in the markets, weights and measures, and cesi-
1776 professor of military geography at Naples, pools, the cleansing of the streets, the inapec-
was soon alter commissioned to visit the prin- tion of buildings, and the prohibition of noi-
cipal military schools of Europe, became a ioua trades, were all anItJBcts of legislation In
fellow of the royal society of England, and Franco at n very early period, etatates having
after his return was made professor of experi- been passed relative to them at varions dat^
mental philosophy and director of the military between 13C0 and 1560. The importance <a
academy at Naples. Poll was dietiaguished as having them all included In one system rf
a compsrative anatomist and pliysiologist, but surveutanco was not, however, anderetood,
particnlarly for his knowledge of the character and each had its own inspectors, amenable tone
and habits of testaceaa mollnske, in which de- commonhead. Inl677thepri\ilegeDf elecliug
partment he made a large collection, and pnb- their own police magiatrstes was granted to tlie
iished the results of hts investigations m a ilihabitants of each of the districts of the city-
finely illustrated work entitied TeiUtcea Utri- Under Louis XIY. the police attained its higc-
wtqMe Sieilia (3 vols, fol., Parma, 1792-'6 ; vol. est measure of perfection as a represMve force-
iii., 1826). His descriptions are mostly very A universal espionage was established, and the
acoorute, and he diaoovered many new genera aUghtest intimatloa of restiveneas ondi-j w
and species. To him is due the discovery of jate of oppression, or the smallest departure
" ■ from the mouarch's views of orthodoxy, vu
the nervous system of the testocea.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOUCB 448
.. .__ _ 7 Strest and ponlahiMnt^ irf t daw trf p<d3oe regnklJonB. There is alao
In Its more hmnaDe tsd proteodve fimotiraiB it s commiasftrf of police in each of the 80 qoar-
wm less saeceesft]]. Under the r^gn of Lools ten of Paris. — Bedde the local police of Piuis,
X7.it partook of the generaldeoivanddemor- which nnder some of 4he Bourbon kingB as-
klizatioD which had lofooted the other depart- snmed or was endowed with national Junsdic-
menta of government, was the base pander to tion, there haa been for two centnriea a system
the depraved appetites of the monarch, and of national polioe in France, whose fanctiona
fttmii^ied Utt reaa;means of extortion and op- have been mainlj detective and repressive. The
preosion of those who had become obnoxioQs espionage of suspected etrangers visitiiig the
to bb &Torites. The national oonveation in country, or of persons believed to be disaffected
1794 reoTsonized the police and defined its or to entertain designs against the government,
dnties. Theae dnties comprised almost every the oorrespondenoe of those regarded as hostile
d^tartment of administrative government, in- to the reigning anthority , and other similar sub-
elnding, among other matters, the secnring of jects, have been the dnties iotmsted to it
the eatotj of traffic ; the repur of dangerona UntQ 1796 this national potioe had been nnder
■tmctnrea; the superintendence of the cleansing the direction of the minutrr' of the home de-
uid tightiiig of the city; the removal of pnblio parbnent; bnt at that time the directoir created
nniaaBees; tiie repression and pnnishment of all a ministry of police, and after Oochon, Lenoir de
ounces agwnst the imbllo peaoe ; the mun- la Boche, and 8otin had each held the post of
tenanoa of good order in and aopervision of all minister for a brief period, Fonch6 received the
Enblie gatherings, fesUritiea, and plaoes of pnb- appointment in 1790, and held it with brief ia-
0 amnaemeat and resort; Ae inspection of tenniauons till Sept. 1819. Decazes, the sac-
weights, measnres, and fijod;preo8otions against cesser of Fonch^ retained the ofBce till 181B,
accidents, casnaltiee^ and epideinioa, and mesa- when it was abolished as an independent de-
nrea in mitigation of Uwm if they ooonrred ; partmeot. — ^In England, from the time of the
thedeliveryofpa8sports,reridencelioensea,&c., Saxon kings, there had existed an organization
and the repression of be^ary and vagranoy; ofapartiaUy volontarycharacterfortnerepree-
tiie mpervision of drinkiDg and gaining Donsea, rion of crime, the arreet of criminals, snd the
andofproatitntes;thediaper8ionoforowds; the maintenance of good order. The popnlation
pohce of rdigions worship and of printing and was divided into hondreds, and these into tith-
bookselKng; the oversight of theatres, pow- ings or companies of 10 freeholders with their
der mills, saltpetre works, and storehonses of families. The principal man of the hnndred
arms; the pnrsoit of deserters and escaped wasthejosticeof tbepeaoe,orlocalmagistTate^
criminals ; the care of the h^hways, of the for the t^ial of small causes, snd the bead man
pnblio health, and of fires, innndations, and ao- of tbo tithing was reeponsible for ^ood order
eidenta ; the snperintendenoe of the exchanges and tiie arrest of crinunsls in his lunited dls-
of oommNYte, of the taxes, of the provision trict. As the p<q>nlation increased, however,
markets, and of prohibited wares; and the and criminals grew more daring and ferocioi^
protection of public monuments. To these it was found that these voluntary oScera did
mnhifariona duties were added, eoon after, the not like to arrest or convict a known and dss-
regidaUon of the tern of healtlt offloers and v»- perate ofi'ender, lest, as was often the case, he
terinary Burgeons, the removal of tick persons should subsequently wroak his vengeance OD
and corpses, the reoorery of drowned persons, them. The high sheriS' of the oonuty, his dep-
■nd the care of the pnblio ponnds. During nties, and the oonstables appointed by the par-
the administration of Hapoleon I. the city po- i^es, were eventusUy snbstitnted for the votna-
lice of Paris attiuaed a hign degree of efficiency, tary officers of the earlier period; but while
The ablest of the prefects of police of that they answered their purpose tolersbly well
period, Qisauet, lias written the memoirs of his in the mral districts, they were neither nn-
times. Vnaer Louis Philippe, the number of merous nor effident enough to repress crime
the regular policemen, itrgenti de viUe, had in London. As late as 1761, Henry fielding^
raen in 1847 to 1,800. It was daring his ad- tlie novelist, then ma^t^^tte at Bow street,
nmiistnUion that the present system of police the only court for police offences at that time
respeding prostitution, which had been for outside the city proper, in an "Inqniry into
many years under poUoe enrveillance, was the Causes of the recent Increase of Boblier-
adcpted. The FariMan police is now metropol- ies," stated as matter of poblic notoriety that
itm, oomprising the whtje department of the the streets of London were not safe for citizens
Btina, the districts of St. Oloud, Sevres, and after nightfall, and that highway robberiea,
Vesdon in Seine-et-Oise, and the market of murders, and other flagrant otimes were of c(»n-
Poivy. It is in charge of a prefect, who is mon occurrence, and their perpetrators were
under the authority of the minister of the in- seldom or never detected or arrested. He
tericr. He is president of a council of health su^ested a paid poUce, onder the orders of
of SO members, all physioisns, snrgeona, or the acting magistrate at Bow street. In 17fi8
demista, which has charge of sU sanitary mat- such a force, of veiy moderate extent, was ea-
ten, and meets fortni^t^. Bedde this conn- tablished In accordance with an act passed
d\ there are 11 bnreans, in 8 ^visions, each that year ; but such was the fear of the people
Boder a competent h«Ml, and each in charge lest this meaaore shonld lead to encroacluneat
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
upon their liberties, that a violent oppoiildoii 1856 tbe " act to render more effectnal tba
was raised to it, &aa it waa soon repealed. In police in oonntiea and boronglis" was passed,
1792 an act wee passed for the increase of the and there is now a county constabalarj force
police courts, Uie emploTinent of salaried ma- In enrj connty, which reports anntuJjy to t^
gistratea, and the enlargement of their jnrisdic- searetai? of state. The eoect of the organiza-
tion. Under this act, 8 police offioes or conrta tion of this force has been greatlj to diminish
were established, and the magistrates receired the amount of crime, especially among the
a salary of £400 each, whiii trt " - ' _i . . . .. ... , .
raised to £600. In 1800 there v
constables attached to each of the metropoli- and the administration of justice more n
tan police offices, or 48 in all; 60 other con- form. The eipenditore for the county con-
stablea, under the charge of the chief magis- stabnlary in 1BG9 was £991, 6BS, and the total
trate at Bow street, patrolled tiie metropolitan number of policemen was 1S,S09. — In Scotland
roads ; the Thames police establishment, or- the organization of an efficient police in the
gonized in 1798, consisted of 41 officers; the large towns dates ftom 18S4, and has be«i
city of London employed and psid 40 more ; materially modiHed by snbseqnent laws. Tbe
and beside these there were S68 parish offioera rural police has been organiaed nnder the U«
serving without pay. The night watch and of 1867, which ia similar itt its providons to
patrol consisted of 2,044 men for the entJre the English law of 18G6. — In Ireland, until
metropolitan district, of whom 808 were in 1814, the police was in a perfectly chaotic state,
the city of London. The greater part of these The law passed that year led to iaproTemeuts
men were aged, feeble, infirm, and many of in det^l, but did not remove the management
them half starved ; their compensation ranged of the force nor the fiinctions of the inferior
from 17 to 86 cents per night; and they were magistracy from partisan control, by which
nnder the control of more than 70 different they were often made the instruments of ont-
boards of officers. This state of things con- rageons abuses. The act of J88fl, and its sub-
tinned, with little amelioration, till 1829, when seqnent modiflcationa in 1848 and 1867, hare
Bir Eobert Peel's " act for improving the po- greatly improved it. It is of a quad military
lice in and near the metropolis" was pseaed. character, being well armed and ocflupying
This act established an effective constabulary barraolcs. Inl858 the numlierof memberswas
force under two commissionerB, but left sev- 13,067, and the cost £668,700. The city of
eral petty detached bodies of peace officers Dnblin and ita vioinity has also a metropolitan
within the district. In 18S9 it waa modified police, with a force of 1,087 men; itscostin
by on act consolidating the entire constabulary 18G8 was £77,027. — In the United States, the
force of the metropolis, the city of London ex- providons for the repression of crime snd the
cepted, which still maintains a small indepen- detection and arrest of criminals were copied
dent force, 608 men in 1859. By this act also the from those of Great Britain. Each county
entire esecutive duties of police-were intrusted had its sheriff and depntjes, and, where there
to the commissioners; their sphere of action were town organizationii, each town its con-
in regard to ail matters properly belonging to stables. Jnatices of the peace, of whom there
police was greatly enlarged ; the police courts was a considerable number in each county,
were assimilated to the other courts of Jnstioe, and often in each town, appointed by thelegi»-
and a single magiBtrata was empowered to de- latnre, or of late elected by the peojde of the
cide, withont appeal, questions involving sums town or county, had absolute jurisdiction in
of money not exceeding 40 shillingB, as weli petty civil and criminal cases, and power to
aa those coses of offence against the person so nind the accused over to a higher court in
constantly recurring in a police court; and the any ease. In the larger towns, the danger to
bonndaricsof the police districta were changed property from fires, borglsries, &&, in the
to adapt them the better to the growth of the night time, led to the appointment of wateh-
metropoUa, In 1866 the joint commissioners men, who, like those of London, were often
were superseded by one conmiissioner, wliose aged and infirm men, fbw, and poorly pud.
salary wqs fixed at £1,600, and two assistant The organization of a day police is of recent
commissioners were appointed, at a salary of date even in the cities of New York, Ptila-
£800 each. — The ruraJ police or county coo- delphia, Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, sna
Btabnlary force in England is of recent origin. Cincinnati. At first the police force wss
The difficulty of arresting criminals and pre- municipal, confined to the chartered limits of
venting crime, especially among juvenile of- the city, and appointed by the mayor snd
fenders, led to its organization. In 1840 par- council. To euch a ylan there were found to
liomcnt passed an act permitting any county, be two serions objections, viz. : that evil docra
or part of a county, to organize a police force would escape beyond the city limits, and tim*
on a plan somewhat aiimlar to that of the evade their jurisdiction, and that the eppoint*
metropolitan police. The county of Essex ment and control of the police was made a
availeditself of the permission the same year; partisan matter. In 1857 the legislature of
and between 1840 and 1868, 18 English and 4 New York passed an act for the cstablishmait
Welsh counties had adopted it for the whole of a metropolitan police force, which should
of each county, and 7 others fbr parts. In possess conatAbnlary powers In the oonnttM
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POLICE
of Now Toric, Kings, Wsatohester, and Rich-
mond, and Id the towns of Jftmaica, Newtown,
md Flashing, la ttie conntj of Qneena. This
force WHS to bo under the control of 7 oom-
misaionera, indnding the majon of New York
md Brooklyn ex offliiii. In 1800 this act was
modified and the number of conumseioDeni ro-
dneed to 3, who were to bo appointed by the
goTernor, and to serve S years. The daties
of the policemen were also enlarged by this
act, and now inclnde most though not all of
ihose of tbe police force of London and Paris.
rhe following tables give the comparativa sta-
tistica of the police of London and New York,
with the force and coat of that of Paris:
POLIGNAO
44S
i § s
S I I
p § §
I I !
gi I §
25 S S
I I
tll^^ll
mill
^ i i
III
* nuM ofne«r> In Londan alto ree^LTd
itMofeail TCHir [f Dumed, « I of *t
tn. ailM of tia omtltli ■« of aonn
mn biTB Bnacad thdm uOxm p
Though strongly ^posed at flrtt, the change
of system in New York has proved beneficid,
and isKeQerallyapproTed. Baltimore and Phil-
adelphia have adopted a similar one, and the
change is about to be made in Boston. The
police courts in New York (and the same is
true, we believe, in the other cities which have
adopted the system) are not a part of the metro-
politan police organization. The pay of both
officers and men is higher than that of the Lon-
don or Paris metropolitan police, that of the
men being more than double; so that in Lon-
don, with a force nearly 4 times as large (the
proportion being 1 to 834 of the popolation,
against 1 to 7S4), the cost of the police Is less
than twice as mnch as in New York; while
with Paris (pop. I,824,84fl; proportion, 1 to
808) the comparison is nearly the same.
POLIGNAO, JcLEB AnausiB Abiukd Muhb,
prince de, a French statesnian, born in Paris,
May 14, 17S0, died at St Germain-en-Laye,
ICwch 29, 1&47. His parents being obliged to
leave France at the time of the revolution, he
went first to Russia, and then to England as aid
of the count d'Artois (afterward Charles X.),
and in Deo. 1808 returned to France, being
concerned in the conspiracy of Cadonda] ana
Ficbegm. When the plot was diftoo»ered, his
brother Armand, who was also engaged in it,
was sentenced to death, and he himself to 3
years' imprisonment. Armand's life was spared,
but both were retained in captivity until 1814,
when they escaped and r^oined the count d'Ar-
tois. Alter the second restoration, Jules was
made a peer of France, but refused to take the
oonstitutioual oath on aoconnt of religions
scruples, until these were relieved by the pope,
who also made him a Roman prince. In 1816
he married Uiss Campbell, a Scottish heiress.
He was minister to London from 1828 to 1829,
when he waa recalled by Charles X., and in
Angust became the head of the new ministry,
with the portfolio of minister of foreign affairs.
He was the representative of the ultramontane
party In the state, and was looked upon with
great disfavor by the Mends of const itntional
liberty thronghout France. The growing dif-
ference between the ministry and the chambers,
and the arbitrary measures of the court, after a
fbw months ted to the rerolntion by which
Charles was deprived of his throne. Folignoo
fled, but was arrested at Qranville, Aug. 16,
IBBO, in the disguise of a valet, was tried, found
guilty, santencM to imprisonment for life, and
confined in the fortress of Ham ontil 1886, '
when he waa released, lived for some time in
England, and Anally returned to France. Dur-
ing his imprisonment he wrote a work entitled
Contidirationi poUtiquei (Paris, 1883}.'
POLIGNAO, MaLomoa nz, a French cardi-
nal and statesman, great nncle of the preced-
ing, born in Puy, Oct. II, 1661, died Nov. 20,
1741. He was sent as ambassador to Poland
by Lonis XIY., and after the death of John
Bobieski in ISSG contrived to have the princo
of Coa(4 elected king ; but this choice not be-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
446 FOLmAHtra POLITIOAL EOO^OICT
ing amepted hj the nation, who placed &m eoonomista, Mme of th« moct intareeting pof
crown on the head of Fr«derio Aagm^HB, dec- tlons of tiie adenees thej profbrn are atQl im-
tor of Saxony, Folignao fell into diagraoe and perfeotlT' understood ;" while " the important
wag recalled. Banished to his abbacy of BoU' art of applying them to the afiUra of mankind,
port, he employed his time in reftitlng Lnore- bo as to produce the sreateat amonnt of per-
tias in a Latin poem entitled Anti-Lueretiv, maaent good, has maoo bnt little progrera, and
$iM da Dto et 2fatura (S Tola. 8to., 1745). He is hardlj indeed in its in&nc;." Anrid all
returned to conrt in 1702, was made auditor their discorda and diaagreementa, it is pos^ble
of the rota at Some in 1706, and miniaterpleni- to divide politioal econotniets tuder two g«i-
potentiarj to Holland in 1710, and was a com- eral heads : those who treat the mibjeot as a
migsioner on the part of Franoe to negotiate dedactive eoiraice, "in which all the g^nenl
the treaty of Utrecht in 1718. On bia retom propositJona are in the strictest sense of the
from the laat embassy he was created oardinaL word hypothetical ^' aai those who treal it by
During the regency he attachedhimself to the the indactive or Baconian method. Of the
party of the lurftimiatB, and waa again banished first named aohool are all the English econo-
nntil 1791. From 17H to 1783 he was the mists and most of those of continental Europe
French minister at Borne, and in 17SS obt^- wbo have acquired any reputation. Aa the
ed the archbiahoprio of Anch. He saooeeded representatives of the last, Mr. Henry 0,
Bossnet in the French academy in 1704. Carey and his followero ere most prominent.
POLITIAHTTS, Akoilub. See PounABO. — ^The earlieet treatise on an eeonomio subject
POLITIOAL EOOKOMY (Or. ouRii, a honse, is believed to be "The Eryxias, or Abont
and rofioc, a law), profieriy, an exposition of the Wealth," erroneonaly attributed to jCachines
measures necessary for direoting the movft- Socraticna, one of the disdplea of Bocrate^
menta of society so that man may act in har- and assigned to the date of 4S7 B. 0. " Pis-
mony with thoie laws vfhich control him in to," says Sey, " has with tolerable fidelity
his efforts to improre his condition. Qreat ('Republic,' book ii.) sketched the efltets of
confusion exists not only in the definition of the separation of social employments, bnt sole-
political economy, but in the various eipres- ly with a view to point out man's social cbar-
mons made use of in treating of the subject, aoter, and the necessity he waa in, from his
and even in settling upon some general under- multifarious wants, of uniting in extensive
standing of its scope. By some writers it has societies, in which each individual might be
been treated as a science, by others as an art, eidnsively occupied with one specieg of pro-
and Sir James Btettart speaks of it as a com- duction. It is an entirely political view, from
bination of the two. Mr. Benior considers it which no other consequence can be drawn."
" the science which treats of the nature, the To Aristotle, however, Is due the honor of be-
prodnction, and the dlstribntion of weallli." ing the founder of politioal economy. Hie
Archbishop Whately would ^ve it the name three treatises — " Ethics," which treals of the
of " catallactics, or the science of exchanges." regulation of the individual man ; " Politics,"
Ur. HcOnlloch conn.derslt "the science of the of the relation of man toward others in asocial
laws which regulate the prodnotfon of those capacity, both private and public, the family
material products which have eichangeable and the state ; and "Economica," of the rela-
value, and which are either necessary, useflil, tion of man toward property — constitute in
or agreeable to man." M. fit^rch says it " is a measure a connected work, each being de-
the science of the natural laws which deter- pendent on and interwoven witli the others.
mine the prosperity of nations, that is to say, The expression political economy was first
their wealth and oivillEation." M. Sismondi used by Aristotle, and is to be foond in the
considers " the physical welfare of man, so far " Economics," book ii. chap. i. He lays down
SB it can be the work of government, as the the dogma that the bounty of nature ia the
object of political economy." M. Say defines it only tme source of wealth, and ho holds in
as "the economy of society; a science combin- great abhorrence trading and usury, whicli
ing the results of our observations on the na- mtter^ he aays, " ia most reasonably detested,
tcre and functions of the different parts of the as the increase of our fortune arises from the
social body." The progress thus far made in money itself; and not by employing it to the
politjcal economy has been slow and uncertain, purposes for which it was intended." Bnt
and Uiere is in its entire range hardly a doc- little attention was paid to economic Andiea
trine or even the definition of an important for many centuries oner the time of Aristotle,
word which ia nniveraally or even generally The ancients regarded industrial occupation of
accepted, beyond dispute. In 1B44 Mr. De any kind as degrading and unworthy of free-
Qnincey waa forced to acknowledge that it did men. Agriculture was looked upon with much
not advance, and that from the year 1817 it more favor than any other employment in-
had "on the whole been stationary;" and he volving labor, bnt even fkrm labor waa per-
fnrther addsr "Nothing can be poetolated, formed almost entirely by slaves belonging to
nothing demonstrated, for anarchy even as to and employed by the landlords. The ught in
the earliest princii)les is predominant." U. which trade was regarded by the Bomana may
ItoBsisays: " Kotwitbstanding the pretensions be gathered from (Scero, who in his "Offices^
■o frequently put forward by politicians and says : " The gaina of merchanta, aa well as of
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOUnOAL £OOKOUT 447
ill who five hj labor and not aklll, sn meui " the preTention of tlte exportation of our
wd ilUbersl. The very merohandiBe ii a badge wool, end enoonrafiing our woollen monofao'
(^ their slaTery." — Daring the middle ages, tnres," and tiiat in Ireland the "linen rather
■nd for some oentnrles thereafter, no advance than the woollen manofiictiiTe be set up."
TBS made either in commercial adventnre or Further, that the trade of those oonntries
in letters; bat "the fortonate enterprises of "that rend most of onr mannfi&ctiireB, or
the PcHtngaese and Spaniards daring the ISth snppl; ns with materials to be flirther monn-
ceatniT, the active inaostry of Venice, Genoa, &ctnred in England," be most encoiiraRed.
Florence, Pisa, the ptovinces of FhmderB, and In 1677 Andrew Tarranton published "Eng-
the free cities of Oermanj, abont the same land's Improvement bj Sea and Land: to
period, gradnally directed the attention of ontdo the Sntoh whhoat Fighting, to paf
■ome philosophers to the theorj- of wealth." Debts witbont Moneys, to set at Work the
These investigatJoue originated in Italv. " As Poor of England with the Growth of onr own
br back u the 10th oentnty," adds 8a,j, Lands," Ac. The means bj which be demgned
"Botero had been engaged in inTestigsting to advance the prosperitj and power of Eng-
the reel sonrces of poUio prospwitf." Hie land were the intro^ction of a general system
eariiest general treatise on this subject in mod- of banking, thns fomiahing " the great sinews
em times, and the first bearing the title of of trade, the credit thereof making paper go in
politieel economy, is the Thtiti de Vieonomie trade eqoal with ready money," a re^stry of
elitiqve, by Aatoine de Montohr^tien (4to., real estate to fadlitate its traBsfer mA. mort-
nen, 1616)^ This work treats of the atility gage, the improvement and development of the
of mechanio arts and the regnlation of manii- prodnction and trade in linen, woollen goods,
bctarea, employment of men, the trades most and iron, the introdnction m c^iab and the
important to commonities, commerce, trans- improvement of rivers and harbors, with a
portstion, money, &c. In 1618 Antonio Serra view to facilitating hitemal trade and inter-
published in Naples a volome on the canses course. He held that a country desiring to be
which t«nd to ^ an accumulation of the rich, powerful, and happy, must intrc^nce a
precions metals in those countries which do diversified indoetry ; and he recognized the
net prodaoe them ; and in 1816 Qian Bonato necessary means for bringing about its devel-
Tnrfaulo published in the same city a treatise opment. "Above all," says Patrick Edward
on the money of the country. Aboat this time Dove, who regards him as the founder of Eng-
treatises on commerce and the prohibitive ays- lish political economy, " we must note bis pro-
lem were published by Dnarte Gomez (Lisbon, speotive sagacity, for he points oat in det^
1932} and Juan de Gastafiares (1626). — The the very course that EngWd has panned, and
attention of the earliest English writers on po- the very elements that were to contribute to
litical economy was directed to foreign trade, her commercial snperiority," — A most impor-
They saw that it was desirable to have a me- tant era in the history of political economy, aa
tallic earrency suited to the wants of the bnsi- well as of industrial derelopment, was the
aess of their country, and while advocating year 1663, when Louis XIV. placed Oolbert
the eitensian of fbreign commerce, they re- In the podtion of comptroller-general of the
commended the adoption of saeh measures aa finances of France. Of him it has been re-
would eanse gold and silver to flow into the marked by a diatingoiahed French economist:
oonntry, and not out The policy advocated " He is the only giinister of state who boa oon-
bj this school is known to economists as the structed a system complete and connected is
mercantile system. It was supported among al! its porta, and to the immortal honor of his
others by Mjwleden (" Circle of Commerce," name be it said, he carried it out in despite of
1$^}, and by Mun (" England's Treasure by every obstacle which was thrown In his way."
Fornupi Trade, or the Balance of our For- He reduced the national finances to system and
nign Trade is the Rule of our Treasure"), order, and instituted a complete plan of checks
The last named treatise, though not pnbLisbea and balances ; reformed abuses m this deport-
nstil 1664, after the an^or's death, wosprob- ment, and punished those who bad been guilty
ibly written as early as 163C-'40. In 166B of them ; increased the revenues of the state,
ij^Kared the first edition of " A New Dis- while at the same time be decreased the bur-
courte of Trade," by Sir Josiah Child. Its dens of the people ; provided for economical
author is usually classed among the mercantile expenditures, and abolished many of the inter-
•chool, but he did not regard a direct exam- naltaxes; developedagricu1ture,mannfactures,
ination of the comparative amount of imports the arts, and the sciences ; improved roads and
and exports, or even the movements of the rivers, built canals, and by every means fos-
preciona metals, aa a proper tost of the od- tered and increased tile internal commerce of
vantages or disadvantages of a foreign trade; the country. By some writers the protective
bat be rather looked to its increase or decrease featuresof his tariff laws of 1664 and 1667 have
■s presenting the most tangible evidence. He been condemned ; but on the other hand wo
tdroeated r^noing the rate of interest from 6 are assured that for several years before his
to 4 per cent., believing it to be the unum administration "France swarmed with vaga-
(upium, as he expressed it, and that it would bonds and mendicants," and had reached " the
gnetly focilitate business. He recommended most profbund depth of oommeroial depres-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
44S FOUnOAL EOOHOKY
don," and ^ai under the lavs of wbioh he wu the landlord became one of the prodaetive
the author she rose to " a point of wealth and class. The;' maintained that the labor of mo-
IndaBtiy far be;rond any ehe had ever reached chanios, mumfactarere, and artiaans was un-
mnco the foundation of the monarchj;" and prodnotife, because it merelj replaced the stock
even H.. Say sajB : " It is not true that Oolbcrt which employed tbeio, together with tlie ordi-
mined France," but that, "on the contrary, nary profits of that atock ; and that mercantila
France under Colbert's odminiatration emerged stock waa unproductive becaoae it merely con-
from the distress in which two regeuoies and a tinned the existence of its own value. Thejr
weak reign had involved her." — The varions admitted tliat mechanics, manu&ctnrera, aod
restrictions upon trade, especially upon the merchants might augment the revenue and
importation of tDaunfactured goods, and the wealth of society, but tliat it conld only be ao-
export of the raw materials used in maun- comphshed by parumonj or privation. Tliej
iactures, at tbia time, and oven later, and cspe- believed that the most perfect freedom of tradft
cially in England, were of a very onerous char- with all nations was the great desideratum for
acter. The penalties for the infringement of agricnltnre. Dissenting entirely from the cea-
the laws were in many cases cruel and even tral idea of this school and ita logical dedoo-
barbarouB, This system, with the policy pur- tions, Adam Smith, however, iu ITTB, ezpreaaed
sued under it, was attacked by various writers, the opinion that " with all its imperfectiona it
Among the earliest and ablest of these may be is, perhqw, the nearest approximation to tho
mentioned Bir Dudley North, who pablishod tnith that has yet been published upon the anb-
"Discouraes on Trade" (4to., London, 1G91). ject of political economy." Among the most
Among the doctrines held by him as funda- eminent of thephysiocratists wasTDrgot,aJter-
mentu were: "That the whole world as to ward comptrollw-general of finances, who early
trade is but as one nation i that money is a embraced the views of Qnesnay, and in 1771
merchandise whereof there may be a glut as published SeJUxtotu mir la formation tl la du~
well as scarcity, and that even to an inconven- trUution det ri^heitei^ the ablest of the trea-
ience; thatapeopleoannotwantmoney toserve tises of this school, "In 17S4," saja Say,
the ordinary dealing, and more than enough " Genoveu commenced a public course of lec-
they will not have; and that money exported tnres on political economy from the chair found-
in trade is an inorease to tbe wealth of a na- ed by the caro of the highly esteemed and
tiorL" Sir William Petty, in " Quantulumcun- learned Intieri. In consequence of his example,
que, or a Tract concerning Uoney," had in other professorshipswereafterwsrd e&tablisiied
1082 attacked the theory of " the balance of at Milan, and more recently in moat of the uni-
trade;" and there were at a subsequent day versitiesin Germany and Ruasia."— Among tbe
many champions on both sides of this vexed contribntions to political economy up to the
question; among others Dr. Davenant (169G- end of the ISth century, none evince greater
1712), who espoused the so cslled mercantile reasoning power than the "Political Essays"
theory, and 6ir Matthew Decker (1743-'4) and of David Hume, which appeared in 17GS.
Joseph Harris (lT57-'8), who opposed it. In Among those essays which may be mentioned
1698 appeared in London "Historical and Po- as coming within the limit of political econo-
litical Essays, or Discourses on several 8ub- my, ore "Commerce," "Refinements in tbe
jectu," including money, government, Ac, by Arts," "Money," "Interest," "The Balance of
John Locke, in which he for the first time pro- Trade^" " The Jealousy of Trade," " Taxes,"
mulffated some of the favorite theories in re- and " Public Credit." According to these es-
gard to money now held by European econo- says, every thing in the world is purchased by
mists. — In 1768 Uiere appeared at YersaUles the labor, and our passions are the only canaea of
TabUati ieonomiqut, et maximet giniraUt da labor; when anation aboondsin manniactnres
^oucn-n«ni«nl^nonit$u«,b^FrancoiBQue8nay, and the mechanio arts, scientific agriculture
followed by Theorie de Vtrnpot, by the elder becomes posMblej and the cultivators of the
Mirabeau (1760), La phUo»ophi« rurole, also by soil redouble their industry and attention, the
Mirabeaa (1768), and various other works by surplus produce being readily exchanged for
Queenay and his disciples, expounding the the products of those manufactures and me-
physiocratiooragricalturol systemof economy, ohanio arts, and the land furnishes more than
The physiooratista held that the earth was the is needed for the support of those who cnlti-
sole prodncer of wealtli, and divided the in- vate it: while on the other hand, where this
dustrial members of society into 8 classes : 1, diversified industry does not flourish, there is
the proprietors of the land ; 3, the cultivators, no inducement for the ogriculturista to increase
consisting of farmers and agricultural laborers, their skill and iadustry because of the difficulty
whom they regarded as a productive class ; 8, of exchanging any surplus. Foreign trade bj
the mechanics, manufacturers, and merchants, its imports nirnishea raw materiala for new
whom the^ styled the unproductive class. That manufectures, and by its exports gives employ-
portion of his income which the landlord laid ment to labor, which in ue alieence of tlua
out in the improvement of his land they char- trade might be wasted. Neccedty is tbe great
actorized as productive expenses ; and in so fiir incentive to industry and invention — rather the
as the landlord by these expenditures aided the fears than the hopes, the aspirations, and tbe
&rmer in increasing the amount of his produce, ambition of mankind. Iflien iodustrf and thij
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POOnOAL EOONOKT
growth of oimataral ones. The same age which ofHome. Thiawas the largest and most elab-
prodocM great philoaophen and politiciana, oratobookonthesabjectwhichhadjetappear-
reaowned generals oud poets, nsnallf abotmds ed. The yariom eabjecta of which it treata in
in akillad weavers, ship oarpentera, and other detail are population, agrioQltnre, trade, induo-
operatiTOe and meohanicB ; and "thnsindnstry, try, money, coin, interest, dronlation, banks,
knowledge, and homanity are iioked together exchange, public credit, and tazes. Economr
by an indissolnble chain." Progress in the arts in general Bteoart defines aa the art of provid-
js faTOTftble to liberty, and has a natural ten- Ing for all the waata of a family with prudence
dency to preserre a fhie goTemment by its ef- and fmgality. Political economy he regarda
iacto apon the people. Money Enme conmders as an art, and also a science ; and among ita
not pr^erly one of the Hnbjecta of commerce, important objects are " to provide every Uiing
bot "oniythe instmment which men have necessary for supplying the wants of society,
agreed upon to facilitate the exchange of one and to employ the inhabitants in anch a man-
eonunodity for another." He holds to tbe idea ner as naturally to create reciprocal relations
that "an Increase in the amount of money in and dependencies, so as to make Qieir seTeral
a oonotry Is rather tDconTanient than advan- interests lead them to anpplr one another with
Ugeons, the influence which it eierts being to their reciprocal wanta." Population be con-
beighten the price of commodities, and oblige eiders limited by the amount of food produced,
ererj one'to pay a greater nnmber of these lit- and " that when too many of a soi^ety propa-
tJe jeHow or white pieces for every thing he gate a part must starve." He holds that if a
parctuooa." Thus did be reason in regard to nation would aim to be contiQaoasly great and
money, bnt he conld not fail to observe in ao- powerful by trade, she most first apply closely
tsal e]qierienoe an apparent departure from the to the manufaotormg of every natural prodnct
eonrse here laid down. He had been led to of the country ; and that when a people ^d the
flotioe that "in every kingdom into which balauceof trade to be against them, it ia to their
money begins to flow In greater abundance interest to take such measiires as will correct
Aan formerly, every thing takea a new face ; the evil. He attacks the theory of Locke and
bbor and industry gdn life ; the merchant be- Hume respecting the effect of an increased vol-
eomea more diligent and slolftit, and even the ume in the cironlating medium upon prices. Se
tumar follows his ploach with greater alacrity argues that, while the wealth of a country nn-
and attention." In order to eiplain away the doubtedly exerts an influence upon the prices
disersponeybetweenthese practicalresulte and of certain commodities, prices are really reg-
lus theory, he enters into a series of reason- nlated by " the oompllo^ed operation of de-
bgs to show that it is not inmiediately upon mond and competition :" and tnat when Hums
the reoeipt of this money into a country that says that " the price of every commodity is in
a rise in prices takes place, but that "some proportion to the sum of money circulating in
time is required before the money circulates themnrketforthatcommodity,"itreallymean8
through tbe whole state, and makes its effects that the money to be employed in the purchase
f«tt on an ranks of tbe people." The rate of it la a measure of the demand for it ; and it
of interest, he holds, " is not derived from the in no wise interferes with Bteuart's own propo-
^uantity of the precious metals," but " high in- sition respecting the operation of supply, whltjt
terestarisea from three circumstances: a great ia fiindamental.—Iu 1773 appeared in London
demand for borrowing, little riches to supply the first edition of the great work of Adam
that demand, and great profits arising from Bmith, destined to exert so decided an influence
commerce." "Ishoud assoondread," headds, on political economy and legislation: "Anlo-
" that all thfl springs and rivers should be es- qniry into the Nature and Oanses of the Wesltb
handed, aa that money should abandon a king- of Nations." This remarkable book treata
dom whore there are people and industry. Let " of the causes of improvement in the produo-
OB earefoUy preserve these latter advantages, tive powers of labor, and the order according
and we need never be apprehensive of losmg to which its produce is naturally distribnted
ihofbnneT." While deprecating aa unwise ana among the difierent ranks of the people ; of tlie
illiberal all "those numberless bars, obstruc- nature,accnmulation,andemploymentofstock;
tlona, ud imposts." which nations have Itud of Bvsteme of political economy; of the revenue
witii tbe ol^ect of retaitdng tbe precious met- of tiie sovereign or commonwealth." Possessed
■Is, be says that " all tazes npon foreign com- of singular and great merit, it is also dlstin-
modtties are not to be rwarded as prejudicial guished by the abaence of clear definitions of
wnseleM,bnttIiomonlywbloharefonndednpon terms; by a want of nnity, great oentralprin-
tha JealoosT" of the balanoeof trade. "A tax on tnplos being merely enunciated bnt not elabo-
Genoan finen anooaragea home mano&otares, rated, and their importance and their bearing
and tW«br mnlti^ea onr people and Industry, upon other portions of the science not being
A tax on brandy ineroaneo the sale ot nun and shown ; tbe illogical and ram[)ling manner In
wpporta OUT sonthem oolonies," — la 1767 there which different snbjects are treated; the gen-
qipeored tn London " An Inquiry into tha eral absence of rnetnod ; and the Inconaiat«noj
TOL. zm. — ^29
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
POLmOAL X»0NONT
, . „ .__ eereral parts, toncy of river ..
" It ia only," ae^ B^, " apromiscvou uaem- difficalli to eend t
and want of IifinnoiirBmoiigQieeeTeral parts, kncfof riTeriuiT)gatioB,itm^freqneiidTl>t
"' " " ' i--~— ii . i this gnrploa Bbroad." Wboi
Uage of the sonndeat prbusipleB ot poUtioal tben workmen engas^ in other pnnnita aet^
ecoiiom7,BnppoTtedbTtlie<deaTeBtiIliiBtrationB, in the neighborhood, "therwork npthe mi-
and ingenioDB statistical epecnlations, blended terials of mannfactnre which the land prodtices,
withiostruotiTereflectiona; it ia not a complete and exchange fiuiEhed work" " or the price of
treatise on either aoience, but anill-digeated mas« it for more materials and prorisiona." " Tbtj
ofenlightened views and accurate information." pre anewralae to the surplus part of the rode
Dr. Smith holds tiiat the annual labor of every produce, by saving the expense of carrying it
nation is the fond which originally anppliee it to tlie wat«r wde, or to some different msrlet;
wiUi what it annually cousumee, and that the and they fiinush the cnltivaton with acaDething
relative proportion which that produce bears in exchange for it that is tttbernsefid or agree-
to the consumers is the meaaore of their anpply able to them upon easier terma Uian they could
in thenecesaaries andconvenienceaof life; that have obtained it before. .... TheyiretboB
t^e greatest iinprorement in the productive both encouraged and enabled to Increaw thia
power, skill, and Judgment of labor baa ariaen suiplua produced by a flirther improvemect
from the diviaion of labor ; that the extent of and better cultivation of Hie land ; and as the
the division of labor is limited by the market fertility of the loud had ^ven birth to tha
for its products; and that labor is the only uni- manufkcture, ao the progresa of the mannitc-
veraal as welt as accurate measure of value, or tore reacts upon the luid, and increaGM tha
the only standard by which we can compare fertility." Aa the work improrea, noredistasi
tJie values of different commodities at all tunea markets are reached ; " for though neither the
and in all places. He says that the demand for rude produce, nor even the coaraenumafictiiTe,
labor can only increase in proportion to the could without the greatest diScu)^ anpport
increase oftbe"fliudB destined for the paymeut the expense of a considerable land carnage, the
of wages;" and yet^ while justly holding that refined and improved manufoctitre easly may.
It is labor which supplies a people vrith what In a small bulk it frequently contains the price
they consume, witii a most remarliable incon- of a great auantity of rude prodoce. A piece
dstency he aays that " the attention of govern- of fine dotn, for example, which weighs only
ment never was so unnecessarily employed as 80 pounds, contuna in it the price not only of
when directed to watch over the preeervajtion the 80 pounds weight of wool, but aometimea
or ioorease of the quantity of mouey in any of several thousand weight of corn, the mwn*
country." In his complicated and c6ntradiC' tenance of the different working people, and of
tory argnmenta respecting " stock" — which he their employers. The corn, which oomd with
says consists of two parts, that which the pos- difficulty be carried abroad in ita own ehwe,
sessor " expects is to afford him revenue," is in this manner virtually exported in that
which "is called his capital," and also that of the complete manufacture, and may eaalf
which supplies his" immediate consumptioa" — be sent to the remotest country (£ the world."
he involves himself in some of the most serious — In 1798 appeared anonymoosly the fint edi-
fallacies to be found in his book, the deductions tion of " An Essay on the Prin<Me of Fopn-
ftom which are fatal to much of his system, lation as it affects the Future Lnprovem«at
No portions of his book need to be read with of Society " the author of which waa lie Rev.
more care in order to escape error than thoae T. R. Ualthns. Kow reviaed and enlarf ed
which treat of stock, or int^ whicli his theory editions have since been published fitm time
of stock enters aa an element. Money he terms to time with the name of the author, the 6th
"the great wheel of circulation, the great in- and last in 1826. According to Ha preface
stmment of commerce," and adds, that it this publication " owes origin to a converBir
" makes a part and a very valuable part of the tion with a friend on the subject of 'WiOiun
capital " of a country or people, and that when Godwin's essay on avarice and proftiEson in
possessed of it we can readily obtain whatever his ' Inquirer.' " In addition to an eismina-
else we have occasion for. " The great affair tion of the principle of population, and as a
is to get money ; when that b obtained, there part of his sulyect, Ifalthua reviewa the doc-
18 no difficulty in making any other purchase." trines of Godwin as well as those of Ooodor-
Here, it will be observed, he recognizes the cet, both of whom held to the poemble prog-
important: foct that money possesses a quality ress of man toward future perfection, sad a
not to be found in any other oomroodity : its consequent reign of equality, pea^e, «id Jos-
universal acceptability among men, its power to tice. The doctrinea of Oodwm in the etstj
^purchase any thing which man desires to aeU. above referred to, and in bia " Inquiry c<^
In tracing the general progress of wealth, he oerning FoliticalJusttce" (1798), r^KctUig toe
illustrates the importance which the farmer uneqn^ distribution of the thingsofthisvoi^
"ling by the diverwfication of induatry as fol- among the people, were, in the words of a re*
^ws: "An inland country naturally fertile cent American writer, "among the iw^w
and easily cultivated prodnoea a great surplus and shorpeat protests against the deCBota sad
•ni
of provisions beyond' what is neoeasary' for failures of the existing social organizatioiit
mMntaining the cultivatora; and on account uttered with a calmness, sobriety, and f<^
of the expense of land caniage, and inoonven- of reasoning, that were not to be met hy ce-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POUnOAL ECONOMY 461
soODchi^ them aa AemocmGa and revolntion- MaltlinB, published a volinne " On FoUfical
irj, which Bnfficed for a reply to more intern- Economy m connection with the Horal Btato
feiti» writera," Impreased with the jostioe and Moral Prospects of Sodety" (Glasgow,
of Godwin's protest, as based upon then exist- 1882). Fearing " a aweeping, headlong aoar-
faig data, UaJthna aimed to OTertbrow it by ohy," he aimed to present the evidence of the
pteaentlng endence that the inequality among " ta'emendons evil " of over population, and at
mankind was dne to a natural law. Malthus's the aame time to appeal to bis conntrymea to
theory " remains to thia day," saya the Ameri- take Hteps to " avert it from their hordera."
can writer already quoted, " as the strongest In 1841 Thomas Doubledsy published in Lon-
apoli^ of which despotism is capable," Hia don "The true Law of Population shown t»
principle is tbat " population when uncheok- be connected with the Pood of the People,"
«d increases in a geometrical ratio, while In which he undertook to demonstrate that
snbristenca increases only in an arithmetical "whenever a species or genus is endangered,
ratio;" or, practically stated, that "in two a corresponding effort is invariably made by
centoriea the population would he to the nature lor its preservation and continaonc^
mesna of aubsistence as 3SS to 9, in three by an increase of fecundity or fertility; and
centories as 4,096 to 13, and in 3,000 years that thia especially takes place whenever such
the difference would be almost incalcnlable." danger arises from a diininution of proper
He does little more than state bis proposition, nonrishment," and that conseqnenQy "the
when, almost without presenting proof in re- deplethoric state is favorable to fertility, and
gard to the actual power of increase in man that on the other hand the plethoric state is
and food respectively, he proceeds to show unfavorable to fertility." Thus "there ia in
what have been the checks to increase of pop- all societies a constant increase going on
nlation throughout the various countries of amoiw that portion of it which is Uie worst
Qie world. Population, he holds, " is neces- sopphed with fbod ; In short, among the poor-
tarHy limited by the means of aubsistence," est." " The Westminster Review" for April,
and " invariably increases where those means 1852, contains "A New Theory of Popula-
increase, unless prevented by soma very now- tion," by Herbert Bpencer, dednced from the
erfdl and obvious check." These checks be general law of animal fertility. It argues that
diridea into the positive and the preventive, an antagonism exists between individnation
The former "include every cnuse^ whether and reproduction; that matter in its lower
arising from vice or misery, which in any de- forms, that of vegetables for inatance, pos-
^ree contributes to shorten the natural dura- seeses a stronger power of increase than in oD
lion of human life," among which may be higher forms; that the capacity of reproduo-
enomerated " unwholesome occupations, severe tion in animals is in an inverse ratio to their
labor, exposure to the seasons, extreme pov- individuation ; that the ability to maintun in-
erty, bad norang of children, great towns, ex- dividual life and that of multiplication vary
txsaes of all kinds, the whole train of common iu the aame manner also. He further demon-
diseases, and epidemics, wars, plagues, and atrates that " the ability to maintun life is in
famine." The preventive checks include ab- all cases measured by the development of the
Btinence from marriage and sexual intercourse nervous Bystem." A volume entitled " Popn-
&om considerations of prudence, and all vice lation and Oapital," consisting of lectures de-
and immorality tending to render women un- livered before the university of Oxford in
proliSc. Few books have formed the subject lS6S-'4, hy George K. Bickards (London,
of greater discussion and oontroversy than 1854), contends by carefbl induction trom
this; and it is difficult to aay whether those facts that the trutii is the very reverse of
who do or who do not now accept its doctrines Malthus's theory ; " that the productive power
form the larger number. One of the most de- of a commimity tends to Increase more rapidly
tailed examinations of this book which have than the number of its inhabitants." — -It u
been pnbliabed is " The Law of Population," probable that no work on political economy
by Michael Thomas Badler, M. P. (London, has been more extensively read or studied, or
1S30). In addition to an elaborate answer to has exerted a larger influence in the formation
Malthua'a theory, Mr. Sadler develops a doo- of opinions in the United States at least, than
trine of population. " The prolificness of hu- Jean Baptiste Say's "Treatise on Political
man beings," he says, " otnerwise similarly Economy, or the I^oduction, Distribution, and
circumstanced, varies inversely as their num- Consumption ofWealth" (Paris, 1803; 5th ed.,
hers;" and he presents a mass of evidence to 1823). This treatise is in form the most scien-
prove that nature has not "invested man with tific and methodical which had at the time of its
a fixed and unvarying measure of prolificness," publication appeared in any language. " I^'*
but that the Creator has " regnl^ed the pro- says Say, " wo take the pains to inquire what
lificness of his creatures in reference to the that is which mankind in a social state of
drcnmatancea in which his providence shall esisteace denominates wealth, we shall find
place them, instead of leaving that regulation tbe term employed to designate an indefinite
to Uie boay, aelfish, and ignorant interference quantity of objccta bearing inherent value, as
of niMi-" The Eev. Thomas Chalmers, D.D., ofland, of metal, of coin, of grain, of stuffs, of
who had thoron^dy Imbibed Ute doctrines of commodities of every description. When tiiey
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
458 POUnOAL EOONOUT
ftirther extend Ita signifioalioii to laDded Been- uurkefa abroad; that tbe mann&ctiires of tbe
riliee, bills, notes of Jband, and the like, it is conntij were ezceedinglj depressed; that tbe
evldentlj becaase they contain obligations to coin of fbe conntir wae rapidlj flowing ont to
deliver things possessed of inherent vaine. In distant nations; that the most solid mercanlile
point of fact, wealth can onlyexiBtwherethere establishments had become endangered; and
are things possessed of real and intrinsic ralne. thatagricultareendconunerceaswellasmann-
Wealth is proportionate to the quantum of that fectnring indnstrj^ were not odIj paralyced,
value ; great when the aggregate of component but had been brought to the brmk of ndn."
Talne is great, small when that aggregate is It was in 1824 that Rnsda agaia imposed
small. . . . The knowledge of tbe real nature be&yier duties in opposition to the theories of
of wealth, thus defined, of the difficulties that M.Storch. — " The FrindpleB of Political Eoon-
most be snrmounted in its attainment, of the omj and Taxation," bj Dayid Bicardo, wbidi
conise and order of its distiibntion among the speared in London in 1817, is held in high
members of society, of the nses to which it esteem among a large body of eeonomista at
may be applied, and ftirther, of the consequences the present day. The doctrines for which thia
resolting respectively fi'om these several cir- work is most noted are the theory of rent
ouustances, constitutes that branch of science and tlie consequent theory of valne, Tbe
now entitled political economy." Snhseqnent- first of these, with which the name of Mr.
I^ Say published bis lectures on the applica- Bicardo is now always associated, was an-
tion of the science, imder the title of Court nonnoed in 1777 by James Anderson, a Bcotch-
conmht ^ieonotnie politique pratique, laiti de man, in a tract entitled "An Inqniiy into the
milange* (Paris, 1826-'S). An eiaminatton of Katore of the Com Laws ;" and it aeema to
thia book will show that he had materially have been so completely overlooked and for-
altered his views in regard to the subject, and gotten, that "when in 1816," says an Endish
was now disposed to treat political economy economist, " Mr. Malthas and Sir Edward West
as something higher and better than a mere pnblished their tracts exhibiting the natnre and
science of wealth. "The object of political progress of rent, they were nniversally believ-
economy," he says in this later book, "seems ed to have for the first time discovered the
heretofore to have been restricted to the laws by which it is governed" llietheories
knowledge of the laws which govern the pro- of rent and valne, abridged fitnn Ur. Sicerdo'a
daction, distribntion, and consumi^tian of own statement, are as follows: On the first
riches. And it is so that I have conmdered It settling of a country in which there is an abim*
in my treatise upon political economy, publish- ^ee of rich and fertile land, there will be no
ed first in 1808; yet in that same work it can rent; for no one would pay for the nse of land
be seen that the science pertuns to every thing when there was an abundant quantity not yet
in Bociety." In the same year in whii^ Say'a appropriated. If all land had Uie same proper-
first treatise appeared, Sismondl published in ties, if it were boundioBs in quantity and oni-
Qeneva his TraiU de la richtut commereiale. form in quality, no chaise could be made for
At this time Sismondi was a decided follower its nse, nnlesa where it possessed peculiar ad-
of Adam Smith ; " hut," says a distinguished vantages of situation. It is only then because
writer, " being an ardent fnend of humanity, land is not unlimited in qnantity and uniform
s nnderwent a complete change in the in quality, and because in the progress of popu-
^ _ )f his investigations. Ko more pleas- lation land of an inferior quahty or less advan-
mg task could be offered us than turning tageously situated is called into cultivation,
progress of his i
through the voluminous works of Sismondi for that rent is ever paid for the nse of it. When
the evidences of his pure love of human we!- In the progress of society land of tbe second
fare, and his detestation of the science of degreeof fertility is taken into cultivation, rent
wealth apart from human well being."— At the immediately commences on that of the first
request of Alexander L of JSustda Qenil Storch quality ; and the amount of that rent will de-
prepared for publication his Court d'ieonomie pend on the difference in the quality of these
politique, ou eijiotitioJi det priruripe* qui Aeter- two portions of land. Whenluid of the third
winent la pro^iriti det nationi (St. Peters- Quality ia taken Into cultivation, rent immo-
bnrg, 161G). "The emperor Alexander, hav- diately commences on tbe second, and it is
ing taken his lessons in political economy from regulated as before by the difference in thdr
M. Storch," says a recent writer, " determined respective productive powers. At the Biane
to carry ont In tbe administration of the em- time the rent of the 6rBt quaUty will rise, for
Eire the lessons he had learned in the closet; that must always be above the rent ot the »ec-
nt the result proved moat disastrous, British ond, by the difference between the {irodDce
goods flowed in in a constant stream, and Bus- which they yield with a given c^iantitT of txf-
dan gold flowed out; and the goremment was italand labor. "The most fertile and &von-
paralyzed, while the mannfactorers were ru- bly dtuated land vrill be first cultivated, and
med. . . , Count Nesaelrode issued a circular the exchangeable value of its produce will be
preliminary to a change of system, in which it adinsted in the same manner as the exchange-
was declared that Buasia found herself forced able value of all other oommoditiea, by the
to resort to a system of independent commerce : total quantity of labor neoeesai? in varions
that the products of the empire no longer found forms, bom first to last, to prodnco U, uid
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POLtnOAL EOONOUT 468
bring it to loatket. "Whea land of an inferior and le^tim&te ones, and adds, tlut poUtioal
qpalitr is taken into coltivatioD, the exohaoge- eoooomj does not treat of "happiness, bnt
abb valae of raw produce viU rise, 1)«caaw wealth." He even declines to examine into
rooitt laboria required to prodace it." "This," the effects npon society of the possesgioa of
■ays ona of Mr. Eioardo'e followers, "is the wealth, what distribntion is most desrabie, or
fnndaniBiital theorem of the science of valne, what are the means bj which anj pectdiar
and Hi» cine which onrarels the laws that reg- distribution can be carried into effect bj legis-
nlate the distribution of wealth." Bj reason of lation. All of these qnestiona are "of great
theaetheorieaofrentandvalue.ifinaccordanco interest and difficdty, but no more form part
with the &cts, the landlord woaLd be enabled of the science of political economj', in the sense
to eonmund a steadily increasing rent as the in which we ose that term, than navigation
Tield per acre declined, nntil he absorbed the forms part of the science of astronomj."
entira product of the land; and food would aa The premises of the political economist he ra-
iteadUj increase in cost as population increased, gards as consisting "of a few general propcni-
StArradon and wretchedness conld not fail to tions, the resnlt of observation or consoioosness,
be the lot of the mass of mankind ander snch and scarcelj requiring proof or formal state-
a condition of things. These theories seemed ment, which almost every man, aa soon as he
to aid in accounting for the Ualthnman princi- hears them, admits as fpniillar to bis thong^ls,
pie of population, and they at once took their or at least aa included in hb previous knowl-
poaitions as lot^ooll j nnt^rior to that doctrine, edee ; and his inferences are nearly as general,
■nd became tiie foundation of the system now and, if he has reaaoned correctly, as certain as
known as Bicardo-Malthuaianism. — In 1831 his premises." The inndamental propomtions
James IGII published "Elements of Political in poUtioal economy Ur. Benior thus states: 1,
Economy," which is to some extent a state- every man denres to obtain additional wealth
ment and abstract elaboration of some of the with as little sacrifice as possible; S, the popn-
doctrines of Adam Smith and Bicardo in regard lation of the world, or in other words the nom-
to Modnotion and distribution, and those of ber of persons inhabiting it, is limited only by
UaUbna respecting popnlaUon. Ooh R. Tor- moral and physical evU, or by the fear of a
mis published in 1821 his " Essay on the Pro- deficiency of those articlee of wealth which the
dnetion of Wealth;" "long since," says Ool- habitsof the individoals of each class of its in-
well, " placed on the list of unsnccessfal efibrta habitants lead them to require ; 3, the powers
to settle this snbjecL" — One of the most wide- (Oflabor, and of the other instruments which
ly known writers on political economy and produce wealth, may be indeQnit«ly increased
statistics at the present time is J. B. McOnl- by using their products as the means of farther
loch, who prepared the uticle for the supple- production ; 4, agriooltaral skill remaining the
ment to the "EnoyclopndiaBritamiica," asep- same, additional labor employed on the land
acat* edition of which appeared in 1B25, and within a ^ven district produoas in general a
which has since passed to a 4th edition, under less proportionate return ; br in other words,
(he title of " The Principles of Potitica! Econ- though with every increase of the labor be-
omy, with some Inquiries respecting their Ap- stowed the aggregate return is increased, ^e
plication, and a Sketch of the Kise and Frog- increase of the return is not in proportion to
ress of the Science." "XcOnlloch," says Ool- the increase of labor. Ur. Senior belongs, as
well, " belongs neither to the school of Say, can be seen, to the school of Eicardo and Mol*
nor to the still more refined and strict school thus, and believes with them in the limited
of Tracy, Rosal ond Senior, He persists in powers of the earth. — The formation of the
eonndering all the topios of political economy German ZeUoeTein or castoms union, of entire
from a practical point of view. He speaks of free trade among the several states composing
a scieoM, it is true, but only in that popular the nnion, with such a policy as abonld protoot
sense in which men speak of the science of their domestic prodnotion from external dis-
politios, which is a very different sense from turbanoe, was dne to no man more than to
that in which it is employed by Bosm, Senior, Friedrich List, His " National System of Po-
and J.8. IQU." — In the " Knoyolop»dis Metro- litical Economy," first poblishedinStnttgartln
politana" in 183S, and subsequently in a sepa- 1841 [English by G. A. Hatile, Philadelphia,
rate form, appeared "Political Economy" by 18S6), is not bndtnpon hypotheses, bnt npon
Nasson W. Senior, professor In the university observation and history. " Natitrnf^ity," wj%
of Oxford; the sattiect being, by the plan of the English translator, " is the ruling idea of
the "Encfolopndia, classed aa among the pure the book; but with his rigorous mind and
adeooes. The author of this treatise however clear intelligenoe, he enUf^s it nntil it com-
Med to confine his inveat%ations striotly prebends every topic of human welfare." — One
within these boonds. " We prc^xMe in tiie fol- of the moat dlstingoished of the English po-
towing treatise," be says in opening, "to give litioal economists of the present day ia Jdm
an oi^line of the sideaoe whloh treats 6! the Stoart IfiS. He defines politioal economy to
nstare, the production, and the distribution of be " the sdenoe which treats of the produc^a
wealth. To that edenoe we give the name of anddistribntion of wealtli, so &rasth^ depend
n^itioal eoonomr." He Insists too on Umiting upon the laws of hnman natnre ; or the scienoe
aia taquiries to Uiese lutiJeots as the only true relating to the moral or psychological laws of tlw
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
4M FOIinOAI. EOOHOUT
piodaotioB ffld distfiteUon of w«BUh." Aeain of Looke^ Hume, aad Bmith in ngard to
oomtb: "FolitioalMOiURarinv be defined m moa^; in Uioae of IQoaido on rent, utdHal-
firflowa,mdth.ettefinttioainomntob«<ioiiq>leto; iima on population. Ba oanbats with mndi
XbeBdenoewhiohtrwwBttieUwBOf niolLof tLe enerf^ vbA be tenns proteotloniBm, bnt to-
phenomm* of sooiet; as ariie teem the com- knomedgea that there ia one, and onl; one
itioiu of monkiikl for the production case, "in vhich, on mere principles of pollti-
edoperatii
wealui, in
Uli, in BO far aa t2ioM phenomena are chI eoonomj-, protecting duties oan be defen-
not modified hy the poraoit m an7 other ob- aible;" that ia, " vhen they m^ impoeed t/aa-
jeot," Aooordingl;, political economy is " ea- porarilj (espeoiaUj is a joong &nd riang
eentiallj an abstract edenoe," and its method nation), in hopes of nstoraiizing a foreign in-
" is the a priorL" " It reasons," he oontends, doatrj, in itself perfectly snitaEle to tLe dr-
and "mo^ neoeesarily reason, from asanmp- onmatancesof the conntiy."— As earl7'a>176G,
tions, not &oni facta." " The o(Huilusions of it will be fonnd, some attention had been paid
piditical economy, oonsequentl;, like those of la the then British colonies of North America
geometrT, are only tme, aa the common phraae to economic stndies. ^ a " Letter from a
IS, in the ti»traot" "ThatwMch ia tme in Gwtleman in Philadelphia to his Friend in Lon-
the abstract iaalTajs true in the concrete with don," published in that ^ear, known to haTs
[ffoper kllowanceB." Not onl^ "the method a been written b^ John Diclonson, aftenratd
priori is the legitimate mode of phUosophioal president of Penns;lTania, and a member of
mrestigation In the moral sciences," bat " it ia congress during the war of the rerolntion, tha
the onl7 mode." The a pMteriori method, or carrent of trade with the mothw ooontry, the
ttiat of epeoifio experience, " is altogether in- extent to which that trade had ezhaosted the
efficaoioQB," althongh it maj be " oseAillf ap- colonies of coin, the importance of an emisiioQ
pliedin udof theajinm." Therefore, " once of paper moae^ properly seonred, the policj
it is vain to hope that tmth oan be arrived at, of promotiDg manufsctnres among themselTcI
dther in politi«l eoonomy or in any other de- and other qnestioDB of this character, are all
partmest of the social sdenoe, while we look ezamined. On the organization of the govem-
at the facts in the concrete, clothed in all the ment of the United States nnder the constitn-
oomplezity with which natere has snrronnded tion in 1789, Alexander Hamilton was called
them, and endesTor to elicit a g^ieral law bj' to the adminisif ation of the beasor; depart-
a process of indnction from a comparison of ment. He took his place in the cabinet, Sept.
details, there remaina no other method tban^ 11, 1T99 ; and on Jan. 14, 1790, he presented
the a priori one, or that of abstract speoula- to the honse of representatJvee a report (m
tion." "In all tlko intwooorse of man with finanoe, which was followed on AprU 23 b; one
nAtore," pfooeeds Mr. UIll, " whether we con- on duties on importe ; on Bee 14, on a nation-
eider lUm as soting npoQ it, or as receiving im- al bank ; and on Jan. 28, 1791, on the eetab-
preeaicHis from it, the effect or phenomenon lisbment of a miot. It would be diSoelt to
depends upon causes (^ .two fchids, the proper- find, among ell the state papers or treatieea
ties of the olfjeet acting and those of the object on politick economy wbidi appeared before
acted npon. Every thing which can poasib^ the close of the 18th centnrr, any prodnetiotu
happen, in which man and external thmgs are of this character enrpaasing these in a tJtoron^
joinUj ooncemed, reeolts from the joint oper- knowledge of the salfkcte, cleamcus and pre-
ation of the law or laws of matter, and the cision of statement, and logical exoctneea Tbe
law or laws of the hnmaa mind." " There are report of Alexander 3, Dallas, secretary of the
no phenomena," he continnes, " which depend treasury, to the house of representatives, Oct
ezdnslTely upon the laws of mind ; even the 17, 1814, on the national fiosuces, and that of
phenomena of the mind itself being partially Feb. 13, 1818, in regard to a general tariff of
dependent npon the physiolo^oal laws of the duties, ma; be mentioned as among the able
body." Ur. Hill acknowledges that "the laws economio state papers which have emanated
oi the prodaction of objects which constitute from this government. The " Addressee of
wealth ore the eubject matter both of political the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of
economy and of almost all thephysiosi solea- National Industry" (1819), aud "The New
oes;" bnt he conaidera that poHtical economy Olive Branch" (1820), subsequently with other
" presupposes all the phyncal sciences," and pliers collected and published nnder the title
adds, that "it takes for granted that the phyd- of "Egsays on Political Economy" {1823), by
col part of the process takes place som^ow." Uathew Carey, should here be meutiooed.
In other words, tt matters not to political ecou- Haviug no taste for speculation in any form,
omy why, how, or nndar what circumstances Ifr. Oarey dealt almost entirely in facts, figures,
tiiase laws of matter operate. l£r. Mill's de- and references to history ; and thus reached
sign in writing his "Principles of Political the conviction that " there is a complete iden-
Eoonomy" was to produce " a work similar in tity of interest between agricnlture, momzfac-
ita otyect and general oouceptioa to that of tures, and commerce." The first formal treatise
Adam Smith ; " to exhibit the eoonomical phe- on the eubject written in the United States ia
nomena of society in the relation in which Banid Raymond's "Thoughts on Political
e news deavors, and with some success, to escape from
FOUnOAL KOOKOUT 4»
tk» «omidieatloit0 «nd IiiMiudatoiuiM of ths th« ingker, drier, and poorer lands, pairfng
MMwmista. His eunUnation of Bome of the thenoe, tritn the growth of wealth and popa*
■TgimientB of Adjun Smith in regard to atook l«tioa, to the lower and richer 8oil», vith con*
are originfi], vigorooa, and ooacIiuiTe. Jidin atant increase in the return to labor. Here
Bae, a bicoteiuaaD, published in Boston in 18M vaa a complete rereraal of those Baanmptiona
A " Stfttament of some New Principles on the of UalUms upon Thioli be had baaed Us idea
■nbjed of Political Economy," which has bees of a growing difSonl^ of obttuning food, aa
qnotad and highly commended bj John Stuart well aa of thoae of Bioardo, which had eerred
1011 in his " ninoiplee of PoUHeal Eeonomy," as the foondation of bis celebrated and gener-
who aajm of it ; " In no otLer book known b> tUj admitted, thongh erroneoas theoiry of
me ifl ao mndh U^t thrown, boOi from prinot rent. Farther than thli, it fkimiahed detnrai-
jd«s ftDd historr, on the causes whiidt deters fixation of the aoonraoj of the theory of Talna
mina the aioonmnlation of oafiitaL" — In 18Sfi and of the law of dirtribntioa prerioDsly ai^
appeai«d in Philadelphia an " Easay on the nonneed by Iti, Garey and above refBrred to.
Bftteof Wages," the flrat of the worka of Henry Faariog over aeTeral intervening books, we
O. Oarey, who argaea, in opposition to Say, have to notice his last and most extensive one,
ICalihus, Bioardo, and ot^er economists, that " Principles of Social Science" (3 toIb. 8vo.,
" wfan* wages are hiaheat, there capital in- Philadelphia, 1868-'9). In this the distinction
creasea most rapidly," because in proeperons is most dearly drawn between the acienoe^
eonnbriea " there ia a tendency to the more which treats of the natnral laws gof^ming the
n^id inoTMee of capital than of population." anbject, and the art — political eoonomy— I7
He took gronnd against regardmg politioal means of whi<di the obstniotiona to the open-
emmotny as the eeienoe of wealth, and innsted tion of those laws mar be removed. Theeffect
mran ooDslderlng its " great objeot" and " its ia seen in the breaotb of his definittoi, as
tdiief daim to attention the promolitm tf the compared with that given by all oUier eocmo-
happineaa of nations." Thia waa followed by mists ; the latter limiting their adenoe to the
his " PrinoipIeB of Politioal Eoontony" (8 vols., ffisona^on of the prodnotion and distribution
lS3T-*40), in which he demonstrates that valne of mere material wealth, while the fonuer de-
is datamnned by the eoet <rf reprodnotion, and flnee hi* snl^eet aa bd^ " the adence of ti>e
tliat erery im|ffOvement in the mode of pro- laws which govern man la his efforta to eecnre
dnong any commodity toids to lessen the nine for himself the highest individnali^ and the
of commodities of the same description prevl- greatest power of association with hie fbUow
ensly existing. From tiiia it follows that in all man." Man, it is thus seen, is the snt(jeat of
advancing oonntries oconmidated capital has a social sdenoe, and he is distingolabed from tlte
ocastant tendency to &11 in value when com- lower animals by the fiust that assodalion to
pared with labor; that labor is therefore necessary to his existenoe; that each and every
ateaffily growing in its power to command member of the homan frmilv is posaeased ol a
cartel, and t eon<t«no the power of capital over distinct individoaUty; and hto development b^
labor as steadily diministdng ; that Labor and oomes more and oLore complete aa he la more
Mfntal in their omnbined action are oontinn- andmoreenaUedtooombineandassooiatevriQi
ally prodadng a larger return for the same his fellow men; that he is a responsible beings
outlay, of wludi larger retnm an increasing and oapaUe of progress. The more nnnmona
proportion goes to the laborer, while the share the differences in the demanda of society, the
of the capitalist diminishes in its proportion, more comjilete beoomes the development of the
trat inoreases in amoont, being taken from a indiridoalities of its members, the greater is the
jietd BO nmoh inoreaaed. " No tmth so luni- power of asaodaiion and combination, the more
nona," says a reeent writer, " aa that contained rapid the progress, and the more perfect the
in this grand lawofdistribntionhad ever lighted responriblUtyfor thepropernseof the faonlties
np the path of inqniry into social sdence. It whidi have been developed. Here, as every-
gave the clae by which history is made intelU- where, it Is shown that in variety there is
gible and oonristent, for it alone explains the nnity, and that the nation which wonld have
poasibiUty of that physieal, sodal, and politioal peace and harmony at home and abroad mnat
progress throogh which all daases advance in adoptapolicywhJchihall develop the inflwitely
tkeff dominion over the power and the etorea raiiona fbcnUiea of its pec^Ie— the plongh, tbe
of nalnre, with a constant approximation to- locon, and the anvil working twether, each tat
ward eqnaHty in their relations toward each tbe advantage of the others. The sodal laws
ether." In 1848 appeared Mr. Carey's work arethns^ acoordingtoMr.Oarey, identical with
entitled " The Past, the Preaent, and the Fn- those which govern matter in all its various
tnre." Its ottJeot was that of demonstrating forma ; difi^«noes everywhere exciting foroee,
tbe existwice of a ^mple and beantafiil law of forces exciting heat in matter and impnlse in
nstnre governing man in all his efforts for tlte mind, and be^ and impnlae re6x<dting motion,
maintenance and improvement of his condition, Nature's laws being thus nuiversal, the brandiea
vhicfa had thns &r wholly escaped observe- of science oonstitnte bat one great and harmo-
tiMi. That law waa the one in virtue of whitdi niow whole^ the aooial parts demanding the
tbe ■wtnk of oocnpation and cnltivation of the aune methods erf study and investigation. The
MTth bad alwigeof aeoeMJlyccwMnMiced npon methodioal stndy of nature does udctfneoe^
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
4U POLITIOAL BOOHTOHT
libf mast, take the plitoe of the metapby^ML ment, books, or com. Trade is the ptatanof
The third chapter of the book is devoted to aa anee of ezohangea for other persoiu, and is tiie
expoajtion of Uie great Mries of ohangea which instnmient used hj oommeroe, which oondste in
the earth mast imderKo in furnishing the reu- the exohanm of eerrioes, prodnot^ or ideaa by
denc« and support of Tegetoble, animal, end men with their fellow men. As men are m4»r«
human life in the order of their resMotiTa ap- and more enabled to aflsooiata tog^lier, oom-
pearanoeB npon it, the relatdon and dependence merce increases, bat the power of trade d»-
of their Tarioos eubsistence upon each other, eUnea ; the growth of the <me being here, «s in
and the t^nlalion of the common elements <a tlie case of ntili^ and valne, in the inverae ra-
their strnBtnre, beginoiog with tiie dinnte- tio of tlie other. HeverthdMS, all otfan econo-
gnted rock in its eimpleat fonna, and tkenoa mists vw these words aa being ^nonjiDoaBtlia
asoendiagthrooghTegetable and aidmal organ* one with the other. Ucnej is regaraed as the
isms to that of mas, in which their greatest great instrtiment of association, power growing
oomplezity and highest sphere are reached, and everjwhere with increase in the abit^ to
whence thej are again set free to pass thronsh oommand the servioea of the preoioos metale.
that never ending taronit which oonstitiites the Price ie the valne of a commodity as measared
entire organic and inorganic creation, one per- by those metals. Prices of land, labor, and all .
fectlj buanced system of nniversal exchange — raw materials tend to rise with every mcrease
an incessant flux of the forms of matter in in the power of assodation, that increase brine
their ascent tronx the simple to the most com- attended bj decline in the prices of flniabea
plez, adjusted preoiael; to the growing re- commodities. Thej tend therefore to ap-
aoirements of the snocessive orders of being in proxiniste, and it is in the closeness of th«t
he great scale of vitsl development. The in- approximation that Mr. Oarej finds the highest
wt earth with the air and water anppliee the evidenoe of advancing civilizBtion. The defi-
demands of vegetable growth, this in its tnm niUons here given differ widely from those
anppljing the snstenance of the animal world; found in the works of all other economists;
plants and animals ftamishing snstenance to but wide as is the difference, it ia not greater
man, and the higher forma of being never ont> than that exhibited in Mr. Carey's order of
growing or overtopping the lower from which development as compared with that moat in
uiey spring, and to which they must of neoea- Togne. According to the latter, sffrionltnre
ally retarn. Sooh are the reciprooitieB of mo- precedes mannfactnres, which are followed by
tion, force, and fhnetiDn, in which Mr. Oarey trade ; whereas Mr. Carey showa, in a series
finds an order and a system, which as he be- of chapters in which he examines the course
lievee put to flight the doctrine of disoords and of many of the most important commnoitles of
disproporidons annoonoed by Malthas, and since the world, that trade appears first, to be fol-
adopted by so large a proportion of the econo- lowed by mannftotnree, and that it is not nntil
mists of Europe. A chapter on the new doo- the latter have been developed and a maiiet ia
trine of the oocnpation of the earth, already thoa made in the neighborhood of the farm,
refbrred to, is followed by one devoted to an that any real agricniture makes its sppearanoe.
examination of the maoh discnaaed question of The more complete the agrionltnraJ develop-
valne ; and an illnstration of the breadUi of Mr, ment, the greater is the tendency toward a_
Carey's views may be given In bis defiuitious infiox of the prerions metals, wMi^ like other
of some of the most important terms in general raw materials tend always toward those places
use among teachers of social science. Utility st which finished commodities are cbewest;
is the measure of man's power over nature. leaving those at which ranploymenta are least
All the utilities deveiopea centre themselves diverged, to seek those at which asaodataon
in man, with constant mcrease of his power, and comljination have most existence. Giren-
and as constant decline of values, which are bnt lating notes diminish the value of the preriooa
Uie measure of nature's resistaDOe to the gratl- metals, bnt increase tbeai utility, with constant
Scadon of man's desires. Wealth consists in diminntion In the rate of interest, and equally
man's power to command the always gratuitous oonstsnt increase in the tendency toward
services of nature. ProdnctJon coOBists in di- equality among men, and strength in the com-
rooting the forces of nature to the serrioe of munities of which they are a part. The pow^
man, Every act of consumption is also an act of accumulation is in the direct ratio of Ute r«-
of production, water being consnmed in the pldity of the societary, movement, which ia-
production of air, air being oonaumed in the creases with every increase in the power to
production of water, both b^ng consumed in maintain that direct commerce which may be
the prodnotion of plants, which in their tnm carried on without the intervention of the
are consumed in the production of men and trader. Power grows with every increase ia
animals, all of which are finally resolved into the numbers that can obtain food from any
the elements of which they are composed, to given space ; and bare, pairing over many im-
go their round again in the reproduction of portent chapters, we reaoh the law of popnla-
go their round agam in the reproduction of }>ortant chapters, we reaoh the law ot popnia-
piants, animals, and men. CapitsJ is the inatru- tion propounded by Mr. Oarer, characterised
mettt by the aid of which the work is done, by great originaUty and rimpUcaty. Agriool-
_i _..■>. !_^__ !_ .!.. r — ..,._! ._3 iA_ . — __i.__i_.jjj seen, beoomee more im>' —
moreand more enabled to c
whether existing in the form of land and its tore, as has been seen, beoomee more ^odse
imivovements, ships, ploughs, mental develop- tive as men are moreand more enabled to com-
KILITIOAI EOOKOUT 4S7
Mae togeOier. ^e more ttiey osn combine, irreooncQably inooiudstent with the raal Iswsc^
thfllesB ia the waste of humut power in the natnre asseeain the occnpalionofthe earth, and
Ksreb for food, and the leas the mnBcalar effort the relative powers of increase in vegetable life
Teqnired for procnriog any given effect; the andinthelowerformsof animallifeandinman.
Jocomotive of cirillEed society doing the work The sphere of action of government in direot-
that in savage life is done by the shoolders of !ng the commerce of the state la strictly limited
the nuu), and the great Bt«am mill grinding the to the removal of the obstacles to perfect com*
grain that before had required tiie severast bination&ndassooiation. Real freedom of trade
labor. Vegetable food is gener^y enbstitated consists In the power to mmntein direot com-
for tatimal food ; the tendeno^ toward this inV merce wUh the outside world. To reach it there
■dtation being always greatest in thosa oom- must be a diversity of employments, enabling
mmdtiefl in which growW wealth most mani- the exporting constry to send Its commodities
featsitselfin the clearing, drunage, and cnlturs Kbroaah^a&dshed shape. Centralisation, meh
of those rich soils which, ac<^ordmg to Hr. Bi- as is established by the Britdsh system, is oppo»-
oardo, are cultivated when men are poor, weak, ed to this, and therefore it is Uiat that system
and scattered, bnt which, according to Ur, Oa- is resisted by all the advancing aommnnities of
rey, arelnst broashtDnder humanpower, their the world, they being enabled to advance in
very wealth forbiddding their oocnpalaon by the precise ratio with their power to resbt it.
the early ooltivator. Bunnltaneonsly with the Protection being the form Bssnmed by that
ohangee thus observed, we find the v^etable resistance. Eta object may be properly defined
taking the place of the animal world, and the M being that of establi^iing perfect freedom
inezhanstible mineral world taking the place of commerce among the nations of the world.
of both ; wool bein^ soperseded by cotton, flax Bocietary organization fomishes additional evl-
and cotton soperseding silk, gatta perchatakinK dence of the tmiversality of natare's laws, for
the place of leather, paper being snbstitated throughont her realms <^BBimilaHty of part*
for parchment, coal eipelling wood in its use famishes oonclnsive evidence of the perfection
asfael, the steel pen being nsed instead of the of the whole — the highest organization pre-
animal one, the iron horse taking the place of senting the most nnmeroas differences. Tb«
the one of flesh and blood. As individnality hisher the organizalJon the more coniplete the
becomes developed in man, he obtains fh)m snbordinatioaofpBrte,andthemoreharmonions
day to day increased power to command the and beantlM their interdependence ; and the
servioes of natore, ana is enabled to feed and more complete that interdependence the great-
clothe himaelf better ; the treasury of nature er the individuality of the whole, and the more
being tmlimited in extent, the supply fhmished perfect the power of self-direction. 6nch are
being in the direct ratio to hb power to make the doctrines advocated by Hr. Oarey ; w6
daiiiaiid,andthat demand increasingwith every devote a comparaldvely large n>Bce to them on
step in the growth of the power of association, aooonnt of their originality and present promi-
The mote perfect the develtrament of the la- nence. — The names and doctrines of most of
tent powers of the earth, ana the greater the the leading economists of Gtreat Britain 1i«t«
development of mans' peculiar faculties, the been mentioned in the preceding pages. In
rresier is the oompetitjon for the purchase of France, among the more distinpuished recent
]«l>or, the greater is the freedom of man, the writers may be named Blanqni, Tracy, Louis
more eqnitable is the distribution of the prod- Say, Droz, Eosd, Chevalier, Dnnoyer, Gamier,
aotB of labor, the greater is man's feeling of Bandrillart, Baatiat, Foutenay, OoqueUn, Fog-
lenponaibility for his action in the present and cher,Reybaud,'WolowBki, with a host of others.
of hope in the future. The higher that feeling, Germany, although not so prolific in works of
tbe greater is the tendency toward matrimony this character, has produced many. " The Oer-
aa ^<Hding the means of indatging affection man eclectic works." says Oolwell, "furnish a
for wife and children, and the love of home, vast amount of well arranged information, and
Vital laws cooperating with the moral, the ra^ they may (dways be consulted with advantage,
tioual fccaltiea ere developed, and the propen- We would refer," he adds, " especially to the
Bities abated and overcome ; thus placing man works of Bchmalx, Jakob Yollgr^ Erause, K.
himself under the great and well estauished H. Ran, Lotz, Hermann, and Sohfin ; but there
law in virtue of which the tendency to repro- are others of equal merit." In Italy much at-
dnction is always in the inverse ratio of de- tention has been given to political economy
velopment. "Such," says Mr. Oarey, "are the from an early period, and a collection of Italian
Txrious forces to whose combined operation we economists in SO vols. 8vo. was oommenoed at
look for the proper snpply of food and raw ma- Milan in 1808, and completed in 1616. The
teriale to the demand for them ; those forces Siblioteea degP eeonomiile, another collection
operatlog wiOiln and without the human ^ys- of Italian and foreign writers, edited by Fran-
tem, and tending always to establish among its cesco Ferrara, professor of political economy
fimctioas an orderly balance, while displaying in the nnirersity of Turin, is now in conrse rf
their power in brii^ing up subsistence to the publication. A Spanish treatise well worthy
level with a demand that is Itself oonstantiy di- of attention is " The Theory and Practice of
miniahingin its ratio to the numbers to be sap- Gonuneroe and Maritime Affiire," by Gerony-
plied." TThe Ualthnalan theory he holds to be mo de Uztaria (Madrid, 17S4; i^llsb, S Tok
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
4M POUZEAKO POLE
Sto., London, 17B1). la Hie variou tuuTer' 4SM6 bnaheli of lodiaa ewn, 1,893 of vltea^
■iti«B and ooIlegM of Uie leading countries i,68i of oata, 6,888 cf sweet potatoes ^^^'^
of Europe tUa subject ooonpies an impor- lbs. of tobaooo, aud S3 bales of oottoD. Tbere
tant poeioon in the course of studies. In the were 89 popila attei^iiw pablio Bchoola. Oi^i-
TTnited States treatises on political economy or tal, Dallas. 17. A B. Ei co. of Tram., bordered
bronohesof the HQ^ect have been published by £. bj S. 0. andB. bv Ga., and drained bj- the
Stephen Oolwell, Pro£ Tucker, Prof. liebor, Biawassee river and one of Jts brandies, the
PnitVethake, Prof. Bowen, Premdent Waj- TocoaorOcooe; area,abont SOOsq.tD.; pop. in
land, Oalvin Ooltou, E. 0. Seaman, George C^ I860, 8,726, of whom 484 were skves. It has
d7ke, Oondr Baguet, Peahine Qmtb, and mauj a moQnttunoas sur&ce and a moderately fertile
others; and some attention has been ^en to soiL The prodaotdons in 1860 were 299,917
it asabranoh of study in ooIIegeB.—AnMMig the buahels of Indian corn, 51,672 of oats, 14,727
beet books of reference on this snlfjeot mftf be of wheat, 21,285 of sweet potatoes, 29,286 lbs.
mentioned " The literntore of Folilical Eoono- of tobacco, and 46,928 of butter. There wen
m^," ij J. R. UoOullooh (London, 1845), and 5 grist mills, a saw mill, a tannery, 19 churches^
Dietioimaire de ViMnamitpoUtiqw (2 vols. 8vo., and 700 pupils attendinKpublio schools. C&pi-
Paris, 186a-'8), a most complete, tnwtworthy. tal, Benton. T- A a W! co. of Mo., watered
and Taloable work. "ADictitnuyof Polilioal bj the Pomme deTerre river, and branches of
Eoonom;, Biograpbioal, BibliognpMoal, ^a- Sao river, beside several Binall streams ; area,
torical, and Praoticol," by Heni7 Dunning Mao- 760 sq. m.; fc/a. in 1860, 9,996, of whom 613
leod, is now (18S1) in course of publication in were slaves. The snr&ce is undulating or level,
London, and will when ocan[detea probably ez- and the soil fertile. The productions in 1860
tend to 1,500 pages large Svo. Mr. Stephen were 808,000 bushels of Indian com, 14,360 of
Oolwell's introductory essay to the American wheat, 104,926 of oats, 17,173 lbs. of wool, and
edition, of List's " Political Economy" (6to., 60,212 of hotter. There were 11 churches, and
Philadelphia, 18S6) furnishes a view of what 861 pupils attending public schools. Capital,
has been accomplished by its teachers, espe- Bolivar. YL Acen^ co. of Iowa, iotersected
<»ally within the last 40 years. from N. W. to B. £. by the Des Moines river,
POLIZIANO, Angelo, an Italian scholar and and across the N. E. by the Skunk river, and
antiior, bom at Monte Pnloiano in the Floren- watered idsobytheBaccoon and other branches
tine territory in 1464, died in 1494. Through of the Des Moines ; area. 720 sq. m. ; pop. in
the influence of Lorenso de' Medici, under 1860,11,625. It has a rolling surface and fer-
whose care he was educated, he became canon tile soil. The productions in 1869 were 446,707
of St. Paul's cathedral, and at the age of 29 bushelaofIndiancorn,18,129ofwbeflt, 7,648 of
professor of the Latin and Greek languages oats, 10,448 lbs. of wool, 167,896 of butter, and
at Florence, and also the teacher of ILorenzo's 7,643 galls, of sorghum molasses. Coital, Des
ohildren. He stands at the head of the clasd- Moines. YIL A N. W. co. of Wis., separated
oal scholars who contributed to the revival of from Minn, on the W. by the St. Groiz river,
learning, and was eqnally distinguished for his and drained by the Shel^ Yermiliou, Hay, and
Kalian poetry. He made a Li^ translation other rivers ; area, 2,304 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860^
of the history of Herodion and other Greek 1,400. It was formed in 1853. C^itaL St.
works, and wrote Orfec, the earliest represent- Oroix Falls. Till, A W. co. of Ore^n, bor-
ed secular drama in a modem language. His dering on the Pacific ocean, bounded £. b; the
I«tin works, slong with 12 books of letter^ Willsmett«, and watered by the Noka^ Alseya,
were published in Paris (fol., 1512). and La Creole rivers ; area, about 1,000 sq,
POLK, the name of counties in 8 of the m. ; pop. in 18S0, 8,626. The soil is generslly
United States. L AN. W. co. of Oo., border- fertUe. The productions in 1860 were 16,873
Son Ala., and drained by the Tallapoosa ^id bosheb of Indian com, 1,605 of oats, 1,218 lbs.
er streams; area, abont 500 sq. m. ; pop. of wool, and 86,090 of butter. There were 134
in 1880, 6,395, of whom 2,440 werftdaves. It pupils attending school. Capital, CinunnatL
has on undulating surface and a light, sandy FOLK, Juus EJiox, an American states-
smL Capital, Cedartown. II. A S. £. co. of man, and the 11th president of the ITnited
Texas, intersected by Trinity river ; area, about States, bom in Mecklenburg co., H. O., Kov,
1,200 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 8,298, of whom 2, 17B6, died in NaabvUle, Tenn., June 16,
4,199 were slaves. Its anrfjaoe is nearly level, 1849. His ancestors, whose name was ori^-
and the soil along the Trinity very fertile. The nally PoHook, enugr^«d from Ireland early in
Mvduodons in 1860 were 60,066 bnshels of In- the 18th century, and settled on the eastern
dian com, 18,881 of sweet potatoes, and 683 shore of Maryland, whence some of them re-
balcs of cottwi. There were 60 ;fupils attend- moved to the western frontier of North Caro-
ing public schools. Capital, Livmgston. IIL Una shortiy before the revolutionary war. The
A W. CO. of Ark., bordering on the Indian father of James K. Polk was a farmer In mod*
territory, watered by the Wadiita and several erate oircnmstanoea, who in 1806 removed to
brsoobeB of Red river ; area, about 1,000 sq. Tennessee, and was one of the earliest settlers
m.; pop. in 1860, 4,282, of whom 172 were of the valley of Dock river, a branch of the
slaves. It has a hilly snrfiwe and generally Cumberland. The son received at first a scanty
ftrtile w^ The prodnctioDB in 1850 were education, and was fbr s while a clerk in a
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POLE 4N
slor«; batfliullj', UsM3)«rooiiaentii>g>togiT« Uni for eonnltafion, snd on th^ rotam it
him a olawiiioal edscadon, he entered die oni- wu annoDnoed that tbe Virginia delegation
versity of Nortli Carolina, wbere he vae grad- woold give their eotirs vote for Polk, and that
nated in 1818 witli the diilindion of beiw the Sew York woold withdraw the name of Van
first Boholar of hi* dasa. On retamioK Eome Boren and oast 8S votea for Folk. On the
he atoned Uir in the office of Peliz Gmndr, next ballot Ur. Polk received the unaaimons
>nd wafl admitted to the bar in 1830. He be- vote of the conrention for presdent, Greorge
gan practioe in Uanir co., and at the end of a IL Dallas of Pennsjivania being on the next
jear was already noted as an advocate. In dajnoDuaatedforviae-jpresident These aom~
1823 he was chosen to the state legislature, inationa had the effect of DOiting the demooratio
and for two aacoeesive jeora was a leading partjiwluch had been diatnrbed bjdissensiona
member of that body. In 1825 he was elected between the friends and opponents of Muiin
a repraeentatiTe in oongress hj the demooratio Van Boren ; and, on the baas of the annexo-
part;, whose principles he alw^s steadilf tion of Texas and the munteoanoe of the claim
Htuntwned. He opposed federal appropriations of the United States to Ore^n, alter a most
for internal improvements, a proteotive tarifl^ animated canTass, in which Henxr Ola^ and
andaiiatioaa1baok,aadBOonbecameoneof the Theodore £>elinghnvaen were the oaa£dat«B
most con^ionooa advenarieB of the admioia- of the whig put^, Mr. Polk was elected la
tratloD of President John Qnincj Adams, while Nov. 1S14, of a popolar vote of l,85G,68i to
that of President Jackson received through its l,SB7,OS8 for 01^ and 64,658 for James Q.
whole oooTM his warmest support. On several Bimer, the anti-alarery candidate. The votea
qneations of In^iort&noe he was its most effi' of the eleotoral oolleges were : for Polk and
dent advocate in the house of re^reaentatiTee. Dallas, 170 ; for (^j and Frdin^UTsen, IOC.
In the ■essioD of 1888-'4, as ohanrnan of the Ur. Pcdk was inangnrated Uuroh 4, 1846, and
oomnuttee on waya and means, he vindicated appointed as his cabinet James Bnohanao,
with mncb force the condnot of the prendeut seoretarj of state ; Bobert J. Walker, seore-
in ordering the removal of the public deposits tary of ih« treasury ; William L, Haroy, aeore-
from the bank of the United States. <Ai the tary of war ; Qeorge Bancroft, secretary of
resignation of Ur. Stevenson as speaker to- the navy ; Gave Jolmson, poatmaeter-general ;
ward tlte close of that session, Ur. Polk was Jcdin ¥. Mason, attorney-general. At the b»-
nominated for the vacant ohair by the demo- ginning of his administration the prendent
cratic party, bat was defeated by a coalition found the country involved in diapntaa with
between the whigs and a portion of the demo- Uezioo, growing out of the reoent annezatioa
crats in &vor of John Bell. At the beginnins of Xeisa to the United States. He sent Gen.
of the following eeesiou Ur. Polk was elected Taylor with a small force to occupy the conn*
speaker, and was reelected in 1887 at the be- try between the Nueces and the lUo Grande,
ginning of the extra session. For 5 sessions he the United States claiming the latter river as
presided aa speaker; and at length in 1889, their boundary, while the Mexicans maintained
ifier having served for 14 years in congress, he that Tezaa had never extended beyond the
declined a reelection, and wasohosen governor Nueces. Oen. Taylor waa instructed to ccon-
nt Tenneasee by a large majority over Qovern- mit no oot of hostility ag^nst Mexico unless
or Oannon. In the following year he received she declared war or became the i^greesor.
the nomination of the legislaitire of Tennessee Meantime the question of the bonndory of
nd several other states as a candidate for Oregon engaged the attention of the president
riee-president with Mr. Van Bnrcn, but at the and the people. " The whole cf Oregon op
election received only one electoral vote, Rich- to 64° 40 " had been one of the watohworda
ard M. Johnson of Eentuoky being in that con- of the democratic party dnring the reoent can-
test the regnlar demooratio candidate. In vass; and Mr. Polk in iiis inangnral address
1841, his term of two years as governor having had declared that " our title to the oountry
expired, he was a candidate for rejection under of the Oregon was dear and unquestionable,
■irfavorable cironnutoaoes, the state having After negotiation, however, the president di-
given a wlug msjority of 13,000 at the pretd- reeted the secretary of state to offer as the
daittal election of the previous year, and he boundary the parallel of 49°, which after some
was defeated by a majority against bim of demur was accepted by Great Britain, the
8,224 votes. Two years later he was again a proposition beiog so &r modified as to ^ve to
oandidate, and was defeated by a similar vote, that power the whole of Vancouver island.
The demooratio national convention for the In April, 1S46, hostilities broke ont on the lUo
nominatioD of candidates for preeident and Grande between Qen. Taylor's army and Uiat
vice-presidentL which met at Baltimore May oftheMeiioancommaader, Gen. Arista. When
ST, 1S44, on the first ballot for preadent gave the news reached Washington, the president
Martin Van Boren 143, Lewis Cass 83, B. M. eent a special message to congress declaring
a 84^ J. 0. Oalhpnn 6, and 7 votes for that " war existed by the act of Mexico,"
Johnson 24^ J. 0. Oalhpnn S, and 7 votes for that " war existed by the act of Mexico," and
other persons. Seven ballots followed, on the asking for men and money to carry it on.
last of whioh Mr. Van Boren received 104 Oongress respooded, May 11, by an anproprla-
ir *-,_._ 11. ._j tr- n_.i_ .. nil- ..__ _» A,n.,«n«nn ._i pving OTthority to
. Under the direction
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
votca, Mr. Oass 11^ and Mr. Polk 44. The tion of $10,000,000 and ^ving authority to
Ti^inia and New York delegations then r»- call ont 60,000 volnnteera. Under the direction
«M H>LE POLUU
of Ifijor-GAn. Soott tlia war wu proflMoted gniahed lui adailniBtrBtioii vere tlM eatabUth-
irith energy and racoesB, and resulted in the ment of the independent treasnry ajttaa, by
entire conquest of Heiico, Banta Adbo, the which the revennes of the goTemment are cot-
president and most distingnished general of lected in specie trithont the aid of hanks; the
that oonntrj, being defeated in several battles, creation of the department of tlie interior ; and
and the city of Mexico itself occupied by t^e the admission of Wisconsin aa a stat« of the
American forces on Sept 14, 1847'. Bj a Union. Thr«e inontha after his retirement
treat)r ooncinded in the following FebrQarf, from ofBce Ur. Polk was seized with illness,
Mexico ceded to the United States New Uexioo and in a few days died. In person he was of
and Upper California, and accepted the Rio middle stature, witli a fnlL aogalar brow, and
Qrande from its month to El Paso as the S. qtd<^ penetratjng ejee. He was grave bnt nn-
botindarj of Texas, thns adding in all about oetentationB in manner and amiable in dispora-
800,000 square miles to the area of the repnb- tion, and his private charactw was nngnlarly
lio. Soonaftertheterminationof the war gold free from st^n or snapicion.
was discovered in California, an immense emi- POLKA (Pol. Polio, a Polish woman, or
gratJon thither took place, and the territory Bohem. putts, half), a dance 6r8t known at
was consequently soon sufficiently peopled to Oitsehin, Bohemia, introduced in 18&6 at
claim admission as a state. Notwithstanding Prague, and performed by Baab, a Bohemian
the brilliant success of the war, the elections dancing master, at the Odetm theatre in Paris in
for members of congress in 1848 and 1847 1840. It is danced by two persona, advandng
showed that the president bad not maintained together, or whirling as in llie waltz. The
the popolority which he had enjoyed at the measure is in { time, and the step is eleTsted,
time of his election. In several of the states the ibot bei^ set down suddenly and almott
the war with Slezioo was unpopular, being re- stamping. Tarions modifications of this danoe
gardod OS waged for the ext«ninon of slavery have been invented by Parisian dandne master*,
and without jnst cause. The passage in 1846 POLLEK, an organized sobstanoe fiUing the
of a tariff act by congress, basod on a revenue interior of the an&er of a plant, and eflective
principle instead of a protective one like that in developing the embryo so that it may be-
of 1842, alienated large numbers in other states, come a perfect seed. The moA common fotm
Seoially in New York and Pennsylvania, and of the pollen grain is spheroidal or trian^-
to the gun by the whig party of several lar ; in the umbelliferous plant it is oval ; and
representatives from those states. On the or- in some compound flowers it is polyhedral.
(fBnization of the territories acquired from Mei- Stmcturally Ui6 pollen grain haa been ascer-
ico a new disturbing element of the gravest tained to consist of 2 or S layers, the outer-
character was introduced into congress by the most being thick, fleshy, and varioualy mark-
question of the prohibition of slavery, the whig ed by ridgea, tubercles, points, spines, bristles,
m^ority of the house of representatives being or hsirs symmetrically arranged, that of the
in favor of the "Wilmot proviso," by which passioa flower having chinks ; ordinarily, how-
slavery would be prohibited, while the demo- ever, the surfkce is smooth and onifonn. The
cratic minority of the senate was opposed to internal layer is thin, mNobranooa, and ezten-
any such restriotion. The influence of this sible. Within these layers is a cavity filled
element was strongly manifested in the na- with a viscid flnid, sometimes tranqurent,
tionaloonTention8oflft48. Ur. Folk, in accept- sometimes rendered opaque by the minute
log the nomination of 1844, had uneqnivooally granules (JbviUa) which float in it When the
pledged himself not to be a candidate for re- pollen grain, conveyed by the wind, by insects,
nomination. He kept to his word, and in the or by other agencies, is lodged upon the Btig*
democratic convention which met at Baltimore ma, ita internal layer is protruded throogn
in May, Lewb Oass and William O. Butler the outer one in the form of tubes which elon-
were nominated respectively for preflideut gate themselTes rapidly and carry the fovilla
and vice-president. By the whig convention, downward until it reaches the ovule. Tiaa
which met at Philadelphia on June 1, Zoohary being effected, a change takes place in it by
Taylor and Millard Fillmore were nomin^ed whidi the embryo is originated. The proceea
fbr the same offices. The whigs and demo- is called impregnation, and withont it no gen-
crats opposed to the extension of slavery com- nine seed can be produced. The ovale and
bined in forming the free soil party in a nation- ovary sometimes continue to grow and ripen
al convention held at Buffalo, Aug. 8, 1848, at into fniit without impregnation ; but the seeds
which Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis destitute of the embryo reAise to germinate and
Adams were nominated for president and vice- prove abortive.
Siresident The presidential election in the POLLIO, Oattts AsranrB, a P.oman general,
ollowine November reeulted in the triumph orator, and poet, bom in 70 B. C-., died A. D. 4.
of the whig candidates, and the administration He was descended from an ob^icure family of
of Mr. Folk terminated March 4, 1849. Beside the Marrucini, and is first spoken of as having
ihe Mexican war, the settlement of the Oregon come forward at the age of S2 as the accuser
boundary question, the aoquiritiou and coloni- of 0. Oato, who was acquitted throngh the in-
aation of Oalifomia, and the enactment of the fluence of Fompey. When the civil war broke
tariff of 1846, the chief measoree wJuchdistin- ont he Joined the party of Cmaar, andwsawitk
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
POLUO FOLLOOE 401
fhftt ecmnnaDdeT &t the panage of the Rahioon trsctire qnalitieB earned hhn to be well re-
and his aabBequaDt mftfui throngh Italj. After- oeived, and he entered BticoeseiTel; the militair
ward he was sent to SioUj and Africa under Berrioe of Anstria, of the Papal States, and at
Corio, who oomnisnded the forces which drove Spun. He retmed no place long until Frederic
Cato ont of the former ooontry ; and when the Great chose him for his reader. In this
Curio was defeated and slain \>j Jnha, Pollio titnation, conatonttj exposed to the ill horaor
collected the scattered troops and joined Cnsar. of the king, he was pei^tnallj falling into dis-
He was present at the battle of PhBrB^iain48, grace, hnt succeeded m restoring himself to
and probablT- the following year, on his retnm &vor, and at last ohtuned the position of di-
to ftome, was elected tribnne of the people, rector of the theatre. He was three tinies con-
In 48 and 4fi he accompanied Ciesar in hia verted to the Boman Oatbolio church, and
African and Spanifih campugns, and suhse- finally died in thatcoromonion. His "Uemoirs
qnenti; was sent into Furtaer Spain to carrr and Observations on his Travels through Eu-
on the war against Sextns Pompe; . While he rope" (translated from the French, 4 vols., Lon-
was there Cnsar waa aasassinated, and a peace don, 1737) has passed throngh several editions,
was soon conoladed between Yoarpvj and the and contains some of the best pictures of conrt
Botaans. After Ootavius hsd nnited with life and intrigue in the 16th oentnr;. He wrote
Lepidns and Antonj in forming the first tri- exclosivel; in French.
nmvirate, Pollio joined their party, and was POLLOCK,anorthemflshof the ood&mily,
nominated by them for consul in 40. When and genns merlangut (Cnv,). As in the cod,
the division of the provinces was made, Antony there are 8 dorsals and 2 anals, but these are
assigned to him the charge of Trauspadane triangular; there is no barbel nnder the chin;
Gaid witb the duty of settling the lands among the head is more pointed, and the body mora
the veterans; and while engaged in this work compressed and deeper; the gape large; the
be WBB enabled to save the property of Virgil, tongue fleshy and dark-oolored, and the lower
When Pollio became consul, the poet addre^fed jaw the longer ; minute teeth iQ bothjaws, but
to^him his 4th edogne. In 89 he waa sent only one row in the lower. The oomm<H> pollock
by Antony against the Parthini, an Ulyrian (if.putpurvi/*, 8torer)is from 1 to 8 feetlong;
ale, and, being Buooeesfol in the oampugn, the bead and body above are greenish brown,
the honor of a triumph. With this be the ^des lighter, and the abdomen white ; some
doeed bis military hfe, devoting himself there- smaller specimens are darker above, and red-
^ter to literature, and occasionally delivering dish below ; the ventrals whtt«, anals marked
speeches in the senate and the courts of justice, with the same, and the other fins like the back.
When the war broke out between Augustus It is caught abmidantly <m the New England
and Antony, PoOio declined the invitation of coast in spring and autumn; its fiesh is rather
the former to accompany him in his campaign aoft, though delicate and nutritious, and from
aninst his old commander, on the ground of an unfounded pr^udice among fishermen it is
hn early friendship ; uid the validity of the generally thrown away ; when prepared in the
eicose waa admitted. Pollio occupied a high manner of dun fish, with proper care and with
position in Boman literature as a historian (ud good salt, it is an excellent fish, worth from $8
poet, although bot few fragments of his writ- to $4 a quintal. The pollock of Europe {M.
ings have bMn preswved, including 6 letters to poUaehvtt, Ouv.) is olive brown above tJie lat-
Cioero. He wrote a history of the civil war in eral line, on the sides dull silvery white mottled
IT books, banning with the year 60 B. 0., with yellow, and whitish below ; dorsals and
nd ^iparently ezten^ug down to the battle tul brown, the other fins edged with rediUah
ofAotinm. He also wrote tragedies, commend- orange. It abounds in the northern seas, es-
•d by Virgfl sod Horace. As an orator, bow- peciidly on rocky coasts, and is est«emed as
ever, he was especially dietiugniBhed. He was food; tt is voracions like the rest of the family,
a patron of many poets and writers, among ealing the fry of other fish, mollusks, crusta-
whom we Virgil and Horace, and established ceans, and radiates ; it is gngarione when in
spablio UtHTary ta Borne, in the airiitm libertor nursnit of food. The black pollock {M. ear-
tit on Mt. Aventine^ from the money procured eonorttu, Linn,), or the coal fish, is from 1 to S
b bis Ulyrian eampaigD. feet long, black above, binish white below the
POLLIO, TxKBBLuns, one of the six writers lateral Ime, and lighter on the abdomen ; the
of the Biitwia Augvtta, flourished during the lateral line ailvery white. It is seen occamon-
TC^ of Oonstanldne, His nsme is prefixed to ally in our markets, and is found from the coast
file Hvea of tiie two Valeriana, Gallienus, the of New York to Davis's struta on the Ameri-
thirty tyrants, and Olandius ; and, according to can side, and in the northern seas as high as
Topscns, the biogrqihies written by him do- Spltzhergen, in the Beltio, and about the Ork-
gan with Philip, neys in Europe, The young in Europe are
POLLNITZ, Eabl Inswio, baron, a German much esteemed as food by the poorer classes,
vritar of memoirs, bom in Issomio near Do- It attaina a weight of 80 lbs. ; it swims rapidly,
kigiie,Feb.SS,1699, died June 28, 17VS. After not very deeply, and is in the best condition.
luTisg sqaanaered bis property, his restless from October to December, when it reodUr
diqxwition led him to travel over the neater takes the hook. The northern pollock (J£
part at Etm^w. At nearly every court ois at- poiaru, Sab,) is a species about a foot lonf^ in-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
babiting the aroUo sras, Th« green polIcMk jonrneyed b; the olt^ of Balkh and visited
dtt. hptoeephalut, De Kbj), from New York, is manj- parts of TiHttir? ; but aa they foUo-tved
from 1 to li feet long, deep green above the no direct track, turning ande now to avoid an
lateral line, and silverj white beneath with Inimdation or & deaert, now because of ivar,
minnte black dots. and again because they could not obtun i^des,
FOLLOE, RoBEBT, a Boottiah poet and it is next to impoenbla to deeoribe th«ir ronte.
prose writer, born at UnirhoaBe, Eagleaham In the UiAammedan provinoe of BadkkhabAn
parish, in Benfrewshire, in 1T99, died near Uarcofell sick, and the party were detained &
BoQthampton, Bept 16, 1827. Hewasdesigaed wbolo year. Besoming their jonmey toward
for the miniatry, stndiod at the muversity of the N. E^ they came to the foot of a ercMt
Olaagow, and was made a licentiate of the mountain ridg& np whose sides they tilled for
United Beoesdon chnroh in 1637. The severe 8 days, when they fonnd themselves on a vast
inentid labor he had nndergone had so injured table-land hetmned La by still loftier hills. lYom
his constitntion thst he determined to inake a this platean they proceeded to Oaahgar, Tar-
jonmey to Italy for the sake of his health, but kand, and £hoten, and reached the city ot Lop
died before hohad embarked. Hewroto"H€il- orLokonthe bordere of a great desert of tbo
en of the Qlen," "Balph Oemmell," and "Hie same name (the desert of Gobi). Orossingthis
Persecnted Family," all of vhicok appeared desert, they arrived at Bhatchen in Tangnt,
anonymoosly. The work m whioh his repots- whencetheytrBvelledtotheci^ofEarakomm.
tlon rests Is hia poem entitled " The Oonrse of IFhen they oame within 40 days' Jomney of
Time," which was pnblished by Blackwood of OsmbalQ (probably Peking), tie capital of
Edinhmgh in 1837 on the recommendation of Oathay, they were met by an escort, and crat-
Profesaor Wilson. It soon went throng many dacted with every mark of honor to the im-
oditiona, and is yet popular as a religions work, penal city. The khan ap]>oint«d Uarco to an
POLLUX. Bee Oabtob and Polloz. office about his person, and, when he was aofS-
POLLUX, Juuus. 1, A Greek grammarian ciently instructed in the laiigusge and manners
and sophist, 1>om at Kauoratis in l^iypt, floor- of the Uon^ls, despatched him on embassies
ished aiiont A. D, 18S, Be Btndied at Athens, to neighbormg chiera. In which he condncted
where subsequently he taught grammar and himself with snch prudence that he rapidly
rhetoric He was severely attacked by many roseto higher distinctions. The northern prov-
of his contemporaries, especially Lucian and inces of Ohina, western Thibet, the dty of
Philostratos. His oiily extant work is the Lsssa, then the seat of an active commerce, and
(humattioM, a dictionary of Greek words olas- the province of Khoraasan, were Bncceasivelf
sifled according to their subjects, with brief visited by the yonng adventurer, who gener-
ezplanations of their meaning, and illostrative ally found the khan's favor a psseport to the
Siotations from the ancient writers. IL A most secret and sacred places. His next expo-
ysantlne author, who wrote a universal his- dition was to sonthem China, where he saw the
tory, beginning with thte creation of the world, capital Einsai, reported to be 100 Chinese miles
whieh it discueses at some length, and ex- incironit. This great city, whose rize, allowing
tending to the reign of Yalens, uthongh one for the vast parks, gardens, market plaees, ana
mannacript is said to continue the narration to open spaces enclosed in It, may after all have
the death of Eomanns (668). It is a compila- been not very extravagantly ovwstated, is
tion, and devoted chiefly to ecdeeiastical his- probably the modem town of Esi^-chow-foo.
tory. There have been two editions, of which For 8 years Harco filled the office of governor
tiie later is Uiat of Eardt (8vo., Unnich, 17B3). of a large city in this part of the empire and
POLO, Vasoo, a noble Venetian traveller, hisfatheraud nnde badmeanwhilemaaetneia-
bom in ISBO, died about 1834. He came of selves nseM to the khan by Instmcting him
an adventnroua family. His iUher UTicolo and how to make catapults and by other service^
his uncle Maffeo Polo etdled shortly befbre so that when the three Venetians asked leave
Marco's birth on a trading voyage to Oonstan- to revisit their native country Enblai at first
tinople, and having there exchuiged their mer- refused to part with them. At length they
chandise for jewels, crossed the Black sea to were dismi^ed loaded with wealtii and prom-
the Orimea and travelled overland to Bokhara, ising to return. In their company was a Persian
where they passed several years. Thence they embas^ which had jnst obtained the daughter
went toCathay.whereEnblaiEhan treated them ofKoblaiKhan for their king, and, being tma-
with great honor, and finally intmsted them ble on account of war to travel by land, had
with an embassy to the pope. Iteaching Italy accepted Uaroo'sofE^r to transport them by war
after 19 years' absence, they fonnd the papal ter. Their fleet consisted of 14 ships of 4 mssts,
chBirvacant,andafterwaitingtwoyearsinvain 4orEof them carrying SGOmeneach, They
foranewpontifftobechosen,theyBetontft)rth« touched at Ziamhar, Borneo, Lokak, Bumatra,
Eastagaininl371, accompanied by Marco, who the Tlicobar and Andaman islands, Cevlon,
wss now SI years old. They passed through and the Oamatie, and sMling np the Pernaa
Palestine, Mid in Armenia were overtaken by a gulf landed the princess, and were magnificently
messenger fhim the new pope, Gregory X., who entertained by the Pertian government for 9
bron^t them presents and letters for the khan, months. They then prosecuted their journey
Traversing the northern part of Persia, they ij land through Eoordistan and Mingrclia to
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOtTAVA POLTBIUS 488
Tr«Unmd on the Black sea, and taking al^ standard of ezoelleniw estaUIabed if florktL
again airiTed at Yenioe in 1296. Bron^ I^ In its natural oonditioa th« <»EUp la to be found
Oxa sons of 21 jears, dressed like Tartars, and oooanonallT' in England, bat is more conunoA
^ealdna; their native langnage with difflonlt^, in the thickets in monntainooa paatnrea et
it vaB long before thej could persoade thetr Europe. It has a fleshj and divanoating root-
frienda of tb^ identity. To cooTinoe tiiem, atock with fleshy fibrM, from the orown of
tbey invited all their old associates to a mag- which issue manj toothed and hirsnte green
nifioent entertfdnment, at which they received leaves, oblong lanceolate in shape, and from
Utem in goreeons oriental dresses of crimson their bosom one or more flower stalka abont S
astin. Fiitung these off after the guests were inches high, bearing at the top eeveral pale
aeatad, th^ ^ppe«red haudsomelj dad in crim- ydlow flowers. Hie oalyz is tubular ana S-
Bon damflM, which was also exchanged alter pointed, the oorolla hTpocr^erifonn and swol-
the first coarse for rich snita of crimson velvet, lenatbase; theetammsSwitii short filaments;
At the end of dinner, when the velvet was a single stfle wit^ a a^boae atixma; the fiidt
t^oa off, they were seen in the ordinary garb a eaMnle nil (Ismail brownseeds and enoloaed
of the time, and the discarded dresses were in uie pernstent oalyx It belongs to the
divided among the gnest^ When the cloth nataral order otprimiutaeM, whtoh embraoea a
was removed Marco exhibited the coarse Tar- great many heantiflil flowering species, Thoogh
tar garments which they had worn on their often treated as a pot plant, the polyanthus
travels, and ripping them open took oat snob a sncceeds best In the open groimd, preferring a
profnsion of jewels that the company no longer soil inclining to clay, bat rich and moist If
refuaed to acknowledge them, tboog^ the evi- seed is needed, the strongest and beet flowers
denoe might lost as welt have been token to shoald be selected and the rest ont away:
prove any tlunz else. They were now over- when ripe it may be kept in the capeole till
whelmed with distinctions, and received every the tone of sowing. Shallow boxes are filled
mark of respect except having all their stories with aifted otanpost^ npon which the seeds are
believed. Even on his death-bed Haroo was thinly strewn, and a tUn coat of compost Is
urged to retract his alleged falsehoods; bat he careftdly laid npon them. A nidform degree
Bolenmly reafSrmed all Us atatementa, and there of coolness and motstare is beet until the yonng
is now no doubt that he spoke the tmth. plants have acquired 2 or 8 rough leavea, whm
Uaffeo became one of the principal mosistrates they are to be pricked out into large pots
of Yeoice. Uorco was intrasted with tbe com- and kept In frames aa a protection from too
maud of a galley in the fleet sent agunst the much sunshine and heavy runs. When the
Genoese, wno hod appeared off the coast of beds in the open Rround have been properly
Dalmatii, and was wounded In the ensnins en- prepared some weeks after, the plants may be
sagement and carried prisoner to Genoa- Dar- carefally transplanted a second time ; and um
log his captivity he dictated to a feUow pris- their becoming accustomed to the bedding ont
ODftT the acconnC of his travels, which was fin- they are to be watched that elu^ worms, and
isbedinl398. It was probably written and first Termin do not destroy the foliage, removing
published In French, and translated into Latin all weeds meanwhile. Protection from o(dd in
dnring Uarco's lifetime ; bat it is impossible to winter and early spring will be fonnd necessary
determine which of the several discrepant texts to insore soccess. The cultivation of the poly-
in Freoch, Italian, and Latin deserve the name anthna as a fancy flower originated amoog the
of original The French and Latin were pnb- Dntch. — ^The name of polyanthns is likewise
lished by the Paris sooietnr of geography in plied to the many-flowered species of dafli>d
ISM. The work has appeared repeatedly in POLYBIUS, a Greek htstorian, bom prob-
all the principal European langnages. One of abiy about S04 B. O., died aboat ISS. His
the best English versions is that of Marsden, father was Lycortas of Megalopolis, one of the
which has been poblished with notes and com- chief men of the Achsean leagoe, who after the
menCaries in Boha's " Antiqnarian Library." death of Fhilopcemen became its head. Under
After 4 or G years' detention Marco was set at the influence and tr^niug of his parent he
libwty and reWrned to Venice, where he mar- grew np in the knowledoe of the science of
ried and had two daaghters. Uarco Polo was war and of politics. In the war which sprang
not only a veracious but an exceedingly observ- up between the Somana and Perseus of Mace-
ant traveller, and hia narrative is one of the don he favored a neutral policy; bnt when It
most entertaining of its class ever published, was deemed advisable by the league to offbr
He was die first to make known to Europeans assistance to the Romans, he was appointed
the existence of Japan. etrategns of the cavalry, and sent to Macedonia
POLTAVA See Pcltowa. to commntucato the determination to the Ro-
POLTANTHTTS (Gr, iroXw, many, and avdat, man consul. The offer was declined, but aftor
a flower), the name of a variety of the oxlip Persens and the Macedonians had been conqner-
(prmula fbtior, Jacqnin), having brown flow- ed, Cains Olandias and Oneios Dolabella came
er^ vrhich grow in au nmbel upon a common to the Peloponnesus as commlsdoners on the
Kspe. The sub-varieties of the polvanthua are part of Rome, and by their orders 1,000 Aohi^
ilmost innnmerable, having been selected ftom ans were carried to Rome to be tried for the
]iecaliantiea which agree wiOi'aa artificial crimeof not having aided the Bomaos against
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
4M FOLTBEDS FOLTOABP
tbe HBoedonians. Among these was Foljbliu. a Taltuble ZcwioM Polyhitmim. The text <rf
On tbeir arrival in 1S7 &^j were distributed tbu edition vw reprioted at Oxford in 18S3 in
tiironghout the principal towns of Etroria ; but B vols. Sto^ with the lexicon. The last edition
tliroagh t^e ioflaence of Fabiua and Boipio, the is that of Imjuannel Bekker (3 vols. 8to., fier-
■ons of .^milins Faulus, permisaton was given Itu, 1344), who has added the fraf^ents discoT-
Folfbiaetodwellintheirfather'shonseatRome. ered bj Cardinal Uu in the Vatican libraijat
Here a sbvu fHendship sprang up between the Borne. The best English trsnalation of Folj-
Iiiatori«nand8oipio,thenonlyl8jeareold. Af- bins is by Hampton (2 toIs. 4to., 1773).
ter the Achoean exiles had remained in Italy POLiCARP, one of the early Cbristisn
ITyears, the Boman senate grantetl tliem leave fethera, bora probably in Bmyma sboat the
to retam, and Folybina accompanied the 800 close of the reign of Nero, pot to death in Iflf,
nirrivors of the original 1.000 exiles to their He was edaoated at tlie expense of Calista, a
native country. There ell his efforts were em- noble ChriHtian lady of SmyrnSj and became a
ployed in opposition to the party who were disciple of Bt. John tbe evangelist, who on the
endeavoring to plnnge his oonntry into a war death of Bacolos consecrated him to the bishop-
with the Romans; bnt his adrioe was disre- ric of his natire city, ItwasprobablyofPoly-
garded, thoi^ on a statne SRbsequently erected oarp, the "angel of the chnrch in Smjina,"
to his memory was the inscription that " Hellaa that the apostle wrote that passage in the
woold have been saved if the advice of Foly- Apocalypse : " I know thy works, and tribnla-
binshadbeenfollowed." Having joined Bcipio, tion, and poverty (bnt tJion art rich)
and been present at the destmction of Carthage, Fear none of those things which thon shslt
he hastened to Feloponnesns ofler the redno- suffer. .... Be thou faithful nnto death,
tion of Acbfua by uie Eomans, and did so ani I will give thee a otown of life." Whai
mnoh to mitigate the severity of the victors, the controversy aboatthe celebration of Easter
that statues in his honor were erected at Mega- began to mn high, he went to Borne to con*
lopolts, Hantinea, Tegea, and other cities, fiat suit Anicetos, who then occupied that see;
littleisknownof thereat of his lif^ and it has and though he did not suoceed in reooncil-
not berai aseert^ed at what pre<^se period he ing the differences between the eastern and
made his various journeys. He accompanied western churches, his oonferences with Ani-
Scipio on his expeditions, and Pliny informs us cetus were conducted in the most smtcable
tiiat the latter furnished bis friend with a fleet manner. He distbgnished himself at Borne
during the third Pnuio war, for the purpose of by his opposition to the Uarcian and Valen-
exploring the African coast. It has been Bur- tinion heresies, stopping his ears, as IrenEBus
mised that he was present at tie captnre of relates, whenever false doctrines were utter-
Knmantia in 18S, as acoording to Chcero he cd in his presenoa and exclaiming: "Good
wrote a history of the Kumantine war. He God, to what times bast thou reserved me that
also wrote a life of Fhilop<emen, a treatise on I shonld hear snob things 1" I>aring the pcme-
tactics, and another on the eqnatorial regions, ontion under Marcus Aurelins he was seised
His great work, however, is his history, which and carried before the Boman proconsnl at
oonaiBted of 40 books, and embraced an account Bmyma. Being urged to curse Christy be re-
of the growth of the Boman power from 220 plied; "Six and eighty years have I served
B. 0-, where the histories of TimGBus and Aratos nim, and he has done me nothine butgood,aDd
of Sicyon left o^ to 140, the year of the de- how could I cnrse hiin, my Lord and Saviourt
atrnotion of Oorinth. It was divided into 3 If yon would know what I oin, I tell you
parts, which probably were siterward united, frankly, I am a Christian," At these words
The first 2 books are taken up with a history the populace cried out that he should die at the
of Kome from the oaptore of the city by the stake, and hastened to bring fuel for the Gre.
Oanls to the beginning of the second Punic He revised to be fastened, bim. met his fiite with
war, and the flrst part ends with the conquest fortitude and oalnmesB. A contemporai^ uar*
of Ferseus and the downfall of Maoedon. The rator relates that when the fire was kmdled
second part, which may be styled a supplement the flamea disposed tJiemsetves around him in
to the first, reviews the Boman policy, and car- the semblance of an &r^, leaving his body nn-
ries on the narration of events to the downfall touched; upon which a spearman pic roed him
of Grecian liberty. Of this work only 6 books through, and blood flowed from the wound so
remain entire, bat fraRmentsoftherest are still profusely as to put ont the fire; "and then I
extant, many of whicL are long. The style of dove was seen to fly from the wound, whidi
Folybins is by no means pure, and in his treat- some suppose to have been hia son] clothed in
ment of his subject he is too didactic ; but his a visible form at the time of its departnre."
judgment was good, and he made ^eat efforts Polyearp wrote several homilies and epistles,
to render his narration accurate. The 0 entire all of wnioh are now lost except a abort epistle
books were first printed at Rome in 1478, in a to the Fhilippiaos, chiefly valnable as a mean>
Latin translation. In 160Q Oasaubon printed of proving, by its use of scriptoral phraseolon,
at Paris an edition, in which all the fragments the authenticity of most of the books of aa
Dp to that time discovered were incorporated. New Testament. In the time of St. Jerome it
The edition of Sohweighanser (8 vols, 8vo., Ber- was read in tbe public assemblies of the Aaatio
lin, 17St>-'05) oontuns a Lalw translation and ohorohes.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOLTCnXTDB POLYGAMY tfft
FOLYCIXrnJS, * Greek unlptor and ar- and a tew places elaeirliere. The former luu
cliitect, bora probaU]' at Sicjon about 480 existed from time imm«moriail,e3peoiall]^uiiong
B. O. He was a aitizen of Argos, and is said the nations of the East. It preyailed befora
to have been the pupil of the Argive Age- the Sood (Gen. iv.- IS), was common among
Udas, in whose school Phidias and Ujron the patriarchs, and was toleiated bj the law*
were his fellow stndoatB. He stood at the of Hoses (Exod. xxL 9, 10, and Dent, z^ IS).
bead t^ the schools of Argoa and Bioyon, and The custom, however, appear to have died
was judged to have surpassed Phidias in some oat, for in the New Testament we meet witli
ra^>e<;ti, Phidias being superior in images of no trace of it, and the passages which re^
the gods, and Poljcletus uosurpaaaed in those to mairit^ seem to impl;r ^at monoganqr
of meo. Bis stable of Jono in tiiie temple be- was alone lawfHil. There are no positiTe in-
twean Argoa and Ujoenra was thooght how- junctions in the Bible agunst the practice.
«ver b^ Strabo to be equal to the Jupiter In the East the coetom has been almost nnlver-
and ICinerva of his great rivaL The goddess sal, being sanctioned bj all religions, inclnd-
was Mat»d on a throne, her head crowned Ing that of Mohammed, which allows a man
with a garland on whii^ were wrought the to have 4 wives ; bat the permission is rarel]'
Graoes wad the Hours. The head, breast, arms, used ezoept b^therich, ana the Arabs aoarodj
and feet were of ivorr, and the robe which ever have more than one wife. Ycdtaire, Mon-
covarad the fignre trooi the waist downward teaqulea and others have aooonnted fortbeoua-
vas of gold, A statue which he ezecated, tom on the gronnd of the premature old age of
T^reeentmg a gnard of the king of Persia^ the female sex in those reKions, and Montesqniea
was n exqaiaitelj proportioned that it was also on the gronnd that tiie number of femalea
oalled the canon or nile, and artists came from there is much larger than that of msles; but
all parts to studr it. Polyoletns also wrote this assertion, though supported b^ the anthor-
streatisaonthe proportionsofthehumanfonn. ity of several travellers, seems to be devoid
Be was acknowledged to be the greatest arehi- of truth. Among the Greeks, at least of later
teet of his time, and designed the theatre at times, poljgamj was never practised, althon|^
'^ridaoms, which Pausanias pronotmoed the in the Homeric age it seems to have prevailed
meat of Greek and Boman theatres. to some extent. In republican Bome it waa
POLTORATES, a Greek tyrant of Samos, not known ; bot during the existence of tha
triflbnt«dforBucce9sinallhi9ent«rprises,I[iUed empire the prevalence of divorce gave rlsa
in SSSB.O. In conjtinctlon with his brothers to a state of things almost analogous with it.
nmtunotns and 8;loBon, and with onlj 15 In the Ohristian church it has never been
aniiedmen,heBeized the sovereigntj of Samoa, tolerated. It prevuled among thebarbarooa
Hsring assassinated one brother and banished nations of antiqnitj', with the exception of the
the oUer, he strengthened the dtj, enlisted Germans, who, Taoitns sajs, "almost alona
1,000 ar^rs and manned 100 gaOeTS, and among the barbarians, are content vrith a
made war with unvarying success upon the single wife." — In England Uio punishment
neighboring territories. According to He- of polygamy was orighially in the hands of
rodotos, Amasts king of Egypt, his friend and the church. A statute of Edward I. plaoed ft
aUy, wrote to bim to sacrifice his most valued among the capital crimes ; but it did not coma
lason in order to forestall the misfor- entirelynndertheoontrolofthetempor^power
I that Nemesis must have in store for until a statute of James I. made it ponishabla
Polycrates aoeordtngly threw into the with death like other cases of felony. By a
sea a ring of marvellous volne ; but after some statute of Qeorge IH. it was made punishaUa
^T* the ring waa fotmd in the stomach of a with imprisonment or transportation for T
fish which had been presented to the tyrant, years. By the laws of aiii.'<<nt and modem
Anusis, more fearM Utan ever, then broke off Sweden the penalty is death. The Pmsdan
his alliance, Grote, however, thinks it more code of 17B4 subjected the criminal to con£ne-
Bktiy that it was Polycrates who broke the menC in a honse of correction for not less than
dUanoe in order to cultivate the friendship of one nor more than two years. In the United
Ombyiea, to whom ho fornished 40 galleys States, the punishment varies hi the difierent
fbr the invasion of Egypt. He afterward sob- states, being usuallj impriaonment for a cer-
tained himself at the same time sgunst an in- tain period, or fine, the second marriage being
■OTTeetion in his own dt? and the attack of of coarse a nullity. In these conntries, bow-
the Spartans and Oorinthiaos fi-om without ; ever, the term bigamy is most in use, as the
bat OnBtea the eatrt^ of Sardis, having lured plurality seldom extends* beyond two; and
him into Hsgneria imder the pretext that he in legal proceedings it is even employed where
wiabed with his assistanoe to revolt, be was that nnmber is exceeded. — In modem times
seized upon his arrival and crucified. polygamy has had some defenders, most of
FDLlnDORE VERGIL. See VxRatL. whom have groonded their defence on the ab-
POLYOAUY (Or. iroXvr, many, and yoftm, sence of an express prohibition in the Bcrip-
to marry), a state in which a man haa at the tares. Bernardns Ochinus, general of the
nmo time more than one wife, or a woman Oapuchin order and ofterwam a Protestant^
mon than one hnshand. The latter custom, published in the I6th century "Dialogues in
•nsetimes oalled polyandry, prevails in Thibet &vor of Poljgamr," to whioh Beza rolled.
TOi- Xin.— 30
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
466 POLYGLOT POLTOFOTtrS
A Btill stronger viev wai taken In & work tains the whola OomplntenMon polyglot, with
called Folygamia Trivmphatriz, published at a second Cbaldaio paraphrase of a part of the
London by John Ljser, a Lutheran divine Old Testanieiit, a Syrijao Terrion of the New
(1692). It was boldlj maintdned in a treat- Testament, and the Latin translation of Sanctes
iM c«Ued l^lyphthoTo, bj the Bsv. M. Uo- Fagninos, altered h; the editor Arias UontannSL
dan, who however limited the privilege to Tols. vi., Tii., and viii. connet of lexicoaa
men. He claimed that St. Paul's iinnnctJon and groinmsre. Of this polyglot £00 copiea
that a bishop " ahonld be the hnsbana of one were printed, and the greater tmiuber of these
wife," implies that other men should have as were loat at sea on their way to Spain, so that
many as they chooee. 8ingnlarly enough, the it ia even more scarce than its predecessor. A
Uormona, the only seat among Christian na- third was printed at Paris by Ant«ine Yitr£ (10
tions in which this cnstom b still practised, vols, large foL, lB26-''46), edited by Gnido
eiplun this same passage aa meaning that a Hichel le Jay, who had several learned ssso-
biuiop should be the hnsband of one wife at ciatea. This work containa all that is in the
least, and that there is no prohibition of his Com^Iatensian and Antwerp polyglots, with ao
having more if he wishes. Polygmuy was in- Arabic version of the Old and New Testaments^
trodnced among the Uormons by a revelation a Byriao verdon of the former, and the Sa-
of Joseph Smith In 1343, but for some years maiitan Pentateach. A work superior to all
existed as a secret institntion. One principal these is the London polyglot, edited by Brian
ground upon which it ia defended is, that un- Walton (6 vols, lai^e foL, 1654--'T). In the
married women can in the future life reach course of this work 9 languages are need, viz.:
only the posillon of angels, who oooupy a very Hebrew, Ohalddo, Bamaritan, Syriac, Arabic,
subordinate rank in the Uormon theooratio Ferdan, Ethiopic, Greek, and Latin. Ho one
system, being amply ministering servants to book, however, is ^ven in all these, bat por-
tbose more worthy. tioDs of the work are printed in 1 langnages,
POLYGLOT (Or. iroXuc, many, and yXumt, all open at one view. The polyglot most ae-
a tongue), a book with versions of its text in oessible to scholars b the one known aa Bag^
several longnages. In common use the word ater's, published by the London bookseller of
is generally restrioted to the Bible. The £ii~ thatname (1 vol.foL, 18S1). Thisgivea the Old
ha Bexapia of Orken is regarded as the first TestAment in 8 laoKuages, and the New Testa-
Bolyglot, though only two langn^es are used ment in 9. £i(^t languages are exhibited at
in it. Only some frfwments of thb work have one view, viz. : Hebrew, Greek, English, Latin,
come down to us, and these were published at German, Italian, Frenob, and Spanish. The
Paris in 1714. In IBOl Aldus Honutius plan- New Testament in Syriac, the Samaritan FeD-
ned a polyglot in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, tateuch in Hebrew characters, the notes and
hut only one sheet of it was printed. The readings of the Uasorite, and other variations,
Oomplutensian polyglot b the earliest of the are appended. A polyglot known as Butter's
several Bibles properly colled polyglots. It Bible, extending however only to the end of
was printed at Oomplatnm, the lAtia dedgna- the book of Ruth, was printed at Hamburg
tion of Aloola in Spain, at the expense and in 1599, in 6 languages, and a Testament in
tmder the superintendence of Cardinal £ime- 12 languages, \\i. : Hebrew, Chaldail:^ Greek,
nes, by whom it was dedicated to Pope lieo X. Latin, German, Bohemian, Italian, Spanish,
Seven learned men were employed upon the English, French, Danish, and Polish. Two
work. Though begun in 1602 and fiiushod in editions of the Pentateuch were printed at
1S17, it was not pnblished until 1623, in 6 vols. Constantinople, one in 1647, the other in 15CI,
fol. In the Old Testament each page contuns with versions of the text in 4 longnages, but
S oolumns. Upon the left-hand page are the all in Hebrew characters. A copy of the Lord's
Hebrew, the Vnlgate, and the Septuagint ; prayer was printed et Paris in 1S06 by U.Uar-
and upon the right-hand page, the Septna^t, eel in 90 different languages, and with charac-
the Vulgate, and the Hebrew. There are ters proper to each. This work was prepared
Hebrew primitives in the outer mar^, and a as a compliment to Pope Pius VH. during his
Latin interpretation of the Septuagint at the sojourn m Parb, and was s masterpiece of
top of the page ; at the bottom of the page is a typography.
Chaldaio paraphrase, ifrith aLatin interpreta- POLYQNOTUS, a Greek punter, bom in the
tion in 2 columns. In the New Testament each ialand of Thasos about 498 B. 0., died abont
page has the Greek text and the Latin Vulgate 426. On Oimon's return to Athens from the
IB separate columns, with mai^nal references, expedition against Thasos in 4S3, Folygnotna
Of this work only 000 -copies were printed, aad accompanied him, and was employed by him
it is now very scarce. The Antwerp polyglot in the decoration of the temple of Thesens,
was printed by Chtistopber Flantin, at An- the Anacenm, and the Pcecile. About 460 Le
twerp (8 vols. foL, 16a9-T^), The work was was en^iged with Phidias on the temple of
conducted by Arias Uontanna. who had about Athena Area at Platna, where in cuitjunction
60 BssistantA, and was published under the with Onatas he punted the walls of the por-
aanction of Philip H. of Spain. It ia doubtM tieo. Boon after the deoth of Oimon he went
whether the Ung undertook the expense, or with other artists to Delphi to decorate the
Oily lent Flantin tbe money. This Btble oon- edifices connected with the great temple. He
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOLTHTUNLL FOLTFHEUTrS 467
retnrned to Athens in 489, and was employiad the former. The oetimidM are charaoterized
upon the Propjltea. Pol j^otoa painted both hj ATiaceral cavit;' eaclo^ng the atomach, and
on walls, an^ in the mora nsafll manner of divided Into compartments bj radiated plates
Grecian artasti on panels, which were after- hamg reproductive functions, the ovnlea being
ward let into the walla. la the Stoa Pmcile at rqected through the mouth. Tbe^ indnde 1
AUtena he represented the Oreeks, after the Bob-orden, aetinaria and aleyimaria ; the for-
fcll of Troy, assembled to Judge the case of mer have 8, 18, or more tentacles, with few ei-
Gaaaandra's violation by A^jax. In the Anir oeptioos not p^illose, perforated at the apex ;
oeniD, or temple of the Dioscnri, he panted often coralligenous ; ooralla oaloareoua, very
the " Harriage of the Dauzhters of Leoo^pns." rarely comeooa, the cells radiate with lamelltB.
Polygnotnswaareoognizedinbistimeasatthe They include the following tribes: I. Attra-
head of his art He was tlie first who gave aeeo, with many tentacles in imperfect or seat-
any variety to the expression of the oomite- tered series ; when gemmiparons, genunatioQ
nance, or any ease or grace to the ontlinea of ia superior, the |K*1yp8 widening above. Eer«
figures or the flow of drapery. According to belong the fanuliea aetinida (the non-coral-
funy, he was the first who used the tU or yel- ligenons and nsnally attached aetini<g or sea
low ochre fonnd in the Attdo silver mines, and anemones}, the oalcareo-coralUgenons aitraida
"he alao made ■ new pigment of blaok from the (like oriroa and mtandrina or star and brain
liQBkfl of jpreeeed gn^M^ coral), and the eoralligenons fungida. U.
FOLTHYlonA (Gr. nkot, many, and iima, Oarj/ophffUae«a, having nmnerons tentacles in i
droams, or lanta, memoiy, or ufim, hynm), in or more series ; mostly gemmiparODs, the gem-
Greek m^fliology, one of the nine Hoses. She mation inferior and the bods literal ; embrao-
premded over rhetoric and the higher Ijrio ing the ooralUgenooi femiliea eyatA^hglMa,
poetry. The invention of rhythm wasaaoribed earyophj/Uidm, and ggmm^torida, and thenoo-
to her, and her attribute is therefore a lyre, coralligenona woonthida. III. MoArepomeea,
Upon ancient monnments she ia represented in havinr tentaoles, nanaDy 13, in a tingle series ;
an attitude of meditatioD, the chin reposing gemnuparons, gemmation lateral ; vnJi the co-
npon the right hand. ralligeaoua &miliee mad/r^forida, faeotitida,
POLYNESIA, a name ^tpliad by geogra- and pontida. tT. Aniipathaem, having 6
0Mn to all the islands north or south of the tentacles, forming at the Itase comeooa seore-
eqoator, lying between the Philippinea, New tions; with the single laaaij antipat\ida,ih^
Gniiiea, New Britain and neighboring islands, animals of which are fleehy, enveloping a cor-
Solmnon's islands. New Habridea, and New neons spinnlons axis. In the sob-order aley-
Zealand, and the W. coast of America. The onaria Mie animals have 8 pqiillose tentacles,
Cicipal Islands included in Polynesia are the the papillra perforate at apex, often oorallige-
dwioh. Society, Marquesas, Paamotn, Navi- nons, with corolla calcareons or corneous and
gators', ^endly, Pe^ee, I.adrone, Marshall, rarely nlicioas, and the cells never radiate
and Gilbert groups. The tenn Polynesia (6r. within. It includes the ftenilies pennatMlida
sitXvc, many, and i^troc, island) was given by (eea pens and rushes), either free or with the
Vveaeh geographers to the various islands mat- base buried in the mnd ; alcyonida (sea paps
tared over the Paoific, including Australia; but and dead man's hands), fleehy, usnsJly with
latterly it has been restricted to the linuta here scattered calcareous granules ; eomvUtrida,
defined. forming corneous tubiuar ooroUa; tiAiporida
POLYNIOES. See Etiooles. (orsan corals), forming calcareous tubular oo-
FOLTP (Gr. ireAur, many, and mnv, foot), a ralla ; uid gorgonidm (sea fans and shrubs),
name formerly applied to the 3 classes of radu^ forming basal epidermic secretions, and often
{a, theooral animalsandocCintiv, jelly flahesor other tiesne secretions separable from the
MMUMB, and Uie eohinoderms (star fishes, sea former. , (See Aotinta, and Ooral, for details
urchins, and holothuriane). The name as thns of Htructnre and mode of growth.) The order
Axtended was given from the numerous prehen- ligdroidta is characterizM by a simple inter-
aile organs around the month, like those of the nal cavity, and ovules growing outward trcm
oephalopods (cuttle fiahea) ; now it ia generally the sides ; it includes the families hydrida, ter-
raatrioted to the first class, called zoophytes by tularid^ eanmaiatlarida, and h^larida.
Prof. J. D. Dana in hU " Report" (8vo., New POLTPHEMDS, in classical mythology, the
Haven, 1859). He definea polypa aa radiated principal of the Bloilian Oyclopa, asonof Nep-
■nimaia^ nsuallj attached at the haae, with a tune, who ia represented by Homer as a shep-
ooronet of tentacles above and a toothless herd dwelling alone in a cave. Ulysses and
month in the centre, with an inner alimentary his fuUowers having taken refuge in this place,
cavity to which the month ia the only opening; they were discovered by Polyphemus on his
they are hermaphrodite, reproducing by buds return from feeding his fiocks, and by him
and egga, with very imperfect circulation and were fastened in the cave with a huge stone.
DO ipraal organs c^ sense. He divides them Having eaten two of them for supper and two
into S cnrdera, at^iaoidea and hydroidia; hnt more forbreakfoat, he then went off to pas-
as the latter have heen shown by Agastiz to tore his flocks ; and when he came back TJiys-
be related raUter to aoalephs than to polyps, sea succeeded in rendering him intoxicated, in
die present article will be chiefly devoted to which condUioti be fell asleep. Herenpon
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
MS P0LTFU8 FOUBAL
TUthm bored out tho rin|^ e^ of the moii- ttmAnOem and the Toloe, in the recUnn irA
■ter, and the neit morning fastened himself demoation, in the bladder witb the exvebca
and his oompaniona to the bellies of the gigKa- of urine, and in the Dtems with rwrodnctioG.
tie aheep aa the blind Cjotops let them out to The treatment oonidatB of local ^[JicMtiwis fee
pasture, and thns esoaped. drying ap or destroying the growth; or «,'
POLYPUS, a name applied in pathology to ezoUion, tearing off, laceration, seton, ccsi-
Tariooa morbid growths projecting into the pression, ligatore, and similar applicatioiis d
muooos cavities and passages, baTing their modran sorgery. In the noee tfa« rommaaH
origin either in or beneath these membranes, form of the polypne is the geiatinoas, and in I
These growths or ezcresoencea may be in the favorite attachment the turbinsted bones; a J
▼ioinity of tJie natural openinga of the body, presenoe is indicated by a eonatant stuffed U^
u in the nasal fosste and rectum, and there- ing aa from a cold in the head, increasid a
tbre within the sight and reat^ of the sorgeon ; dunp weather ; it may generally be bitn^
or inteiior, ae in the ntema, bladder, &»., in- into view by forcing air throqE^ the ifferld
acoessihle to his eye and tcoj often to his in- noBlnl, while the other ia okwed ; that «
stmmanta. They are nsnally single, sometimes sranetimes more than one, and tbey are ren
multiple ; their extoit is very Tariable, accord- Uable to return when removed ; if alloaid it
ing to thwr lime ftnd freedom of growth, and remain, the increating liza blo<dw ap the i»-
their sorboe may be inflamed or nloerated. trU and displaoee the septnm, prodaciiig eAa
There are two principal varieties of form : greet deformitr on the che^ and abint tbi
the pedionlated, with a more or leae long and eye ; it is generally twisted off trom its av-
narrow neck, as in the nasal passages ; or set- row pednnde by forceps. The hTdatid, aa-
Bile, ia which the morbid maw rimply raisea cerong, and fungoid polypi admit onljt of {mI-
tha tegmnentsry membrane. Borne are essUy liadve treatment Uterine poljpns is gvta-
OTOshed, others are very hard. In the soft, ally pear-shaped and attached bj a namT
mnooiiB, or -veeicular pcdypne, the ^pearanoe neok ; the symptoms are thoee of Dteriae ini-
is semi-transparent, gelatinoua, oonaiating of a tation, sach as dragging pidna, nKaoniigia,
mass of areuar tisene, oontaining an albnmi- and finally fetid discha^es; it iigeoenBj n-
nooa flnid, covered by a thin adherent mem- moved by ligature. In other pt^ii near the
braae ; it eometimea oontains vedcles ; the external op^iings of the body the principka
Teseels are few and fine. Themselves insen- of treatment are the same ; in tbs iahraal
aible, these teraore tronble only by their vol> forms the diagnosis is obacnre, and the treat-
ome, rarely canse hemorrhage, irritation, in- ment simply palliative,
flammation, or any grave symptom, and do not POLYXENA, dAOghter of Priam and Ben-
degenerate into malignant disease ; they are ha, and beloved by Aohillee. One legend re-
alKi hygrometrioal, growing lor^r in damp latea that AcbUke, for the eake of Aaumg
weather ; nothing pontive is Imown as to her in marriage, promised XMam to mii*
tlieir eaosee. A more solid form of polypns peace between the Greeks and Trojans, ud,
consists of a conoret«, grayish albnmen, en- going to the temple of the Tlij iiihmaii Apoftt
olosed In areolar tisane, covered by s alishtly to conolnde the negotiations, waa tnadKnw-
vaaonlar membrane. In the q>ongy pomnia ly slain by Paris. Polyiena waa therdim
the tisane is soft, red, Tasonlar, often giving aacrificed to hie manes, aocording to cot se-
nse to tronbtesome bleeding, and prone to connt on his tomb, according to another on
ondergo canoerooa degenerafaon. The fibrooa the coast of Thrace. Another form of the )«-
poljpos may aoqoire a oonaiderable mze, and gend represents Polyzenamd Achillea to han
u generally pear-sli^ied, thoi^ sometimea of fallen in love when the dead body U Bectcr
ve^ ttrai^ ftoms; it is lobnlated, smooth, was given np, and that when the GnA dum-
>nd firm, ezeept when anbaeqiMntly softened pion was slam she killed hersdf npca his tomb,
and nleented ; itadS Inioudble, it may oanse POUBAL, Bon SaDunZo Joei di Cab-
pain by premire on sarronnding parts ; when yu^t, marqida at, a Pcfftngoeae itatmun,
softened or gangrenons, it may lead to bleed- bom in Bonra, near Ooimbra, in 1S99, £ed ia
ing or to ofi^iilTe discbarges equally ezhanst- Fombal, Hay 8, 1782. He belonged to an cU
ing. The fleehy polypus la vaeoolar, punfal, family of the leaser nobility, studied law ti
and prone to degenwation ; the oartUaginoDa Ooimbra, and entered the army, w1ii<i bt
fomu may midergo more or less oeseone trans- abandoned after a abort period. Baniabed frm
formation. Ptjypos te generally a prodnct of Lisbon on acconnt of quarrels, he ^ent aevoal
inflammation, sometimes <rf hypertrophy of years in stodv at Bonra. While there begaiwd
the mnoons membrane, and at others a flbii- the favor of a rich widow, Xtona Tercaa it
nons concretion which has beotoie organized; Noronha-AImada, with whom, as ber rdattrs
to the first class belong the fleshy forms, to bitterly opposed the match, be eloped. ^
the 2d the mnoons, and to the 8d uie filovns. wife's &mily treated bim with cootei)^; ni
Aooording to their situation they impede tiie stung by their eondoct he went to conil mi
functions of oigans ; impidring am^ and taste through the inflnenee of hia nnclet Paolo Of
when in the nasal cavities, in the pharynx valhOjiraaaaitto&idJBndBsaeoretaryof kp-
tnterfering with swaUowing, in the auditory tion. In 1746 he was recalled, bnt b«ng i
meatua wnh hearmg, in the larynx with the fiiVOTite with the qoew wm deqiatabed to
POUBAL P0KEa&A2!rATS 4M
"Vienna to mUIa the dispnte between tbe pope ings, and Pomlul expelled the papal nnnela,
and tbe empresB Maria Theresa in regard to the and made preparation to break with the ohnrob.
sappreasion ot the arohbiahoprio of Aqalleia. The acoeasion to tbe pontafloal titrone of Gem-
There be g^ned general favor, and, aa bis first ent XIV., who in 1778 aboliabed Uie ordei,
wife was dead, married the conntess Dann, nieoe prevented aaj collisioa with Borne. Two abort
of the general of the aame name. On his re- wara with Spain followed, in which lie Por-
turn he fonnd bis prospects improved bj the tngneae army was oi^anized on a new lia^
affectJoQ with whicD the queen, who was an and tbe frontiers were put in a better state of
Austrian princess, regarded bia wife ; bnt the defence. A general sTstem of education was
animositf of the high nobilitj was still BufS~ deriaed, the stod; of physical and matbemat-
cie&t to hinder bis advancement. Concealing iool aoiences was introdnoed, new kinds of
his real feelings, he gained tbe faror of the crops were onltivatod, navigation and ship
Jesuits, and on the death of John V. In 1760, bnilding were tangbt, and the oenswship was
and the accession of Joseph I., he obtained made leas strict. The power of tbe minister
tbrongh tbe agenoj of tbe qneen mother the was almost despotic, and while he need it fbr
position of foreign secretary. His energy, tbe elevation of bia oonntiTmen, be also tued it
decisioQ, and administrative talent eoon gained mercilessly to take vengeance on his enemin,
him a complete control over the mind of tbe hj whom bia life was several times attempted.
weak monarch. The kingdom at that time Cht the death <^ Joseph 1. in 1777 he was dia-
was in a miserable condition, witbont an axmj missed by Pedro UL, tbe state prisoners im-
or navy, commerce or sgricnltnre. He limited prisoned by bia order were set tree, and bis
tbe power of the church and the inquisition, projects and Tegalationa were given up. Por-
resumed tlie crown lands and checked abnsea in tngal soon sank into a condition as weak and
the colonies, and expelled tbe Jesuits from their distracted aa before, though Fombal banded
tnisdons in Paraguay. He was everywhere over a well organised government with ample
ntet with the most bitter resistance, but his revenues. His enemies clamored for his life,
genius and perseverance overcame all opposi- bnt, attacked on all sides, be did not lose bia
tion. The great earthquake of Nov. 1, 17Bfi, defiant spirit. Though hated and aesailed, the
vrhicb bnried many thousand persons and de- qneen protected him, and he retired in safety
Btroyed an immense amonnt or property, gave to the village of Pombal, where be spent tbe
hini ample opportonity to display his ability in remainder ot bis cUtys in re&ement.
the restoration of order and the relief of die- POMEGBAHATE (puniea granatam, Unn.),
tress. He was subsequently created oonnt of a frnit native In the East and celebrated frrai
Oeyros, and mode pnme minister. He now a very remote period. The p<m>egranat« tree
prosecuted his plans with tbe utmost rigor, re- has an arborescent stem with angnlar branch-
moving and cmsbin^ all who obstructed them, lets becoming spiny ; deoidnons, opposite,
Hia monopoBea excited tbe wrath of tbe conn- rarely wborled or a]t«niate, oblong lanceolate,
trj people and of foreigners, especially of tbe entire leaves; scarlet flowers S to G together,
English, who had hitherto held almost all tbe terminal upon tbe smaller twigs and nearlr
commerceof Portugal in theirownbands. Tbe sessile; oalyx with a top-shaped tnbe, ita limb
vine dresserswbo were unwilling to plant com with K to 7 lobes and the esdvation valvate;
saw theirviseyards torn op by the roots. The petalaSto7; stamens numerous with distinct
Tufllans who bod been in the habit of plunder- nlaments bearing anthers on the inner side;
ing and a^asainating in tbe very Streets were style 1 ; stigma 1 ; fruit apheriool, indehiscent,
shot down without hesitation. The Jesuits were crowned by the upper portion of the calyx, di-
removed from the person of the king, and on TidedintoSportionsbyaborizontaldiapbragm,
Sept. 16, 1757, they were ordered to retire to the npper conristing of 6 to S cells, and the
their collies. Several of the Portuguese no- lower of S cells; aeeds very nnmerona, snr-
bility were exiled from Lisbon. An attempt to ronoded by a transparent pnlp ; embryo ob-
assassiuate tbe king on tbe nigbt of Bept S, long; radicle ebort, straight, its ootyledona .
1768, far from deterring Pombd from bis pur- leafr and spirally convolute. It belongs, aa
poses, gave him renewed power by placing in Lindley bas shown, to the natnral order myr-
hisbandstheliTeaof bisenemies. tiiireemontbs tocMs (see Mybtu), tbongh separated by Doa
afterward a nnmber of the nobility were sud- into a distinct order termed gnauUta^ prin-
denly arrested. The duke of Aveiro uid tbe cipally on account of a peculiarity in the fruit,
marquis of Tavora, who were the prinoipals in which cannot be considered aa strictly typical.
the conspiracy, were broken on the wheel, and — The pomegranate tree is usually a ^oray
others of tbeir accomplices were put to death, bush, though it has been Imown to grow in a
Tbe Jesuits were accused of being in the plot; wild condition to the height of 18 to 20 f^t.
some of them were execnted in prison, and by The dwarf pomegranate \p. nana, Linn.), with
a royal decree of Sept. 8, 1769, the whole body a shrubby st«m 8 to 4 feet high, linear leaves,
was banished from the kingdom. They refused and red flowers, is a native of tbe Oaribbee
to quit the country, whereupon they were islands and of Sonth America about Demerara,
seized to the number of 1,864, and transported yet probably, aa Persoon suggests, is only a
to the Papal States. A quarrel now began variety of the common pomegranate. There
with the pope in consequence of these prooeed- are however 5 distinct voiietiaa of the potna-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
470 TOJtERASIA. POVPADODB
grsnate, vii. : the red-flowered, whh tho pnlp bj 6 ehannelB, nllod the Peene, tlie Swioa^
of the fmit of areddisb color; the double red- and the Dievenov. Other prinoiral rivara
flowered, commonlj cultivated in g»rdena for are the Fersante, Seg«, and Ihna. Therd ar«
its beiiat/, and there in vota and tubs on ac- numerous lakea, of which Uie principal are
eoant of its tenderness ; the whitish- flowered, those of EDtniuerow, FlOne, and Uadll& On
with white petals and jellowish calji, the Hm N. coast lie the 8 islands of EOgea, Use-
pnlp of the fruit of & pale ted oolor ; the donble dom, and WoUin. The &ce of the wnntiT is
whitisb-flowered, which is the tenderest of all ; generally level, the proviaoe being one of the
and the yellow -flowered, which is rarely seen, flattest in Germany. The coast, which is loir.
The second kind named is a channiiig shrub, ia protected by saadhills and dikes, which sre
and worthy attentJon among floricultariBts. often changed about by the winds. The ami
London speaks of one, trained against the walls is mostly aandy, and generally of moderate ftr-
of Fulham palace, which grew 40 feet high and tility, portions being stony and sterile^ while
GO feet wide. The single pomenanate will some parts are very fertile. The pronnoe is
grow in almoat any soil, but the double-flow- poor in minerals; bog or^ alum, salt, anther,
ered variety requires a very rich one. It can chalk, marl, and peat are prodnoed. The in-
be propagated readily from ue &egh seeds, from habitants are Qerman, and in the N. E. portioii
piecesof the root, layers or cuttings, or by graft- are Kaasubs, deecendanta of the Slavic Wenda,
ing upon the eingte kind. The budi needs much who still preserve their own language. Idnen
pruning and clipping. In the south of Europe is manufactured, and also doth, serge, and other
the pomegranate tree !s cultivated for its fruit woollen fabrics. The trade of the province ia
and for an ornamental tree, and osed as a hedge important, of which Stettin with ita port <^
[dant. The pulp of the fruit ia acid, sometimes SwinemQnde is the chief seat. — Pomenmia was
sweet, sometimea vinous, aetrin^nt, and re- formerly a principal portion of the old Wendish
freshing. In most parta of Persia the fruit is monarchy, Dutfronil0e2hadalineofdukesof
delicious, and in the gardens under the snowy its own, which terminated with the death of
hills near the Oabool river there are famous BogislasXIT. iul63T. It woa freqnently over-
varieties without seeds. A simp prepared run by the early Polish monarcha. Ohristiani^
from the pulp is employed as a detergent and was introduced in the 12th centory, the first
astrin^nt. The rind of the fhiit has been Pomeranian convert having been baptized on
□Bed mHt«ad of (^Us in making ink, and in June IS, 1124, by Bishop Otho of Bambwg.
Germany for dyeing leather in imitation of After the dying out of the line of Pomeranian,
morocco. In India the bark of the root is em- dukea, the electoral house of Brandenburg had
ployed in expulsion of the tapeworm, and the adaim to the whole country by right of former
same use of it is known among the negroes of treaties ; but as during the 80 years^ war the
the West Indies. — The pomegranate was well province had come into the possession of Bwe-
known to the ancients, as is clear from nnmer- den, the house of Brandenburg was forced to
ons alluMona in their writings. It was in high content itself with Further Pomerania. At the
repute among^ the Hebrews, and employed by peace of Stockholm in 1 T20 Sweden gave np to
them in architectural ornament. The city of Fmasis the greater portion of Hither Pomera-
Qranada is supposed to have derived its name nia, along with the islands of Wollin and TJse-
bom the nnmerous pomegranate trees planted dom, but continued to hold the district between
near it, which is corroborated by its bearing a Mecklenburg, the Baltic, and the river Peene,
i^t pomegranate In its coat of arms. with the island of Bhgen. This the former
POUEBANIA (Qer. PoDMiMm, frompo mere, power ceded to DeDmark as a compensation for
^vie words aignLgring "beude the sea"), a Korway; and by the convention of June 4,
dnohy- now belonpng to PmssiL^bonnded N. 1816, it was given up to Pntsua in exchange
by the Baltic sea, £. by Weat Pnissia, S. by for the duchy of Lanaahiirg and the sum of
Brandenburg, and W. by Mecklenburg; area, 9,600,000 thalers.
13,158 sq. m. ; pop. in 1858, 1,828,861, nearly POMERA.NUS. See BuoSKHAOSir.
allLatheraiuexoeptabontI3,OOOBomanCath- POMFRET, Jobb, an English poet, bom in
oiicB and 12,000 Jews. It is divided by the Luton, Bedfordshbe, in 166T, died in 1T08.
river Oder into Hither Pomerania {Yorpem- He was graduated at Queen's college, Cam-
tii«m)andFurtherPomerania(Siint«rpMnffi«mJ. bridge, in ISSi, took orders, and in 1G99 pub-
Along with a put of the old Kenmark and a liehed a collection of occasional poems and
few places in West Prosaia, Pomerania now some Pindaric odes imitated from Cowley. Bis
constitutes the srovinoe of the same name, princijpal poem, "The Choice," describing a
which is divided into the three districts of life of retirement and moderate wealth, was
Straisond on the W., Stettin in the centre, onoe reckoned the most popular poem in the
and EOalin on the £., and also into S6 circles. Englisli language.
There are 79 towns, of which the most im- POMMER. See Bvaxsaxoxs.
portant are Btralsund, Stettin, Eolberg, Eos- POMPADOUB, JEunraAsToiiTETTBpoiBaoH,
hn, Greiftwalde, Stareiard, andEammin. The marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV., bom in
largest river is the Oder, which forms below 1791, died in 1764. She was the natural dangh-
Stettin the lake of Damm, then flow* into the ter of a butcher who had been obliged to lee
frisohes-Haff, and tema thence hito the Baltic on aoooout of some dishonest transactuma. Her
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
iMoflMrgmherftgoodediMatfWiUidmanied and ratwecpiMtlly ooenpted t^ the EtmewM,
her in 1741 to » fitrmer of the Uxes named Le Felugiena, and Sanmitea, but is not mentioned
Homtand d'fitiolee, flbortlj- after irhioh she first In lustorr previoos to the conquest of Oampa-
■ttntcted the attention of the king vhile with nia bj the Bomuu in the 4Ui oentnrr B. a
a rojal hunting partj in the forest of Senarl The name has no oonnection with that of the
It WB« not however nntil after the death of Roman gent Pompeia, bnt is snppoeed to have
lime, de Obftteanronx (1744) that she beoazne been derived from the word tni^inuiF, a tri-
opralj the king'a ftvorite. She aooompanied umphal procession, from the tradition that Her-
Loois during the campaign of Fontenoy in Hay, oales celebrated the foundation of the city with
1740, and on her retom was preaanted at ooort pomp. Dnrlng the social or Uarsio war the
by tbe title of maroluoness de Pompadour. At Inhabitants jtuned in the insmrection ; bat the '
first sbe meddled bnt little in political a^ra. dty waa q)ared by Sylla, who contented him-
Slie patronized learning and the uts, embel- self with diamantlii^ its fortifloationa, and
Uihed Paris, and with the aaristanoe of Vol- planting a military colony in the neighborhood,
faure and Bernia organized Mlliant f&tse, trust- Boon uterward it became a fo'voiite smnmor
ing for loSnenoe to her perscmal obarma and reaort of B<anans of wealth and rank, and ia
her power of aTimdng the Ung. Even after mentioned aa audi by Ssneoa and Tadtna, the
die had lost to a great decree ner hold npon former of whom oalu It a "oelebr^ed d^."
his affsotiona, aha retuned her power by toak- Oioero had a oonaderable villa there, in which
ing herself neoeaaar^ to his oonuort. Bhe soon he songht relief from the midsnmmer heats of
midertook to save hun trma the fatigaes of gov- Rome, and where he entertidned Angnstus and
ermnent. Bhe interfered with the finances, other dlsHngoished gnests. In A. D. 69, in
made and unmade ministers, and fovored by oonseqoence fd a aangninar? affiray in the am-
tnms the Jansenists, the Qnletists, the infidels, phitheatre witli the nughboring peo^e of No-
aod ^e pariiament, that she might have the oeria, the tnhabitaota were prohibited by tlie
sopport of all parties. Flattered by Maria emperor Nero from whituting any gladiatorial
Theresa, who scmt her an aotograph letter, and or theatrical showswithin the city for 10 years,
irritated by the ssroasms of Frederic n. on the Fonr years later Pompeii waa visited by two
ivKOMlie de» eotilloni, she brongbt abont the earthqaakes, ooonrring at on interval of a few
aflianoe of Frmce and Anatria ag^nst Pmsda montlu, by which many pablio buildings wore
which resnlted in the disastrous 7 years' war. thrown down and aa immense amoont of dam-
In 1797, after the attempt of Damiens to assss- age done; and it had not entirely recovered
rinate the king, she was obliged to qnit the from the ^eots of these disasters when St wm
oonrt ; bnt b^ng reoalled soon afterward, she overwhelmed by the ftmoos eraption of Tean-
caused the ministers D'Argeuson and Maohanlt, vios, Aug. M, 79, which involved It utd the
who had advised her dismissal, to be disgraced, neighboring towns of Hercnlaneom and Stabin
Her inflaenoe npon military appointments waa in a common deetraotion. (Bee Hkrocuitzdil)
mte of the chief caoses of tJie ill snooass of the Thenceforward fornearly 17 centuries thedty
war. She reoalled Martth"! d'Estr^ after the disappears troja history, although the name
French notory of Hastenbeok, and prevented seems never to have been wholly lost A vll-
the recall of Sonbise after the defeat of the alliea lage constructed ftom its mine subsequently
at Boasbaeh. She dismissed the mituster Ber^ arose upon the site ; but after the destruction
nia, who advised peace, and replaced him by of this by the ernption of 472, the Oampns
Ghoisenl. But in Ohoiseul, to her dismay, she Pompeias, as it was long called, remained until
Boon found a master. He asaiated her indeed the middle of the last century an undisturbed
to procnre the suppresaion of the Jesuits, but and uninhabited plain. As U to baffle more
it soon became apparent that hia power de- completely tbe researches of arehteologista, die
pended no longeron her favor. She died hated empticn of 79 produced striking phykcal
by tbe nation and little regretted by the king, changes in the vicinity, and the sea, whltm tor-
fteride an annual income of nearly 1,600,000 merlv laved the walls of the dty, ia now op-
livres, she had received the t«rTitories of La ward of a mile from its site, while the neigh-
OeDe, Or£oy, and St Bemy; the ohAteanz of boring river Bamo has been conaiderably dl<
Aidnay, Brinborion, and Bellevne ; and s^en- verted from its andent course. Hence the
did eetablishmenta at Paris, Versaillea, Fon- geographer Cluverios, who investigated the
ttineblean, and Oompi^gnc Bha made a gen- subject in the early part of the 17th century,
eroua nee of her wealth, gave freely to the following the descriptions of andent authors,
GOT, patronized inventors, artists, and men of was Induced to locate Pompeii at a distanoe
ten, and made magniflcent collections of of several miles from its actual position. A
works of art and curiosities. She drew and few years previous the archtteot Domeideo
engraved with oonsiderable skilL The Mi- Fontana had carried an aqnednct over a lai^
fflntTM and Lettnt published under her name portion of the buried dty, wftfaout having hia
" " _^._.!-_ '*- the remaini rf temples
which must have been
i. In this instanoe tba
t remarkable, as the sn-
of ashes and dndsn had
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
are not anthentio, attention aroused by the remaini et temples
POHPEH, an andent dty of S.Italy, situated and public buildings which must have been
ahont 14 m. S.E. of Naples, and directly at the oonatantiy encountered. In this instanoe tha
foot of Ut. Yesnvius. It is of remote orig^ oversight ia somewhat remarkable, as the sn-
having been founded probably by the Osohib, perinonmbent dq>odt of ashes and dndsn had
itt POUFEn
Ml avange dmth of not more than 15 feet, and lonems to ^ fimm, and wUeh iinut hwa
a portion vt the grast theatre waa still viable, been one <rf tho ehief thorongfa&rea of tiie citj-,
For nearly a oentiurand a half longer Pompeii has an arerage width of from 18 to 14 feet
remaned nndiBtnrbed, and it was not nntil the onlj, indnding the ridmd footpath on Ntlier
exhumation in 1748 of aeveralatatnes and other ride. In addition to the Uat named, 4 other
ottJeotB ofantiqnitj in sinking a welt tilatpnb- mun atreeta lum been partiallj or whoUj
lio attention, aJreadr awakened bj the partial traoed, witii vhieh a regnlar ajTBtem of minor
ezoaratioa of Herculanenm, waa drawn to the Btreeta appears to have been oounected. These
BoMMt Oharles III. of Naples ordered eica- thorongharea, with a dngle exception, t«nni-
ratioQB to be protecnted on an extenave scale, nate in or traTerse the westerly quarter of tbe
' and in 1756 the amphitheatre was nnoorered. city, which ie the only part jet completelj ex-
Hia snoceasoTs have continued the work from plored, and which, from tiie nnmber and chsr-
time to time with more or leas actiTit?, nntil, aoter of the publio bnildings fonnd there, was
after the lapse of nearly 18 centnries from the undoubtedly the most important^ The fbmm,
date of ita destmction, aboBt a fourth part of aitaated in the 8.W, oomer, is the moet mcioiis
Ponqmi baa been, brought to light. The city and imposing stmature in Pomp^ and in its
tbiu psrIiaUj exhumed, though probably at its Immediate noinity are the chief temples, the-
most proeperons period never ranking above a atres, and other public buildings. It waa en-
aeoond rate provmcial town, ia of inealonlable closed on 8 ridee by a Doric colonnade, whidi
importance from the insight which it has af- embraced an area 160 yards in length by 86 in
fbraed into the domestic economy, the arts, and breadth, and in its general plan as well aa in its
the BOcial life of the anoient world. The light sarronDdings resembled the nsnaJ Roman etrne-
and friable character of the volcanio deposits tnres of the kind. Of the buildings a^)obung
which OTerlaid it has fortunately preserved it, that known aa the tonple of Jupiter on the
fy<Hn decay the objects of most importance to "S. side la aapposed to have been the moet
modem oroluaologista, and the interiora of magnificent in the city, and its portico of
private and publio building have been fonnd Corinthian colntnna is perhapa the finest yet
nndirtorbed save by the original owners, who exhumed. On the E. side stood the pantheon
in many instances retnmed after the eruption or temple of Augustus, aa it has been called ;
had subsided to search for enoh articles of val- the Curia or Benaonlnm ; the temple of Merca-
ne as could be earily removed, and also prob- ry ; and a spacious house, called the Chalddi-
ably for the bodies of relativea or friends who cum, which, as appeara troia an inscription,
were nnable to escape. The latter supposition was erected by the prieatess EnmacMa. On
would seem to be proved by the fact that oom~ tbe S. are 8 buildings supposed to have been
paratively fbw skeletons have been discovered, courts of Justice, and on the W. a baotloa, a
whereas, acoordiog to Dion Cassias, the loss of larae temple profusely decorated with painting
]i£» was consideraDle, notwithstanding the in- and commonly called the temple of Yenna, and
habitants were assembled in the amphitheatre the pnbtic granaries and prisons. All of these
ottiietimeofthe catastrophe, and conldreadlly afford stri^ng evidences of the disastroua ef-
taike their eacape. As it is pretty well settled feots of the earthquakes of 68 and 64. The
that Bucoessive eruptions have contributed to architectare, moreover, like that of moat pub-
the depoait which now covers the dty, such lio and private edifices in Pompeii, ia of a
original excavations moat have been compara- mixed character, the style, whether Greek or
tivalreatry.-^Pomp^ occupied within its walls, Homsn, being freanently defective, and the at-
whidt have been traced throughout tlieir whole tempts to unite oifferent orders clumsy and
extant, an irregular oval area about two milea tasteless. Other publio buildings were tho
fai oiroomference. OntheW. or sea ride there temples of Fortune, of Isis, of Neptune or
are no traces of walla, and those remrining, Hercules, and of .^sculapius, the names of
though originally of great strength, being the two last being conjectural. That of Nep-
flanked at irregtdar intervals l>y maarive square tune is of pure Dorio orohiteeture, not nulika
towers, ^pear to have tieen aUowed to fall the temple of tho same name in Pteetnm, and
into decay many years before tbe destmction is the oldest Btmotnre of the kind in Pompeii,
of the d^. The woAmanahip of these indi- S. E. of the forum, and at a distance of 400
catea the Osoo-Pelasgio origin of the city. Eight yards, were the great or tragic theatre, and
gates have been discovered leading to Eercola- the lesser theatre or Odenm, both of Boman
nenm, Capna, and other places, that to Heron- ori^. The former, having accommodationH
lanemn being the most important and oma- for about 6,000 people, stood on a slight
mental. The streets, which few the most part elevation, and was never completely buried by
run in regular lines, crossing each otiier nearly the aahea. In the B. £. angle of tiie city waa
reotongularly, are with some ezoeptians tiorely the amfdiitheatre, an ellipse 430 feet by 835,
wide enough to admit the passage of a eiosle capable of seating 10,000 spectators, whidi was
Tabide, and everywhere tiie rata of the ehanot about half tbe population of the oi^ ; and im-
whaela are viable in the polygonal lava Uoc^ mediately N. of the formn were the tkervM
iriiieh form the pavement. The widest does or pnblie hatha, in an elMontly adorned and
■ot exceed SO feet in breadth, few ore over 9S well arranged structure. A long quadrangular
fiia^ and that leading from the gate of Heron- bnilding 8. of and adjoining the great theatre
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POMPEII POMPEY 478
Israppoaed to hare been the barraehs of troops and archlteotnral pretenrion. Several of the
or of gladiators. NameroDs implementa of houses above mentioned were evidentlf enter-
WIT bare been discovered there, and in and ed bf their owoers immediately after the sab-
abont tbe bailding ware S4 skeletonH, probablj eidenoe of the first eraption, in eaarcb of ral-
of men forming the gaard, who remained at nables; and the most important pointings and
their poata unmoved bj the oataatrophe; "a objeota of art discovered by excavation have
remarkable and affecting proof," it has been been deposited in the Museo Borbonico. (Bee
obtsrved, "of the discipline of the Boman sol' Naples.) As no buildings indicating povertj
dier." The domestio architecture of Pompeii in the occupants have been discovered, it fs
lain keeping with that of its pnbiio buildiugH, doubts whether Pompeii had any pauper pop-
a mingling of the Greek and Koman methc^s ulatjon, or whether they inhabited a quarter of
wth respect to external features and internal the city not jet excavated. Of late years the
amngements, although in plan the houses ore esoavations have proceeded slowly, the annual'
more Boman thaa Greek. They are for the amount u>propriated by the late Bourbon gov-
inost part small and low, few exceeding two ermnent naving barely sufficed fbr repairs and
atoriea In height, have little external omamen- various incidental expenses ; but under the gov-
tation, and are well adapted to a people aeons- ernmentinaiigQratedinI860the work,itiseaid,
fanned like the Fompeions to pass most of the is to be prosecuted with Increased energy, —
day in the open air. The ground fh>ntB of Detailed accounts of the results of the explo-
many of the finest are oocupied by shops, the rations in Pompeii will be fbund in Mazois'
rente derived from whioh formed on impor- work, continued by Oau, Z«irain«t dtfPiwteji
tant aonrce of revenue to the inhobitanta. (4 vols, fol., Paris, 18ia-'88) ; in Sir W. GeU'B
The npper stories of private dwelling^ being " Pompeiana" (1st series, 2 vols. 8vo., London,
of wood with flat roob, were apeecUly con- 1684 ; 2d series, 3 vols. Bvo., IBSO) ; and in Bre-
snmed by the heated ashes of the eruption; ton's Pompeia (Svo., Paris, 1656). The most
but aa these portions of the house were gen- recent work on the snl^ect is that of Overbook
Nally need as store rooms or apartments for (Svo., part i., Leipsio, 18G6).
servants, their loss is of little consequence. POMPEY. L Oskids Poin>znrs MAomrs, a
The lower or ground apartments, in which the Boman general and triumvir, born Bept. 80, 106
family proper lived, have fortunately escaped B. 0., ossaswnated in Egypt, Bept. 3S, 48. He
serious ii^nry, and in many of these the duly was the son of Cneins Pompeiua Strabo, a gen-
life, habita, tastes, and even the thoughts of the eral of some repute and consul in 89, and first
oecnpants can be traced with almost poidtive saw mihtary service in the social or Marsio war,
certainty. Of the hoases of the better descrip- in which he fought under his father. Daring
Qon, the names applied to which are either the struggle between Marina and Sylla, he
those of the sapposed possessor, or are suggest- sided with the latter, and in 87 luded in the
ed by bis occupation, or by promioent objects defenoo of Rome against Oinna and Bertoriua^
of art found in them, the most important are the partisans of Marina. The triumph of Ma-
ttie honse of Sallost, one of the largest and rins compelled him to remain for some time In
most complete in its arrannment and adorn- obscurity ; but when ByUa, after finishing the
ment in ue city; that of Pansa; that of the MithridolJa war, took np his march for Italy,
tragic poet, less distingnished for its size than Pompey, eager to ingratiate himself with the
for the variety and beauty of its paintdngs, chief of his party, rused on his own respond-
most of which have been removed to the Mu- bility 3 legions, with whioh he defeated the
eeo Borbonioo in Naples, and for the well Uarian general M. Brutus and effected a June-
known mos»c of the choragus instructing the tion with Sylla. During the war which pros-
actora; that of Moleogor or the Nereids; that trat«d the Marian party in the Italian pemnsa-
of Castor and Pollux, unsurpassed in magnifi- la, he gained great distinction as one of Sylla'a
c«noe and size, and equally ornamented within legates, and was rewarded with the hand of
and wilhont ; that of the faun, or of the great .Emilia, the step-daughter of Sylla. He next
moaaio, so called from the bronze figure of the reduced Sicily, and in 61, crossing over to Af-
daucing faun and the famous mosaic of the rica, he overran Numidia, where the Mariaa
battle of Issus found there, and which contains party stiil held out against Sylla, and complete-
the most beautiful mosaics yet disoovered in ly crashed thera in a battle, in whioh their
Pompeii ; and that of M. Lucretius, one of the general Cn, Domitins Aheuobarbus and 17,000
latest yet nnoovered, and rich in pictures, mo- Nnmidians were slain. Upon returning to
saica, vase^ bronzes, ornaments, and coins, Rome he was met by the x>opnlace with accla-
Ontnde of the gate of Herculanenm are the re- maliona, and the dictator bestowed upon him
mains of two extensive suhnrban villas, called the snruame of Magnus, which was thenceforth
with little reason the villas of Diomedes and borne by himself and his descendants. Not
of Cicero, the latter of whioh, after the removal content with this distinction, he olaiqied a tri*
of its treasures toward the end of the last umph, a thing unheard of fbr a man of eques-
CMtwy, was agun filled ^ with earth. The trian rank who had filled no offloe of state, and
approach to the gate of Hercnhmenm, which which encountered the opposition of Sylla.
passes in front of these structures, is lined on The latter, however, in view of the fact that
either ^s with tombs of considerable size Pompey's army was encamped onttdde of th«
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
a FOICFXT
cttT,fliisUr7ielded; indlliaromiggeneraliWho irar agaiiut IQthridstea, a tneamre ftdvoeatsd
hsd not jet completed his 26th year, entered bf Oicero in hia oration Fro Lege Matiilia,
Bomein triomph inBept. 81. Two jeare later and bj Pompej^s rirol in after times, Cains
Pompej again thwarted the wishes of Sjlhi by Julius Ossar. This commission was accom-
seonrittg the election of IL .^milioa Lepidas panied with a grant of unlimited control orer
to the consolship ; but, tme to the aristocratio the land and nayal forces in the £asL and with
party to which he had attached himself, he re- proconanlar power in the whole of AmA as &r
nued to aid the oonsol in repealing the oonsti- aa Armenia ; so that Pom^r now wielded the
tution of Sylla, and when Lepidns la 77 marched moet eitenave anthority Btherto conferred by
npon Borne at the head of an arm/, he joined law npon a Soman citizen, with the exception
C^olos in defeating him. In the saoceeding of By Ua. The aristocratic party naturally look-
year he was sent by the eenate to oo6perat« ed npon him with more jealonsy and diiitnigt
irith Uetellos Pins in the reduction of Spain, tlian ever, whUa in the estimation of the pee-
where Sertorina, the laat and ablest general of pie he was the foremost man in Borne. In tbe
the Marian party, oontinned to hold ont againat summer of 66 he asEomed the command of the
the aristocracy. Here he met an enemy with army of the East and pnahing forward with
abilitieseqnalif not superior to bis own, as was rapidity surprised and totally d^eated ICth-
evinoed in their flrat enoonnter, which reanltad ridatea in Lesser Armenia. For the neit i
in the defeat of Fompey. In an obstinate bat- years his career was one of nninternipted sne-
tie fought in the next campaign he was ag^ oess. All eastern Asia Minor was snl^ected
worsted by his opponent, narrowly mcaping to the Boman sway, and Armenia, the soutli-
ilife; fl ■ ■' ■ ■ " " -3. . ™
with his life ; and on another occasion he was em Cancasns, Mesopotamia, Media, Syria, Pfao^
rontodbyhim, with the lose of 6,000 men. He nicia, and Jndeea were either made tribotariea
received re&nforoements from Uie senate, and to the republic or were rednced to the con-
for several years an micertain struggle was ditioa of conqnered provinces. In 63 Mith-
mainttuned. But Sertorina having been asaaa- ridates, a fiigitive in the Taurio Chersonesne^
sinated by his rival Perpema, Pompey found after vun endeavors to unite the barbarous
little difficulty in bringing the war to a sac- tribes of eastern Europe against Bome, put an
oessfnl termination, and in 71 he returned with end to his life ; and Fompey, who had taken
bia army to Bome. Passing throagh northern Jerusalem and was meditating new conqnesta
Italy, he cut to pieces a body of 6,000 gladiators, in the remote East, led back his troops to the
who had escaped from thebattle in which their Eniine, and at Sinope honored the remains of
leader Sportacns was orerthrown by Crassaa, his adversary with a royal f^eroL Early in
and thus claimed the merit of finishing the ser- 63 he left Asia, and proceeding by slow marches
vile war also. 8o popular was he now with reached Rome at the end of a twelvemonth,
the soldiery and the people that his demand bringing with him an immense train of royal
for a triumph was willingly granted, while and noble captives, and an almost fabulous
Grassus, who had in reality crn^ed the formi- amount of eastern spoils. His third triumplL
dable revolt of Spartacus, received only an ova- lastingtwodays, waacelebratedinSept Gl,and
tion. In the following year Pompey and C^as- from that dote is to be traced the decUiie of
BUS entered upon the consulship, notwithatand- his fortunes. Almost immediately afterward
ing both were ezctuded by the laws of Sylla; ha met with a rebuff from the senate, who,
and the former inoreoeed his popularity by re- glad of on opportunity to affront a man of liis
storing the tribunitian power, and institnting unportance and influence with the people, re-
a reform of tbe judicial system. These meas- fbsed to ratify his measures in A^ and to
nres however involved the eeveranoe of his make an assignment of the lands he had
former party ties, and thenceforth for many promised to hia veterans. This ouly widen-
years he was the avowed enemy of the aristoc- ed the breach between Pompey and the aris-
raoy. For two years after the expiration of his tocracy, and hastened the downfall of both,
consulship he kept aloof from civil affairs, for In this emergency Fompey found a friend in
which in fact he had little capacity; and in Ofesar, whose inflnence with the people had
67, after an obstiitata resistance by the aria- been ateadily growing during the absence of
tooraoy, which at one time threatened to end the fonner in the ^ast, and who was now
in a civil war, he was appointed with un- plotting with consummate tact to aupplsnt
limited and irresponsible power for 8 years nim in power. They mutually agreed to snp-
oommander-in-chief of an immense naval force port each other in their prominent peblic
destined to exterminate the pirates who in- meaEores ; and at the instance of Cssar, Cras-
fested the Mediterranean. He speedily cleared sua, a man formidable from his great tcealth
the sea weat of Greece of the enemy, and and aristocratic connections, was indnced to
sailing to the eaatward annihilated their entire join the coalition, which is known in history
force in a great battle off Ooraoesinm, on tbe as the first triumvirate. In the sncceediiig
coast of Cilicia. In the course of 8 months year, OS, Casor entered upK>n his first ronsul-
the war was completed, and the victorious com- ship, and secured for Pompey the ratification
mander, during his absence from Bome in 63, of his acts in Aida, and also by his agrarian
was on motion of the tribune 0. Manilios in- law enabled him to make good his promises to
Tested by acolomalion with the command of the his soldiera. At the same time, to cement
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOUFEY 436
Uiclr anion more closelr, ha gave him hia ble to the suute, & deoree wm puaed in Jan.
danriiter Jalia in marriage. Pompej now bof- 49, hj vMch Otewr waa reqairod to disband
ruidered himaelf to the pleasorea of domeatio hfa armj before a apeoifled tiioe, nnder peoaltj
life, with little care for the macbinationa of of being declared an enemy to the repablio.
hia enemies, or regard for the welfore of hia Oeeaar, accepting the challenge thua uirown
&fenda. Cicero, his panegyrist, waa allowed down to bim, immediately orossed the Enbi-
to go into exile ; and only when his own life con and marched npon Rome. Potnpey, in-
waa threatened by the enemies of the orator &taated by the possession of power, and confi-
did Pompey make an effort to procnr6 his re- dent of Ida capacity to raiae any number of
call. In n^itnde for thia act Oioero pro- troope Hie ezigeQciea of the state might de-
cared for Pompey the office ot praftetat an- mand, had taken no measures to provide against
nMwe for S years, with prooonanlar aothority this moTement; and whan Onsar witn bia
and the command of 16 legions. Kotwith- veteran lemons, trained in the wars of Gatd,
standing he was enabled to cheapen the price waa at the city gatea, he foond bimself ntterly
of com in Rome, he found that his inflnenoe nnable to offer resistance, aod with the con-
was waning at home, and that he had grad- aula and the greater part of the senate and ads'
Dally lost the confidence of all parties. Eiaa- tocraoy fled to Bmndosinm. Being Tigoronsly
perated by the attacks of Oiodins, Oato, and followed by hia enemy, he crossed over to
others of hia enemies, who, he charged, were Qreeoe, and at Dyrraohiiun, on the coaat of
acting at the instigation of Orsssna, he repaired lllyricnni, aasembled a nnmerons army, with
in Sd to Offisar's winter qoarters at Lnoca, which he awaited the spproaoh of Onsar,
where he was reconciled to Oraasna, and the Early in 4S Onsar arrivM in Qreeoe, with
biumviratewasratifiedaaew.theagreementbe- foroes less nnmerona than those of his oppo-
ing that Pompey and Oraasnsshoold be conaula nent, but greatly anperior in discipline. He
daring the ensuing year and obtain provinces mancenvred in vain to draw Pompey from hia
and armies, while Ossar was to have his gov- position ; the latter was bent npon weakening
emment of Qaal continued for 6 years. Ao- hie enemy withont risking a battle, and had he
oordingly, in 55, alter some opposition. Pom- been allowed to follow out hia plana mu^t
pey and his oolleagne were indacted into office, have escaped ruin. But the clunorona un-
and the former, pleaaed with the idea of se- patience of the Roman nobles and senators
coring the dictatorahip, endeavored to regain who filled bis camp thwarted hia purpose, and
the popnlar favor by an exhibition of gtadia- when Omaar, after a severe check at Dyrra-
torial showB and combats of wild beasts in r chiom, was compelled through foilure of sap-
large theatre he had constructed in the 0am- plies to direct his march into Thesaaly, Pom-
pns Martins. The people were amused for pey was urged ae^st his better Judgment to
the moment, but soon began to express their follow and siTe nim battle on the plaina of
discontent that Pompey ahonld send his le- Pharsalus. Sis army waa completely routed
gatea to Bpain, the government of which prov- by Csaaar'a veterans, and he bimaelfj disheart-
ince he had secnred, instead of oondncting the ened and bewildered by his defeat, fled with
war there personally. At the same Ume it a few friends to Lesbos, whenoe he repaired to
became apparent that Ctesar waa gaining so Pampbylia, where a number of hia party with
rapidly in influence with the people that a ships and troops joined him. Being advised to
(tniggle between him and his rival muat ensue, aeek an aaylom with the young king of Egypt^
For two years after the expiration of his con- to whose father he had rendered aignal aer-
anlship Pompey remained at home, and by vices, he arrived off the coast of that country
Hcrelly abetung intestine fends promoted a and disembarked in a small boat with a few
stale of anarchy in Rome, which compelled the attendanta. The chief officers of the king, who
senate to invoke his asaiatance. He waa in- were awaiting him on the shore, had deter-
vested with supreme authority by being made mined, as a meana of propitiating OisBar, up<m
sole consul in Feb. G3, and soon restored com- putting bim to death ; and as he was about to
parative order in the city. This may be con- leave Uie boat Beptimina, who had been one of
sidered his final rapture with the people and his centurions and waa now in the aervioe of
bis reconciliation with thearistocraey, of whom the king of Egypt, stabbed bun in the back,
he now became the acknowledged head. Ya- The rest then drev their awords, and Pompey,
rious measures were at once brongbt forward seeing that reuatance waa hopeless, covered
to check the designs of Orasar, whose infinence his face with his toga and was despatched npon
with the people by a lavish expenditure of the apot. His body was oast oat naked on the
money was steeply increasing ; and upon his shore, where it was buried by a freedman, and
aanonnoing his intention to stand for the con- his head sent to Cssar, who wept upon behold-
snlahip for the year 48, Pompey and the ari». W it, and put his mnrderers to death. In
tocracy demanded that he ahonld present him- private life Pompey was temperate and fra-
aelf in Rome as a candidate for the office, eal, and was a kind and indnlgent husband.
Cesar naturally declined to place himtelf in It deserves to be mentioned to hia credit that
the power of hia eoemies, but agreed to resign hia immense wealth was honeetly aoqoired,
his offices and conmiand if Pompey would do and that he was consoientioas in the manage-
the same. Aa this proportion was nnpalato- ment of the pnbllo ftnancea. He waa married
478 F0UP£7 PONOE DE LEON
B times, hia last wife, Gornelio, snrrhitig Um~. POMFONIUS MELA. Bm Uela.
II. Onbitb, eldest son of the preoediag bj h!« PONOE, Pxdbo, a Bpanuh Benediodne, Ixtm
M wife, Mllcit^ bom betveen 80 and 76 B. in Old Oaitil« aboat 1680, died at tli« oonroit
0., killed in Laaron on the Spaoisb ooast in of Ona, in Old Castile, in ISU. Heisbelierad
46. His first important militkr; service was to hare been the flnt tnstractor of deaf mntM
In the war between bis father and Oesar. in articulation. Ambrooia Uorales states that
After the battJe of PharaaJia ha was left in he tanght two brothers and a aister of the ocat-
poxessionof a formidable fleet, and in 47 be- stable of Castile, and asonof the grand jiistJee
mn to take active meaaarea to renew the war. of Aragbn, who were deaf and dnmb; and af-
He collected an snny of ISlMiona In Spain, ter some Tears the? were not onl; able to writ*
whither in the latter part of 46 Omar followea end read oorreotly, but to conrerse intelligent^
him. He was totaUjr defeated in the desperate Ij. One of them, who died in his SOth jeor,
battleof Monda, March 17, 4S, and BhorOr after qwke and wrote Latin flnently. Another be-
was overtaken and killed at lAoron. He was oame a Benedictine, and, acoordiag to the tes-
natnrall? bold and pasdonate, and thedeathof timonj of Bir Eendm Digbj, conversed on rs-
hia father aronsed in him a (brocions implaoa- ligioAs and scianliflo anl^eetB veir freely, and
bilit?. in. SsxTua, brother of the preceding, wtthoot betraying his infirmitr. Sir Kenelm'a
bom in 76 B. C, killed at Miletea, Asia Minor, acoonnt of Pouce and his method of tea "
in 8S. After the defeat of his brother at Mun- is sappoaed to have been the means of c
possesion of Bcetica and otjier portions of in which he erpiained bte method^ and li
Bpain. So formidable did he become, that it dovra certain rales for the instmetion of the
was proposed in the senate to make terms with deaf and dnmb.
him, and a vote was taken to allow him to re- PONOE OE LEON, Juas, a Spanidi discov-
tam to Rome and to indemnify him for the erer, bom in Leon, died in OnbainlBSl. He
confiscation of hia fUher's possessions. The dismgniahed hunself in aevaral campaJgna
formation of the 2d trimnvlrste defeated this against the Moors of Qranada, and, accompany'
project, and Sextos, being now declared an ing Cdtmnbnsonhissecondeipeditioninl49S,
ontiaw, made a descent apon Bicilj', which was became commander of the eastern province of
speedily rednced to hia away. For sereral Eiepmiola. He made an expedition to Porto
years he contented himself with harassing 'ha Rico in 1608, proenred conriderahle gold, and
enemies by cutting off their supplies of provis- on his return to Hispaniola obtained penniemoo
ions from Sicily, and in 43 be defeated in the to raise money and men sufSdent to satijngate
straits of Sicily a fleet sent agiunst bim by the the island ; bnt iiefore he set out he was re- '
trinmvir Octavlns. During the campaign of moved and another commander appointed in
the triumvira against Bmtna and Oaaains he his place. In 1609 he was reappointed, and
remained inactive, bnt subsequently the vigi- flnally reduced the island, which he governed
lance of bis fleet in int«rceptmg the scpplies with severity, ml the fiunily of ^Inrnhna
of corn destined for Boms produced such a ageXa caused his removal. He was now an
scarcity in the capital, that the populace rising old man; but his love of adventnre was still
in insarreotion demanded that peace shonld be strong, and beside he had heard of the exist-
concluded with him. A treaty highly advan- ence of a fountain which eonld restore youth
tageooa to Sextns was accordingly negotiated, and beauty ; and confident of the reality of the
but proved a mere delualon, none of the parties fabled foantaiu, he fitted out S ships at hia
apparently being sincere in their profusions, own expense, and on March 8, 1613, sailed
The war recommenced with signnl advantages from St. Qennain in F<m1o Bieo for the Ba-
te Sextns, whose sdmirala in 88 twice defeued hamas, one of which gronp, called Bimini, waa
the fleets of Octavius ; but again by his inao- said to contain the marvellous fountun. Island
tivity he let the moment for decisive action after island was visited, the waters of evec^
slip by, and qaietly permitted his enemies to river, fonntain, or lake were tasted, but no
eqnip new armaments. In the summer of 8S trace of Bimini or ita wonderfbl stream conM
three large fleets suled from difTerent points be found. Tnrning to the north-west, on £as-
npon Sicily, but were so shattered by a storm ter Sunday land was seen. It was thought
that the attack proved abortive. With fatal to be an island, and fh»n the magnificenoe
in&tnation Seztus again allowed Octavlns to of the vegetation and from the day of its dis-
recover from this dbaster, and in September oovery (Span, ^ateua Jhrida) it received the
of the same year the triumvir's fleet, com- name of Florida. On April 8 he landed some
manded b^ M. Vipsanins Agrippa, completely milesN.ofthepreeentsiteofSt Angnatine,and
defeated bis own m a fight off Nanlochns on took possesmon of the country in the name of
the coast of Sitily. He fled with a few ships the inng of Spain. He spent several months
to Asia Mmor, and, after vain endeavors to tn orui^ig, donbled Oape Florida, sailed among
wrest the eastern provinoee from Antony, was the group called by him Tortngas, and finally
captured and put to death by the triumvir's returned to Porto Hico, leaving behind one ot
legate, M. Titina. his foUowers to continue the search. In 161)
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FOKOE DX LBOHT BO
ht irrini in Bpiia, There he vaa appotnted Vnitttiaii oMttrovenr," After edidng B Tol-
goTemor of Flonda, on coudituMi that he abovld nines of this work, vritinK tdmedf more tluii
wlooize the ooantrj. The next year ha re- half the Aitioleepiibliehedtlia was called to ths
oeired the oommaad of an expedition fitted ont profeaBorahip of theology in the theological
tguoit the Oaribbee Indiana, vhioh prared eoninarj at Bangor, lie., and inangnrat^ in
maooceaduL Betiring to Porto Bioo, it waa Sept 18S3. He continued to disoharge the
jM mtil 1621 that, embarkinc nearly tR his daties of that potion and of the department
veilth in two aUps, he proceeded to take pos- ot eookdaatical hietory ontjl 18Se, when he re-
BMsianaf hie provinoe. In Florida be waamet signed the profBasorahip of theology, to beoome
bj tba natirea wiUi determined lioBtility, and " prerident, pi«fem)r of eodesiastical hiatorj,
in u attack made by fhem the 6paniard> and leotarer on paabnvl dntias," which la the
were driven to thur ebifa, and Ponce de Leon de^goation of his preaant relation to tjie insti-
hiouelf was mortally wonnded, and died after tntioiL Br. Pond^ firat pnUication, in 1817,
liiiuTival in Cuba. waaareriew of aaermoD against "Oonfler^ico
FOXOE DE LEON, Line, a Spanish lyrio Meetings,"byDr.fianoroftofWorce8ter,Hasa.,
poet, bom in Qranoda in ISSS, died in Madri- which led to a reply and r^oioder. The aame
pi. Aug. is, 1691. He entered the Angns- year he renewed " Jndaon on Baptism," hla
tHiiui order at tiie age of 16, became lioen- review reaclung two editions. In 1824 he
tittB in theology in 1S60, and doctor of divin- published a volume of "Utmthly Oonoert Leo-
itf ihortly af^rward, and at the age of 84 toreii'' Since that time be has pnUished the
obtuoed a profeeswnhip of theology at Sals- following works: in 1897, a " U«ttoir of Pres-
BincL Ten yeare later he was made profeasor ident Davies," and a " Hemc^ of Snsannn
of 9acr«d lit«Tatare. For the benefit of some Anthony;" in 1889, a "Memoir of Oonnt Zinr
Kend* he made a veraon of the " Bong of aendorf ;" in 1B41, a " Memoir of John WJ<i-
SolmoD" into GastUian; and the manoscr^t lifi'e;" in 1848, the " Homing of theRefonna'
Wok into the hands of his eoamiea, he waa tion ;" in 1B4S, a " Beview of Second Advent
Imtight before the inqolsition of Valladolid in Pablicatdona," and "No PaUowBhip with Bo-
UTS, 00 a ehargo of Lntheraniam, and of hav- maniam ;" In 1844, the " Mather Family," and
iaglniulatedaiiartof theSor^itarea intotha "The Yomig Pastor's Qoide ;" In I846,"Th«
muoolar withont anthoril?. After 6 yeara' World'sSalvation;" in 184S,"PDpeand Pagan,"
japrigofimenthawaar^natatedlnallhiBofficea a "Beview of Bwedenbo^ianism" (anewedi-
iithaaniverrity iuDeo.lG78,beidnninghiafirBt tionof which waaiaaned by the American tract
iMtura after so many years' intermisBion with sodet?, Boston, 1861), and " Plato ;" in 1B4S,
Un na^ introdootion : "As we remarked a "life of Dtoreose Mather and Sir William
*liea we last met." Biit ori^al prodnetions, Phipps," and "The Ohnreh" (which reached
vhicti stand at the head <^ Spuiish lyrical a second edition in 1860); in 184S, a "Review
pMtry, are few in number, and chiefly of a re- of Bushnell's 'Ood in Ofarist';" in ISfil, the
ligioDs ebarater. They were first published by "Andeot Church;" in 1856, a "Memoir of
UifneodQaevedoinieSl. His moat popular John Knox;" and In 1868, "The Wreck and
pran vork was his Perftcta eaiada, cv " Pei^ the Beeoae, a memdr of Bev. Harrison Fsir-
bct Wile," a treatise in the fbrm of a oommen- field." Dr. Pond has been an eitendve oon-
'U7 00 portions of the book of Proverbs, tribntor to the principal religions Joninals, and
Aaoagbiiother prose worlu are the "Expoan- has written also many tracts and short artiolea
ftn of Job," and " The Names of Ohnat," for the weekly press.
""■Hsting of a series of eloquent discourses on POND, Jobh, an English astronomer, bom
At Sarioar's character. He also translated about 17S7, died in ISSS. He studied under
tlie Eclogues and two of the Georgics of Virgil, Walea, sstrouomer to CapL Cook's expedition,
■tet 10 odee of Horace, about 40 psahns, and and at Trinity college, Cambridge. Settling at
psMges from the Greek and Italian poets. Westbory near BrirtoL be made a series of ob-
liMbesteditioaof his works is that of Madrid aervaliona frmn which ha dednoed that the
[I ^la, 1804-'16). At the time of his death qoadrant then in nae at Greenwich for the de-
■>*bsdjnstbe«ichosenheadof hisorder, and termination of dedinationB had changed its
vupluni^ regnlatJons for its reform. form sinoe 1700, a result enbaequently verified
POND, £tooH, D.D., an American clergy- by measnrement. In 1807 he removed to Lon-
nu, bwu in Wrentbam, Mws.. July SB, 17S1. don, and in 1811 was appointed to anooeed Dr.
nevnanduatedatBrownunivenilyinlSlS, Maskelyne as astronomer royal. He subse-
"■dicdUufrfogy witiiDr.fimmonaofFrankUn, qnently devoted his ottontion chiefly to deter-
*u licensed to preach by the Mendon ssaoci- minina the places of the fixed stars. He in<
'i^iaJnne,1814,aDdwasord(dnedpsatorof vented the method of observing in groupa, and
^^ <3««ngationBl church in Ward (now Au- wssthefirstastronomerwhoadvoo(£adthenow
bum), Maaa., Man^ 1, 1816. He was dianissed nniveraal practice of depending upon mannnn
in ISSa, to become the oenduetor of Uie " Spirit of observations for all flmdamentsl data. He
9'lu Pilgrims," a monthly pubHcaUon in the retired upon a pension in 1886.
'f^tf* M Orthodox Congregationaliera then PONDlOHEBBY.atownontheCoromaudel
Jott tetabUdied in Boston, and which bore an coast, and capital of the French poeeesaions in
unpMant part In what ia known aa the "great Hlndostan, 86 m. S. fVom Madras; pop. about
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
478 POSflO PONSABD
40,000. It li rittuted at the monUi of & BBuH manded on Hie Bug, and irlien tli« Ung, Ids
river accessible bf Tessela of llsht dranght, ancle, acceded to tbe confederation of Targo-
and preftenbi from the sea a ra&er imposing ritza, Joaeph left the service with moot of Ui«
appearance. FreTiooa to tbe war of 1766, beet officers ; but when Bnbseqtientlj Kosta-
dnring which it was destrojed by the English, oazko raised the standard of revolt in 1794, he
It was one of the &ie>t cities in India. Tbe served onder him as a volnnteer, althoagfa in
Enropean quarter is well laid out along the the campaign of 1793 Koscinszko had been
sea aiiore, and is separated trom the native below him in military' rank. The command of
town bj a ditch crossed bj several bridges, a divinon was intmsted to him, with which be
There are large bazaan, 3 oharohee, a light- performed effective service daring the two
house, several sehools, and a college. The ter- degea of Warsaw, and after the capitolation of
ritorj annexed to Fondioberrr has an area of that city he went to Vienna. In 1798 he re-
107 sq. m. and a population (18B6) of about ISO,- tamed to Warsaw, then nnder the dominion of
000. It is mrronnded bj tiie British province Prasua, Hved npon his estates as a ProEidan
of Sonth Arcot, and is not very fertile. There suliJect, and npon the occepalion of that ejty
lis no harbor, but reaeela anchor on the open by the French he Joined their army, and dur-
coaet, where at all times a heavy sea rolls in, ing the campaign of 1B07 commanded the Po-
and the sarf npon the shore is almost as den- liu national army against the Rnsalans. By
geroDS as at ludras. The valne of both im- the peace of Tilsit the dachy of Warsaw waa
ports and exports Is not qaite |1, 000,000 per created, and Poniatowskl beciame its minister
annttm. The settlement was pnrohased by the of war. In Gio war between Anstna and
EHnoh from the B^apoor Tajab in 1672. It France in 180D, he was compelled to oTacnate
was oaptnred by the Dutch in 1668, bat ^ven the duchy, bat invaded Galicia, and terminated
np at the peace of Ryswick; and taken by the campaign by the occnpation of Oracow. In
t£e British in 1761, 17T8, 1793, and 1808, bnt the invasion of Enssia in I61S he commanded
each time restored at the concludon of hos- the Polish anxitiaries of the grand army. Jnst
tilities. When last given up by the English, before the batUe of Leipsic he was made hj
it was stipulated that no Enropean soldiers K^Mleon a marshal of Fraace. After that
shonld be landed at Fondicherry, and no for- battle be was introsted with the du^ of cover-
tifioations oonstracted. in^ the retreat of the French. The enemy h ad
PONGO. See OnAKO-OnTUTa. gamed possession of the sabnrbs of the titj,
PONI ATOWBEI, the name of a FoUsh fiunily when with a small retinae he plunged into the
of Italian origin. Joseph Balingaerra, a mem- deep stream of the Elster, in which he disap-
ber of the Italian Eunily of Torelli, aettled in peared. His body was recovered 4 days after.
Poland, and there assumed the name of Ponia- PONS, Louis, a French astronomer^bom in
towski ftom the estate of Foniatow, belonging Peyre, department of Eantes-Alpes, Dec. S6,
to bis wife, who was the daughter of Albert Fo- 1761, died In Florence, Oct. 14, 1881. In 17B9
niatowski and Anna Lesxozynska. Thefollow- he became connected with the observatory of
ingare the most distingnidied of his descend- Uarseilles. He possessed sochannncommonlj
ants. I. STunsLAw, born in 1677, died in 1768. clear vision and excellent memory that a glance
He attached himself to the fortnnes of Stanis- at a star enabled him to determine wheUier It
las Leszczynski and his protector Charles XII., belonged to the stars already catalogued or
accompanied the Swedieh army to Russia, and not In 1S19 he became snperintendent of the
was present at the battle of Puttowa (1709), observatory at Martia, in Lncca, and in 1625 of
after which be was sent as ambassador to Don- that of the museam at Florence. fVom 1801
stantinople, and while there was skilAil enongh to 1827 he had discovered S7 comets, and cal-
to involve the sultan in awar with Bnssia. Af- culated tbe paths of many of them.
ter the death of Oharies, he sni^orted Aligns- PONSARD, Fnas^ois, a French dramatist,
toB ll.,and byhimwaaraiaed toseveralofflces. bom in Vienne, department of Is^, in 1614.
Upon the death of Angostos he again J<diied He was sent to Paris in 1688 to stndy law, and
thefortnnesofStanlaWXiestczyiiBkiiWastaken in 1887 published a translation in verse of
prisoner at Dantdo by the Rusuans, was after- Byron's " Manfred." ffis flr^ dramatic com-
ward released, and was held in high honor by posiUon was the tragedy of jAterioA. Rachel
AagastasIII. He wrote " Remarks of a Polish had refosed to read it, and it had been declined
Nobleman on Voltaire's 'History of Charles by the committee of the Odeon theatre; bnt
XII.' " (the Hagne, 1741). II. STainsi.aw An- tbe manager of this theatre produced it It
avtrt, eldest son of the preceding, born in 1789, had a great success, and received a prize ft«m
was elected king of Poland in 1764, and died the academy. He subsequently produced other
in 1798. (See Folahd.) IH. Joebt A^rrOHi, dramas with less success, and in 1852 fonght a
prinoe, and marshal of France, nephew of the duel with Taxile Delord, a Joumaliat, on ac-
preceding, bom in Warsaw, May 7, 1763, count ofsomeinsinnationa in reference to a pub-
drowned in the river Elster, Oct 19, 1618. Uo tqipointment This affUr was his inspiration
He entered the Austrian army, was in the cam- in the comedy of L'hoimew et Paryent, which,
paign of 1767 against the Turks, and in 1789 politely declined at the thiAtre ffanfaU, was
was made a nuyor-general in the FoHsh army, triumphantly prodnoed at the Odeon. P(waard
In the war af^ut Bosda in 1793 ha txmu- -wm elected to the academy hi 1860.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOHTOHABmAnr FOHTIFEX 479
PONTOHARTRADT, a Bsltwator .ake in the effort to drive out the EkigMi. At the end ot
& £. part of Loniuona, BO culled ia honor of 1TS3 he BentmeBseriffersto the different nations,
Ooant Fontchartrain, a nunister of Louis XIT. propoeing that in May, 1768, thej Bhonld rise,
The lake is abont 40 tn. in length from E. to maaKWre the English garrisoDS, and fall npoa
¥., bj 24 io breadth from S. to S. It is oon- tlie frontier settlements. The plot was gener-
neoted with Lake Borgne on the "E. hj the all; eaooessftil. Pontiao bad reserTed for him-
Itigolets, a narrow winding strut, and with self the attack npon Detroit, hot before it wu
Jmb Uaorepaa on the W. hj the bayoa Kan- made his intention was discovered. He then
choc. Its B- shore approaches within 6 or 6m. regnlarly besieged the place, and neglected no
of ifew Orleans ; ana the bayou St. John, a ei^pedient that savage war&re could eaggeat to
■mall tribotary, extends into the snbnrbs of take it. To obtain food for his warriors he i»-
that city. The lake ia nowhere more than about aned promissory notes, drawn npon birch bark
SO feet in depth, yet it is the medium throngh and signed wiUi the figure of an otter, which
which is carried on most of the coasting trade were all redeemed. AAer the nege had ooa-
between Ne^ Orleans and the eastem gnlf tinned from Uay 13 until Oct. 13 it was rused,
porta. Steamboats and small veesela obtun and tlie tribes generally aned for peace. Bat
access from the lake into the heart of the city Pontiao was not yet subdaed. He endeavored
by means of two canals, each terminating in an to stir np the Indians on the Mjami and in
artificial basin. The northern ahores of the other parts of the West, and applied for aid in
lake are more elevated than the southern, and vain to the French commander at New Orleana.
afford Ntcs for handsome coontry seats and He at last made a staitd in the Illint^ oonntry,
places ofsammer resort. Among these are the where for a time he had the active ooCperation
vilWea^ Uadisonville and MandevtUe. of the French tar traders ; bnt even hia more
PONTE, Da. See Babsuio. immediate followers fall away from him, and
FONTE DELQADO, a town on the S. side he then accepted the peace which the English
of the island of fit. Hiohael, one of the Azores, offered. From this timehehaduoimportuioe,
in lat 37° W IT., long. 26° 86' W. ; pop. 22,000. and in 1786 he formally submitted to the Eng-
It a tolerably well built and snbstantial, and is liab nde. He was killed by an Illinois Indiw
defended on the sea side by the castle of St. at Oahokia opposite 6t. LoqIb, while dmnk. —
Braz, and about 8 m. to the E. by the ftirtaof See "History of the Conspiracy of Pontjao,"
San Pedro and Rosto de Oao. The harbor is by F. Parkman (Boston, 1801).
K> shallow that vessels require to be loaded ont- PONTIFEX, in ancient Rome, the titie of a
ada by means of lighters. Wheat, muze, and priest. The ofQce of pontifez is said to have
orancea ore the chief exports, been created by Numa, and nnder him the
PONTIAO, the capitd of Oakland co., Mich., pontiflces were 4, in number, esclosive of the
on Clinton river, and on the Detroit and Mil- pontifex mazimns, or chief priest. The pon-
vankee railroad, 20 m. N. W. from the former ; tiflces were not attached to tne worship of any
pop. in 1860, 2,600. It has an active bnsineas, partknlardivinity, bnt were a college of priests
and exports largely of wool, wheat, fruit, and superior to all others, and superintended the
butter. Beside the county buildings it contains whole public worship. In 800 B. C. the whole
■ nomber of manufactories, the river affording number was increased to S, in BI by the dio-
ample water power, 2 weekly newspaper offices, tator Sylla to 15, and by Julius Ciesar to IS.
■sd 7 churches. The pontifices held office for life. Upon Hm
PONTIAO, a North American Indian chief death of a pontifex a suooessor was choaen,
of the Ottawaa, an Algonquin tribe, born about originally by the college of prieeta, bnt in 104
1713, killed in 1769. He was first known as this election was given to the people by the
■n ally of the French. In 1746, at the head of lex Damitia. The college of priests had the
a body of Indians, mosUy Ottawas, he sucoesB- auperintendence of religion, kept the books of
fiilly defended Detroit, then a French posses- ritual ordinances, anil were required to give in-
won, agEuast the attacks of some hostile north- formation to any one who might consult theni
em trioee. Ue is believed to have led several on matters of religion. It was their duty to
hundred Ottawas at Braddock's defeat in 17S&; guard aghast irregularity in the observance
and when an English detachment was sent of religious rites, and to determine every thing
under U^or Rogers in 1760 to take possession in relation to burials, and bow the manes of the
of the western posts that the French had re- departed should be appeased. Over all claaeea
linquished by the treaty of Paris, it was met of the people they had the power of Judicial
by Pontiao, who, though he claimed the ter- decision and punishment in religious mattera
ritory as hb own, received the English com- could make new laws and regnlationa, and
mandant in a friendly apirit, and saw nim safely were themselvee not subject to any court of
to his destination at Detroit. The Indiana at law, nor responsible either to the senate or to
that time were fond of the French, and hated the people. The pontifex maximus wss the
the English ; their discontent was increased by president of the coU^, and acted in its name.
iqjadicioua usage, and trivial conspiracies be- He was obUged to live in a domvt publiM,
Cto be formed. Pontiac alao became em- and was not allowed to leave Italy. This lat-
ered, and finally determined to concentrate ter law waa first plated in 181 B. C. and
thehatredof all the weBt«mtribea in one great afterward waa never very strloUy observed.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
4S0 POKTmCIAL STATES FONTOTOO
A ptatifnc miKht bcM tmy other ofihw, tirO, Pope tlu TI. Booiboe VUL Ind baeri
militaiy, or priwUr, prarided it did not inter- ouiMd tiie district «boat Seizo and Senoo-
ftr« with his pontinool dntics. Tbera are ht- netta to be drained b^ a large can«l ; and in
Mttl fn*UDCM in which the offlcea of pontifex 1417 Hartiii V. had another canal, called tlw
mazimns and connil were held in coqjonction. Itio Martiao, dog to within a mile of tbe set,
The college of pontificea existed nnldl the final when the project was abandoned at hia deatL
overthrow of paganiBm,thoagh it had retuned The diatnct waa granted hj Leo X. to tha
in ita latter years but very little of ita ancient Medid, upon the condition of their draining it,
power or respect. and it remained in tlieir hands ft9 fears, dmiui
PONTIFIOAl STATES. See Papal Stxtkb. which tameBcaroaljanythingwasdonetowart
PONTINE UAB8HES, a low marshy plam ita improrement. A large causi, called tha
faithe B. part of the Oampagna of Bome, ez' Finnie Surto, was dog during the reign of
taiding uong the Uediterraneaa ooast from "■■■"■■-■■■■'- -
Oistema to Ten-amna, a diatanoe of abont SB
I the Uediterraneaa coast from Satan Y. ; but after the death of that pootiff
' ' ' 1690 the dama gave way, and the coantry
I again flooded. When Hds YL bectma
ita area is ahoat 80 sq. m. These marshes are pope, he directed hia attention to draining the
formed by tlie stagnation of the waten of the mwahe^ and the work waa begun in J7T8, and
nomerons ali'eama which flow down the Yol- completed in 1786. The line of the Appian
aofan moontains or take tbeir rise in niriiige way waa in part reatored, and the canal attrib-
at their foot, and are prevented flrom uiding nted to Anguatna was again opened under tike
an outlet to the aaa by the low level of the name of Linea Pia. Jt naa been found almost
pl^u and the acenmnlation of sand upon the impoaaible, however, to reclum the waste land,
coast. Althongfa there is little doubt that this aluiongh there ia much nnder culdvadoii, and
tract of ground waa of a later formation than larve pastures abonnd, where horses,- cattle,
the Burrouudlng territory, the opinion of the and bnfialoes graze. The district called Pomp-
Bomans that it had its origin ranoe the his- tinns Ager, often portioned out to Boman colo-
torio period ia probably erroneous. This im- niata, was probably the land bordering on the
pression seems to have sprang tram the belief marahes, and not tbe marahea themselrea.
that Uons Girceios was in the time of Homer PONTOFPIDAN, Ehie. a Danish author,
■tUTounded by the sea, and was the island of born in Aarhnus, Jntlflnd, in JBflS, died in
Circe mentioned by that poet Pliny pre- Bergen in 1706. He waa the son of a clei^-
serves a tradLtion that these low gronnds man, and was graduated in divimty at the
formerly contained 34 cities; but this ia eri- university of Copenhagen. After trayelHng as
dently false, as no traces of their site or even tutor witii several young noblemen, he became
of their names can be fonud. The name of professor of theology at Copenhagen in 1788,
the marshes was derived from Snessa Pome- and bishop of Bergen in Norway ia 1747. In
tia, a Volad&n town somewhere on tb«r bor- 1780 he published a description of the geogra-
ders, which about GOO B. C. disaopeared from phy, natural history, antiqnitiea, &&, M Dec-
history, and the poution of whica is not now mark, nnder the title of TAeatrvm Bania F«-
known. Various attempts were mads by the terit et Modtmx, and afterward treated the
Bomana to drain the msrsbes, both for the same sabjecta more Mly in his Sviukt AlUu,
sake of the land, and to prevent the miasma tlUr hmgtn £igtt Dammiark (7 vols. 4to., Co-
which waa sometimea bome by the aouth penhagen, 176S-'74). Among bis other works
wind as &r as Bome itaelf. Aa early as 812 are : Qnta et Vtitigia Danorvm extra Datiiam
B. 0. the Apptan way seems to have been car- (1740) ; AniiaU» BeeUnm Danim n741-'68);
ried through thia district, and along with it a GlotarvM Nontgiaim (1749) ; ana DttfinU
canal irom Appii Forum to Terradna. In 160 Fondg paa I^orge* iMturlige Sittorie (1762),
B. C. on attempt to dr^n the marshes was made which has been translated into En^ish. Be
by the consul Oomelins Cethegns; bat, though was the first to give an account of thekraken.
this was apparently attended with mooesa, ^e PONTOBMO, Jaoopo Oabrdcoi, somsmed
tract had so soon reverted tofts orinnal con- IlPontonno, an Italian punter, bom at Pontor-
dition tJiat ita drainage was one of the public mo, Tuscany, in 1498, died in 1666. A pupilof
works projected by Cffisar, which however he Andrea del Sarto, he won the commendations
did not live to execute. With the exception of Mohel Angelo and Baphael, whereupon his
of temporary improvements, nothing was done maater from jealousy expelled him fraa bis
by the SQCoeeding emperors to aooomplish studio. He did not however IHilfll the hopes
thia work until the reign of Triyan, who re- of hb admirers, and left but few historical pie-
stored completely the Appian way. During tores, the most valuable of which ia the " \ is-
the wars preceding the downfall of the Bo- itationof ourLad7,"in theAnnnnriataatFlo^
man empire the marshes had been snffered to enoe. In portraitnre his works rank snwng
revert to their original condition, and Theo- the maaterpieoea of the Horentine schooL
doric undertook the drainage with oouMdor- PONTOTOO, a N. co, of Miaa., watered by
able success. But the commotions of the time the Tallahatehee and Yallobnsha and bnucbes
soon caused them to be neglected, and they of the Tombigbee river; area, about 900 squl;
became aa uninhabitable aa ever, remaining so pop. in 1860, 22,114, of whom 7,69BwereaIaves.
with soaroely any change until the reSgn ' of It naa an undolaUiig surfsoe and fertile soil.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Clie prodastioiia In 1850 wen WTfiiS btuheb rod
rfIiidIanoorn,116,S71ofsireatpotatoM,ra,181 aot
ba. of rioa, aod 9,017 b>lesof cotton. There eon
P0H7DB POOBIAWB 481
Tlie prodnstiona In 1850 wen WTfiiS btuheb rodmed it upon ihe punge of tlio nnifonni^
_.i_ii ,,»«« -* i_-,..^-„ »»,n, «otin 1682. Heiras en^gedln nunrof the
eontroruines of his time, eq>edall7 in thoM
were 3 griat mills, S mw bi]11b, 8 tanneries, 9 npcHi nonoonftirmitj', and wrote mnoh in oppo-
newRpBper offices, 47 obnrohea, and S78 paiols ntioD to the Koman OaQioUo cbordh. SBi
Blteadmg pnblio tohooli. Oaidtal, Pontotoc. last yeara were spent in Holland. Hia priuci-
PONTUB, an andent diviaion of Asia IOdot, pal work ia the Sytt^tit Orifieorvm SibSeonun
eomi^ised within the boimdariea of the pres- (5 vols, fol., IM9-'76), a ^gest of the CfrUiei
ent Anatolia. It derived its name from its Sacri (1660), presenting In a condensed form
mtattian apon tiie S. shore of the Pontos £nx- the views of IGO commentators,
inns, and waa boonded I:, bj Oolohis, 8. bj Ar- POONAH, a diatriot of Britiah Lidia, pre*-
menia HUnor, Gi^padocia, and Qalatia, and W. idencf of Bombay, bonnded V. and E. ^Ali-
b7 the river Haifa. Xenophoa is the earliest mednnggar and ShoUpore, S. and 8. W. bjr
anthor by whom this district is called Pontna ; Battara, and W. bj ysniiBb, extending bom
it had prerioadr been designated br the namea laL 17° S8' to 10° 26' S., and from long, n'
of (he rariooB tribes that inhabited it. Some SO' to 75° IC £. ; area, 5,398 sq. m. ; pop. in
of thaao tribes were extremely wild and savaxe, IS&C. 669,006. The district is included witliin
but the Oreek colonies establiabed upon the the hmits of the Deooan. The general eler*-
eoast aa early as tite 7th oentnry B. O. ^Tadn< tion is about 8,000 feet above the sea, ai^ the
ally q>read onltnre and civilization. While the surface is intersected by nnmerons apnra and
whole covotry waa under the domiidon of Per- ofisets from tiie W. Qhants, which travene the
sia, and in the rdgn of Artaxerzes II. abont the country in a S. E. direction, deoreaung grad-
beginnlng <^ the 4th centnry B. O., AriobsT' nally in height till they sink into the pluns in
sanea oooqnered several of the Fontian tribes the Nizam's dominions. The (ffincipttl rivera
and first estaUtshed the country aa an inde- are the Beemah and ita tribntariea, the most
peodont kingdom. In tiie r^gn of Uithridates important of which is the Neera. The clhnate
U. the kingdom acquired political importano& is remarkably drv, the annual fell of rain being
and daring the troubles following the death of less than 90 inches. The soil la arid, and in
Alerander aeeored its independence. Under many places water cannot be procnred by nnk*
lGthridat«s VL it was anbdind by the Bomans ing wells. Different kinds of grun and pota-
snd dismembered, the eastern part bdngpven toes are cultivated, and cotton is grown to a
again to its earlier savua owners, and the west- small extent ; but iJie country is almost entirely
em part annexed to Bithynia. A portion of destitute of trees. The great Indian penlnaalar
this tmitOTj was sobseqaently madia a sever- r^lway traverses the district. The inhabitants
eignty noder Polemo, and the whole beoame a are chiefly Hahrattas, bat there are a few 6d-
Bwnan province. A, D. 67. zwattees and some Uohommedans. — Pookah,
PONTUS EUXIirns. See Buok Su. the o^iital, la ^nated at the Junction of two
FOODIE (eanit aquatietu), the barbet or tributaries of the river Beemah, 74 m. B. E.
water do^. It has a hl^h and roond head, from Bombay; pop. 00,000. It was formeriy
tsrge oavity for the bram, expanded frontal the o^tal of the Ifabratta confederacy, and
Nunsea, long ears, compact body, and rather the chief building in the town is the palaoQ of
ihortlega. Thehurislc«g,oiirly, black, white, " ■•- ' . . -
or the two mixed, sometimes with rufbus marks. _ ,. - . .
The large yariety stands 18 to 30 inches hi^h military station, and the British oantomnents
at the shoulders, and hoe coarse curled hair, there are among the most extensive in India,
often ahaved to r^resent a miniature lion ; the POOS, Dakisl, an American mksionary,
iQDzile ia short and prondnent, and the tail is born in Danvers, Mass., June 97, 1789, died in
rather diort and somewhat erect. It has long Uampy, Oejlon, Feb. 8, 1865. He was grada-
been known to flahermea and sportsmen as an ated at Bartinonth college in 1811. and at the
•ieell«rt water dog; the sense of smell la es- theological seminary at Andover in 1814. Is
quieite, which giveait aremarkable power of Oct. 181G, heauledforOeyloninoompany with
traoiiig out the lost property of ibi master ; it other missionariea, and reached Colombo in
is strong, intdligent, and aSbotionote ; it used March, 1810. He took hia station at TiUipally
to be A great &vorita witlt soldiers on the con- near Jafiha, studied the Tamnl language, and in
tiuoit of Europe, and many afeiting anecdotes July, 1888, took charge (tf the mission sraiinary
are oa record of its fidelity to ita lirtng and at- at BatUootta. In March, 1886, he removed to
toohineat to its dead master. There b a di- Madura, where S7 schools were soon opened
unnntive breed, with longer, more idlky, and mi^y through his agency. He went back to
coriy hair, generally white, fit only for a Iw Tillipslly in 1811 on account of his health, and
dog; ife is (rften tiie oomoaidon of nnmarrlea there labored until 1848, when he returned to
ana elderiy ladies and ohu^eae wives. the United States, where he spent 2 years work-
FOOI^ Uatthkw, an English divine and Ing for the missionary oaoae. Betnrning to
critii^ bom in York in 1634, died in 1670. Ceylon in leso, he settled at Uampy, where h»
He was odacoted at ^nmannel college, 0am- remded until his death. He published several
brUgB, took orders, and in 1H8 obt^ed the tracts, Ac., in the English and Tamnl languages,
rectory of St. Michael le Quern, London, bat POOK LAWS. Bee Pi.DFxaiaM.
VOL. xrn, — 81
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
481
FOPATAK
POPAYAir, » flttr of Kew GnuiwUi, oamtal
of the state of OaooA, and of a provinca of the
uine imme, dtnated 6,000 fe«t above the eea
on the river Oaaett, in the great plain between
the Oordillera of Qnindin and th&t of Ohooo ;
pix), SOjOOO. It haa » catliedTsl and nomeroni
pnblio edifiow, and m^er the Spaniah rule was
a fionrishing citjr ; bnt iti importance has been
uraeh redtioM iooonaMnenoe of the earthquake
of 1B34, ai^ the nnsettled state of the cooDtr?.
Ita former trade in the preoiona metab haa been
in great measure deetrojed, and ita commerce
is now confined ohieflj to articles of prodooe.
It is still, however, a place of importance tram
Its podtjon as a omnmercial mart between
Quito and Btwota, and from tlie fact that a
great commerdal Toad neorlj- 1,000 m. long
extends from it to Trazillo in Pern. Popa^au
was founded in 1B87, being the first city built
bv Eoropeans in this portioD of Sonth America.
POP& I. A 0, CO. of 111., bordered 8. E. by
the Ohio river, which separates it from Er.,
and intersectod b j Big Bay creek ; area, St4
•q. m. ; pop. in I6fl0, 6,T42. It has a rolling
nr&De, and the soil >• a fertile sandy loam.
The prodactions in 1850 were 238.668 boshels
of Indian com, 10,WS8 of oata, 3,862 of wheat,
2,087 lbs. of wool, and 18,922 of butter. There
were SB chnrches, and fiTO pnpila attending
pablic schools. OapUal, Goloonda. II. A K.
W. CO. of Ark., bordered 8. partly by the Ar-
kansaa river, which intersects the S. W. comer,
and W. partly by Big Piney creek, and drained
by niinola bayoa ead otber streams; ara%
aboDt flOO sq. m. ; pop. in 1800, S,S5S, of irhona
2,440 were slaves. It has a hOly snrfiwe and
fertile soil. The prodnctioiis in 1850 wero
209,880 bushels of hidian com, 1S,S80 of sweet
potatoes, 1,0S6 bales of cotten, and 8,780 lbs.
of tobacco. There were 10 grist milh, 14 saw
mills, 2 tanneries, 11 chnrches, and 8!B pupil ■
attending pnUic schools. Capital, Dover.
POPE (Or. jTOTD, fatjier), a tifle applied by
the eastern Ohristians to all priests, and tai the
West originally given to all bisho|W, bat now
restricted to the bishop of Borne. TheRwnaB
Catholios regard the pope as the lentfanato
sncoeSBOT of St Peter and the viable head of
the church, the invittble head being Christ
He was anciently elected by the peo^e of his
diocese, bat is now chosen by the cardinala, a
vote of two thirds being required to elect
On accoant of the nnion of temporal and 00010-
tdastical power in his person, it hasfcDg beoi
an understood condition that he shontd be an
Italian. (See Papal Brxn8.)_Tbe last p<^
of foreign birth was Adrian Vl. (1522), ■ nar
live of Utrecht According to Bomaa GathoUo
writers, the biabop of Rome has always been
reoogniied as the saperior of all other Christiaa
Uahops; bnt Protestant historians date his sa-
premaoy generally frmn abont the 4th centnry.
We snbjoui a table of the popss, according to
the Roman Ifotieit, with the dates of the com-
mencement of their reigns. The names printed
in Italics are those of antipopea.
».P.tor.
in
*1S
MB
m
MS
IM
SI
fits
i
H
we
ss
ST3
EM
SH
«ST
«8
-i
B
IS
i
"Sa.?:!^: «.
W"."'::::::::::: IS
i
!S
1S8
Its
S!
SK
i
US
IS
iss
IM
"|i
sn
ss«
st.cgi'einio«'i.!^!.''"!!
BC. BlitDi III.
John^ Wl
John VIL m
^^eeH
KEfulatBL
SKr.:.::::;::::
BtyellillL
li^Si-iiii™
S"'=Si:;zii
•J-^'™^'
SS'iSS -iLiiii "
Bt Piul L— OmWrut-
BtWiv.'.:: ::■.::::: m
saw.:-:::::::
SonllUuIL-ZMaurM
BLCinxRuL
S^iV^*™- !S
StSsa.":::.-;.:;:
^■Lutl«,l.-A,SiMi-
BwiwUst (L) Bowaiuu
'%^"-^^;^
tt8l5'*^L
A^zvi. 0TXvii.'.;!naB
it^X'l!":::;;:;:;
arOregDrTl.tl«ar«t
sSe;;;:';- 1
Buadlct VIIL— 0rw
(BMnoutam.ude
BtUnuniuL
JohnVIIL BIS
5^i".:::
ThBodonuL
&^SZ.E'r-
AdeodMu
StiplianX IWT
Hlcbotoa UH
Dioi.zoobjGoogle
iiaaaOMr UL—rittor
(Bea TKUit S TTt. an
ac.C«t«tJnaT.....
Banl&aVlIL...
BaudletZL....
'.«
puan iMDorad to
Xiltam) UW
jiduZziL mi
BM*dM XIL-jnoilo-
■tond to Koiob) . .
OnBoiTZIL 140*
AlaiuaerT. IKK
JobaXXIIl 141>
lhrttiiT.-a«uii«r/UlUI
Bnnnlu IT^JTaUg T IWl
MIbEoImT. 1441
Flmia..
JoUwIL..
LmZ.....
FulIIL IGU
B^'^...
ClcmantVUL..
;;1
L»ZIL
piMvm
Sfa^T.":;:
POPE, AmAin>Kii, an Engliah poet, born
in London, Mty %l, 1888, died at Twickenham,
IGddleaax, Vmj SO, 1744. Hia &tlier waa a
Boman OathoIJo, who, ItSTing uqnired a null
brtitaeMftlin«nnwrohant,rMiTedonthe rav-
olntion of 16S8 to Binfltid in Vlndior for«tt
Alezandw inherited a crooked body and a
mkly «onalatati<n. Sb flrat edneatlon, to tue
hte own wocds, was " eztremelj looae sad di»<
ooDcarted." Exriag t«uht hinudf to write
by eopyioK out of printed booka, he learned a
mtie Greek and Latin from a priest named Ban-
iater, and was then aent to aciiool, first at Twy-
to hare atodied little bat DrTden, Bpemer, and
Waller, Ogilin^'s translation of Homer, and
Sand/B B tranuation of Ovid. Dryden was his
master in the art of poetry. He professed fbr
bira tbe wannest admiration, stndied his works
miantelr, copied his style, and reoords aa a
memorable ioddent, that when he was abont
IS years oldhehada^impseof theirreatpoet,
then in the last year of his Ufe. Soon after
this Pope went home to Binfleld, and entered
on a oonrse of aelf-edaostion which he con-
tinned with diligetuw oatil he was 19 or 90.
He'taoght himself French, Latin, and Qreek,
Qirongh the mediam of translations, getting, as
migfat be expeoted, only a snperfliual knowl-
edge of than, but devoting himself with mora
eomplate snooess to varions kinds of poetical
eORipoeitloD. The earliest of his pieces extant
is an " Ode on Solitude," written when he was
abont 13. From his 18th to his ISth yesr he
was engaged npcai " Alcander," an epic poem, of
wUch he liad flnished 4 books when be homed
it. In the mean time he composed a oomedy
and a tragedy, vhioh were likewise destroyed,
and gave promise of his Batirioal powers in
some " Lines to the Anthor of s Poem entitled
Soeoosdo" (Elkaaah Settle), which were printed
ssneral years later by lintot in a volnma of
" Miacellaneoas Poems and Translatiops" (ITISX
His imitations of some of the English jpoeta,
translatjons of the first book (rfme TA^tt
of Statitii^ and of Ovid's qoaUe from Ssfipho
to Phaon and part of the " Metamorphoeea,"
and the fhbles of " Jannary and Uay" and the
" Wife of Bath" fhim Ohanoer, b^ng to neariy
the same period ; bnt none of his yonlhAil ooni-
poiitioDB were pnblished earlier than his Slst
year, when they had probably reoeived many
corrections. Abont 1704 he wss introdaced
by Sir WUUam Tnunbull to the veteran dramar
tist Wyohortey. Pope " ran after him like a
dog," and made under bis auspices lus first so-
niuuntanoe with the coffee boose wits of Lon-
aon. Wyoherley in torn snbmitted his versw
to the boy poet for correction, but the freedom
with which Pope exercised his critical office
soon resalted in a qnsrrel. Qarth and Oaa-
greve were also among bis early friends, bt
1709 he established lus podtion as the first
poet of his time by the poblicatlon of his " Pas-
torals," written S years Wbre. They appeared
in the 0th volnme of Tonson's " Poetical Mis-
cellany," with the veruon of Obsnoer's " Jan-
naiT and Hay," and a translation of the episode
of Bsrpedon from the Iliad. He had already
begun the "Essay on Criticism," which was
Soblished snon^monsly in 1711, and assailed by
ohn Dennis with the most extravsgant abnse.
Addison prused it in the " Spectator" (No.
9S8} as "a masterpiece In its kind;" a com-
mendation which, deepite the fanlty oonstmo-
tion of the poem, nearly all enbseqnent critios
Beared Edc^ne," one of the most pcpnlar utd
elevated of all bU compositions. The first
sketch of the " Rape of the Lock," a mere skel-
eton of what the poem afterward became, ap-
peared in IJntot's collection of " SOsoellaneoBB
Poems and Translations" in 1713. Itorinnated
in a qnarral between two funilies of qnallty on
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
«84 PQBB
■oooDUt ot tlie BtMUng of t lock of hiir from lirsl JLxobroM FhUipe, whom Steele in tik«
the head of a reigning belle, and Pope waa aonte pnblicadon haa prononnced tiie le^tf-
Dived " to write a poem to moke a ieat of it, mate mocesBor <rf Spenser, — Pope had Qms
and laugh them together again." Whether it £ir been eapported by a moderate allowanoe
hod the intended eSect or not Is doabtfe], from his father; all his poetry together had
bat its literary socoesa at all erents waa each not brought him £100. "With the pnrpoae of
that the antnor determined to enlarge it, repleniishiaK his pnrBe, and encouraged by the
and in 1714 it was accordingly printed with adrice of Addison, he now issued pnjpoealB
the addition of the enpernatunu machinery fbr a poetical trsnalation of the Hiad, to be
and a dedication to Hiss Arabella Fennor, the pahliaaed by Bnbscnption in 6 Tolnmes at a
heroine of the pieoe. If not the greatest, it gnlnea eaoh. Swift exerted himself to pro-
is the most bighjj finished and most delightfttl mote the sale, and the yoong atrthor's repata-
of his poeins. Aboat the beginning of 1V18 don was already so high that over 660 copies
he resolved to become a painter, and accord- were sabacribed for. Pope howoTer was no
ingly went to London, where for a year and a master of Greek, and with all the help of va-
half he studied nnder Jervaa, a pupil of Sir rioos translations, had at first such " temUe
Godfrey Kneller, He had a strong natural momenta" that he wished a hundred times that
taste for the art, but hia bad eyedght was an somebody would hang him. Bnt as the work
insaperable bar to success ; and after throw- went on his equanimity retamed, the task be-
ing away " three Dr. Bwifta, two Lady Bridge- came lighter, and he fell Into the method of
waters^ a dnchess of Montague, half a dozen translating 80 or 40 verses before he got up,
earls, and one knight of the garter," and eie- and workmg npou it the rest of the morning,
ondiw a few [deces which hare had » better " Ify usoal mc^od," he say^ " was to take
&te, he returned with fresh ardor to Us more advantage of the first heat^uiaOien to correct
otmgenial pnrsoila. A deeeriptJTe poem <m eseh book, first by the onrinsl text, th^i ty
" TnndBor Forest," which does not raiuc among other translstjans, and last^ to ^ve it a read-
his hty)pi«el prodncdons, appeared in 171^ ing for the Terainoadon oi^y." In this way
though the greater part of it bad been written the work was finished in about 6 years, the
when he was only IS ; and an " Ode for T£n~ first Tolmne sppeoiring in 1716 and the last in
no on St OeoQia's Bay," which is nnfintunate 1790. He had no cause to be dissatisfled witli
in provoking otonparison wiUi the magnificent rither the price of his labor or the repntadon
ccxnpoddtm of I^yden on the same snljeot, which it brought him. Beside the enfaaerip-
waa also pabUihed in this year. In the mesa don money, he reouved from Untot the &ub-
dme PopB had fom^ in ■ Roman OatboHo Usher £904 for each vohime; and his total re-
tsmilT at Uapledaiiiam near Knfield two Ceipts, according to Dr. Jidmson, were £fi,8SCL
friends with whom his name has always been BOt reckmiiDg ilie Urfo mmm paid by sane of
asBoolatad, and who inspired some of the best his snbsciibwsinadditiiMitoaieregiilarprioe.
of his letters and shorter poems. These were The king, for instance, gav* him £200 and tba
TwesA and Uartha Blount, young ladies of prince <» Wales £100. IlwUb of Htmer pre-
good fiunily and nearly hia own age. Uartha, fixed to the woA waa written by Famdl, and
the yonnmr lister, wm Ids devoted friend the iufomadim fiM- the notes iru gathered
through life and his prindpsl hur. Her inter- piinripally from EnstathiDs, by Broota6, Joi»
oourse with Urn did not eaoape the impntatlonB tin, aod anotho- whose name is not menti<nied.
of scandal, but It is now agreed that no impn- Almost rimnltaneondy with the publication
tadons ooold be more nqjost. Another of his of the first vohnne appeared a ttwisltfion of
fiienda was Gay ; the pablieadon of " Windsor the first book of the Diad by Tickell. Pope
Forest" led to nis iotiniaoy with Swiit and Ar- says the nation was not more divided aboot
bnthnot ; and Steele, who was one of tbe first whig and tory dian the idle feUowe ot the
to appreolate his gtminB, tntiodoosd him to feather were tbovt the two translationa. Ad-
Addiran. For the first performance of Addi- dison gave the prefer«ice to llckefl, a invfer-
son's " Otto" (1718J be vriots a prologue which enoe not mirenonaU]' snspeeted of q>nnrinK
wss not less popnlar than the tnwedy itself; from personal motives^ and Pope even looked
and when DeiuQa attaoked the play he haa- opon him as die real radior c^ the verses
tened to revsnge his frioid in a "Narrative of mddi passed nnder Tlekdl's name. Tin re-
Dr. Bobert Norris [a noted quack who pre- suit was an opoi qnarrd with Addison, whom
tended to oorelmiaaesjconoerning the stnmge Pe|>e afterward satirized in a piece which
and deploT^e Fren» of J. D." Addison stui^ almost nnrivaBed In En^wi poetry ; it
seems to have been dinileased with Pi^'s was first published in 1738, and agam in 1737,
ofSdonsneas, and took the pains to disavow and waa finally, vlQi aome dianges, incorpo-
allreqNHUitdUtyfl^r the satire; but the friend- rated with the "Pnjc^e to the Satires." He
ly interoonrse between tha essayist and the sent a eopy of it to Addison before it was
poet WIS stfll nnintemtptod, and Topa eon- printed, and says "he*naed me very crvUly
tinaed to write fin- the >rGDardian," to vhich ever after." During the progreos of the Hiad
be had already eontriboted sevwal papers. Pope often visited London, gamed, drank.
One of the best of these was a asicaBdo paral- haa " Inxorions lobster idghts," grew ashamed
lel between liis own psstorals and those of his of boslnesi^ r^ed at poor mthwa, freqnented
POPE 486
dio dnviog rooms of women of rank and tha remaining 2 In 17S0, Thongb ha pro-
A^oD, and the coimtrr Mala of tha nobility, fassed to hava had tha astiatanoe of two fii^ids
where his ohanoiiiK oonTeraatioa made him (Broome and Fenton), ha concaaled tha amomit
dwajB welcome, and in a word set up for of this aBsiitaiioe, hia own share compruing
The (■/«( Tiiatodinsin, only 18 booki, OF one half the whole wtn-t
Maa tuikiiw nk> •Utc After dedncUng about £800 paid to his ooadjn-
I^d^ Mar; Wortle; Uontagn made a psrtion- ton, hia profits from the traualation amomited
l«r impreodon upon Iilm, and waa one of hia to £S,B8fi. Of this tranalation Bantlay ia uid
correspondeata. He aoon lired however of a to hare told him : " It la a pre^ poem, Ur.
life of dissipation, and, the eatate at Binfiald Pope ; bat yon mnst not oall it Homer." On
having been sold, ramoved with his parents to tha other hand, aa Dr. Jolmson obaarves, ha
Chiawick, where he published a collectdon of left in hia Tendons " a treasure of poetical ela-
his poama (1 7oL foL and 4to., l^^^i m which ganoea to posterity," and " a series of linaa so
first ^>peared his "Elegy to the Memory of elaborately corrected and so sweetly modnbtad
an Uiuortnuata lady," and the "Epiatle of that tha vulgar was enamored of the poem
SIoia« to AtHlard," tne most posaionate of his and the learned wondered at the tranalatKin."
works. Of the conclading portion of this In 1797-'d he pnbliahed In coqjnnotion with
poem, in which he refers to some ft)tm« bard Bwift 8 volnmes of " IQaceUuiias," in which
CondenuMd vboie run In ^bteaee to depiota uppeaiti his " Treatise of Uaitinns Scriblems
4»iim.^duniutieoii»tb.Mdn<.mo[^ on the Bathos, or the Art of Staking in Poat-
be writes to Lady Uoatagn, then at Oonstanti- ry," which gave rise to the " Dnndad." Tha
aople: " Yon will find one passage that I can- " Treatise" waa intended to form part of a
not t^ whether to wish yon shoald nnderstand larger prose work entitled " Hemoira of Uar*
ot not." Soon after this, his father having tinus Scriblems," in which Pope, Bwift, A>
died, he pnrohased the lease of a villa on the buthnoL Pamell, Lord Oxford, Atterbnry, Con-
Thamea at Twickenham, where in conatmcting greve, day, and others undertook to ridionle all
•grotto and decorating the gronnds he fonnd a tha false tastes in learning. The project was
relaxatjon from severer pnrsoits. When Lady abandoned in ITIS when tha memoera of the
kary retnmed to England (Oct 1716), ha Bcriblems club were dispersed, bnt to it we
penuuded her to take up her residence near o wo both tha "Dnnciad" and "Gulliver's Trar-
Twickaaham. But tha ardor of his affection els." The aathors attacked in the " Treatiaa"
•ooa cooled; they met seldom, and finally retaliated in a nnmber of poblicatlon& and
qnarrelled, and the lady to whom he had ad- even threatened Pope with personal violenoa.
dresaad the most impaarioned love verses be- Thns provoked, be determined to croah the
came the object of the coarsest of hia satirea, whole noet of scribblers in one sreat effing (tf
No aatia&otory explanation of their quarrel hia genina, and, gnided by the advice of Swifl;
haa aver been g^ven; U is very commonly who contributed largely to the prolegomena
ascribed to a declaration of love by the poet and notce, produced in 1728 that immortal
under drcmnstances which provoked the lady poem " The Dnnciad." The plan waa bor-
into an immoderate fit of iaughter— a causa rowed from Dryden's "!HaoFlecknoe,"Bnd the
qnita aoflldant in Pope's ease to aoconntfor heroatflrstwaaTheobald,whoinalateredition
the malignant hatred which he evidently bore was dethroned to make room for Colley Oib-
'le her iuflnence waa on the decline her. The senastion canaed by thepoem i
o have been smitten by the charms immense. It waa presented by Walpole
of another lady, " the mild Erinna, bloahing King George 11, who waa pleased to declare
in her bays," with the ideaof whom he sayshe that Ur. Pope waa "a very noneat man," On
became aomad aa to steal hernortrEdtand pass the morning of pahlication the "dunoea" be-
whola days in sitting before It This is now sieged the printer's shop in crowds to prevent
aaevtained to have been Jadith Cowper, after- its sale, and failing in that held weekly oluba
ward lba.Uadan, the aunt of the poet Cowper. to concert hostiJities. Pennia, who had re-
— P<^*a reputation was now so high tiiat ceived a conspicuoos place in the aatir% pnb-
Tonsoa miaaa him an ofier to undertake an lished several retaliatory pieces ; bat n fbw
editton of Shakespeare, a task for which he years later, when be was blind and in diatresi)
had hardly a slugle qnalification. The work Pope wrote a prologue to aplay whldi waa
was pnbliflhed in 172S in 6 vols. 4to., and. performed for hia benefit £us trinmi^ waa
thoD^ abonnding in &alts of all kindsj haa now complete, and he conld affiwd to be mag-
at least Uie merit of pointing out the war nanimous. — The class of compodtiona to whion
for some ftituie correction of the text ms Pope next applied himadf, namely, his ethinl
blunders and shortcomings were exposed by poems, form the most refined and intelleatnal
a plodding author named Theobald, at first In of his works. In 1781 qipeared hie epistJe on
a treatiae called " Shakespeare Kestored," and "Taste," addressed to Lord Burlington (afta^
afterward in a formal emtion, for which he wardentiUed"OfFBlBeTaste,"andfinaUy "Of
was snitahly rewarded in the " Donoiad." At the Use of Riches"), and in the next yiar an
the same time Pope had "nndertaken" for epistle to Lord ^hunt "On the Use of
Untot a tranalation of the Odyssey, the first Siohes." These are now known as the 4th and
S volomea of which appeared In 1726, and 8d of tha "Horal Easays;" tha 1st, to Loid
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
4B6 POPE
Oobham, " On tlie Knowledge and CItuuten man? of the letten in Ui!> mdhIiia edmoa
of iien," appeared in 11SS, and the 8d, "to a correapond with thorn in Cnrll's, whila tbej
Lady" (Martna Bloont), "On the Obaractera differ Msentiallj from the oririnala; asd tli«
of Women," in 1786. The foar epletlea com- conviction is IrreBiBtlble that P, T, waa Pope
posing the " Eaaaj on Uan," a wore which he himself, who resorted to thia diahonor^d«
seemB to have had in mind as early as 1726, Btratagem in order to maka an eicnse fat
ware poblisbed anonymonslj in 1782, '8, '4. giving his oorrespondenoe to the world, ^irt
They were inscribed toLord Boliogbroke, from the letters were transformed greaUrfrtni) their
whom it haa I>een wrongly supposed that the original language, addreaaea tdt«red, names in-
mbstanoe of the poem was borrowed, a ens- tarpolated or suppressed, parts of di^rent let-
picion which Bolingbroke himself nerer enter- tera combined, whole letters forged, and datM
tained. The philosoi^r of the poem differs changed, to the oonftasion of all tSepoet's Idog-
little fh)in that of Bolingbroke, and expoead the raphers, has long been known. The pnhlica-
poet to repeated ohu^sttf&taUsm and infidel- Uon of his correepondenoe with Bwift (1741)
1^, which Watburton haa labored atrenaonsly was probably effected by a similar contrivance,
to dlaprove. The " Moral EsBays" and " EssaT The last important work of Pope was " The
on Uui" were bnt parts c^ a great scheme which New Dimoiad," which appeared separately in
the anthor did not lire to accomplish. " The 1743, and was combined with the former aatire,
anbject is large," he writes to Swift, " and win as a 4th hook, in 174S. It is superior to th«
dinde into fcnr epistles, which naturally follow other in itj) ooject, which was to satirize all
the 'Esaay on-l£an,' viz. : 1, of the extent and ftlse pretenders to taste and sdence, bnt itlisa
limlta of hmnau reason and sclenoe ; a, a view been otgected that the snltjeots introduced do
of the useftd, and therefore att^able, and of not harmonize with the previous parte of the
the unusefol, u«d therefore unattainable arts; work. In the substdtutiou of Gibber for Tbeo-
8, of the nature, ends, application, and nse of bald when the whole was repabUabed in 1743
different capacities ; 4, of the use of learning, he made a capital mistake, for the desoriptiona
of the science of the world, and of wit Itwill first written of the dull and witleee editor of
oondude with a satire against the misappUca' Shakespeare became ludicrously inqipropriate
tion of all these, ezemplifled by pictures, char- when applied to the gossiping and viradonA
actera, and examples." Tbe "Imitatlona of comediui. — Pope now felt that hie life was
Horace" were begun while the "Essay on drawing to a dose, and resolved to devete
Uan" was still in progress, that of the Ist his remaining days to preparing with the
satire of the fid book appearing in 1788. Lord assistance of Wsrburton a complete edition of
Herrey and Lady Varj Wortley Montagu, hav' his works. Qe lived however to supervise
ing been satirized in this poem, the former only the " Dimdad," the " Essay on Man,"
as "Lord Fanny," and the latter as Sappho, and the "Essay on Critidsm." His disease
replied Jointly in " Terves to the Imitator ot was dropsy in the breast. la his last mo-
Horsce, and Eervey alone in a " Letter from meats Hooke, the Soman historian, brought
a Nobleman at Hampton Court to a I>octor of him a priest, who came ont from bis chamber
Divinity." Pope answered them in a " Letter penetrated to the last degree by the Christian
tea Noble Lord," which on second thonght he state of mind in which he found him. He was
suppressed, and in a twetical " Epistle to Sr. buried in tbe parish chnrch of Twickenham,
Arlwthnot" (1785), whidi he calls " a sort of where 17 years afterward Warbnrton erected
bill of comftt^t, b^^ several years before a monument to his memory. — BeE^itebiBfond-
and drawn np by enatohes." It now stsnds as ness for little intrignes, his petulance, his rani-
the " Prologue to the Satires." — A volume of ty, and his frequent disregard for truth. Pope
Pope's letters to Mr, Henry Crcrai veQ had been was warm and persevering in his friendsfaips,
Eoted by Ourll as early as 1790. Cromwell social, Kenerous, and benevoleuL His devo-
L given them to his mistress Mrs. Thomas, tion to his mother, who lived with him to the
who sold them to Corll for 10 guineas ; and age of BS, was too remarkable not to be re-
Pope, thoDgh he expreased great displeasure, corded, and Bwift declared that he not only
made no e£rt to snppreea them. Three years had never witnesed but had never he«rd of
afterward a volume oi tda eorrespondence with any thing like it He apparently fdt little at-
Wycherley was published, undoubtedly by hia tadunent to his religion, bnt he related great
own oontrivanoe, tiiough he declared that the temptationB to change it when such a step
manuaoripta had been anneptitloosJy obtained, would have opened to him the highest worldly
In ITSfi appeared a vcJume entitled " Mr. advantages. The deformity of his pereon was
Pope's JAtenrj Oorrespondeoce for 80 yeara," redeemed by a fine, thoughtfol countenance,
wUch was also unantuiorised. It was pub- and a quick, piercing eye. The minute de-
lished b^ Onril, who reoelred the hooka, al- acription of hia babits ^ven by Dr. Johnson
ready prmted, fr«m an unknown oorrespond- ^plies only to the later years of his life, when
ent strllng himself P. T. Not more than he was so weak that he could hardly stand
no owiea were ftimiahed him, aH of which erect without the support of corsets, and re-
vere snperfeoL Pope soon came forward quired the assistance of a maid to dresa and
with a "genniite edition" QTW), professedly undress him. To the last he was a diligent
In seLMdenoe; but it is a agninoant &ct that studoit; he addom published anything tube
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POPISH PLOT POPLAB 48T
likd kc^ it Bereral j-e&ra by him ; and prob- delttdd, vKk (^reading, prominent veins, Mm»-
ibij no poet ever poswaaed in a hi^er degree what heert-ehaped at Dase, t^ief'-pointed, ser-
*'the last Bod greatest art, the art to blot." rate, with cartUamnoiiB and inonrred, sUghUj
No po«t certainly ever had lo decided an in- hairy teeth ; fertue amenta verj long, flexible,
fhwace on the taste of hia age, and the &oilit7 and pendolons; ecalea lacerate, fringed, not
with which imitators oaa^t hia style and hairy; aligniaa dilated and -rerf lai^e; the
eopted Ids ftnlta had at one time ■erionily de- seed Boiroimded with a beautifol pinme having
predated hia reputation; bat his position is the vhit«nee8 of cotton. It is called the neck-
now rec^nized aa among the first of English lace poplar, from the resemblance of the long
poeta. His letters are admirable Bpeoimens ament of ripened frnits, before opening, to the
of prose eomposition, fhll of homor, wit, and headaof anecklace. Avorietywith variegated
Tivaci^, bnt too stodioody elaborate to be leaves is known to gardeners. The tree was
models of epistolary style. Some of them, early iutrodnoed into Eorope for ornament, and
like a great many of hts other pr(»e writinga into Switzerland eq>eoially, where it waa ez-
and poems, are grossly indecent. — The best tenuvely enltivated and called the Swiss pop-
editions of Pope's works are Warbnrton's (0 lor. Its wood is soft, white, doee^p^ned, ttod
Tols. 8vo., ITGl), Bowles's (10 vols., IBOT), not inolined to splinter. Its ranse is from
and Bosooe's, with a memoir (10 vols., 1S3^- New England to Illinois, and sonthward utd
A new critical edition, commenced by J. W. westward aa for as the Arkansas river, growing
Croker and finished by the Rev. Whitwell on river and lake banks. The angled cotton-
Elwin, has lately (18S1) been announced in wood (P. anguiata, Alton) is an eqn^y large
London. The memoir prefixed to Mr. Bowles's tree, growing in low gronnda from Penns^-
edition presented a very nnf^vorable view of vania to Wisconsin and sooUiward. It has
Pope both aa a man and a poet, and led to a thick, smooth, and sharply angled branches ;
prolonged controversy In which Byron, Oamp- large, smooth, deltoid-ovate, acnta or slightly
bell, and Roecoe took the field in Pi^'s de- acnnunate leaves, 6 to 8 inches long, tmnoate
teaoa. There is an excellent life of Pope by at base, obtoselj serrate with incorved teeth,
B. OaiTBthers in Bobn's " Blnstrated Library" the veins conspicnona and yellowish ; the pe-
(1867), and a great deal of valnable Informa- tiolea, which are ocmpreased at the tjps, are of
tion concerning him haa.been brought to ligbt the same tint; the sabstance of the leaves is
within the last few years in the London "Awe- thin, and they are smooth and of a fine green
luenm" and " Notes and Queries." color ; the wood la white, soft, and of little vaa.
POPISH PLOT. See Oates, Titos. In Enrope it is esteemed as an ornamental plant.
POPLAR (LaC. popuhu, snpposed to have The downy-leaved poplar (P. hateropnylla,
been so called from iMing nsed aa a shade tree Linn.) is 40 to 00 feet nigh ; the bark of the
ia the people's or pnblio walks, arbor popitli), tmnk is very thick and rnrrowed; the yoang
the name of several distinct species of hardy branches are ronnd ; Ihe leaves when ycnng
trees of Uie genus pojmlut, with decidoona are very downy, becoming smooth when older,
leaves, natives of North America, Europe, Asia, 0 inches long and aa many broad, of a thick
and northern AiHca. The genus is diatin- texture, denticulated, heart-shaped, the lobes
gniahed by its cylindrical, dicecicna, many -flow- at the base overlapping so as to conceal the
ered amenta, and is unlike the willows, whioh upper part of the oyundriaal petiole ; the amenta
belong to the same natural order of talieaeea, are 8 inches long and drooping ; the wood ia
in having the calyx (braeUa) wedge-sha{>ed and soft, light, and unfit for nse, itfl heart yellowish,
ladniated on its terminal edge, endodng a sin- inolined to red. This spedes ia found from tlie
gleflower; the barren fiower having S stamens westem ports of New England to niinotsaiid
at least, and often many more, their filaments southward. The taoamahao or balaam poplar
very short, and the anthers large, drooping, (P. laltami/era, Linn.) ia a tall tree 80 net
and qnadrangalar ; the fertile with a pointed high; ita branches are round ; leaves bomeon
ovary, no style, and 4 to 8 subulate ^igmas. long round petioles, of a lance-oval form, deep
The amenta, appearing early ia the spring, very green above, and maty silver white reticulata
numerous and produced, when the trees are veined beneath,flne1yserrate; the barren flow-
destitnte of leaves, help to render them con- ers with very many stamens. The balm of
8p)eaons,especialIyin those spedes which have Qileadtree (^P. eandieaju, Aiton) is considered
red flowers. The fruits are small seeds, each ■ a variety, having broader and more or lea
of an ovate form crowned with a tuft of flne heart-shaped, pomted, serrate leaves, whitish
hairs. Uany apectea are described by botanists, and retioulatelv veined beneath, and the foot-
but generally the descriptioiis are made from stalk commonly hairy. In both the leaf bnda
treeaof asinglesez; farther and better oppor- are coat«d wim a resinoas aad scented sub-
tmiities to study the forms of both sexes of a atance whioh ia employed In popular medica-
spedes may prove that some considered diverse ments. They occnr wUd frvm New T-nglonil
are identioal. — Among the North American to Wisconsin and northward; the latter how-
poplars, the Cottonwood or necklace poplar ever is seldom met with in the woods, but la
{P. monUi/era, Aiton) is a large tree, 60 or estendvely cultivated in some parts of New
more feet high, the branches at first slightly England as a shade tree about dwellings, thong^
angled, bnt becoming round ; leaves broadly its cottony seeda and its HabiU^ to sand vp
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
488 FOFLAB
nuneroni niokera from &» rooU rendw it ob- r«^^<^I>- 1^^ aments tppair In Ibnb a^d
jectionable. The wood la soft and nearly April ; thoee of tfao barren floven are of ft
Horthlesd. The narrow-leared poplar (P. an- itsrk red color and prodnce a slrikiiu- «fl^ct;
ffiutifolia, Tonej) is, according to Knttall, the die ca{isitles are round and the aeeaa «Dvd-
eottonwood noticed by Lewis and Olark in oped in a beaotifhl white cotton. The wood ia
thdr expedition, and waa seen frequently hj soft, yellow, and fibrotu, and is employed in
Mm on the banks of the river Plabte and its making packing casea, and aa it never qtlintera
tiibutariee. The bdght of this spedes, which it is very naefot for taming into bowls, trays,
nearly reswnhles the balsam poplar, is from 60 and such wares ; it is an fodifierent fliel; the
to 100 feet ; ita amallar branooea are roond bark is used in Bussia in [n^pariiig morocco
and smooth, and the leaf bnds resinous ; leaves leather; the renn of the leaf buds is eatoemed
ovate-lanceolate or acutely lanceolate, smooth for healing properties, and bees are food of the
above and aligbUy but obtusely serrate j the flowers. The white poplar or abele tree iP.
wood brittle and poor. It is sunoat the only alba, linn.) is native of most parts of Eoropa,
tree ocoiuriog over vide eztenta of pr^ria. Is growing in moist aoila and reaching the hei^t
the severity of the winter the IndUna collect of 80 to 90 feet. It is con^ionous for ita angu-
the branches to feed their horses, and the beaver lar, lobed leaves, vhiob are dark green above
selects tbem for his choice food ; the reunons and very white beneath. It is a popular onw-
bnda.are also eaten greedUy by a species of mental tree in streets, cemeteries, and poblio
The American aspen {P. tremuiotdet, square^ but its propensity to throw up saokers
a small, graceM tree, 20 to 40 feet from the roots renders it somewhat objectiMUb-
th a^^ and mo<' ■ " ' •.-...
pigeon. J
Ux.) is a
braoohes ; the trunk has a whitish clay-ooloreu oat in poor and thin soils and in sandy areas,
barkblotdied witb very dark brown ; the young especially near the sea coast, tins very diqwd-
ahoots are of a polished bronxe green, gradual- tion to spread rapidly over the soil renders it
ly changina to gray ; leaves round, 3 inches worthy of attention. There are numerous va-
Itog and of equal breadth, rather heart-shaped rieties, but the principal one is the hoary pop-
at base, abruptly acuminate, the border wavy lar (P. canaetnt, Smith), which difiers in a
toothed ; the petiole very slender, as loi^ aa roundish, deeply waved foliage, cylindrical
the lea^ and comprised laterslly, from which amenta, and 8 stigmas in the fertile flower;
arrangement the sUghtest wind agitates them, the bract is slao more deeply and regularly cnL
The wood is soft, fine-grained, light, and very Its wood is adapted for fue^ and r^ks highest
perishable when exposed to the weather ; the of all the European poplars. The trembling
bark is excessively bitter, with a flavor similar poplar or EuropMU aspen (P. tremiila, lann.)
to that of quinine. The tree is found in Can- is a rapidly ^wing tree of middle size, with
ada as far N. as lat. UVand thence southward a clear, straight trunk, and smooth bark, be-
abundantly, and as far W. as the Rocky moun- coming gray and cracking with age; the
tains. The large-toothed aspen (P. grandiden- branches, which are few, become pendulous;
tata, Ux,) is a tall, erect tree, covered with a tbe young shoots are tough, pliant, and of a
nnooth bark of a light greenish gray color ; reddish color ; the flowers appear early ; pe-
tite branches are small, and the bead is not tioles compressed; leaves ronndish ovate or
very broad ; tbe leaves, borne in tnils at the nearly orbicular and toothed, at first downy,
ends of the branches, are roundish, with large, but at length smooth on both sides. This
im^olar, sinuate teeth ; smooth on both sides, species grows with great rwidity, being fond
bat paler beneath ; the petioles alender, com- of wet soils and occarring ui widely separate
— wsed laterally, two tnirda as long aa the regions of Europe and Asia. The wood is
^ves. It is common in woods from New tender and white, and employed by turners,
En^and to Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and north- engravers, cabioet makers, Ac, and also used
ward. The wood has been employed in various for burning into charcoal; its bark is em-
ways in the arts and ssed as a fuel, burning ployed for tanning; the leaves, either green
like pine when dry. The American black pop- or dry, are eaten readily by cattle and uieep.
lar (P. belulafolia, Pnrsh) ia regarded as a va- It b prized as an ornamental tree, especi^y
rlety of the European black paplar, bwig first in landscape gardening, and many superstitions
noticed in this country by Hichaux on the are attached to the peculiarity of its trem-
bai^ of the Hudson river, and still to be bling leaves when moved by tbe aUghtest
found in the neid^borbood of Hoboken, N. J., breezes. The Lombardy poplar (P. dilatata,
and seldom elsewhere in the United States. — Aiton) is well known end resdily distinguished
Tbe common black poplar or black-barked by its tall, narrow form and tapering propor-
poplar is the P. nigra of linncens, belonging tions. It haa been considered as indigenous
to Europe, growing wild fivm Sweden to Italy, to Italy, particularly to the banks of the Po ;
on the banks of rivers and in moist woods, but its native country is Persia, and it is
and rising to the altitude of 50 to 60 feet, with found growing wild in the Himalaya. It was
an ample bead and numerous branches. The probably introdnoed into Italy from Feraa ;
bark b ash-colored, and becomes deeply fur- no mention b made of it by the Boman agri-
rowed with age ; the leavea, alightly notched cultural writers. Both in Enrope and America
upon Hitii edgea, are pale green, the peUolea its principal use seems to have been that of
Dressed
leaves.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POPOCATEPETL POPPY 489
ptentiiig br cKnala and tn rovB along Avenuefl^ riodicd dkcliuves of inlpbarons vapora and
publie square^ and roadsides. Among round- cinders, of whion the larger masses constantly
Leaded trees it groups veU, and makes a flue fell back into the crater. A variable colanut
contrast bj Its oracefal and OTpress-shaped of smoke Is now visible from the monntwn,
ontline. The Lombardy |>0|i1ar has been known bat no Inminons emanations. lite years 1C19,
to groir 100 to 180 feet high, bnt it is not usual 1639, and IMO alone seem to have been distin-
to see Bncb specimens In this conntt?. It is goished bj ixneona emptions.
spoken of for its heanty on its native pl^a in POpPIG, HnriBD, a Oennan traveller and
the East. It flowers early in the season ; the natnraliflt, born in Planen in 179Y. He flniah-
aments of barren blossoms are of a rich deep ed his education at the university of Leipsic.
crinuoo, bnt they are seldom noticed, as they In 1823 he went to Onba, afterward visited the
grow upon the nppennost branches. It was United States, travelled over Chili and Pern,
onoe a favorite in the United States, having went down the river Amazon, and in 1833
been tntrodaced aboat a centnry since, bnt is retarned to Gennany with botanical and zoo-
mneh ont of favor now. Its wood is small in logical colleotions, and published an account
quantity in proportion to the size of the tree, of his travels and of his botanical researches,
' 's nearly worthless.— The poplars are all Sinoe 1887 he has been professor of geology in
ea«y of cnltivatioa, inoreaaing readily ihwn thonnivermty of Leipsic.
sackers and onttings. The wood of several POPPY (ptgwow), the , ,
speciea commnnicates varions dyes to wool. — perennial, noweringplants, belonging mosUyto
The term poplar is applied to the tnlip tree the old world, and chiefly remarkable for pro-
{liriodendron tuUp\ftra% a noble and tiseful tree dnoing in one species the drag known in com-
with which the trae poplars have no affinity. merce and medicine as opinm. The species are
POPOCATEPETL (Nahnatl or Aztec, pcpo- herbs with a milky jnice, fibrous roots, and
ea, to smoke, and t«p»tl, monntain), otVouus ronnd stems having imperfect nodes; alternate,
GxA.in>K DX Ubxico, a volcano sitasted about rimple or incised leavea, and nodding flower
ID m. 8. W. of the dty of Mexico. It has an bads ; sepals mostly 3, petals mostly 4 ; stig-
elevation of 17,720 feet, or 1,94S feet higher mas united into a flat crown of 4 to 20 rays
than Hont Blanc, while the plain from which resting on the snmmit of the ovary ; fruit a
It is viewed is itself 7,000 feet above the capsnie, short and tnrgid, with nnmerous many-
level of Lombardy. It is connected with the seeded placente, opening by chinlis under the
volcano of Iztacclhnatl by a high ridge, which, edge of Che stigma. The species, about 20 in
at the pass of Ahualco, is 10,S38 feet above number, are seldom seen in America except
the sea, and sometimes oovered with snow. It in gardens. The com poppy (P. rhaag, Linn.)
was by way of this pass that Cortes, aooom- has a hwry stem, hispid, pmnato and bipinnata
paoied by 6,000 Tlascalan Indians, executed, leaves, small scarlet flowers, and a smooth glo-
m Oct 1519, his bold march from Oholala to bose capsnie. It is a common weed in the com
TezcQco and Mexico. Popocatepetl was at or gr^n flelda of Europe ; its flowers have a
that time in a state of extraordinary activity; tendency to become mmtiplex-petalled and to
and Cortes relates, in one of his letters to assome a diverdty of colors, rendering the
Oharies V., that, wishing to discover whence varieties attractive annnals for the flowering
proceeded the volumes of smoke which rose garden. The common field poppy (P. dubivm,
from the mountain, he ohose 10 daring men Linn.)isseeninaome partsof Pennsylvaniaand
among his companions to climb to its summit, southward, having a Bt«m clothed with slender
under the lead of Diego de Ordaz, who boasted apreodiog hairs, leaves pinnately dissected, the
of having accomplished this feat, and was in segments often incised and decurrent, the se-
eonseqaence permitted by the emperor to em- pds hairy, the petals of a light scarlet, and the
bUzon ft flaming volcano on his escutcheon, capsule smooth and obovoid-oblong. It is con-
But Cortes states expressly that no one could Jectnred that it may become tronblesome as
reach the top of the mountain, in conseqnence an introduced weed unless attended to. The
rf the great quantities of snow which covered nuked-Btemmed poppy (P. nttdicaula, Linn.) is
it. He Bubsequontly sent others on the same a hairy perennial with pinnatifld leaves and
errand, and In 1083 one of them, Francisco very long pednnoloa bearing yellow flowers. It
HantaRo, not only r^ched its top, bnt had Is found wild in Labrador and arctic America.
himself let down into its crater by ropes to the The oriental poppy (P. orientalc, Willd.) is a
depth of 70 or 80 fcthoms. Alter a lapse of native of the Levant, and the braoteate poppy
more than 800 years, the brothers Frederio (P. h-aeteatum, Lindley) occurs in Siberia;
and William Glennie in 1837 reached its sum- they are both perennii species, with large,
mit and determined its altitude barometrically, rough, pinnate-serrate foliage ; the scape ts
They were followed by Samuel Birekbeck in long and l-flowcred, the sepals bristly, the
Nov. 1837; by Baron von Gerott, present min- petals large and of a brilliant reddish scariet;
ister of Prnssia in the United States, in 1884; the whole oont«ur of the plants produces a
and on April 11, 1848, by Ospt. Charles P; Stone great efl'ect in the garden border. — The opium
and 5 otiier officers of the U. 8. army then in poppy, a native probably of Asia Minor, has a
Ifodco. They observed several cones of emp- tail, annual stem ; oblong, glaucous, smooth
tioa in the crater, from which proceeded pe- leaves, embracing the stalk ; pure white petals,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
ftod B emooth globular otqtBule. There are t<iro plant, viHi priokl^fallage and a yellow Jidn;
TtrietieB, sometimeB regarded as dtetinct qiecies, the flowers jrale yellow or white. Some garden
Tix.: the P. wnin^«run>, with red, aometimes variedeeof itwitn verylarge anddelicatevhiu
snlea, known as the garden poppj ; and the P. the Califomian popp^ (ehryteit (Mififmiea and
qgieiruile, with piire white flowers and white (7. l^ou^ZaHtigT. and O.), elegant, low, spreading
seeds in oratt^obose capsnles, the chinks planta, with a fine-cnt, ^tuioons foHage, ana
nnder the stigma being obliterated. Both of brilliant gdden or orange-oolored flowers pro-
tbeM kinds ere cultivated and employed in dnoed thronghout the entire anmrner, are moch
obtaining opium. When the white-flowered prized for bedding ont in the garden. 'VTefaaT*
«>eoies or Tarieties become mnldplez-petalled, seen the former in a depanpersted form beoom-
they are very ornamental in the garden, espe- ing an adventitiooB weed. The bloodrool {ta»-
olally Bnch as have crimson stripes and lines fviaaria Caitadentit, T.inn j js remarkable for
npon a pure white ground. If care is taken to its early and pore snowy white flowers, and its
save seed from the best flowers, destroying all crimson-orange colored Jnices of intense bitter
tiie inferior and single ones, these peouJiar taste, nseftil in medidne; and when inti«diKe4
traits can be secnred; and when the choioer intotheflowerbordersitvieewiththecroensiii
sorts are sown in patches in ricli soil, tiivj the sonny days of spring. The d^ndrvmecM
s^nld be very carefnlly thinned, and mbse- rigidvim (Bentbam) is a branching, glalmnu
aoently on coming into blossom the capsules shmb, wiQi ri^d, coriaoeons fcdiage, and large,
ionld be cut off as the petals fall, in order to yellow, pq)aTeraoeoQs flowers, fimnd on uia
prolong the blooming. The opinm poppy in smmnitaof the mountains of Ot^omia.
India is sown in winter, and its products se- PflRfiKT.A'Pf g«e Potteby uso Foxcklaih.
cured before the intense heat comes on. The POROELAIN CLAY. See Cli.i.
soil is highly msnnred and copiously watered, PORCDPINE (Lat. jHirau, a hog, and jptno,
for even the condition of the dew affects the a thorn or spine), the common name of the snb-
qnantity of opiam produced. (See Opich.) The families eercolaoina and liyMtrieina, the most
poppies are employed in other ways, the petals hi^ly organized and widely distributed of the
<^ toe com poppy being made into a red simp, rodent funily of kyttrieida. The former is
and the leaveeoftherongh poppy (P.ar^nn^tM, confined to America, and the latter is spread
linn.) and of the P. rhtiaa have been used as a over the old world. In both sab-fomilies the
pot herb. The seeds of all the species are very clavicles are nearly perfect, attached to the
niunerous, and abound in a bland, sweet, and atemnm but not to the scq)a]B; the infraorla-
nntritiona oil, not inferior to that obtained bom tal foramina are very lai^e ; the froutals very
the olive ; the marc or coke is fed ont to cattle broad ; the malar bones destitute of en ongiUar
or need as food for poultry. The seeds of the process on tbe lower margin ; the molara {;} ;
oom poppy are employed in Poland and Russia the dorsal vertebra nsnally 14, and the lumbar
to make porridge, or for gruel, eras aningre- 4; feet short; body more or less armed with
dieut in sonp.— The poppy is tbe type of the spines or qniUs, capable of erection by the snb-
uatnral oriar papatxnmttt, which according to eataneous mnsoles. — The etreelabiTta live al-
Kndlicher consists of annual orperenmal herbs, most entirely in trees, and their feet have gen-
rarely shrubby, witb simple or occasionally un- erally only 4 nearly eqnal toes, with long, com-
dergronnd tuberous roote ; watery, milky, and pressed, and cnrved claws; there are some-
oft^yellow juices; round stems bearing leaves times 5 toes on the hind feet; the soles are
and scapes; sessile, often petiolated, alternate thickly studded with small flattened warte;
leaves, tiie upper sometimeB opporite, rimple or the skull short and broad, with a minute la->
compound, more or less divided, very rarely chrymal bone forming no part of the lachrymal
entire ; perfect, regalar flowers ; calyx of 3 or 8 caoat ; the'palate between the molars is on a
leaves, vatvate or imbricate, caducous ; corolla lower level tban the anterior portion ; the mo-
with its petals inserted on the receptade, de- lars converge in front, and are distinctly root-
^nous and imbricate in estivation, irr^nlarly ed, each having a fold of enamel on either side,
plicate or plane, the corolla sometimes want- the worn crown presenting 3 deep transverae
u>g; stamens inserted on the receptacle, in- cavities surrounded by enamel; incisors small;
deSnite, mnltiseriate ; stigmate connate ; ihiit anterior snd posterior oltnoid processes want-
mostly dry ; seeds numerous. To this order ing. This sub-famUy cont^s the genera era-
belong some of the most showy flowers. The thUon (F. Cnv.), ctroolabe* (Brandt), and ekttto-
'Webb poppy (mteonev«i* Caiabriea, "Vignier) is myi (Gray), The genus erethiton has a non-
remarkable for its yellow blossoms, and is to be prehen^e tail, ahorL tbiok, flattened, covered
met with in botanic gardens. The horn poppy at the base above with hairs and spines, and on
(fflauciumlut«iim,Bcopo]i) has a smooth stem, thenndertdde and attha apex with stiff bristles;
repand leaves, aronghiah warted capsule, and nostrils close together ; feet short and broad;
large, numerous, showy flowers, wbicn contrast toes 4 or 5, witb long curved claws ; hind feet
findy with the glancous foliage. It is found with a distinct inner toe with olaw, without
upon the sea coasts of England, and in waste any prcy'ectin| semicircular lobe on the inner
places in the souther*! ststes. Tbe prickly pop- side; npper Lp slightly notched, bat with no
py {argeiaoiu MixkatM, Linn.) is a tall showy naked mesial line ; body stout and oorered
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOBOUPINZ 491
vWi a ItnK and dense for from which the apiuM feet 4-foed, with long and enrrod nidLs the
project ; ImibB short and strong. The best hind feet having ea^ a raditnentaiy inner
known spectea is the Canada porcnpine {E. one, a small duUqsb tabercle, and being with
dorfotu*, K. Cut.), abont 3^ feet long, weigh- the palm much expanded bj a Bemicircolar lobe
Ing from SO toSOlbn.; it appean larger than on the inner side; the soles are rough and
tt reallj is from the leoffui of the hair and naked, the claws long, and the hind feet bo ar-
spinea ; the far is eeneraUy dark brown, soft, tienlaCed that the edes are directed inward ;
W00II7, and grapsh next the skin, coarse ana tiie lobe can be bent inward, being snpportad
bristi; In some parts, 6 or 7 inobee long on the hj Bereral bones, some snpemnmerarr ; the
back, the coarse burs ngasUj' with dirtj whita tul is thick and mnscniar at the base, slender
pointa, giving to the whole a boar? tint ; the and bare above and prehenBile at the end, the
Bpine^ more or less hidden hj the far, and upper sor&oe being applied to the branches,
abnndjutt on the upper surface of the head, and the tail ooiled ia a direction opposite to
bodj, and tail, are 3 or 8 inches long, white that of the monkejvof the same countrj. Th«
with dark points ; the tail Is about 10 inches mnwle is very movable, hairj, thick, and ob-
additional to the above length; the incisors liqnely trancated; the eyes small bat promi-
deep orange. It is a very clamsT' animal, with nent; ears Email and sparinglj clothed with
back mnch arched, snout thick and tamid, ears hair; the inciaors are narrow. They emit a
short and round, and tongue rongh with scales, diaagreeable odor, aomewhat like that of gar-
It b found between northern Pennsjlvania and lie ; the food consists of frnits, leaves, and ten-
lat. 67" N., and to the E. of the upper Missonri der bark; they are Qsnally seen singly, and
river. It is an excellent thouf^h a slow climb- sleep during the heat of tiie day, feei&g at
er; it la not able to escape its enemies by morning and evening; they are harmlesa, easi-
flight, but cannot be attacked even by the lar- ly reconciled to captivity, bnt with very little
gest candvora with impunity; dogs, wolves, intellisence. They inhabit Amerioa, from Mex-
tiie lynx, and the cougar have been known to ioo to Paraguay, living on trees, on which they
die from the inflammation produced by Its ore expert but slow climbers. The Brazilian
qnilta; these ore loosely attached to the skhi tree porcnpine (C preheiailit, Brandt) ia 16 to
and barbed at the point, so that they easily 90 inches to the base of tail, the latter nearly
penetrate, retain their hold and tend oontin- as much more. ItisabnndantinGniana,Braiil,
Dolly to become more deeply inserted ; when and Bolivia, and feeds on the fruit of the ^Ims.
irritated it erects its quills, and by a qntok lat- In the Ueiican tree porcnpine {O. Nota Siipa-
eral movement of the tail strikes its enemy, nvn, Briss.) the general color is black; the
leaving the nose, month, and tongne beset with spinea are nearly ul hidden by the fur, ydlow-
its darta; it has no power of shooting the ish or whitish with black points ; it is abont
qnifla. The food consists of vegetable sub- 18 inches long, with a tail of 14; it inhabits
■tancea, especiallj the inner bark and tender the temperate mountain r^ons of eastern
twigs of the elm, basswood, and hemlock; It Mexico, oetween S,000 and 4,000 feet above
seldom quits a tree while the bark is uneaten, the sea. Other species are described in voL il.
oicept in cold weather, when it descends to of Waterhonse's " Natural History of the Uam-
sleep In a hollow stomp or cave ; as it kills the malia" (London, ]fl4^. Dr. Lnnd desoribes
trees which it ascends, its depredations are from the caves of Minas Oeraes in Bradl two
often serious. The nest is made in a hollow species of fossil tree porcnpines, one of which
tree, and the young, generally two, are bom in he believes to have been as large as the
April or Uay. It U umost as large as a beaver, peccary. — The snb-family hyitrieijta, or tha
■sod is eagerly hnnled by the IncUans, who eat old world porcnpines, dwell on the gronnd,
the flesh, and use the quills to ornament their living in bnrrows or caves In the rooks ; they
moccasons, belts, poncbes, bags, baskets, and have B toes on all the feet, and the soles
canoes, for which purpose they are often dyed are naked and smooth ; the sknll is elon-
with bright colors ; it iavery tenatioos of life; gated, with a distinct lachrymal bone partly
it does not hibernate, as the European porou- enclosing the lachrymal opening; molars semi-
Ene is swd to do. This animal shows admira- rooted and in paraliel series, those of the
y that the quifla are only modified hairs, as it upper jaw with one internal fold of enamel and
presents quills on the back, spiny hairs on the 8 or > externally, soon assuming the form of
sides, andcoaree bristly hairs on the under sur- small isolated areas; lowermolarswith the folds .
tux, paaeing into each other in regular grada- reversed ; the whole palate b on the same level
tion. The yellow-haired porcupine {E. «ptxan- and the clincid processes are distinct ; the up-
thiu, Brandt) is smaller than the preceding ; per lip is divided by a vertical groove. They
the color is blackish brown, the long hairs of are fonnd in 8. Europe, middle and S. Asia,
the body tipped with greenish yellow ; the an- and Africa. In the genus hyitrix (linn,) the
tenor molar, as in the other, is considerably tail is short, and the hinder part of the neck ia
larger than the rest ; it is found W. of the IQa- armed with long cylindrical spines or qnills;
soari to the Pacific ocean. — In the genus wnvr- the inner toe of the fore feet is very short,
Jabt$, which includes the tree [WrciipEnes, the with a small blunt noil ; there are S fleshy pads
body is similarly anned with spines and spiny on the fore, and 6 on the hind soles. Tha
hairs; the tail IB long and pr«hearile; all the crested or common porcupine (ff. eri*tota.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
49S rOBmPISE ANT-EATEB POBISU
linn.) la foond in S. Europe, where It has come tiie E. aevleata ^aw], is about a foot lanSi
fmm S. and W. Africa ; it ia about 26 iacliea vith a stout bod;, spin; above, and tlie bead,
loDK, the tail aboat B more ; the mnzde is latva limba, and lower porta with browniah bla<ic
and obtnse, sparinglj clothed with email dOBi^ coarse hur ; inner toe of the hind feet iritli w.
hairs, with Bcatt«r^ longer and coarser ones broad ronnded nail, die others wiih long corred
on the apper lip ; anterior and under parts and clawa, that of the 2d verj long. It ia consid-
limbs with tpines not more than 8 Incoes long, erablj larger than the common hedgehog:, ia
with which are miied some ooaraehwrs; crest powerftjly built, and eepeciaHf adapted for
of numerous very long bristles, extending from burrowing. The &od connsts of anta and
the crown to the back, some 16 inches long, other Ruall insecta, which it captnrM like the
and curving backward; hind parts of the ont-eatera with its tongne, bf means of a tw-
body and tail covered with quills, some slen- dd matter secreted by 2 luge sobmazillAry
der and flexible, 13 to K inches long, others glands eztendiug from behind the ear to the
shorter, stouter, 'and verr sharp; a few on fore part of the cheat; there are no teeth fa
the tip of the tail are hollow, generally open the Jaws, but the palat« is armed with sereral
and truncated at the end, and supported on a rows of homy spines directed backward, and
Yvrj sleuder stalk about \ inch long. The pre- the upper surface of the tongne Is ftimished
vwing color is brownish black with a white with numerous small corneous warts. The
band on the fbre part of the neck ; the longest skull In shape boa been compared to tiie half
qntlls have the terminal Gth white, and the rest of a peer cut lengthwise, being 4 inches long
yariously ringed black and white ; bristles of by 1 J wide at the posterior portiou, en^g in
ere8tduskywithlongwhitepoints,somealldirty a point anteriorly; nostrils near the end of
white -, feet block ; the quilta vary considerably snout ; eyes amall and black ; ear cavity in the
in color, bnt are generally grooved with several form of a long tnbe, with Ita B-ehaped opening
delicate longitodmal channels. The skull may on the back of the head. The spines are dirty
be at once recognized by the great size of the white tipped with black, sharp, about IJ inchea
nasal bones, the development ^ the nasal covi- long, directed backward, and on the back ia-
ty, and the highly arched upper surface. This ward, crossing each other on the mesial }!□&
b the pore-tpte of the French, the spiny pig, The hind feet in the natoral position rest on
ao c^ed bom ite heavy pig-like took and its their inner aide, the concave surface looking
Cnling voice. It lives in rocky crevices or In outward, thus keeping the clawa unworn for
rows, becoming torpid In winter ; the food casting aside the eaixh loosened by the fore
consists of various vegetable Bubstances, and claws. In captivity it is a stupid creattire,
its flesh is well flavored ; It can erect Its slow-moving, avoiding the light, and active
qnllls at pleasure, but oannot discharge them ; ouly in burrowing, wbioh it does with aston-
heside its gnmts, it makes a rattling noiee ishiug rapidi^; speciroeoB have been kept
by shaking the tnft of hollow quills on the olive at the London zoological ^rdens, where
tail ; it al«> strikes the ground with its feet they were fed on bread and mL^ ; when irri-
like the hares. Tha Nepaul porcupbe (^ tated or asleep they roll themselves In a baU,
Sodytoni, Gray) has no crest, aud is covered the head between the fore legs. It can sink
chiefly with suiuy bristlea with long hair-like into loose sand directly downward, nrefient-
points, and tne qniDs are rather black than ing only its spiny back to its enemies ; in
white ; it is very abundant in the sub-Hima- spite of Its defensive armor it oiten fcUa a prey
layan re^on, and very mischievons, digging up to the thylacine and other carnivorous marsn-
rtatoes and other tuberous and root crops; pials. Its common name is inappropriate, as it
is monogamous, and has 2 at a birth ; the Is neither a rodent like the porcnpine nor an
flesh is very delicate, and is eaten by all classes, edentate proper like the ant-eater, thongb it
even by the high caste Hindoos, according to has the spiny covering of tlie one and the
Hodgson; It ia easily tamed and breeds in cap- toothless Jaws of the other; In some districta
tivity, and it is considered lucky to have a it Is called the hedgehog, which is eqnanyinap-
fhmily about stables. Foeeil bones of this ge- plicable, as the dentition of the insectivora is not
nns hare been fonnd in Italy and India. represented in this animal ; perhaps, howerer,
PORCUPINE ANT-EATER, the popular the name here piven, originally imposed by
name of the tahidna (Onv.), a genus of mareu- &haw,is the best thatcould be selected. Itisnow
Eial mammals of the section motictTemata, in- rather rare in the colony. The S. MtMa (Cnv.)
abitiug Australia and Tasmania. Tbesuont is has the fbr so long as nearly to hide the shorter
long,Blender,andnaked,8ndthetongaeprotrac- spines; the general color is brown, paler on
tQe, very long, and slender, as in the ant-eaters the hesd and below; the length Is from 14 to
proper ; the opening of the mouth small ; the 17 Inchea ; It is pecoltar to Tasmania, and per-
npper part of tne body covered with spines and haps is only a variety of the other epecies, arl<-
hurslutennixed; legs short and powerM ; all Ing from living in a moister climate, whicl'
the feet with C well developed toes with large would tend to develop the hai- and check the
nails, the fbre feet formed for burrowing, and growth of the spines,
the hind feet in the male with a homy spor as POROT. See SocpPAtro.
In the oraithorhynchns ; tail very short and POBISU, a geometric proportion used by
hidden by the spines. The beat known species, the ancient mottiematldaos, having for its ob-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POSOSITT FOSFHTBT 498
jMt to ftod i3ie eonditioiu that will render [ffineipal tims of porphTiT are in aroluteatare
oertain proUems indeterminate or capable of and ornamental artlolea, as tbms, alabs, &a. Ho
innnmerabla aolntions. It is intermediate be- material is more dnrable, and none retuna bet-
tveea Ae problem, in which something is pro- ter the sharp lines and high polish which it
posed -to be eonstrnoted, and the deorom, receivea. In modem times it la most snooess-
which ia Bomathing reqniriDff demonstratloii. fblly worked by Qie Swedes tad Bossians.
TfaareeoTarf ofthubraoohctfthaancientanalj' Bla«ks fbr vases, after bung chiselled nearly
MS ia dae to Pro! R. Bimson, who deduced it into abi^o, are tomcd in lathes, and worn down
£rom tha imperfect mathematical work of Pap- hj fhe application of lamps of porphjTT and
prns (ITSS). EBs restoration of BncHd's " Po- emerT- and water. In the Swedish royal por-
tfama'' waa pnbUshed after hJa death in 1776. phyry works of DalecarilaTaeea, taue, &o., of
POROSrrr (Gr. mpot, a passage), the con- tnuDense size are made, one of the latter ez-
ditioa of open Btmotnre in which the partidM ceeding 1 1 feet in diameter. A vase of pink
of matter are arranged in all bodies, leaving granit^ porjJiyry 6 feet high and i feet 4 inch-
between them pores or intenrtioes that are tap- ea in diameter was sent to Uie great exhibition
poeed to be vacant or filled with air. The ez- in London in 18S1. Slabs of porphyry are
latenca of snch spaces even in the most solid employed in the arts with mnllers of the same
bodies is proved in various ways. When wood materials for grinding hard powdered anb*
or stone of the most compact stmctcre Is im- stances to extreme ^leness, and the process is
meraed fai water tinder the receiver of an ur thence termed porphyrization. In the United
pvmpand the airis ezhaustedfhimthesnrfkoe, Statesporpbyr^ is met with ingramtio regions,
tbat contained In these bodies immediately and in Eeneral is fonad along ue range of the
makes its wpearance rising from them in a veins of valuable met^ in snch regions,
dood of babbles. Under great pressure water PORPHYRY (Gr, aep^pat, i. «., a wearer
is forced tbroogh the pores of cast iron, even of pnrple), a philosopher of the Neo-Flatonio
of4inohe8thi(^ess. (See Oahtsoit, and Iboet, school, bom in Tyre, A. D. 888, died in Rome
ToL ix. p. 600.) The porouty of this material abont SOS, Some have supposed that he was
is evidently increased by dissolving ont the of Jewish origin, bat others that he falsely so
carbon that is disseminated thronghont its snb- asserted in order to obtain the mcve respect for
■taoce, by which it beoomea malleable iron his statements in relation to the Jewish Scrip-
withont change of form, bnt the change of tares. He wss a man of distiiignished fiunily,
texture thna indicated is not apparent to the named Ualchaa, the Qreck form of the Syro-
aye. Density, which is the opposite condition Phcenician Uelech, signifying king ; bnt he re-
toporority, is increased in most metals by pres- ceived from his preceptor Longinaa, in alln^on
loie snd hammering. The molecules are thus tothoBignifloationoftliisoriginal title, the name
broosht into oloser contact, and the body is by which he has ever since been known. He
fbnnd to poaseos greater speoiflo gravity and stndiednnderOrigen at Onsarea,nnderApollo-
ttrength. Uqnids are also sapposed to be nittsandLanginngatAthenB,andatBomannder
porons&om the fact that miitores are some- Plotinos, withwhomheremained6years,atthe
times made which oocnpy less space than the end of which period he went to Sidly by the
nnn of tiie volumes of the ingredients when advice of his master, who had become aware
separated. This is the case with alcohol and that the pupil entertained the idea of suicide.
water. Specifio gravity, expresring the rela- While in Sicily he wrote his treatise against tha
tira weights or densWea of bodies, also defines Ohristlan religion. He subsequently returned
io Inverse raJio their porosity. to Rome, and taught there for many years.
P0RPH7BT (Or. vapipupa, pnrple), a rock The philosophical doctrines of Porphyry were
•0 named from the prevalent color of the va- essentially those of Plotinos. He insisted
rietiea used by the ancients, as the ro*$oantieo, strongly on the contrast between the corporeal
or red porphyry of Egypt. This variety con- and the incorporeaLand tiie power of the latter
tfsts of a ground or paste of reddish feldspar in over the former. The Infiuence of the incOF-
whlch are disseminated rose-oolored crystab poreal was, in his view, unrestricted by the
of the feldspar called olisoclase, with some limits of space and Independent of the accident
plates of blackish hornblende and gndns of per- of oontig^ty. When free from the intenniz-
onde of iron. This in general is the character tnre of matter it is omnipresent and its power
of porphyry; bat the paste may be green, red, nnlimited. The worship of the national goda
pvrple, or black, and the interspersed crystals of a people seems to have been apheld by hbn,
may present vaiions shades, usnelly however on the groond that respect shonld be shown to
li^tn than tiie gronnd. They may be also of the andent religions nsagee of a nation; bnt he
hornblende, quartz, ai^ite, oliTine, and other acknowledged one absolute supreme I>eity, who
BBOBttia. liie rock is ve^ hard uidsasoeptible is to be worshipped with pare words and
of a fine p<^ieh. Up(m the nnooth enriisee the thonghts. There are extant 19 different works
cfTstidB ^ipear aa luotohes. Various rocks of of Porphyry, in whole or In part, mostly on
sneartiiy or compact base witli disdnct inter- theKeo-Platonlcdootrines,and81aremention-
spersederystalaaretermedporphyritio. Granite ed aa lost The most oelebrated of the latter
ia BO called when it presents distinct foldepar was his work "Against the Christians," which
crjitala, and BO tsgreoiitone, trachyte, &0. The was pnUidy deatroyed by order of the emperor
4M POBPOKE
TheodoiiiiB. It vu in IE books, and tnatod la nlcU«d md protected hj the moAar, aa Ib
both the Jewish and ChriBtun Soriptnree very other mammals ; it can provide tOr itaelf mt ■
minnbely. la it he admits the visdom of ^earold. This apeoiee is common ^dmnttbe
Ohrist, bat aaserts that the Ohristiaiu had coasts of Enrape, extending even to the i^
perverted what OhriBtoriginsDrtsnghL sess; the^ generally keep near the alww«a,
POBPOISE, the common name of the small' whero the; root about irith their anonta like
cized cetacean mQinmain of the genos ph«eana hogs; thej are often seen rolling end tnmbliiig
(Oqv.). The snout Is short, imiformlT rounded, in the water, as the; liee to the enrftee to
vide from the bre&dth of the more horieontal breathe with a pnSng sonnd ; th«7 look in the
intermaxillariee and maxillaries, without the water like large black pigs, whemoe their corn-
prolonged beak, separMed from the forehead mon names. Thej pnreae herrings, mackwel,
b7 a duUnot fturow, which charaaterizes the salmon, and otiier fishes which einm inaboala^
dolphin, to which famil; it also belongs. The eonetunee going far np rirera in the eageraesB
name is erideotlj a cormption of the French of their pnrsait; thej have been seen in the
vore-pviiton (hogflsh); it is called JfwTKAiMiA Thames at London, and in tbeSrineat Bonwi,
bj the Germans, moracuinb; the French, and and even at Paris. The common porp<te of the
aea hog and puffing pig hj the EngUsh and American coeat^ fonnerly oonMtt«d tha aams
Americans. Thongh an air-breathing mammal as the P. nmimunu of Enrop«, wm deaeribed
aiiduotaflah,theslim>eofthebod]rtBflsh-iike as distinct b; Prof. Agattds in 1660, nnderth*
and adsf^ed for prc^Teasion in the water; the name of F. Amerietma. In eite siui c(dor the
jaws are armed with minute eoolool teeth ; the two speoiea are veiy mnch alike ; the geaeral
DlDw-ho]e,on the top of tfaehead,iBtransrerBe, form of the ekullia mfferent, the posterior sbi>-
orescentio, wiUi the conoavity forward. (For face in the Enropean species being neari; Tcr-
ita anatomr see Dolphib.) There are sereral ticsl, but much onrved in the Amerioao ; the
species in afferent parts of the world, some of teeth of the latter are divided on the broad
which have a vorj wide geo^aphieal distribu- faces near the simiinit bj grooves ahnoat into 8
tion ; the; are very active, hving in shoals or lobee, those of the former being smooth ; ^e
flocks, and are frequently seen awimming and dorsal fin in the American is serrated and
playingabont Teasels, running races with them, furnished with very ohantct«rktio tnberclea,
and leaping out of water in their sports ; their which are not mentioned in the descriptions
food conriats ohieflj^ of fahas and oephalopod of the European ; the t«Bpantl groove of the
mollusks ; their fleshis dark-colored and gorged skull is as wide as long in P. Amtricmui^ bat
with blood, and was once considered a defioacy, narrower and oblong m P. wmMmt*. lliis
and la now often eaten b; sailors ; thorblnbber speciea is Qommon on our coaat, chiefly in
yields a very fine oU, and their skin makes an firing and summer, ^tpearing inporsnit of the
excellent leather. Th^ common porpcdse CP. herring and other ndgmory fish ; it should not
eommimU, Cuv.) ia from 4 to 0 feet long, bluish be confounded with the oetooean called the sea
black above with violet or greenish reflections, porpidse, a true dolphin, uid only seen off
and white beneath ; a httle behind the mid- soundings. It was in former years ct^itued bi '
die of the back is a triangular cutaneous fold great numbers near the £. end of Long island.
or dorsal fin; teeth 80 to S4 on each ffide In blargeseineafromwhlch they were batpooned
both Jaws, Gompressed laterally, and curved and dragged on shore; from the blnbber<rfeadh
somewhat backward; the lowerjaw the long- animal about 6 gallons of oil are obtained. Tbe
er; the pupil is V-ahaped revwaed, and the Oape porpoise (P. CtgpetutB, Duss.) is frtan i to
tongue festooned ell round ; the skin is smooth, S feet long, almost wholly black, with rather
Cisctly destitute of hair, and even of eye- small peotorsis ; it ia found abont the Oape of
bes, and beneath it is a layer of iat about Good Hope. The striped porpoise (P. bieit-
an inch thick ; there are no lips, and the tata, Less.), of the soaueni aeas, has a short,
small eyes are nearly in a line with tbe open- conical snout,andsmod«at«lyhi^ black, dOT-
ing of the mouth; the opening of the earisez- sal fin in the middle of the body; thefimnis
ceediogly small ; neither the dorsal fin nor the slender, the lengtii being al>ont 8 ftet, and tba
tail has onyintemal bones, and the former COD- thickness 10inc£ea; the upper half of the body
usta of fat and is iac^>ahla of motion; the pec- is of a shining blade color, the lower Jaw and
torala are brownish, though ari^ng from a nnder parte white; ttie blacic of the Bdes has 4
white part of the bod; ; the brain ia large, with white stripe hom tiie snout to the tail, intar-
numeroua and deep oonvolntiona over the oer- ruptedopporitethedorsalfin; tiietaQ is brown,
ebellnm. There are 4 stomachs, and even ft and the pectorals white with the anteric^ edge
if all the constricted portions be counted as black. This is one of tbe handsomest of ceta-
such ; tbe walls ofthe 1st arestrongly wrinkled, eeans.
of the 2d very thick with longitudinal wrin- PORPORA, Nioolo, an Italian compoaer,
kles of a pulpy oonsistenoe, the 8d membranous bom in N^ilee in 1067, died there in 1707.
with numerous small pores, and the 4th wrin- He waa instructed by Scu^latti, and first broni^t
kled like the 1st ; the inteetme grows smaller to himself into notice at Vienna, where he gained
the anns, and the cncum is absent Gestation the approbation of the emperor Charles VL
oontinoes 6 months, snd a dngle young one is In 17S6 he entered upon a career of great suo-
prodaoedatabirth,about90iuohealong, which oess at Venice, and thenoe prooeedad to DrM-
u,9,-„zoQbyGao^Ie
FOBfiEFA POBSOH 4S6
dBa,«MBWrihlly<m»odBgtheeogmoawHaM>. roral ooU^e of phTiriolanji, ha entered Tilnltr
U 1781 ha ntonied to M^tlea and caUbUsbad oolite, Ounbri^, where he obtaised a ftl-
a uhool of Toealism, io vMoh irara ednoiled lowahip in 1781, and was ^adnsted U.A. la
mna of the moat oalebrated alnffen of the 18th 1766. Ih 1799 he was made regim professor of
ceotorj, iaclading Farinelli, O^iraUi, and Q»- Greek in the nniTereit;, The salary of this of-
brieUL In 17SS he was angaged bj » party floe waa only £40 a year. Some oonsoiendoiu
oppoaed to Handel to direct a rival opera in eemplee deterred him from enbscrilHiig to the
London ; bat, althon^^ anpported by FarinellL 89 articles of the ohnrch of En^and, and as it
he failed to make any impression, and retomed ym thus imposdbte for him to enter into holy
to Italy ao disheartened that for some years he orders be vacated bis fellowship in aooordauoe
nfr^ned from eomp^ng. Abont 17S0 be as- with the roles of the college, and it b said that
tabliabed hims^ in Vienna, where Haydn came be lived in London on a gainea a month. In
tnder hia infiauuie; and sabseqaently be be- 1793 a namber of hlg friends sabsoribed the
eame prinoipal master at the InoarabiU oonser- sun of £3,000, which was so invested as to
ratory in Veniee. Late in life be retired to give him for tbe rest of bis life an income i^
Hapleo, where be died in iudigenoe. Hisworks, flOOperannnm; andontheestabtisbmentof
oompriidng fiO operas and a great nnmber of tbe London institution, he waa appointed head
Tpawea, eantatas, sonatas, Sco^ are diatingnished librarian, with a salary of-£SOO. Bedentary
I>y gravity and elevation of rtyle. His oharao- and irrwalar habits had broken his consdto-
ter and aome passages of hia life are graphi- tion, and daring tbe latter veara of bis life he
r akfltoked in George Band'a novel " Oon- was suljeot to a painfiil aswmatio disMse, and
ealb^iA
POBSENA, or Pobsehk^ Labs, a king of an aothor were made in Dr. Uaty's
Oinainm in Etrnrla, to whom, according to tbe aa early aa 1788, and oonsuted of articles on
kgeod, the Tarqains in the 2d year after their jEsobyliu, Bnmok'a Aristophanes, Weston's
ezpnlaon from Rome applied for asmstance in Hermesianaz, and other snbjecta. In 1786 he
leeovenng their Idngdom. Poraena immediately added some notes to an edition of Xenophon'a
marohad with an Etmsoan aimy to the fortified Anabasis, and in 1790 pnblisbed notes on Tint-
hill Janicalnm, and on bis appearance the Bo- pii EmmAationet in Suidam. Ha flnt appeared
nans fled to the Tiber and to tbe Bublidan as an antbor in his own name in tbe tettera
bridge, apparently withont striking a blow, to Archdeacon Travis apon tbe contested verse
Tbe defeaoe of the bridge was iatmsted to Ho- ] John v. 7, entitled " Letters on the Three Wit-
nUDa Oooles, who held the Etmsoans in check neaeea" (1790). He contributed several orit-
at one aad while the bridge was broken down leal articles to the " Montbly Beview," added
behind him. and then ewam the river aafely. notes to the London edition of Hejne's Vir)^
Poneoa now besi^ed the dty, bnt having corrected the text of .£echylns for the Gloa-
learned trma 0. Uncias Sotevola after tbe siege gow editian, prepared an edition of the f sewio,
bad lasted fbr aome time, that 800 noble Ro- Ortftet, Thomuta, and Medta of Euripides, col-
Biaaa had bonnd themselves by an oath to kill lated the Harletan mannscdpt of tbe Odyssey
him, he made peace upon the reoeptioa of boa- fbr tbe GrenviUe Homer, and added notes, and
tages, and retired to Oluanm. This legend is corrected the edition of Herodotns printed at
bdieved by oritics to veil the fact of a short Edinburgh in I80S, He bestowed considerable
snbjugatianof Rome by the Etrascans, which pains on the restoration of the Greek test of the
is fanned by Tadtns, PUjiy, and other olassioal Itosetta stone. Hia Ifota in ArUtophan«m and
writers. Ltetumei Platoniem were published in 18S0,
POBSONj BiooABD, an English scholar and The work entitied Advonaria was arranged
oitie, bom m East Boston, Norfoltc, Deo. SS, after Person's death from memoranda fonnd
1769, died in London, Sept. 26, 1608. At the among his papers. — Porson is generallv oon-
age of 9 be was sent to a village school at H^>- sidered one of tbe greatest olas^cal soholara i^
IMbnrgh, where be remained 8 years. Hia fa- modem times, and without a rival as a sound,
ther, who waa parish clerk of East Ruston, re- aooorate, and refined Greek critic. He wai
mnred him to repeat everynisht all the lessons nognlarly oonto and oantious, and to the bigb-
nat he bad gouelbrough daring the day; and est degree Of patience and perseverance nnitod
to this early eiaroise of hb memory may per- eicellent jndnient. His memory was almost
lups be Mtribated that retentive power for miracnlona. He waa familiar with the whole
wtiioh it afterward beoame remarkable. He body of Greek literature, tboroughly vened In
received some instmotion gratnitouely from the the standard works of French literature, and
Bav. Oharles Hewitt, tmd when 16 years of well read in tbe Eof^ish elaasioa. His reool-
age was sent to Eton at tbe expense of tovm lection of the very words, In long passagea
c^lemenoftbeneigbborhood. Bethenknew of prose as well as verse, in Euslisb authors,
by heart nearly the whole of Horace and Vir- waa astonisblng. The brat fonnded complaint
pi, tbe Hiad, the Odyssey, and many parts of made against Porson is, that with his great
Uoero and Livy ; and in his own opinion he capabilities he did so little. A very large sam
acquired little at Eton bnt facility in Latin ver- wasofiTered him for an edition of Anstophanea,
■floatioa. In 1T77, prindpally by the aanst- bnt he would not undertake the work, though
anee of Sir Q«orge Baker, president of tha in the opinion of thoae qualified to Judge it
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
486 FOBT AU IVINOE POST BOYAL
TOttU Dot }tKn CKxrapiad bint mon than « POBT LOUffl, the e^U of Om Uwditf
montha. EebMb«wde>QribedM«nhalHtaal Uanritiiu, ntnatod noor Ra N. T. extmnlt^, tt
draakard, but q^arHdlywiUioattni&ttiMKi^ the head irfatriangnlar lay; p<m. about 80,000;
he drank, and at tjmea even to intoxteation.— It ia veil proteoted to eeawara bjr forta, ud
See "Ufe of Siohard Poraon, V * ," bj the hf a atrong dtadel vhkh oonmuutda all ^>-
Ber. Jolm Belb^ Wataon, K.A. (8vo., London, proeches. The town ia opta to tlia ooean <»
IBOl). one aide, and on the other udea audosed itj
POST ATI PBINOE, or Poax Rbfubuoaik, picturesque monutaiaa. The bshiooable »■
the coital of Harti, eitoated on the W. coast, aorta are GoTemmont atreet and the grom^
at the head of a bay of the aama name ; pop, aronnd tlie Ohamp de Mara ; Uie latter is ■
eatimated at 80,000. It ia built on groniid beavtifiil aenii-oirciUaT plain, naed aa a parade
which riaea gradually, and haa a very attraotiTe Bronnd for the garriaon, and a race eoone.
appearance fhim the aea ; bat on entering the formerly the faoaaea of Port Lonla vers eo-
atreeta it ia found to be verf filthy. The tirely constracted of Umber; bat, in coaae-
honaea are genwally of ti^ stones, coDBtmot«d qnenoe oS many destraotiTe firea, a law bu
ali^tly of wood, as beat oaloolated to with- been in force for aome years past topreraot
stand the efii»ota of earthquakes, which at dif- the erection of wooden dwelliiiga. The go?'
forest times have nearly destroyed the city, ermnent heoM, barracik^ and many other Um
more partioolarly in 1761 and ITTO. A few of bnildinga, ereoted by the Frmeh, are still in
the booaea are built of stone or brick. The ezcelleat preacrvatitHi. A dry dock was open-
moat important public edifioea are the palace ed in 1809, capable of taking in a Teasel 36S
and the senate hooae. There is a Boman Oath- feet long; itb 80 feet wide at the top and 40
olio dhtuoh, a lycenm, college, onstom honae, at bott<nii, and has S8 feet water on uie dll at
iniiA,andhoq>itaL Thegroondin theTicinity hi^ tide. Two ligbUionsea have been com-
ic maraby, and the dimate is unhealthy. The pleted, the main l^t on Flat island, with a
harbor ia perftotly aafe except between Angnat aobaidiBry one on Oannonier point. There
and fiovember, when hurricanes occur. A are aeveral ohotolies and sohoob, a theatre,
ocHudderaible trade ia carried on, the principal and the oanalgoTetnmentand pnblio bnildiDga.
exports being mahogany, logwood, honey, cof- POBT jjIAHON, the capital of the island of
fee, oocoa, and rags ; uid the imports rnann- IGnoroa, aitoated 3 m. trixa the month of a
faotnred gooda, proviiions, and lumber. During bay a league in extent, In lat BS° 63' N. and
the year 1857-'8, 88 veaseU onder the U. 8. flag long. 4° 20' E. ; pop. 18,280. The city is of
entered the port with oargoea ralaed at {927,- modem oonatraction, and contuna some fine
004, end auled wilb letnm cargoes eatimated at pnblio bnildings and sereral schools and obBri-
$10,061,880. The town haa sofifered aererely table loatitutions. Many of tite honsu are
from fl» at different times, bnt more eapeeially bniltonledgeeofrookpn^ectingoTer theeea.
in the years 1784, 18fi0, 1889, and 1860. They are usually of atome, and have a neat and
POBT OABBON, a town of Schuylkill oo., attraotiTe appearaooe. The bay fomu the
Penn., on the Bchnjlkill river at the month of finest harbor m the Kediterranean. Itexteodi
Mill creek, 8 m. K, E. &om Pottsville ; pop. io about 6 m. inland, having a narrow entranca
1800, 2,006. It is in the midst of a rich and between ledges of rock. It is defended bj
eztwuiTe ooal re^on, from which nearly its batt«ries mounting heavy gone. MmufaetMei
entire aupport ia derived. It carries on an a»- and trade are deoapng.
tive trade in ooal by mesne of the SchnylldU POBT BOYAL, a convent of Cistercian
valley railroad and the Bchujlkill navigation, nana near YersadlleB, which gained a itorid-
of whioh it ia the tarminna. In 1820 there waa wide celebrity in the history of the Juuenist
but one house on the present lite. Its prog- oontroTor^f. The inflnenoe of the Jansenist
reaa was rapid for many yeara, but it aeema to dootrinea on the nnna oonunoiced when the
have reached ita Umita^ not having incraaaed in first leader of the French Jansenists, the gifted
population for more than 10 years. abb6 de SL Oyraa, became their confeewr.
POBT ELIZABETH, a free port of Cupe The abbess, Ang61iqne Amould, in perticnlar.
Colony, B. Africa, on tiie V. ahore of Algoa became an enthnaiama admirer of the njtleio.
bay; pop. in 1861. about 4,600. In 1866, les With ber, the entire influential bmilycf tbe
vasaela, measnring 96,014 tone, entered tbe Amanlda, whose hereditary <q>positi(a t'>.^
harbor; the total value of imports in the aaoM Jeeuits was stud to be thdr aeocHid "original
year waa £370,638, and of ezporta £684,447. Ian," waa gained. Ang^ne was a dangUer
A ooaaiderable trade ia tinng between Beaton, of Antdne Amauld, an eounent advocate, ana
Uaaa., and Port Elizabeth, MaCiq»e Town; the after his death (1620) hia wife end aeveral t(
ebief importa being tobaooo, provlaiona, fionr, hia dao^tera entered Fort Boyal, and sow
■hoes, forming im^menta, twd some cotton 6 daof^tera of hia eldeet eon Bobert fdlowed
gooda, beside an innumerable aaaortment of their example. Stane ftf the male membws cE
trifling mannbobired articles. During the 9 tbe fomily arnsludareligloaa coromDoitf m
mondu ending Bept SO, 18S7, the value of the tin neij^boraood of the nuns ; among them
imports from the Utdted States amounted to were Antoine Lemaltre, a grandson of Autoine
$167,707, and the exports to the same, whioh Amanld, and one of the most illnatrioas ora-
oonsked of raw proanoe, to $463,866. tore of hia time, who renotmced a briUtai^ ca-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POST BOTAL -POBTA 407
T«er tB order to do penanoe imd«r Hm gnid- ^rmtaady retnnwd from Parts to Port Bt^il,
■nee of St. Ojnm ; Slmoa BMoonrt (168^ were forbiddeii to reoeire novioea, tmt kept op
Issao de Smj, Bob«i Arnanld (afUr the death tfaeir reaistanoe to the deoreea ag^nat Janaot-
of Ms wife), and the jonngeet brother of the ism notU 1709, when a royal ordinance decreed
latter, Dr. Antoiae Arnaold, who by hia im- the BappresstoD of both their convents, that of
petaona eloquence and his a^nlehing learning Paris and the original Port Royal (Port Koyal
BolMeqiieiitlf became the head of the Prerch des Champs), and the distribution of the nuns
JanBeoista. All theee occupied Port Royal, among diSerent conTents of otber dJocesee. Aji
irhai the unns in 1S88 removed to a convent its historj waa so closely interwoven with that
in Paris, and thej were soonjoined by Singlin, of Jansenigm, the monastic community of Port
who after the death of Bt. Oyran t>ecsme the Royal has never been revived. — Sevtiel distin-
eonfbsor of the nons, the physician Hamon, guished historians have written the history of
the dnkes of Laynes and lianoonrt, and others, this most celebral«d of all monastio estaUial^
Paaoal, Nicole, and Lancelot maintained inti- meats ; among them the best and most recent
mat« relations with them; Bolleau was their are: Renchtin, Oetcbidiie von Port Boval (B
friend, and Rachie, who wrote a history of Port vole,, Hambni^, 188(^-'44) ; 8te. Benve (ttie d».
Boysl, was their pnpil. The mode of life in Port seendant of a Janseniat nmily), Port Aygai (9
Boyalwasdistingilieliedforanstertty. Theyrose vols., Paris, lS40-'4a); Beard, "Port Roral, %
at 8 o'dook in the morning ; after the common Oont^bution to the Historf of Religion and lit-
momtnff prayer they kissed the gronnd, as a erature in France" (3 vols. 8to., London, 1801).
Hga of flieir self-hnmiliation before God. Then PORT WINE, a Fortngneee whie prodnoca
tbm'read, kneeling, achapterfromtheGoapels, in the vicinity of Oporto on the Donro. The
■nd one teom the Epistles, and oonclnded with prin<dpal vineyards are in the monntainons dis-
anoth«r prayer. Two hoars inthe moraingand tricts called the Alto-Donro, abont 16 leageea
two In Qm sitemoon were devoted to mannal from the city, where the vines are onltiva^ed in
labor in the gardens adjoining the convent, terraces, and not suffered to ^w higher than
and they observed witji great strictness the S} feet. The vintace begins in September and
season of Ijcnt. The teaching of Port Boyal lasts about a month. Ilie jnioe, having been
obtained a wide celebrity nnder the gnidance pressed fh)m the grapes by the treading pro-
crf Lancelot, and its boarding schools were oesa, is placed in casks to ferment, and uim
resorted to by pnpils from all parts of France, transferred to large vata where a second fer-
Their fiune was in all mouths, but Cardinal mentation ensues. In the winter it is racked
UeheBea suljected them to a judicial inveeti- into pipes and conveyed to Oporto. The winea
cation in 1S38 and imprisoned the abb^ de St. prodnced are of various quahtjes, but those in-
Oyraa. After the death of Richelieu (1643), tended for exportation are snbisttled to in-
St. Qfran regained his liberty, bnt soon died, qieotors, who permit none but a strong, dark,
prophesying that for the contest agunst the sweet kind to leave the country. Eenoe, it ta
Jesoita, the chief opponents of Jansenism, he said, the best wines are kept at home^ and the
would leave 20 disciples stronger than him- exported wines are generally adulterated to a
seK In the same year Dr. Antolne Arnanid, lamextenttogivethemtheprescrihedstrengai
W hia treatise D« ta frtqiimiU eommv-nion, and color. Brandy ia added to them when
eoarging the Jesnits with admitting people .they are deposited in the stores, and again who)
cf the world without due preparation to the they are shipped, which is in most cases abont
Lord's mpper, opened the war between Port a year after the vtntaee. When white grapes
Boyal and the Jesuits, which was only to end have been largely used instead of black, elder
with the snpprcselon of the fbrmer. The oon- berries or some other coloring snbetanoea are
teat BOOQ BSsamed a political character, the added. The exported wine ebonld remain sev-
Jesuits having the government on their side, era! years in tne wood in order to abate ita
and generally also uie Sorbonne, while Port sweet and astringent flavor, bnt the aroma of
RoTRl was snpiwrted by the parliament, and the grape dose not entirely overcome the taste
not a few IDnrtrions personages, among whom and odor of brandy until it has been 10 or 15
was the duchess of LongneviUe, who estal)- years in bottle. The average yield of the Alto-
Hshed herself in the vicinity of the convent, Donro district, nntil the vine disease made ita
The recluses of Fort Royal remuned the leaders appearance about 1664, waa not for from 106,-
and the centre of the opposition to the papal 000 pipes, or rather more than one pipe per
efforts for the suppression of Jansenism, and acre, one half of whlcdi was deolared fit for
the nnns oonristently refaaed to subscribe to esportadon. Inl850-f thewineshippedfrom
the condemnatory decrees, except once, in the Donro{Unountedh>88,S04jnpes,ml85T-'S
1668, when the adrocates of Jansenism had to 19,319, and in lS88-'9 to 17,697. Much the
aeonred a kind of cotnprondse. Singularly larger part of this is salt to England,
enough, it was the bold defence of the rights PORTA, Baooio Dklia. See Baooio.
of the popea on the part of two Jansenlst Msh- PORTA, GiAUBAmsTA, on Itslian natural
ops wainstthedespotiocapricosof LouisXIV., philosopher, bom in Naplea abont 1660, died
which led to the scattering of the oommonity, there, Feb. \, 1816, In his aeal for the ad-
Ibe heads of whom, Araauld and Nicole, had to vaneement of science he opened his house to a
flee from France. The nuns, some of whom hod society of literary men oaUed « ««wvl«; wboee
VOL. XDI.— 82
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
4M FOBTAOE FOSTER
iBeetiogi irar* ftuHj pnblbtted br t^e ooort Taiee,iiil7M,di«dinl80r. Be ma admitted
of Bom«, on the snppoattion that magic and u an advocate bj the parliatoent of Aiz at
other nnlavfbl aeotaU wero diaciuwd £t, tJtem. the age of SI. Hia memorial " On the ValSd-
Ee travelled eztenaTstj om Europe, Uberallj itj of Protestant Marriogea in France" (1770)
aiding the estaUishment of pri^kte aohoola fw first made him knomi b^ond his de^iarbiient,
tii6 stadf of partJonUr adenoea wad of pnbHo and his condnct (tf oases against Uirabean and
Boademias. Late in lifs he wrote dramaawbiidi Beamnarchaia gare him an eztMided repute-
are now forgotten. His Investigations, dion^ tion. Upon the breaUng oat of the reTcdo-
inthemselTeeiiioompleteandfreqaentlyabatird, tion he fled to L^ons, but in 1768 went to
have proved of great valae to enbieqiient phi- Paris, where he was arrested and imprisoned,
losophera. The theory of light is mnoh in- and onlj' obtained his liberty np<»i uie £sl] of
debted to Ma bU>ors, and he was the inventor Bobe^erre. In 17^5 he vss a member of &»
of the camera obsoara and oilier optical instra- coiuuni of the ancients, and opposed die di-
meats, inolading, it was formerly supposed, the rectory. He wsa prosoribed on uie 18th I^iio.
telescope. H« wad a volamiDons writer on a tidor (1797) and took reftige in Germany,
great varied of snbjects, indading natoral whence he returned in 1800. In 1801 he was
ma^o, the art of woret writing, homan physl- made a oonucillor of state, and asustod in the
^nomr, laodseape gardening, optics, cor^liii- preparation of the dvil oode ; and in the asma
•ar geometry, cJiemutrr,mMeorolog7,te. Hia year he became minister of pablio worship
chief wi»'k, D* Sumana Phmi«gi»emia (foL, and in 180" - - ' "
K^>1ea, IBM), entitles him to be ocniridered the a Traiti r
tnte foDDder of phvriognomy. iophimi«, j
FOBTAOE. I. A NTk 00. of Ohio, drained Mabib, coi ,
by Cuyahoga and Mahoning rivers; area, preoeding, bom in Aiz, Bonches-dn-BhAne,
SOD «!. m.^ pop. in 1800, 34,306. It has a Feb. 19, 1778. Having obtained a diplomatio
nearly levd anriaoe and a fertile soiL The appointeienl, he took part in the n^otiationa
productions in 16C0 were SS4,171 bnshels of which ended in the peace of Amiens, and was
Indian oom, 187,147 of wheoL 163,838 (rf oat^ for some time minister pleupotentiary^ at Bat-
46,160 tons of hay, SeS,069 lbs. of wool, and isbon. WhenhisfstherbeosmemiiiiBterofpab-
W3,614 of batter. There were 13 grist mills, lio vorahip he was made secr^ary-general of
IS saw mills, 8 iron fonnderies, 6 woollen &o- that department. InlSlOhewasmadeconncil-
lories, 13 tanneries, 4 newspaper offices, 60 kir of state and censor of the press. When th«
-obnrohefl, and ll,0£f4 pupils attending pablio trouble oocnrred between Napoleon L and the
adiools. It is interseot«d by the Pennsyivsnia pope, the relations of Portalis with ttke shb^
and Ohio canal, and by the Cleveland and Uft- d'Astres eicited the emperor's diEpleasara,
boning and Oeveland and Pittsburg railroad^ and he was banished from Paris. Two jeats
the latter of which posees throoKb the capital, later he was made prendent of the impraial
Bavenua. H. A esntral co. of Wis., int^'sect- oonrt at Angers. Upon the first reetoration
ed by Wiaoonsin river and druned by several he was confirmed in the position and made
of ita branches; area, 1,660 sq. m.; pop. in oonncillor of state, and during the Hondred
I860, 7,50& It contains extensive pine for- Days he agsin attsched himself to the eon-
asts, from which large qoantiliee of Imnber are pemr. After the battle of Waterloo he onoe
rafted down the river. Capital, Plover, ' more obtslned the royal favor, and in 1816
PORTAGE OITT, a village and the oapital was made a councillor of the conrt of cassb-
of Colombia CO., Wis., on the Wisoonain river, tion; in 1B18 ambassador to Borne; in 1819
about 100 m. Aom its iSeDroe, and on the Ia peer of France; in 18S4 prendent of a chamber
Grease and IQlwankee railroad, 96 m. N. W. of the court of cateation ; and enbeeqaenll;
from Milwaukee and lOS m. £. S. E. from 1a minister of foreign a&irs, and first prendaiA
Oroase; pop. tn 1660, 2,960. At this point the of the court of caseation. After tbe <w«9 d'etat
Wisconun river is connected with the Fox by of ISGl he was one of the oommisaon of con-
meansof theFoz and Wisconsin river improve- snltation, and in 18fi3 was made a senator. He
ment, which here furnishes abnndant water is the author of a work on French litvatnre
power, as well as an outlet eastward throni^ and philosophy, prefixed to his edition of hie
Qreen bay for the produce of the interks, and father's work above mentioned,
southward by the Uisaisnppi for large qoan- POBTEB, a kind of malt liquor. Bee Bnxw-
titiea of manufactured lumber from lCE.Wia- JBo.
consin. Railwm will soon be eompleted from POBTEB, a K. W. oo. of Ind., bordered K.
Portage to Uamson, S6 m. S., and Otdnmbae, by lake Wchigan and 8. by the Kankakee
S7 a. & K 3^ nrim^al Tnanu&otnrea are river, and drained by Calumet river and Oi^ee
lumber, fionr, brick, and potteiy, sad there and Salt creeks ; area, about 430 sq. m. ; pop^
are two large breweries, a fonndary, and ser- in 1660, 6,884 ; in 1860, 10,803. It has a
oral smaller mannfoctoriee. There are JSchnrch- nearly level snrfaoe toward the N., which be-
es, Baptist, EpisoopaUan, Methodist, Freafcyte- comes rongh and broken in the S. ; and the soQ,
rian, and Somaa Catholic. now principally occupied by forest and jnairie,
POBTAXJS, Jkah Gtokss VUko, a French is generally fertile, xhe productions In 1660
lawjer and statwinisn, bom la Beausset, Pro- were S0C,666 bnshels of Indian oom, 70,363
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
orwbMt,M,14SofowbL5,SMtoiu<tfh^,aiid atita. In 1840 he wm dented to dto b«wh,
90,812 IbB. of irooL There ver« S grist miUa, bnt naigiied office soon after in oouanqneooe
0 ohorahM, end 1,118 pnpUa ettemffng pnblio of eome ■enq>leB as to the oonatitiilionutj' of
schools. It ie hiteraeoted hy the Miohigan his election. He has edited 14 volunea of the
■nithem end northern Inftian*, the SGohigan AlahamaTeporta, and translated the "iHements
oeatrftl, end the Pittsbm^, Fort Wa;ne, end of the InstitDtefl" of Hemeodna. He has also
OMmo railroads, the last passing through the oontribnted largely to periodicals, has been fre-
caiatd,_V^PBraiBo. qnentlj an orator on pablio ooookoiib, and hai
POBTEB, Alkxakdo, an American Jurist, published among other works a collection of
bom near Omogh, ooonty Tyrone, IrslMid, in poems, ohiefljr lyrical, in Charleston.
1T8«, died in St Mary's periih, La., Jan. 18, POBTEB, Di.tid, an offioer of the U. 8,
ISU. In 1801 he emisnited to Uie United navy, bom in Boston, Mass^ in Feb. 1780, died
States, and settled in Nashville, Tenn., -where in Pen, Mardi 28, 1818. He entered the navy
in 18OT be was admitted to the bar. In 1810 in April, 1708, es a midshipman in the frigate
be removed to St. Martinsville, La., end in Oonrtellation, and was in that ship in her oe-
1811 was eleoted a member of the convention tion with the I^enoh frigate InsoKente, Feb.
vhioh framed the first oonstitation of Loniri- &, 1799. In Oct. 1709, he became a lientenant,
Bn&. Befora reeohing the age of 80 he was and served on the West India station in the
one of the leading lawyers of the state, and at schooner Experiment, 13. In Jon. 1800, the
the some time was on extensive and Bnooeaafitl Experiment, while becalmed in the bi^it of
■agar planter. In 1821 he was appointed a Leogane, coast of SL Domingo, with eereral
Judge of the sapreme ooort of Lonisiana, a po- American merchantmen under her protection,
sitioa which he Med for 19 years. Oreet tsoa- wss attacked by 10 barges welt manned and
fwoa existed in the state in consequence of armed. After a conflict of 7 hours, dnring
the attempt to engraft certain principles of whioh the barges went twice to the shore to
the common law npcoi the mixed syrtem of lend their killed and woonded, and reoeive re-
Sj^nHT*, French, ana dvil law whioh then pre- enforcements, they were beaten off. Uent.
vailed ; and to the labors of Judge Porter and Porter was wounded in this engagement,
hii eeeociatee on the bench, Judges Uatthews Subsequently the Experiment had seversl spir-
ood Uortin, is due the system of Jorisprndenoe ited and socoessfhl afiatrs wiUt privateers, and
■tpreemt existing in Louisiana. InDec. 1888, c^tnred the French man-of-war schooner La
be reagned office, and in the same month wss Dune, 14 gnns and 60 men. In 1601 Porter
dected a senator in congress. In politias ha was attached as first lieutenant to the schooner
was a whig, and one of his first legislative Enterprise, 12, in Ihe Mediterranean, fo Ang.
votes wosieoorded ta fl&vor trf Mr. 01^'s reso- 1601, the Entnprise fell hi, off Malta, vrith a
htkMueenanring President Jackson for remoT- Tripolitan cruiser of 14 gnns and SO mui, which,
ing the deposits. SnbM<]neutly he spoke in after an engagement <ff 8 boors, snrrendered,
&vor of tbe bill prohibiting the oircnulion in and was taken possesskin of by lieot. Porter,
the •ontfaem states, throng the mail, of publi- Bubsequentiy, while attached to the frig^e
cations that might exdte insnrreotions among New York, he commanded a boat expedition
the slaves, and of Mr. Oalhonn's motion to re- sent to destroy several vessels in the harbor
ieot petitwos for the abolition of slavery in the of Old Tripoli, whioh serrice was effectually
district of Columbia. InUorch, 18SS,hemade perfonned, he receiving a severe wound, hi
his most elaborate parliamentary effort in reply Sept. 1808, be was attached to the frigate
to a speedi of Mr. Benton npon the introdnp- Philadelphia, in whioh ship be was captured
two of his " exprniging resolntions." He also in October of that year (see Bunbsidqb, Wor
opposed Benton's bul ror compelling payments uui), end remuned a prisoner in Tripoli until
for pablic lands to be made in specie, and fa- peace was proclaimed. In April, 1804, he was
vored the division among Uie states of the enr- promoted to the rank of master oominandan^
plus revenne remwning in the treasory at the and in July, 1812, to that of captain. A few
end of each year, and the recognition of the days after the declaration of the war of IBIS
independence of Texas. In the latter part of against England, he sailed from New Tork in
1888 he realgned. In Jan. 1848, he was re- command of the frigate Essex, 82, and in a
elected a senator for 6 years from the ensning very short cmise captured a number of British
Mondt, but was prevented by ill health from merchantmen. He also with great address sno-
takinghis seat, oeeded in capturing one of a fleet of fransports
PORTEB, BmMAKiN F., an American Jurist, convoyed by a frigate and bomb vessel. This
bom in Obsrleston, 8. 0., in Sept. 1808. His prize bad ICO troops on board. Boon afterward
drcnmetanoes were humble, and his ednea- ne fell in with and captured, after an actios of
tion was aoqnired b^ private study. He was 8 minntes, H. B. M. 8. Alert, of SO 18-lb. oar-
admitted to the bar m Charleston at an early ronades, with a fall crew. So well directed
age, afterward studied medicine, and, remov- was the American fire, that the Alert surren-
9 Aiaii».inn ia 1680, practised the latter dered with 7 feet water in her hold, while the
■ion for a short time, when he rotnmed Essex was nninjured. Soon after the oiutare
to the law. He was elected a member of the of the Alert, the Essex come into the bela-
le^slatnrain 1882, and in 1880 reporter of the ware for water and provisions, and sailed sgdn
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
enOaiSf,lfl9,dteiioirbeiBg<meofftm>d- SO, Otpt. Ta<iker, arrired, and anobored near
Km of 8 TeaHls under the (xunmand of Com- Hie &sei. The Ph<ebe, on entering the port^
modore William B^bridge. On Deo. 11 she approadied the Eseez neater than fltrict nen-
oaptnred near the eqnator the British govern- tralit;f seemed to Joatify, and beiiw taken ab«ok
ment packet Kooton, witii (50,000 in speoie on at an nnfortnnate moment, her jib-boom «am«
board. Ospt, Porter continued to omise in aoross the forecastle of tlie latter. AH hands
the Bonth AtUntifl, and npon the ooaat of Bra- irera called " to board the enemy 1 " and In an
^, nntil the dose of Jan. IS18, when, having instant the entire creir of the Eeeexwere ready
fbiled to fidi in vitfa Oonunodoie Bafaibridge to ^[iiiK econpletely armed np<»i the decks of
at 8 different rendezroas ffhtoh had been ap- the Phoebe. Bnt aa the hnlls of the ^ipa did
pointed, and tiAving asoertained tiiat be had in not abeolntelf toneh, and O^t. HUIyar apolo-
hot retamed to tlie TTnlted Statee, be deter- giaed for the accident, Oapt Porter dedlned to
mined to prooeed to the FadSc, and destroy profit by tbe manifort advant^e he had orer
the Sofflisn nbale fldhery in that ocean. The the Fhmbe, and no ecmflict took place. Capt.
possession of the spede taken from the Noo- Porter was visited on shore by tite two BiitiB}i
ton, and the knowledge that the whalera were eaptains the day after their arrival, and 0«pt
„ . .,_,_,.^ , ^^., ^;5|y^_ „^_.. , ., ,.. ....
meet
left% Oatharine's on 3m. 29, aad aftera t«m- off Valparaiso 8 weda. The Eswx made mv-
pestnotiB passage ronnd Oape Hmn ms fidrty eral niWDOcesriU attemptstoengagetbePhnbe
b the Padfio on Marcii 5, 1818. On the lOUt alone, bnt there is little donbt tiiat Oa^ ffiO-
Le anch<nred fbr sapplles in the port of Talpa- yar was instructed not to permit this if it cotdd
rabo, wher« his reception was favorable, OtuU possibly be avoided. The nnmenniB oaptorea
having declared her independence of Spain, made by the £ssex had filled tiie BngtWi no-
Vhile in tbia port he obtained mnob valuable derwriters and merchanta vbo had property in
intelllguioe in rward to the Kitidi and Amer- the Padfio witb enoh appreh«ai<»t, that Aer cap-
ican trade ia the Paoiflo, and also learned that tore at all hazards was resolved iroon ; and not
Pern had sent ont omisers ogidnat American only were these two ehipsdeqtatahed in quest
alw^a well provided with provklons, aatisfied ^ulyar disUnetly avowed his int«ntion to re-
' ""~enpon the enem]^ and that R»eot the nentrauty of Uie port The EngUdi
re praetfeable. lie Easex ablM, having obtained their snppliea, cmised
m Jan. 29, and aftera tem- off Valparaiso 8 weda. The Eaaex made mv-
commeroe, under (he impreadon tliat Spain of her, bnt othera were sent ibr the same object
would soon declare war agunst the United totheChinaBeas,off New Zealand, Timor, end
Btotes, which n^Jit legalize £etr captures. The Kew Holland, and a frigate to the river La
Bapplle8oftheEesexbelngoompletod,eheweot Plata. On UarchBB the Essex made an attempt
to sea, and on March S6 c^ttared the Peravian to get to sea, but in donblhig a headland was
privateer Nerey^frf 19 ffnns, which had token struck by a squall, which carried away her
two American whale ships, end had thmr nuintopmasL causing the loss of several men.
crews on board as prisoners. They were Ja thb crippled state the ship was anchored 8
transferred to the Eesex, and die anoament, miles from the town, and within pistol diet
ammtmition, shot, small arms, tec, of the iVom the shore. She was, moreover, within
Kereyda were thrown orerboard, when she half a mile of a small battery. In this sttna-
was released. One of ber prizes was shortly tion she was attacked by the Phabe and Cher-
afterward recaptured and restored to h^ com- nb. The exact force of the combataiits waa
mander. After this, Capt Porter omised about as follows. The Essex waa a fKgata of 860
10 montliB in the PacoSo, refit&tg his ship in ions, monntuig 8S guns, 0 of wbioh were long
the hay of fiukahtvo. Ja this craise most im- ISs, the rest BS'Ib. earronades, and mustered,
portaot servioe was performed by the Essex, when she went into action, MS aonls. The
American ships, nearly all of which would Ilicebe was a frigate of fiSH tone, monnting 46
otherwise have been captured, were protected; gnns, viz., 80 long IBs and 16 8S-lb. oorron-
12 British ships employed chiefiy in the sperm adea, and mastered 880 souls. The Ch«mb
whale fishery, amounting in ttie aggregate to mounted 28 guns, viz., IS 83-Ib. earronades,
8,869 tons were oaptorod; 400 prisoners were 8 84-lb earronades, and fi long 9a, wifli a crew
made ; and for the time that important British of 180 souls. At 4 P. M. tm Phoebe, having
interest In the Paoiflo was destroyed. The obtained a good position, nearly astern of the
Georgiona, whaler, was converted into a veeeel Essex, opened her fire at long shot, the Ohemb
of war, named the Essex Junior, and crmsedin opening hers at the same tJnu on the starboard
oompai^wiUitheEssei^nndertheoommandof bow. The action thus commenced continued
Lieut. John Downes. The expectation which 2 hours and 80 minotee, and was nndonbtedly
Oapt. Porter had fimned of living upon the one of the most remarkable in the Iilstory i^
enemy wbs Ailly realized, all the provimons, naval warfare. Hie Essex Junior took no
dothtng, medicines, and stores of cveiy deecrip- part in it, ber armament of 18-lh. earronades
tlon necessary for the Essex being tuen trtaa belDg too li^it to bo of Ote least eervice in
herpriEes. On Bee. 13, 1S18, the Essex and such an action. TheE^sexfinaDysnrre&dercd,
Essex Junior sailed from the bay of Nufeahiva, with a loss of 58 ktUed, 60 wounded, and SI
andonFeb. 8, 1814, they arrived at Valparaiso, mis^g— making a total loss of 169 ont of 2S6.
On the 6th H. B. M. fixate Phcebe, rrted 86, Of the misdng, most were probably drowned
Oapl; Jaates Eillyar, and doop Cherub^ rated in attempting to swim ashore when Uie thip
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POBTXB tt^
ir« on fire, wbkh wm the oue at one 'time Tbiob offlea h« bald when he died. His »■
dsring the enga^meut; and wben she but- maina were interred In the groonda of the
rendored, Otpt. Porter and lieat. McEni^ nav&l Baylnni at Philadelphia,
were the onlj conuoitaioned eea officers who POBIER, Ebekxzeb, an American divine,
recnained nnhorl^ A larse portion of her gnna born in OomwalL Conn., Oct. 6, 1773, died in
vera diaabted, the bertn deck, ward room, Andover, Maaa., Apiil B, 1S&4. He waa grad-
■teerage, and oookptt were Aill of woonded, nated at Dartmouth college in 1703, sUdied
and some of the li^r were killed even while divinitr in a prirate theological eeminarf at
noder the aargeou'a haoda. The sea waa per- Betlilenem, Oonn., and waa ordained pastor ot
fectljamooth,andtheOhernbfiredherlongl8a the Congregational chnrch at "Waalungton in
daring the latter part of the engagement at a that otate in 1Y96. In 1812 be was appointed
nearlr nnreriatlDg ship. The Britiah leas was professor of aaored rhetorio at Andover theo-
bot dght, 6 killed and 10 vonnded, the firot logical aeminarj, of whioh inatitntion be enhae-
lieotenoDt of the Fhcebe among the fonnei. gnently became present. He wrote " The
Oapt. Tocker of the Gberab waa wounded. Yoong Preacher's Manual" (1809); "Analfaia
Oq>t. Porter now made arrangementa with of VtMal InfleoUon" (1834) ; " Analj^ of the
OapL HiUyar for the oonTeraion of the Eseex Prinoiplee of Rhetorical Delivery" (1827) ; and
Jnoior into a cartel, and all tba aarvivora of "Zjeotnrea on Homiletics and Preaching, and
the Eaaez came to the tJnited States in her. on Pablio Prayer, with Sermona end Ad-
On hia arrival he was received with great die- dreasea" (18U). A collection of hia "Leatnres
thietiom. Hia narrative of this remarkable on Eloquence and Stjle" was publiahed by tha
tmisa waa pnbUahed in Kew York in IS22 Rev. L. Uatthewa (8vo., Andover, 1836).
& vols. Svo.). From April, 1816, to Deo. 1823, PORTER, Jamz, an English noveliat, bom 'm
be served aa a member of the board of nav^ Dmfiam in 1776, died in Bristol, Uay 24, 18C0.
eommdaaitHiers, which position he resigned to She lost her father in childhood, waa edncated
take command of on expedition fitted oat at Edinburgh, and afterward removed to Loa-
against pirates in the West Indiea. The don with her mother and sister. Here she
sqaadron ooniisled of 8 sloops of war, IS pnbliahed her first novel, "Thaddeoa of War-
BmaQer vesaela, and 6 barges. A depot was saw," which was translated into several couti-
GStabliabed at Thompaon's island near £ef nental langn^a, and obtained for her the oom-
Vest, and a ayatem of the most active, ardn- pliment of admisaion aa a lady oanonesa into
ona oraising at once commenced. In Oct. the Teotonio order of St. Joachim. In 1809
18S4, upon evidenoe that a quantity of valu- ahe puhliahed " The Scottiah Ghie&," a novel
able gtMds hod been carried by pirates to a founded on the adventures of Bruce and Wsl-
smaQ town on the £. end of Porto Rico called htce, which like the preceding waa very popular,
Faxaido, the Beagle, one of the sohoonersof giving a highly romanlJo account of the chorao-
tha squadron, waa sent to aid in recovering it ter and times of ita heroea. " The Fastor'a Tire-
Her oommender, with oue of his officers, vis- nde," "Duke Ohiistiaaof Limebu^b," "The
ited the town and waited upon the proper an- Field of Forty Footsteps," and "Bir Edward
thorities; but their commiaaiona, wnich were Seaward's Diaiy" (1681) are her other most
dnlj prodooed, were pronoonced forgeriea, and important works. The last is a work of fiction,
these officers, charged with bein^ pirates, were but so life'like in ita atyle and narrative that o
thrown into prison. After vanoua other in- leadingreviowdiscusBeditasaveritableblatory.
oalta they were permitted to return to their In 1841 Uiss Porter accompanied her brother,
veasaL Oom. Porter deemed this an insult to Sir Robert Eer Porter, to St. Peteraboig, and
the flag of the United States which must he after hia death returned to England. — Axsx
atoned for ; aod aa soon aa the necessary ar- Uasia, aister of the preceding, born in Tturbam
raogementaconld be made, he landed a force aboutlTSl, diednear Bristol, Juseai,183S. Li
of 300 men, and demanded reparation. Thia her childhood she waa much in the company of
waa given. The authorities apologized to the Walter Scott, who delighted in relating atoriea
eommander of the Reagle peraonally, and to her. Her firrt works were two collections of
promised thereafter to respect the righta of " Artleaa Tales" (179S and 17SS), beude which
the Amertcoa officers. For thia step Com. she wrote "WaMi Colville" (17B7), "Octavia**
Porter waa recalled from hia command. The (8 voK, 1T98), *' The Hungarian Brothera"
govemment deemed that be hod exceeded his (1807), "Don Sebastian" (1809), "Ballad Bo-
powers, and a ooart martial sentenoed him to mancea and other Poems" (1811), " The Beelnaa
ion for 6 months. He aoon afterward of Norway" (1814), " The YiUage of Uarien-
and entered the service of Uexico doipt," "The Fast of St. Magdalen," " The
__ inder-ia-chlef of her naval forces, at KnlsbtofSL John," in coi^nnation with her sia-
a saluy of $26,000 per annum. Qe remained ter Jane, and " Tales round a 'Rlnter'a Hearth."
in this service until 1829, when he returned FORIER, Pkteb Bubl, an American eoldier,
to the United States, and was ^ipointed by bom in Baliabary, Conn., Aug. li, 1773, died
President Jackson consul-general to the Bar- at Niagara Falla, March 20, 1844. He was
bary powers, from which post he was trana- nado^d at Tale college in 1761, Btndied at
lerraa to Oonstantinaple as cliarg& d'afibirea, Uie litohfield law sohoM, and in 1795 began
•od flnaUf baoune rendent mimster there, .practice at Oanandaigua, N. Y. In 1608 hs
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
COS POSTER KffinOO
was choeen & representstiTe tn coneresa, vhere mirbUe prodnctiona were (atUe j^eoeo. Hb
u chainuan of the cMmunlttee on foreign rela- " Btorming of BeringapaUin," irlu«h was ex*
tions he prepared and introdncedfhe celebrated hiblted in 1800, was 120 feet long, and is said
report of Dec. 1811, reoommendinK war against to have coat him only 6 we^' labor. It wu
^eat Britain. Aa Boon as boatilides had been destroyed by fire. He also p^nte<_
declared he resigned his seat ia congress, and, Siege of Acre," " Agincoort," " The Battle
refodng a commiaBion as general in uie regnlar of Alexandria," and " The Death of Sir BaliA
army, was appointed qnartermaster^eneral of AbMcromby," In 180* he went to Bnaaia,
ITew York, and alter some time spent in arons- where he obtuned the appointment of his-
ing the military spirit of the state, received the torioal p^ter to the cur, and paiiit«d on tlie
oommand of a bodj of Pennsylvania and New walla of the admiralty " Peter the Great plui-
Tork Tolunteera and Indiana of the Biz Ho- ning the Port of Oronstadt Utd £%. Peterslrarg."
tiona. Black Bock, where Qen. Porter redded, Betnmiiw to Eo^and about 1806, he pnbli^d
having fallen into the hands of the British In " Travelluig Sketchea in Rnssia and SwedeD"
June, IBIE, and his own house, f^om which he (S vols, tto., 1806); aooompanied Sir John
had barely time to escape, made their head- Hoore's expedition to the Fenuumla in ISOS-'B:
qnarterg, he rallied a force by which they were wrote anonymona " Letters from Portugal and
expelled, and their commander, Col. Biahop, Spdn" (ISOS) ; and afterward made a second
mortally wounded. He held a conunand ta vidt to Bnssia, where in 1811 he married the
Smythe's nnfbrtnnat« " army of invasion," and daughter of Prince Sherbatoff. In 1613 lie
was twice permitted to embark to lead the van pnbliBhed " An Acconnt of the Raedan Gam-
ot the army Into Canada, and twice recalled' paign." From 1817 to 18S0 be travelled in
hefore he reached the oppo^te shore. His AbU, engaged in antdqnarian etndies, which are
oomments on this treatment led to a duel ho- detailed in his " Travels in Geor^ Persia,
tween him and Gen. Bmythe. In Jnlv, 1814, Armenia, ancient Babylonia," &e. (3 vols. 4to^
he joined Brown's invading army widi a bri- 1821-'2). In 1826 he was appointed Britiah
sade of 8,600 vohmteers and Indiana. He ex- oonsnlat Caracas,TenezneIa,wnerehe painted
hibited " great peratmal gallantnr" at Ohippe- three of his best pictores, " Ohrist at the last
wa, uid led the volnnteers at Londy'a Lane. Snpper hlesaing the Cup," "Oar Saviour lilesa-
Besieged witb Brown In Fort Erie, he led the ingthe little Uiild," anaan.£i]e«A«u>; Hav-
brilliant and effective aortie of Bept. 17. Pass- ingobtainedleavewabBenceforthepaiposettf
ing daring the engagement with bis staff ih>m another visit to Bnoda, he went wiui hn nster
one column to another, he came suddenly npon Jane to Bb Petenbo^, and died of apoplexy aa
a party of some 80 English soldiers, separated hewasabontretnmingbome. He was knighted
ttoia the m^ body, and bewildered in the by the prince regent ta IBIS.
mtUe. He went np to them, putting on a bold POBxETTS, Bbii.bt an English prelate, bom
fece, and saying : " That's right, my good fel- hi York in 1781, died mLondoB,Maj 14, 1808.
lows I surrender, and PIl take care of yon," at He was admitted a sizar of Christ's collie,
the same time throwing down the mnskets of Cambridge, where he obtained a feUowsbip.
those nearest to him. This had been done to He first became known as a writer by his prize
a number, when the remidnder, recovering poem on death. In 1762 he became chaplain
their presence of mind, mabed upon him and to Dr. Seeker, archbishop of Canterbury, by
would have made him prisoner, had not a body whom he was presented to aeveral boteficea,
of Americans providentially appeared to rescue and in 1760 db^ilidn to George m. and maiter
the general, and kill or captnre the enemy. A of the hospital of Bt. Oroes, near 'Winchester.
Bold medal fVom congress, and a sword from In 177She waamadeUshopof CSiester, andin
Qia state, testified the public appreciation of 1787 was Tiromot«d to the diooeae of London,
hfa services. Qen. Porter waa iaentjfied with over which he prerided till Ida deatii. He es-
the progress of western New York, was one of tablished a tanA tor the relief of the poorer
the earnest prdecton of the Erie canal, and derey of hia diocese, and founded 8 pniee in
was named, wiui Morris and CUnton, on the Christ's ooll«f^ Cambridge, as incitements to
first board of oommlasionera to explore a route iiie study of ^vinity. £Qa collected works,
fiiffit In 1816 he was appointed commiBsioner induing sermons, tracts, a " Summai^ of
nnder the treaty of Ghent for determining the Christian Evidences," a "life of Ardibishop
K. W. boundary. In Uay, 1828, he waa ap- Becker," &c., with a life by his nephev the
pointed eeoretary of war by Preddent Adams. Bev. Robert Hodgson, were pnblished in 1818
PORTER, Bm BoniBT ExB, an EngUah artbt (0 vols. Bvo., London),
and traveller, brother of Jane and Anna ICaria PORTICO (Ital. ; Lat portietu), is archi-
Porter, bom in Ihirham in 1780, died in St tecture, a term originally applied to any sbd-
Petersbui^ In M^, 1842. His taste for art waa 4«Ted place for waUing eupported by ooIudbs
awakened by Flora Ifaodonald while he was or arches, bot sow restricted in its Bigni&>-
pnrsDhigUsediicationatEdinbnKh, Through tion to a sheltered apace enclosed hj^banni
the influenoe of West he was a£nltted to the at the entrance of a bnildtng. Bnch stracturef
royal aoadwny at tlta age of 10, and at the age are usually roofed with a pediment, and ia sp-
of 12 was eommisrioned to paint " Uoses and pearance reeemble the fh>nt or end of a Grew
Auon" fiv Sioreditob ohuroh. Bis most re- temple. They have aa even nnmber of col-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOBTIHASI FOSTUlMD 60t
mmSj mgW from 4 to 19, in front, and an om 9,000 Tdomee, and has latclr eraeted a
eallea proetyie when thej project from the anbitantial briok libraryroom (mPlambotreet,
main hailding. Such as are reoeesed within 60 b^ 86 feet. The sooiel? of uatnral hiatoiy,
tfae front of a building, or, tecbnioallT' apeak- organized in 1848, has a cabinet oontainiu
ing, in antii, are properly Icggt. The por- specimenH of the omithologj of the atate, a Ta£
tieo differs from the porch, witn which it is oable oolleotion of shells, nuneroDs minent-
freqoentlj confounded, in forming an integral logical and geological apeoimena, and a cabinet
part, or perhapa the whole, of the fhmt of a of different kinds of aTiinmln, It poaaasses %
building, while the porch ia oalj a anbordinate commodiona brick hall and lecture room on
jMit of tbe bnilditiK to which it is attached. Oongreaa street. The mercantile librai? aaao-
The most celebrated and perfect q>e<^en of oiatdon, organized in IBSt, aoBtaina a oom-ae of
the portico ia that of the Parthenon in Athena, public leotnrea annoallr, anA. has a library of
^ee AnoAOB, and Ooloritadk.) over 8,000 volnmea. Great attention ia p^
FORTINARL See Bkatkiob. to edocatlon hi the nvblie sohoola, of wnidh
FOBTLAKD, a city and port of entry, oapl- there are 36 in the city and its environs. Of
tal of Onmberland oo.. He., aitoated <m an arm these, one is a olasiioAl school fbr boya, one
of the 8. W. ride of Oaaoo bay, in Ut. 48° SCK a high aohool fop girla, and 3 intermediata
K., long. TO" 16' W., 106 m. by railroad N. N. for boya and girls ; 6 are grammar sehoola, S
E. Itvm Boston; pop. in I860, S6,849. It for ^i» and 8 for boys; and the remainder '
stands npon a peninsola, about 8 m. long, with are primary aohooU. The annual espendi-
an avera^ breadth of } m., extending into the tnre for pnblio schools la about |SO,000. Than
bay in an easterly directioo, with the aarface are also nomeroos privatosoliools and an acad-
rimng ftom the rides and forming an elevated emy. There are 11 newapwera published at
ridge which termlnateB at its extremitiea in Portland, 8 of which are daily. — ^ve rail-
two considerable hills. The harbor has snffl- roads which oommnnicate with different parts
dent depth of water for Teasels of the largest of Qie United States and Oaaada have their
dsas, is very eitenrive and well sheltered by termini at ForUand, viz. : Om Portland, Saoo^
nreral iriands, and in the most severe wintera and Portsmonth, the Eensebeo and PorUandl
b seldom oloeed by ioe. It is of easy aoceaa, the Androeoc^gin and Keuiebeo, Ute York and
and the principal entrance, which liea between Onmberland, and the grand tmnk, which last
id and Hooae island, is defied by extends from PortUnd tia Uontoeal and To-
Fort Preble on Uie former and Fort BoammM ronto to Samia, at the foot of Lake Hnron,
on the latter. The TT, 8. government is now thence eonneet^ with Detroit, a dkitanee M
erecting a new granite oasematod fbrt on Hog 858 mllea. Among the principal mannfaotnring
Island ledge in the harbor, which will com- establishments is that of the PortUnd looo-
mand the I entranoea. The greater part of the motiTe and marine «a^e bnilding company,
otty is regnlarly laid ont and well bnilt, prin- which has the maohinery to employ 400 work-
etpally of brick, and ia remarkable for the men; and an extenaive sugar hooae, whlcJi
elegance of manyof the boose*. Many of the boils over 80,000 casks of molasses aanoally.
streets are lined with elm and otiier shade There are aereral eztensiTe mana&ob»iee <m
trees. The new oostom house, post office, and carriages, sleighs, &a. The eity is lighted with
United Btstee conrt rooms occupy a handsome gas and well snpplied with good water, and la
stmctnre at the comer of Exchange and Mid- oonridered remaAably healthy. There are t
die streets, 120 feet in length, 60 fbet in banks, with on SKregsteoof^ of 18,860,000,
breadth, and 8 stories Idi^. It is bnilt of S insnranoe offioea, and d'aavinga buiks, whoae
granite and iron, perfectlyflre-ftroof Portland deporite amount to $600,000. The for^gn
has 86 ohnrchea, several of which are bnilt of trade is ohiefiy carried on with the West St-
stone and brick, and in rize and style compare diea and Enrope, the exports being for the
favorably with the best in New JBngland. The most part provtwona, Inmber, ioe, ana fish, and
new dty hall ia one of the Isrgeat and most the imports molaases, angar, wockery, salt, and
elegant pnblio baildioffs in the country. Its iron. Portland also has a large coasting trade^
fhmt of oKve-colorea fivestona, elaborately with regular lines of steamboats running to
dressed, fs 100 feet long, over 60 feet high, uid New York, Boston, Bath, Bangor, Eas^rt, and
snrmowited witii an ele^t dome ; ita ride St. John, N. B. The Canadian lioe of Enro-
devBtioQonUyrtlestreet i8BS3feet,embradng peon ateamera mna weeklyfrom PorQand to
a hall which ia IIB by 89 feet, and ewabte of liveipool, via Londonderry, daring the winter
aeating 2,600 persons. It cost about 9376,000, months. The total valne of the imports In
and covers an area of over itO.OOO fM. The 18S9 amounted to tliM8,8Sl, and the exports.
Ifune charitable mechanic asaodatioii, inoor- totl,S31,606. The foreign arrivals for the year
poratedinl81B,haserectedasabstantialeranlto were699vea8ebofanaggregatoof 180,06ft toni^
and brick bnilding on Oongrees streeL It con- of which 888, of an aggregate of 101,438 tona^
poratedinl81B,haserectedasabstantialeranlto were699vea8ebofanaggregatoof 180,96ft toni^
and brick bnilding on Oongrees streeL It con- of which 888, of an aggregate of 101,438 tona^
tains a Sno haU, library, and otiter rooms, were nnder the flag ofthe United Ststas. On
and cost 986,000. Its library, intended fbr the JuneSO, 1869,theaggregatetonnsgeoftheport
use of members and apprentiees, nnmbov about waa 1 16j098, of which 8,909 tona were ateam
8,000 volamee. The Portland Athennum was vessels. Theregisteredtonnageoonristedof 08,-
tnoorporatedasapnbtlelilH«ryinl897} ithoa 867 t(«a permanent, and 3&^7 temporary i aM
fiM FQBTO BELLO PCEBTBMOniH
the «Brolled kA lioaisBd of 34^841 toaa p«nna> fiMp. 10,000), itands i^on a mum latand on tha
iwnt, whioh were oaployed u follows : lfi,96T N. oout, oonnected with ths mahilutd bj a
tons in the ooasljiig trade, 8,128 in the cx)d flah- hridge. It Is atroDglj' fortified, and haa been
err, l,71Sin tbeiiuuikerel&ihei7,uid861tODii three timee nnaoceessfuDT and once soeoesa-
licuised imder 20 tons, which, with the exeep- flillr attacked hy the Brituh.
tion of 84 ton* engaeed in the coaxing tn^ FORTBHOUTH. I. A townahip end cit7 of
were emplojed in the eod fiBherj. m the Boddngham oo^ H. H., and the oiilj eeaport in
Tear leST, 4 ships and barka, 9 brigi, 7 aehoon- tbeBtate^ateatedon theS. aideoftlleFiscata-
an,aBdleteamer,(tfanaggregateof&,86StoIls, qoarirer, hi let 48° fi' K^ long. fO" 46' W., 8
wwe built— The Indian name of Portland wai m. from the aea and 04 m. V. by K itom Bos-
Ibdiigonne. An En^iah colony settled here ton ; pop. in iseo, B,8&6. The city stands on
la ld88, hut dnring the sabeequent ware with- a beautifDl peninsula fonned hy the Piscala-
tiie Indians, Fren<£, and the mother ooontry, qna. Among the pablio edifices are 10 ohnrch-
It anffered ray severely, and the town was es (B Baptist, 1 Christian, 1 Oalfinistio Con-
three timea completely oesb'oyed. Portland, gregational, 1 Epiaoopal, 2 Uethodist, 1 Bo>
whidi origmally formed a part of Falmouth, man Catholic, 1 UniTersaliBt, and 1 Unitarian);
was incorporated as a town In 1786, and as a an atheusnm, which is a handsome S story
taij in 1882. hrick building, with a library and oahineta
POBTO BELLO. Bee Pcxnro Bim>. of minerab and objects of natural history;
PORTO FEBBAJO, the capital of the island an academy, s state arsenal, S market honses,
of Elba, Itsly, on a rooky promontory at the snd an almshouse. There are 4 banks with
head (f a bay, 0 m. B. W. from Ohm Vita, on an aggregate capital hi 18C6 of $6B1,000, and
the N. dde of the ialmd; pop. abont 6,000. It a aavuigs hank with d^osits in January of
has an ezoellent harbor, defended by 8 strong that year amonnting to (880,871. The town
fbrts and several batteries. ThereareSchuroh- is snppUed with water from a distance of 8
ea, a town hall, barracks, miliary hospital, miles by works oonstmcted by a company
and the goTemors palace, oceopied from May, fonned in 179B. Tha mannlactnres are of
1S14, till Feb. SO, 181fi, by Napoleon. conuderable extent, snd inolnde cotton Abrica,
POBTO RIOO, or Pdkrto Bioo, an island of hosiery, ale, and beer. The town has also s
the Qreater Antilles, West Indies, belon^ng to machine shop and 2 iron foonderiea, and oon-
6p^ BXtendmg from laL 17°BC'to 18° 80 N. taina 8 newspaper offices, 18 pnbUo acbools,
and from long. 60° 89' to HT' 11' W. ; extreme inelnding high s(Aool8 for giru and boya, a
length lOfi m., breadth 40 m. ; area, 8,800 eq. marine society, a mechanice' asBO^ation, and
m. ; pop. hi 1850, 860,000, } of whom are the Howard benevolent society. The harbbr
slaves. The K coast is Uned with navigable can socommodate 2,000 yessels, b particnWly
lagoons, and many of the rivers can be ascend- aafe, and has sufficient depth at low water for
flO for B or 6 m. from the sea. There are the largeat claw of ships. Itismnchfre<]Tiented
nmnerona b^s and creeka, bnt the N. coast is as a port of refnge, an^ the rise of the tide and
snhject to a ground swell which breaks against Btrengtb of the carrent keep it free from ice
the olifi wi&i violence, and none ot the har- dnring the severest winters. The prindpil
bora except Hiose of Gnanica, Eovas, and San entrance Is between the mainland and the E.
Juan are safe at all seasona; A range of side of Qreat island, and is defended by Fort
monntaios rans throngh the island from £. to UoOleary cm the former, and Fort Constita-
W,, having a general heightof abont 1,600 feet tion on the N. W, point of the latter. The
above tbe sea, with one peak of 8,678 feet. In U. B. navy yard ia the object of greatest in-
the interior there ore extensive plains, and in terest at Fortamonth. It is utaated on Oon-
e places along the coast there are tracta of tinental or Kavy island, on the £. mde of the
1-. ..,.i__3B.. .»....., .1 „ ,, T.- ... . .. iiip ]ionp8g^ one
. ^, , , _ _ „, L wide,and 72
oonuderable .qaantitiea of salt are procured. hi(^ ; lan^e sheds for timber, a rigging loft,
The climate, though ve^ '**™'> >» generally machine ^op, &o. The balance dry dock ia 560
oonsidered morebMlthy than that of any other feet long by lOS broad, and bas24punipawork-
of tha Antilles. Tbe soil is |iarticnlarly fertile, ed by two ateam en^ea. In the year ending
the proportion of angarobtamed from an eqnal June SO, 1660, the an>orts amonnted to tMOS
areabeingmuchgreaterthaninanyoftheouier and the imports to|2S,2S7; 48 veesela of an
West India islands. The value of the imports aggr^ate of 4,857 tons entered, and 47 of en
dnring the year 1855 amounted to (0,780,990, aggregate of 4,080 ttma cleared. The number
and dst of the exports to $1,771,715. The of vessela built during that year was 6, cf an
trade with the United States in 1858 was aa aggregateof 8,846 tons. The shipping beloog-
followa: imports, 1500,260; exports, (808,- ing to the port m 1800 amounted to 84,485
402 ; American vessels entered, 616, out of a tons, and many of tbe ahips owned at this port
total of 1,494. — Porto lUoo was discovered by txo employed in the trade of otber porta of
Columbus in 1493, and invaded in 1509 by the the world. Portnnouth has great facility of
Spaniards, who in a few years exterminated oommoDicatiott by railroad with all parts of
the natives, then about 600,000 or 800,000 m the surrounding states. It is a station on the
amnber. — ^The o^tal, Baa Joan de Porto Koo eastern Uasaadmsetts railroad, and ia con-
PORiaUOUTH POBTTTQAL (06
■oOm Ones br, the Ooa.- i m-uaroM, is tlia tswn of Goiport, with it
oord and Portanuiiitli railroad. The town was popnlatloQ of 7,600. The obaimeJ between
Mttled in 1SS8, and inoorpmraled ia 16S8. It these two plaoes foniu the eDtraaes to Pait»-
has often au&red severely from firea. IL The month harbor, here defended by Bonth Sea oaa-
capHal of Norfolk oo., Ya., on tiis W. bank of tie on the K md Monoton fort on the W., and
Elisabeth river, oppodta tb» dtj of Norfolk, 8 extending ssTerai mllea betweao the i^and of
m. from HanqtbHi roods ; pop. in 18M, 9,48T. Fortsea and the matolaod, and gnAiuSOj wi-
lt ia boilt on levd gronnd and regnlarly 1^ dening till it att^ns a breadth of about S m. at
onC, and has a oonrt honae, a brwioh of tlte its N. extremitv. The depth of water 1* sofB-
bank of Vtrsinia, the Virginia literaiy, soien- ejant for veesen <^ the largest ^laas, «ai tiie
tifie, uid nuUtaiT academj, D newnwers, and harbor has the advantage of opening into the
6 charohee. By Um Seaboard and Itoanoke fine roadstead of Splthead which is sheltered
nulroad and the James river it has eztenaive by the isle of Wight. The only manuikctnrM
eomrannicatton, both north and sonth. (See of importaaee are those immediately oonneoted
NoBroi.E.) nl The capital of Scioto oo., O., with the naval eatabliahments,— ^The earUest
on the Ohio river, immaoiately above the June- notice of Portsmouth ooonrs in the "Bazon
tion of the Scioto, at the terminus of the Scioto Ohroniole" in fiOl, where it is called Porta-
and Hocking valley railroad and the Obio and mathe. Bnring the reign of Alired a fleet of
Erie oanal, 116 m, E. by S. from Oindnnati, 9 ships was fitted oat at thepor^ whioh do-
and 00 m. S, from Oolnmbus; pop. in IBAO, fbated the Danes ; and before the Norman con-
6,268. It has aa active business, and r^olar qnest a large nmnber of vessels ware sent
oommnnieatioB by steamboat with Oincimuti. ttom It to intercut the invaders. Hie £^«n<di
It contains a bank, 4, private banking establish- landed and bnmed a great part of the town tn
ments, 2 distilleries, i rolling mills and iron 1877, bat WMe nltim^y defeated with heavy
woiks, S maohine shops and fonnderies, U Iocs. After this disaster the fbrtifications were
dtorebea, and S newqu^er otDoee. extended and inqiroved, and have oontinaed
POBTSUODTE, a fortified town of Hamp- to receive additjons ap to the present time,
shire, Enf^and, ntuated cm the B. W. extremity Napoleon sailedfWnuPortsmoathfctrSt. Helena
of the idand of Portsea, 68 m. S. S. V. fVom tn 1816.
Loodon; pop.in 1861, 79,096. It coosiabi of POBTTTQAL, a kingdom of £arope, oconpy-
two towna, Portsmouth proper and Portsea, ing the B. W. part of the Spanish peninsaU,
separated ftom each other by a small creek or Ixmnded N. and £. by BptSn, S. and W. by the
snn of the sea crossed by bridges. Both towns Atlantio, and extending from lot 86° 07' to
ore onited in one complete fortress sorronnded 43° 11' N., and from long. 6° SO' to S° 40* W. ;
r'eep moats and strong walls flanked by reg- length from N. to 8. aboat 360 m., greatest
tMtiODs, the whole defended by a aeries br^dth abont ISO m. ; ares, 86,400 sq. m.;
of outworks. Borne of the dwellings are very pop. in 1867, 8,608,886, and of ttie Portogneee
amnent, and the house in wMoh the duke colonies 3,764^860, nujdng the total p<^)iila-
of Bni^ngham was aasassinated doring the tion of the monarchy 6,828,276. The colonies
reign of Oharies I. is still standing in the High are the Azores, Madeira, and Porto Santo
street. There are several chnrohes, one of (thon^admbtiatrativelythoseislandsarerank.
which was originaUy erected in 1220, and ded- ed as component parta of the kingdom), the
iaKtedtoSt.ThomaeiBe(d[et,battheohanod islands of O^MVerd, Principe, St l^omas, and
h ^e only part left of the andent bnUding. Anno Bom on the African ooast; aomaportions
There are extensive bairaoks fcv troops {^ the ttfOninea; Angola and Bengoela ; Uosambiqiie
line. A force of 18,000 mesi would be necee- and its territory; ^% Damao, and Din in
mry to fbUy man the fortifioalions, bnt the HindoeCan; the Irianda of Timor and Solor;
Qsoal ^rrisoa comdsta of about 3,600. Bnt and the oi^ of Macao In China. The kingdom
the chief importance of the place is derived is divided into S provinoes, via. : Entre Mlnho
from the royal dook yard, which ia ritnated at e Doaro, the most northerly, Tras~os-Hontes,
Portsea, to the H. of Portsmouth, and covers Beira, Estromadiira, Alemt^o, and Al^arve,
an ana of 120 acres emiosed by walls. It con- the most southerly province. The oapital is
tains very extenoLTe Etorehousea for all the lisbon, and the oUier chief cities are, in the
matarials used in naval architeotnre, maohine order of their population. Oporto, Oohnbra, 0-
■hops, extannva slips and doeks in which the vas, Braga, Setubal, Evora, and Over. None
largest vesseb of war ore built and repaired, of these except Lisbon and Onorto have more
ranges of handsome residenoes for tha port tiian 20,000 inhabitants. — The coast line is
admiral and other officna, and a royal navel about SOO m. in lengtii, and b not indented Ity
Milage which aocommodates 70 pupils. Dnr- any great bay. At some points it rises into
ing the Orimean war 1,000 men were con- olifls of oonriderable height, bat the greater
dsratly employed in the Portsmouth dock yard, port is low and marshy. The prinolpal har-
Onlaide the yard an area of 14 acrea is ocon- bors ore those of Lisbon, Oporto, BeCubal, Vl-
ided by a gtut wharf^ where vast nombers of gaeira, Aveiro, md Viana. Tlie prindpsl
nms and quantities of warlike stores are kept, rivers of Portugal flow from Spun, and of
On the muoland opporite Portsmoath, and thew the Tagns, the Guadiona, the Donro, the
"gwith it by a steam tteiy abont Minho, and the lima are the largest. Hm
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
Tagu Beparatn Qm prorfawM of Beb» tai aoA iron, the last umMd natal bebv pvttn-
A&nmo, and pawing tiinm^ Eatrenudim Ur\j abundant Bat from want <tf eaUtftim
fitUa Into tha Atlantio, t^ a month ao wide and capital littla use ia made of fte neat a^m^
thatitiaratiier anannofthaaeathanarirer. walridiasor tha 0000(17. Beuittfu mtrHf
Ita estoaiT ftorma the gptnaoioe and owiTenient abooitd, and there are qtuniea of limMt<n^
hartmr of liabon. The river fa naTigsUe to gTpaam, elata, firaastone, niUttone, and MaA
Abrantea, 80 m. abora ita mooUi. Of th« agate, together vtth vait beds of potten' and
rivers which have their whole oonrsstn Porta- porcelain day and <tf ocamnon aalL In 18St
gal, the loogest are the Uondego, whii^ is salt waa rapcHled to the amount ct 8ff,000,00P
navi^ble fi>r 60 ul, the Oarado, Ave, Yoaga, tnahelB.— There la great ineqoalit? in tLe soQ
Bado, Odeodra, Fortunao, and tHo Qnarteira, of Portugal, batmooh of tkelaudkezcMdii^
la nnuner these streama beoraie vwy low, It fertile and well adapted to tJie growth ot
and therare in guieral maoh obMncted bj ultheproduotionsof the temperate acne. Th»
Tooka and sand bars. There are many lakes on olimateamong themovntaiiisof the K. iaeoid
^e sea ooaat, hot none of much magmtade. andhardi.bat ontbeooaatandinthelowluidB
Ukneral springs abonud, and Uiere are 84 hot of the centre it is mild and geniaL Uobtmiaa
firings, manj of which are celebrated for their place of reaort &a invalids, and though the
medidual qualities. — The mounts chains of southern provinoea are (opoaed to great heol^
Portugal are chiefl; prolongationB in a T. they are not of lone 0(MiQnnanoe, bdng tent-
er B. W. direction of the Bpanish PvrSnies. pK«d by breezes man tite ocean. Violent
Near the N, frontier ie a lofty range called the Btorms are ver^ rare, and the cold ia never
fierradeUcmterinho, one of whose peaks, Gavi- severe «c(^ in elented ritoatioaia. Ilia
ana, is 7,SB0 foot high, and u said to be alw^s vegetatioa doea not differ materially from that
oovered with mow. The Berra de Gerez, also of thereat of the peninsnU. Ammg the trees
In the northetti provinoea, rises where highest and ehruba are the eoA tree and ue kcnMB
f ,860 feet. The Serra d'EatreUa, wldrh trav- oak, the bay tree, Portugal lanrel, Bpanirii
eraea the proviaoe of Beira, ia the continnation cheatnot, oarob tree, myrde, pome^nnate, roae-
of a ohain from the Spanish provinces of Leon mary, lavender, licorice tree, and in the aoaOi
and Castile, and is covered with enow during various speoles of pahn, the ^iigen tree, coral
moat of the year ; its highest peaka are Oan- tree, the oleander, and the American agave,
taro Delgardo and Malao da Bwra. A branch The orange, the fig, sugar cane, and rice erow
of it stretches through Estremadora and ter- luxuriaotTy, and the wheat, grspee, and oliv«
minateeattheseanearthemonthof theXagus, ofFortngalarennsurpaseed. Aioong the wild
in the promontory called Oabo de Booa or animala of the oonntrr, wolves, wild oata, wild
Book of lisbon. A prolongation ol the great goats, wild boars, and deer are Uie principal,
Bpaniah raugeof the Bierra Morena enoloeeB though none of these are numwouii Ventnnoiis
the province of Algarve and terminateaatOqte aarMnta abound in the movntalns, but are ran
Bt. Vinoent ; its highest peaka are Foya, 9,840 ia the plains and vallsya. There are few Urda,
feet, and Picota, S,TflO fbet, near its W, extrem- the moat commcm being the partridge, and in
ity. The mountaiii scenery of Pto'tngal is ex- the mountains vultoree and ei^ee. The coaat
ceedin^y floe, and few plaeea in the world eqnal and theriveTsawaTmwtaifldii,bQtfbeSsfaeries
Innatoral beauty the region around Ointra in are carried on ao Imperfeotfy tliat great mianll-
the n^hborhood of lialKat. — In its geological ties of salted fish or* imported. — The Ptuta-
oharacter Portugal resembles Spain. Much of gnese are a handaome race, wiUi refcnlar fe»>
the monntainouB r^on of the w . is formed of tores, olive compleziima, and dark, espreHdva
crystalline rooks. The £. part of Traa-o»-Him- eyes. The repatath»i of the h^er wdwa la
tee, however, consists of swes. Abend of cryfr- notTwygDodamongtheirnei^Ws tbe&Mn-
talline rooks nearly GO m. broad stretches al- iards, who have a proverb which aays : "Strip
Biost tram one end of the country to the other, a Bpaniard of hia tlrtaea, and you have a Po^
The district of the upper Douro is formed of tuguese ;" but unpr^udieed observMa deecribe
alate rooks belonging to the silurian system, the peaaanti? as poMeeaed of many ooUatraita
and nearly surronnded by granitac and syenitlo of ohsracter, thou^ grievously bardaued hj
monnt^na. Ia tUs district is the eoal fidd of oppression and n&rule. Agrienltnra among
Valloago, which ytelda anthrodte ooaL South them is in a very backward condition, the im-
of Abrantea is a tertaary basin with an area of plamenta uaed booig rode and domsy, and tlw
more than 9,000 sq. m., in which IJsbon standa. whole system of tallage imporfeetaiid nnOirif^.
To the B. of Uiia basin aeocmdary beds appear, The northern provinoeeare the beet cultivated,
and etiU flirther 8. between Alemt^o and M' and thwr people iar more prospcavus and bt-
garve is a lofty chun of hiUs coniisting <^ telliKent thsn in die south. The great st^ilea
Bohlats and sUtes. In the doya of the Komans of toe cotmbr are wheat, wine, and dive oil.
gold and tilver were found in Portugal, and The milk chiefly oonanmed is that of g
gold is still oollected from the sands of the The common bread of the people is mad'
rivers, thongh not in great quantity, Qie prin- Indian meal, the soil and dhnotc being botit
oipal mine, that of Adisea near Setubal, :rield- well adapted for the production of muaa.
Ins an average of SO Iba. a year. There are H«np and flax are extensively grown, and
mines of lead, plumbago, antimony, copper, beans and other garden vegetabha are laised
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POBTUGAL Mr
in alMndaiwe. OnngW) Bhnondi, md flgt are whom art 8 bUiopa. There are also bUhopa
exported. Aooordfaig to theoStdal reporte, the hi the ooloniea of the Amrea, Ibdeira, Oape
STsnge umnal Bgnoaltim] prodnotion of die Verd, St Thomas, and Angola ; and at Qoa
countiT amounts in Tslne to (40,000,000, the in India there is an arohblHhop who has under
grain bring rained at tl<X00O,O0O, the wine at him 7 bishops and a prahtte. AU other ra-
118,000,000, Mtd the wool at (7,000,000. The ligiona are tolerated, and there are ProteataM
vines of Fortngal hare long been eelebrated, obapels in Lisbon and Oporto. Public eduoa-
the most ftmona being port. (BeePoBrWon.) tion is nnder the direction of the minieter of
nie maBn&otnres of Portugal are not exten- the interior, and is raanaged bj a oonnoil which
■ire. Woollan dotlt is made at Uabon, Ooril- holds its rittinga at Ooimbra. The ohnroh has
ha, Portalegre, and Azettao; eotton goods at no ocnrttol over it Br law parenta are oom-
Uriwn, Oporto, and Thomas; rilk In Algarre; peQed to send their ohtldren to school, bat this
steam enguies, iron and tin woA, flreanna, law ia onlj partially enfbroed. The onl; nnt-
porcAl^n, gold and rilrerwoT^potteiy, candles, renitT in the kingdom is that of Ooimbra.
and soap at liBbon,wiiere also there are tanner- (See Ooihbsa.) The priraarj sohools in 1864
lea, disalleriea, and sngar refineries. 'WIm, oil, numbered I,18B, attended hj 88,600 echolara,
>dt,wo<ri,fhdta, and oorh bark are the duefar- of whomonl7l,fi70irerefeiiuleB. The lyoenms
tielee of export ; and the imports oonrittprfaioi- or stdiools of the next grade nmnbered laa,
paMy of the finer kinds of Englidi mannftotnrea, with S,840 pnpilsi There are poljtaohnio
and of ooal, tar, jdteh, drugs, bntter, cheese, and aoademiee, medical schools, and aoademieB of
■att fiah. The imports m IBM amonnted in flue arts at Liaboa and Oporto; a military ool-
ralne to (20,228,000, and the exports to (16,- lege at Mafra; army and nary schools at Lis-
787,500. Abont | of the exports are to Great bon ; and agrlcnltnral insdtntea and botanical
Britain, tad tiie reet to BrariL the United gardens at Usbou and Oporto. For the edaca-
Statea, France, Spain, Bnana, Sweden, and Nor- titm of the olerCT there are 0 eeminaries and
war. The eommon roads of Portugal are rery 8 halls of thedogy. The finanoes of the
bad, and mitD recently the oonntiy was rery Portognese goreroment are In a rery disorder-
deficient in means of intomal oommmiication. ed condition, the en>enditDrea haring tor n
Kit within a few years two great srstems of long period exoeeded the receipts. In IBAO
railnMida hare been designed and partly cran- the reoeipta amonnted to (14,862,000, and the
plated. OneUneniDsftomUsbontoSantarem, expeuditores to (16,788,000. The public debt
wd thence to Oporto, with a branch line to In 1869 was (139,000,000. The army in 1860
Braa on &e Spanish frontier. Good maoadam- nmnbered 24,869 men, beside a colonial foroe
ixed roads hare also recently been oonstraoted of about 18,000, stationed chiefly In Africa
in the prorinoes N. of the Dooro, which in and the East Indies. The navy oompriBed 40
every respeot are &r in adranoe of the rest of sailing vessels and 18 steamers, manned by a
Qieconiitoy. — The government of Portngal is a force of 8,698 men. — Portugal was inhabited
£mited monarchy nnder a oonstitation adopted anciently by Celtic tribes, and was early visit-
la 1886. The legislative power ia vested in a ed fl)r commercial pnrposee by the Phosni-
cortas conusting of two houses, one of peers cdans, Cartbag^niaus, and Greeks. The Bo-
and the o^er of deputies ; the peera are named muia, who called it Lnsitania, from its chief
fcr lifb by the erown, uid the deputies ohoeen tribe the Lositani, effect«d its final aubjaga^
by doctors, who most hare a yeany income of tion abont 140 B. 0., and held it as a province
not leea than (100. The administration ia oon- till the 6th century of the Christian era, when
dneted by 7 ministers, who fbrm the cabineL it was overrun by tbe Visigotlis and other
In 1860 the titled and faeredHary nobilify (which northern barbarians. In the 8th oentory it was
is distinet fMm the honse of peers, thou^ oonanered by the Arabs, frtmi whom it was
nobles may be appointed by the crown to seats partly recovered toward the dose of the 11th
fntfaat hon8e)oompriBed7dokes,21 marquises, aentiiry by Alfonso VL, king of Leon and Oas-
79 eovnts, 102 risoounts, and 106 barons. For tile. About the year lO&S Alfonso gave the
JB^idal pnrposee Portngsl ia divided into 106 country between the Minho and tbe Donro to
mstiiota, in each of which there is a Jadge, his son-in-law, Henry of Bnrgnndy, who took
frmn whose daoidon there is an appeal to sa- the title of oonnt of Portugal, and soon tiSr
perior oonita at lisbon and Oporto. These tended his dominions by oonqneats from the
JndgM remain bnt 6 years at the same place, Arabs or Moors, He died in 1112, and was
and are mpoii^ed by the crown. Bmeath soooeaded bybiaaon DomAlfonso, whoinll89
tiiea are mferior elasees of judges, who are defeated the Ifoors in a great battle on the
elected by the people for a tenn of two years, plains of Onriqne near the Tagoa. From this
Trial by fwey ia estabHshed in criminal cases, iMUle the Portngnese date tiie fomidation of
and alao m dril, nnleaa the partiea agree to be their kingdom, Demi Alfimso having been pro-
Wed by the Jndge exdnsively. The Boman dUimedldngbyhisarmyontfae fidd<f victory.
OathoBo is the state relif^n, and the eodedas- His son aim sooceesor, Dom Sancho I., was
Uoal establishment oondsta of a primate, the equally eneoeetftal in the sb^igf^ with the
ardiUshop of Bragn, under whom are 6 bisb- Hoors, and by hia valor and abilities raised
ops ; tbe petriardi of IJsbon, nnder whom are Portugal to a high pitch <tf prosperity and
BUahope; nod the anddildu^ of Evora, under poww, and extended Ua area to its present di-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
SM FOBTUaAL ... POBTUOAL CLuratrAOB}
nundoiu. Of hu mooemaa tba uoat dIiU» irUeh JMtKtfed oM half of.Iiplxni in IVSS^
fciahed wu Jolm L, safDamed the Great, wito This iwgn, liowever, iraa nuurked hf gnat ao'
bemn his rei^ in 1886. H« r^ielled a for- cisl tad agrioaltnral Nfimns, oanied oat ohieflj
mJdAble invaaioii of tiio CattilianS) led a sue- bj tli« gtmua and wergf M the kinx's prima
oeasflilejip«iUtionBgainattheMooraDf fiarbaiy, mioiater, the fiunou marqnu of Fombal. Jo-
and acquired posBeeuon of Hadeirjk and the lepb vaa enoceeded in 1777 by hia dwo^ter
ediedii
B,wbidi were dvcorered during his reign. Uariik who became insane in 1793, and con-
jd in 14SS. Xhs Portugoese at this ^ tinoed eo till her death in 1816, her son John,
riod were the most ttili^tenM and enterpris- prince of Bnuil, acting «s regent Daring her
ing people of Eonqie, kdA their efforta to en- reign in 1807 Portnnl was coaqnered by ft
lai^e the scope of geographical knowledge to- Prencb armj- nnder iCanhal Josot, by oilier
ward the aoatii led tlMiii to undertake oaring of Napolwoi, who had declared the house ot
and difficult vojages al<»g the coast of Afrioa, Bragsn^ to have forfeited the thrfHie bj tlia
which fi>r half & oentarj were lislj sod per* reflual of the prince regent to oonfiscate Eog-
aeTerincl J directed by Prinoe Henry the navi- lish merchandise in bis dominions. The royal
gator, the third son of Jolm the Great. These fiunily embarked for Brasil snd continned at
attempts were at length orowned with sDooesa 'Bio Jan^ro till 1621, though bj British aeaat>
by the aohierement of a passage to the Bast anoa the f>ench wer» eipelled in 1813. La
Indies roond the Oum of Qood Hope by Vasoo 1690 the diasatisfaclion ta the people at the
daO«niainl407. lliiswaaintherei^of Dom abaeoce of the oonrt, aud a gesenl feding that
^oannel the Fortnnate, nnder whose mteltigeot flindamfmtal changes were reqnired in the orai-
gnidsnce prodigions ^orta were mode to ex- Btitntion, led to a revolntioD onattended by
tend the oommeroe and the dominion of Porto- vioIenceorbloodshed.the.snDy and the people
ml in Africa and tbeBast. In the latter region acdng in concert. A liberal eonstitntion waa
uieir power was exereiBed by a snocesCDOn of adopted, and in 1821, at the reqoest of the na-
able viceroys, among whmn Alfonso d'Albn- tion, John VI. retnrned from Breril, leaving
qoerqna was psrtdcnlarly eminent. For nearly his eldest son Dom Pedro there ss regent In
a century the Portogueae were masters of the the followiu year Bom Pedro was proclaimed
Indian ocean, snd the dominant power on tiie emperor of Brasil, and the two cenotries wera
£. coast of Africa and the 8. oossl of Asia. In finally seperated. John VI. died in 1826,
1501 Brazil was discovered by a PortoKneae snd Dom Pedro of Brazil, the IwiUmate sno-
adventurer, and John IIL, who ascended Uie cessor, sorreodered Porti^al to nis daughter
throne in 1621, made great efforts to colonize Msria, and ertablished a new and tolerablr
it He died in 1667, and was sncceeded by hie iiberal constitotioo for the kingdonL Before
«0D Dom Bebastisn, who distinguished himself Usria arrived in Portugal, her ancle Dom
byQoiiotio expeditions a^ " ■ ■' " - ' "'->"'-• • -^ ^ ..^ i.._
Barbary, in one of which, i
with oil his army. This (
broke the power of PortogsL Dom Henry, the deqiotina jroToked a rivil war, which raged
uLcleof Sebastian, ascended the vscant throne, forseversl years, snd waa finslly terminated
' and on his deaUi in 1680 whhoot direct ixtirt, in 1884 by the triontph of the libenls, the ex-
the crown was olsimed by Philip II. of S^n, pnlrion of Higoel, and the establishment of
the prince of Parma, and the duchess of Brar Maria on the urone. Several revolntioos and
gaof a. The power of Philip decided the con- coonter revolntioDB have since Uiun place, the
test in his favor, and for the seit 60 years For- principsl result of which has been the sobsti-
tngsl was a part of the Spanish monarchy. For tntion of one faction for another in the oontnd
a conaiderobte period the peace of the country of the royal ministry. The most serioos of
was disturbed by pretenders claiming to be these outbreska, that of 1846-'7, was provoked
D(un SebostiaQ, whom the common people be- by the nnpopnlaritf of the ministry of Costa
lieved to have eacsfved the sworda of the Uoois Csbral, the count ^ Thomar, and but for Brit^
and tobelivinginamysterioaaseclu^on,fi-oiD iah, French, and Spanish intervention woald
which he was to reappear for the redemption have overthrown the government The qoew
of Portngol. The rale of the Spanish kings Varia died in 1868, and her ^est bob Pedro
bore heavily on Portugal, and in 1640 the na- V. sncceeded, and la Jtow reigning (Jn&e, 1861).
tion rose in revolt, and by an almost nnanimons FOBTDGAL, LuisvAflx jjin l4TauT[:^
voice proclaimed the duke of Brsgan^a king, of. The Isngn^eof thelAutaniisnnknowa,
under the title of John IV. Along warwitd for at an early period it gave plftoe to the Latin,
Spain ensued, which was terminated in 1686 which oootioned to be tpokoi in Portngal in
by the deciMve defeat of the Spaoiorda in the oompaiative parity for ^KHit 6 centuries. The
battle of Hontesdaros. Amicable relations, >iorihem barbarians then inftaaed into it a
however, were not flilly restored between the Gothic element, and the cranponBd thus form-
two nations till 1787, in thereign of John V., an ed was stiU itanher CMrnpted A centaries later
able and succeasflil monarch, who died in 176& by a 8«nitio«diaixtare. Dnring the Hoorish
Under liia son and ■uooessor Joseph I., Porta- rule AraUc was the language generally apokea
gal experienced many calanutiea, the most re- by the hi^er olaMea, and Joao de bonaa is
markable of which was the greM earthquake 1780 uuimarated joo fewer than 1,400 word*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
vUt^ ttia Portngaeee had borrowed ftvm tfael' Jobn I. At tfas wme time
Anbio and other eutern languages. The in- ohtrabT- had been ditigeuUr onltiT&ted, eap»-
floenoe of the Arabic was enooeeded, thoaKh dally by Yasco de Lobeira, the TcpnUd author
ita effect iraa not destroyed, by that of the of " AnwdiB de Ganl." Iiiuiiig tne 16th oen-
idioms of the different foreign aaiiliaries, tni7, which has been called the heroio tgO of
n«noh and others, who aaaistad the Portu- Portagal,proKCompodtioaa became both mora
goese in driving ont the Hoora. The Fortn- namerons and more Importwkt Fenaod Lo-
nem ia thin one of the modem forms of the pea, the Portngaeee FrotBaart, Qtanes Eaanea
Bmnanoe langoagv. It bears a remarkable^ de Ararara, another ohnoialer, mid King Al-
affiai^ to the Qalidaa, bcdng readily under- ftmso V., who wrote « treatiae <at the art ctf
itood bf the GaU^os ; and a leas muted ri- warandaUtdeworkonastnmomy.areamons'
niUbidfi to tin OaCalan. Hie pronanoiation, the most wMwixe&ij names ot this period.
thonffh diflkmlt for foreignen, ia free from the King Edward (died 14S8) ooa^oaed a treatise
Sttnm aoanda wUeh aboimd in Spantah, aod Ih Bono SegUnina Jtatma, Damlao de Goes
aharah aspfastas which it might be expMted is known as the antbor of a Latin treatise
to h»Te borrowed from the Gotnio and Anbio. Di MorOna Slhlepvm and a ohnmiole of Kin^
The FMidt nasal acnrnds wi, ^ on oeenr fr^ KnanneL A much higher repnt&tioii belong
fsentlr, and the letters ) and cA are also pro* to Bernardino Kbeyro (abont 1600), an officer
Bonooed Tftry much as in French. The ^feanHar of the honsehold of Eing £mannel, who n^
diphttaoag A), as In the termination etOb (I^. tertoined a hopeless pauion for the daughter
and Bag. titm) and elsewhere, is pronoonoed of his sovereign, and told his grief to the
nearly Sk» vmng in EngUih. The Portngnese woods and monntaiDs in Terses idiiefly re-
is lees sonorons and m^eatie Hian tlie Spimiah, markable for overstrained aentbiiffiiit and ob-
bnt mora floenL sweeter, and simpler. 81»- scarity. He was mora BoooesaM in other
moodl called it *' ft boneless Oastiliaii" (w» Ctes- kinds of eompoeition, and his pastoral romanoe
tfUaii diutt^ ; the Spaniards on tM other Jfmma 4 nufa (" Bmall and Yoimg," so ctUed
hud have stj^ed it a language (tf flowers. Tha from the words with wUch it b^ins) ia tha
Una words which ftorm tiie oasis of the Pwtn- earlieet example of a good Portagneee proea
gnese have nndeigone more ehanges than titey style. He eontribnted greatly to the popnWity
have anffered in any other modem tongne. which Mstoral poetry and romance acquired
Soma radical letters aro almost always onutted, about this time in Portngal as well as in other
**ie ooiuonants I and n being most frequently parts of Eorope. Of the pastoral authors con-
dropped; thns, lat dolor. Pert, der; Lat temporair with Ribeyn^ ObrlstoTio Fal^Zo Is
MMK ForLptr; LaL pipahu, Port povo; tiie only one who deserves separate notice.
UL tto, itta. Port, o, a ; Let, pat»r, Port pdw. The classical school of poetry wsa inaagnrated
"Dm grmamar la in general simple, the only by Saa de Uiraada (died 1606), a versatil*
MonUarity which deeerves parBoDlar notice author, who like moat of ttie poets of bis
Ming the inflections of the infinitive mood of ooantry wrote in both Portagnese and Gas-
Ibeverb, which beside the ordinaryimpereonal tUian; he left pastorals, sonnets, hymns, songs,
imt has a personal form goremed by a nonn ballads, epieUee in verse after the manner of
itnm ; thns, amor, to love ; 0 m amar, Horace, and two comediea, (k ttlrmtgairtt and *
) ma; 0 fu amartt, to love thee. See 0» YiihalpaMdiM. Another of thet elasdcal
OonataiKiD, ffraHimatica analytiea da Unfua poets is Antonio Ferraira (dted 16M), rmnarik-
ParlHfftuat (Paris, 1881), and Nome^e grom- able for good taste, rimplioi^, and correctnesSL
sMin PortugaU* (1812); and Fonaeca, 6U- His best works ara bis episdee, beride which hs
madtiaktfrmmiMAr* PortugaiM QSSa). Thera left sonnets, odes, and ele^ee, and a drama on
sre ffiottonariM \ij Da Oosto and Sa (Porta- the snt^eet of Ines de Oastro, oonstmoted after
to love n
gneae, "BnmAi, and Latin, Usbon, 17H); Da the andent Gre^ ftahion. The maritime ex-
Omiha (French and Fortngneae, Usbon, 1811) ; pedHiona of (his period soon opened a new fleld
snd Yieyra (English and Portngncse, new ed., ia which poets, bistinrlaas, soldiers, and navl-
London, 1840). — PortogiMse Uteratnre com- gators eqndlyfoand occupation. Theexplolta
prises fow works of any note excejA poems and of Yasoo da Gama w«ra rcconnted by Femsm
histDrieB. The eariiest oonmostttons of which Lopez de Oastanheda, who wrote a history of
we have any knowledge, dating fbun abont the tiie dkoovery of the Indies. Kendez Pinto pnb-
cwnnanoemeDt of Qie 13th omtnry, were 1ml- lisfacd an account of his extraordinarv adven-
tBtranaoftiienmiahbaabadoQrs. Some of tie tares, Gal^o wrote his travels in Abyssinia,
songs (ri
OoelbOi
>elluijgeD
(rf Oonpoki Henriqnes and Egai Konii Francisco Alvares an aooonnt of Ethioirta, and
inttonen of the oonrt of King Alfonso Alfonso d'Albnqnerqne his "Oommentsiies."
1 extant, and prove Sie ex&tenoe <tf The chief however of the Idstoriane of this
lyrw poear in Fortogal two cantsriefl earlier epoch was JoSo de Barroa, whose Atia .Pwfw
than in any other province of the penlnsoK ^imso, oontinned ^ Oonto (14 vols, fol., 169ft-
Daring tha 18th and Itih oentaries the poetic 1S16), is the flrst great work oonWnlng an an-
art was fostered by the exsmple of several thentic narradve of the oonqoests of Ms conn-
prinoes, socb as King Denis, lus nstnral son trymen both in the Indies and flie African seas.
Alfonso Banchea, Eing Alfonso lY,, Eii^ P»- His style, though somewhst involved, Is distJn-
dro L, and tlie infiute Dom Pedro, son of gofahad by pari^ of dMton, and his descri^
MO FOBTnaAL (LmBAm^ POBVB
tiona are TemarttftUr Ufe-like. la&fiu-inore louri to thft idasi of Uad^ tiw tMbmlMt
attractiTB gsrb «r» the kdventores of Da Oama of Franciaoo de Yaaoonoelloa. Andrea UfaScc
preaeuted bj- Chmoeiu (10S4-'7&), the oolf de Bjln, Ute antbor of ezodlent derotioiMl
poet of PortDgal, «a giamondi obserree, vboae Tenes, wa« a naliTe (rf Braril, FrandBM Sa-
eelebritfhaa extended bej-ond the peainsnl^ vkr de Maneaesiconiitof Eiioernrdied 174^
Hie mat ^io, "Tfae Loaiad" (Ot Ludada*, oelebrated theex^tsof Henrr of Bnicon^
the Laritaniana), waa the fint poem of the In a correct and qiiritleea qie enttUed tba
Jdnd in anj modem ttmgae. Its Mofeaaed ob- AnrJTUMcbi. Antonio Soek, the anOuw at
jeot iraa to relate Uie gloriona deeda of the coarae bat qtrightlj comio operaa, twde fair to
PortngiMse in ererr age, bat the greater pert rerire the Fortngoeee drama when die taqai^
f it ia devoted to tbxla aobierementa in India, tion bnnied him for a Jew in 1T46. AiOoi^
in hia ahorter poema Oamofina ia the model of Oorrea Gar^ (died 17^) wrote aerwal <n
neaiif all hia oonntrTmen after him. A oon- diee in imitation of Terence, and the cooateaa
temporary of OamoQna waa the dramatic CHI Viniero produced in 1T88 Omia, the 00I7
Tioente, the chief Fortngnese anthor in a de- genuine tragedj in the langnage. Jc^ An*-
partment of literatore In which Portugal ia re- ataso da Onnha (died ITM), a dtadngmibei
markablj defideot. Hewrote<t(((M,oriniraole mathwnaticaaniWaBaleoapoetofnoroeanrank.
plaji; otane^ee which are little more than Araqjo de Azeredo tranalated Brjden, 6^,
norela in dialogue, totallf dernd of plot and and aome other English po^i. Frandaeo Ibir
alimax; tngi-0)nnMiee,nideandimdeTel<n>ed; noel do Kaseimeat« (died 1821) woa noted for
and fivcea whiidi diaplay mach hnmor and dia- the dignity and ImMneaa (rf his lyrio venea;
crimination <rf character. He flattered the pop- and Antonio Dinia da Onu e Silva, bedde imi-
nkrtaatebrlnggingshepherdB into all his pla^ tationa of Engliili poetry^, compoaed munerona
and the mania for bncolica became stronger odes and amuieta. The diirf authors of tha
after hia death than it had ever been befiire. more recent period are Manoel de Barboea dn
BodriKnea de Lobo, an anthor of the latter Soccage (died 1606), Frantiaeo Dias Gotna^
half of the 16th ooitnrj, wrote three extravar Frandeoo Oardoso, AlTares de Bobriga, Xavier
gant pastoral romanoea entitled lYimaBtra de Hatoa, ValladaTes, Itdentano de Almeida;
("Spnng"), OvMterfMrvrtwC' The Wander- Antonio de Osatilho, a tranalator frmn th«
lag Shepherd"), and O dernngemado ("The Engliali; Garret, Bpoet,ranancer, anddramft.
Diseaohanted Lover")* toatlAred throtigh wliich tiat ; Heronlee de OarraJho, a patriotie and re-
are aome charming bita of poetry. Jeronymo ligiooa poet; and Lois da Bitra HooDnho da
Oortereal (died abont 1698) is the anthor of an Albaatierqne, a atateaman and the author of
epic on the adventnrea of Manoel de Sonaa Se> georgjos. — In Braiil literatnre within the laA
polveda, shipwrecked on the coast of AMca, few years liaa made more rafod progreea than
and another on the "Siege of XMo.',' Thel%*- inPortngal. Beaide the poona (« Clandio M»>
taa of PerMra de Oastro, and the Malaeea eon- noel da Ooeta, we may mention tfae Sittori*
piiitada of Frandaeo de Ba y Uenezea, rank ffeiurtU do Brittil (18M) of Vamhagen, Braait
high in the opinion of Poitngneaecrities. Ber- ianchargid'a&iiea at Madrid; the "Brazilian
nBcdodeBrito(diedl617)nndertookal>brtory Flntarch"ofFerdrada^7a; theaermonaand
of tike ktngdoni, imdw the title of Metiarehia compendinm of [Ailoeophy of Uonfalvemej
lAuUama; hot, oommendng at the creation of the"Ohorc«rapfaTof BradI"ofUelIoMor«ea;
the world, death overtook him when he had the trandation of Virgil by Hendee; and the
jnat reached tfae eatablishment of the Porto- poema of Gonfolves IHa^ Hacedo, Abreo, and
gnese monarob;. Uanod de Faiia e Sooaa Kagalhaena. The last named wdfaor has also
(died 1U9) once eqjoyed a brilliant repntation, written a tragedy on the £iite of Antonio Jos6,
bnt the quantity and variety of hia worka are and a philosophical and phyaiologioa] work en-
more remarkaUe than their ezceilence. An- titled Otfaetot do mirito auomim (1869).
tonio Barbosa fiaoellar (died 1668) introduced FOBTUGUESE SAN-OF-WAB. See JsL-
thoeeamoronaandmelandiolysoliloqniescBlled it Fish.
Satidadtt. Jacinto Frdre de Andrada (died FOBTULAOA. See FmiSLAm.
1667), a writer of bnrleeqne poetry, was also FOBUS, the Greek form of the namea of
admhwl for an daborate and affected "life of several Icings of India, two of whom were met
JoSo de Castro" in prose. The Jeenit Vidra hy Alexander in hia oonqneetcf the EasL The
(died 16S7), anmamed the lAsitanian Oioaro, ia first ruled on the west ao fiv aa the Hydaspea,
one of tfae most eloqnent of Fortngnese proae and when the Greda ettconpted to cross that
writers. Strained omceits and extravagant river, he prepared to ditpnte its passage at Uis
phraseology are Ott prindpal charaoteristiea head of a large force, and with more than SOO
<tfthe wntlngsof Violante^Oea(died 169S), trained elephants. Alexander flnallj snooeed-
a Dominican nnn who left « great amount m ed in eloding hia vi^lanee, and torimi the
sacred and proftne verse. Jeronymo Bahia is stresm higher np. Tbo battle that ensued wai
notable as one of the many poets who ohoee fbnght with desperate Inavery on both Met,
with mnofa hamor. The honor of prodndng hia gronnd to the last, waa forced to flee after
<a» of the moat natural poets (f the time be- aedng two of his aona alain and bdng himadf
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FOSE 61]
nrcnlr wonndad. H« waa Mptored Kid nor (BrA. PMMii), ihe oapital, Is a strmd^
brooght b«fc«e AieianAer, who, Mraok b^ hia fortified dttj on the river Warta, at the jmui^a
ocwrM* and manljr bearing, asked fabn what of the Glowna, in aaoiidy plain, 149 m. E. by S.
ha wished dbonld be dona for him. "That from Berlin: pop. in 1863, 44,080. It is aar-
yoa ahoald deal with me a* a king," bM Po ronaded wllA a moond and ditob, and is [vo-
rm. Ha was honorabty treated bj the ICaoa- taoted bj* 8 forts, ooa of whioh. Fort Winiary,
doDian mtminh, and beoame hia albj aeoom- ta of great strength. The city is entered bj i
psnju^^hiniinseTenlaxpaditions. Alaxaader galea, and has a town hall, bnilt in the ISth
tnia^ged lifa domlnionfl, so that titey extended eentnrj, There are a nmnber of ohnrohes, a
from the Ejrdaspes to the Hyphasis, and were STnagogne, several oonventi, a theatre, 9 gjm-
aaid to indnde 7 nations and more than 8,000 naaia, a oollege, ho^itals and aaylmna, and
dtiea. He woa treaoheronidy pnt to de^ several Mboou. linen, wodlMi,oij]oo, leather,
by Endamns, who was left omnmander of tJie tobaooo, Ao., are mannftotnred. On the oppo-
Greek troopa in that region. Itia said that h« Abe aide of the river is Wallisohei, a eabnrb, in
waa 9 onbnts in atatnre. — Hisoonain of thesaaie which ia an old oathedral containing many an-
name mied at the same tune over Gandaris, dent monnmenta. Posen beoame a bishoprio
B. of the Hrdraotea. He fled on the apjiroaoh in the lOth centarv, and in the 18th vaa tii«
of AlaxandH*, and his dominiona were given to reeidanca of the dukes of Poland,
his ^"™w". to whom he had previoiial; been POSET, a S. W. oo. of Ind., forming an ex-
boeme. tremitj of the state, separated B. from Ej. by
POSEIDON'. Bee Stemm. the Ohio and W. from HI. by the Wabuh
POSEN, a province and grand dnohy of river ; area, abont 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1840,
Froau, bonnaed N. by Weet Proama, E. by 10,186. It baa an nndnlating aar&oe, avei?
Poland, 8,by8ileflia,ai]id v. by Brandenburg; fomleaoil, composed in part of extreme^ lidh
area, ll^MS eq. m, ; pop. in 1868, 1,417,166. It bottom lands, and an abnndanoe of oml. The
has a vary flat aor&oe, aboonding In lakea and ttrodnotiona in 1860 were S9S,7M bnahele of
marahee, and druned by a large nmnber of Indian com, S1,S46 of wheat, 80,900 of oats,
dreMM, the prindpal of whieh are the Warta, and 1?,SS7 lbs. of wool. It contwned 6 saw
a braneh of Uie Oder, interaeotinK it a Uttie S. mills, atanneries, 1 newspaper office, IScburvh-
ct the oentn, and its affluent the NetEe^ which es, and 1,000 pnpils attending pnblio schools.
flows through tba S. ; the Vistola tonohes its Owitsl, Uoont Vemou,
K. £. border, and a branch, the Brahe, trav- POSIDONIUS, a Oreek stt^ philosopher,
nses a small portion of tba aame comer. Of bom in Apamea in Syria, probably about 18S
the lakes the largeet are the Ooplo, Powids, B. 0., died abont 61. He stndied philosophy
Qetsk, and Biala. The soil is generally very at Athens nnder PantetiiiB, visited Spain, Ita^,
BtodiHrtiva; in some places it is light and sandy, Gaol, and Slyrionm, and flnally aettjed in
but most of it snsoeptible of cultivation, and Bhodes, where he beoame the head of tha
the climate U tempwate and healthy. It is stoic sdiool, was elected prftattit, and in 84
one of tha prindpu agricnltnral provinoes of was sent as ambassador to Rome. He gave
PrnsiM, and the forwts snpply la^e qnan- instruction to- Cicero while the latter waa
tiUea of timb^ mnoh of whiw is exported, in Rhodes, and was on friendly terms niik
Tliera are mannfaolories of woollen stnffiL Pompey, by whom he waa twice vinted. In
Hnen, and leather, bamde SOS breweries and 61 he removed to Rome, where he soon after-
167 diafilleries. The bulk of the population ward died. None of his worka have oome
aimsiatB of Poles, profearing the Roman Oatho> down to ua entire ; the fragments extant were
lie religion. Oarmana and Jewa are nuneroua cdlleated and published by James Bakennder
in the towns, the principal of which are, be- the title of Fotidimii Wiodii Bdiqaim Doe-
ride the capital, BnHnberg, Gneeen, Lisea, Kro- trina (Leyden, 1810).
tosdkiB, and FranstadL— Fomierly this prov- POSITIYIBU, or Posrnvn PaiLosopHT. Sea
boo formed part of Poland, but on the first Ookte.
partition of t£at kingdom in 1778 that part N. POSSE OOKirATUS (Lat., the power of a
of the Nataa was taken by Pmssia, and at the oonnty), tha force of able-bodied mole persona
neond partition in 17SS it obtained the remain- between the ages of 16 and 70, whom theeher-
der. In 1807 tt waa incorporated by N^mleon iff by the common law ia authorized to call to
with the duchy of Warsaw, but by the beaty Us aeaiatanoe in case of invasion, rebeOioni,
of Vienna it was restored to Pmsida, An in- riot, breach of the peace, forcible resistance to
sorreotaoa ooooertad by the leadara of tbe Brooes& Ac., inthecoonty or district in whioh
emigrant Poles, and of whiidi Ueroalawski waa he holds office. All persons induded in tha
to have oonunand, wss animreBsed in 1844, and posse comitattia are bound, under penalty of
the chiaGi impriaonad nntil 1846, when they indlctmwt, to asdst the sheriff when lawfully
WON Ubarotad in consequence of the BerliB called npon, and are Jnstified in killing a per-
tevtriiriion. In the latter year it was, after an son in case of redstonoe. Unnecesssry vlo-
insnireation and serwe straggle nnder Hieroa- leiwe on their part, however, la pimisbable.
kwAi, united with the G^iau oonfbderacy, POST, a pnblio eotabHshmwt for the coo-
but separated in 1861 by treaty. It ia divided veyanoe of lettera, uewsp^iers, dra. The A»-
intothedisbriotBofPoMnBndBrombarg.— Po- ayrian and Fwdan monarohB had their poiti
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0aoad at rittiODB ft daj's ^otnwriWiin eadi CndniMBtgM of th« king uid nobles, wer« p«c>-
otlier,«ithborseaBaddl«d,resd7 tocMTj with mitted to oan7otlier letters. In 1661 Thomas
the utmost despatcb the dearees of the despot Bandolpb wu appointed chief postmaster of
In the Roman ^npire oonriers on svift horaes Sn^and, bat his nmetioiu aeem to hare per-
pasted ftvm huid to hand the Imperial ediota Uined more to tbe ertaUJahment and eoperri'
to ererr province. Frirate letters vere sent don of post boosea, and tbt leKolation of the
to their aeetanatJon by slaves, or intrusted to feea for poating; than to the tnnsmiadm of
aaanal opportonities. OharlemagM, it is said, letters. In Fero, in 1637, the ^Mcish invaden
estabUshed statkma for oonriers, who deliTered foand a rtgolar system of posts in operation
amsll packets, letters, snd decrees, &om the along the gnat hif^way fr<»n Qntto to Cozeo,
ooort to eveiT part of the realm ; bnt after his and meassgessa to the progress^ the inT«don,
death these stations irere abandoned, and »«• as wdl as other snlyeots, were fbrwarded to tli«
(oal niessengera sent onlj wben oooaaion dfr- inoa by fleet-fbotedmnners, who wound aroond
manded. In 14A4LoidB XL revired the system th^frdatstheg'u^|w,an>60iesof sign writiiv
of mounted posts, statiooing them at ^stances by means of Itnotted cor^---Th» complete <»-
of 4 £Vench milea ^tart, and requiring them to gonizatatn of asjatemof postaloomBinnication
be ready nif^t and day to carry goTeroment in England did not take place ^ the reign <^
messages as rqtidly as posuble. Sinular posts, James I., who soon after his eooeeaion oonsti-
the riders of which were called nutteii, were tated the ^ce of poatmaater of Zn^and fiir
established in I^i^and in the 18th oentmy. foreign parts, and appointed UatthewLeQoes-
These were however ezolmTely for the trans- ter the first posbnaster, with revernon to hia
mission of goremment deqtatohes. Aa late as son. Le Qoester ^pointed William Frizell and
the 15th oentuTT, batohers or drovers, who Thomas Witherings hia deputies. The lattei
went abont bnyine oattle^ were the prinoipal eventnsUy became poebnaster-general, sad in
osrriers of private letters. The only ezo^>tjon 168S was ordered to estshliah a running post
to this general custom in rexard to private oor- b^ween London and Edinbnrgb, to go mght
req>on&noe waa tiis est^liwimant in the 11th and day, and ctone back in 6 mjt. la 1644
r, by tlie nnirerd^of Fari& of a body Edmund Frideanx, then saoemberoftliehonse
' boreletf * * ........
tries of Europe IVom'which they oame, and letters into all parts of the natitm. In 1666 an
brought to them the mon^ they needed for the act waspassed to settletbepoitage of England,
I^oseoution of their Btndiea. The great develop- SocAland, snd Ireland, fixing the rates of letter
ment of oonuoerce following the orusadee. and postage and the pricea for post horMe. The
the geographical disoovuies of the Itanou, rates of postage previous to this act were for a
Fwtngnese, and Spaniards, crested a necesaty ungle pieoe of psqier ; onder 60 miles, Sd. ; be-
fbrbdunessoorrespondenoeaboat the beginning tween 80 and 140 miles, id, ; above 140, 6d.;
<d die 16th centoty. The royal nuTt«({, or post snd on the bordws and in Bootland, Sd The
riders, had already found it for their sdvatUaga act of 16C6 raised these rates (which were in
to QBC thdr BOrplus horses for the conveyance all caaes for a single letter) to 14d. for a dia-
of pssaenmrs, and thus the system of posting, tance of mora than SOO miles, from which sum
or travelUig with poet hc^aes, oame into vogue, they were diminished aooording to the distance
^ese poata were now used for the carriage of down to Sd. for 7 milea and under. Between
Srivate letters, at first irreffolarly, and without this period and 1688 more than 160 acta rela-
xed umipenaatioii or re^olar periods of arrival tive to postal aSurs wcxe passed, but the rates
or departure, but eventually with considerable of postage werenot materially oHanged. These
order and system. The earliest of these posts rates op^vted as an almost prohibitoiy tariff
for general accommodaldon in Europe was oa letters throu^ the mula, and all manner of
established in 1016 in the Tyrol, connecting devices for avoiding the payment of postage
Germany and Italy, by Boger, count of Thum were adopted. The franking jnivilege, whidi
and Taxis. His successors received ftom the at an early period had been granted to mem*
emperors of Germany repested enfboffinents bers (tf parliament and offloets of the govem-
cf the imperial post, and extended it over ment was much abused. Franks were sold
the greater part of G^many and Italy. Yen- openly. In 18SS the franked and privileged
ice, Genoa, L^hom, ^d Naples were thus con- letters amounted to 80 per cent, of the wbole
nected with Hunbnrg, Bremen, L&beck, and nnmher transmitted throng the nulla In
rraokfbrt-on-tbe-Main, and the active com- 17S4 the net revenue of the poet office did not
merce which had sprung up between these cities exceed £160,000 ; bnt by the introduction of
— IS ffreatly facilitated. The ooonts of Thum ibrt mail coaebes soon after that date, it had
d Taijaretuned this postal monopoly till the risen in 181S to about £1,600,000, at which
fall of the German empire, and even now the point it remained stationary for m<»« than 80
Thorn and Taxis post is mi^tuned in 10 or IS years,inconsequenoeof the abuse of the frank-
of the smaller German states, and supplies a ing privilege, and the methods adopted to evade
district of 26,000 sqnaremiles and nearly 4,000- the payment of postage. In 1887 the number
000 inhabitanto. In 1624 the Freneh posts, of letters annuaUy sent through the mails was
which had hitherto only transmitted ttie letters 62,000,000 ; in 1660 it had risen to 646,000,000.
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POST 618
Thia extrftOTdinai7 Inflreaae is the resolt of the adopted in 1849, as follows : for letters vithin
entire ofaange in the rates of postage, and the Paris, S sons (2 cents nearl;) when the weight
greatlj improved &cil)tieB for the prompt trans- is under IS grammeB (not quite half an ounce),
miasioa and delivery of letters, Qrst proposed 4 sods if over IS and nnder 80 grammes, dec ;
bj Rowland Hill in 1887. Mr. Hill, who wss for letters to or from other parts of France,
not then oonneotad with the post office depart- iilgeria, and Corsica, 4 soas if nnder IS gram-
ment, broaohed his plan in a pamphlet on post mes, Ax. If not prepud, one half is added
office reform ; it was adopted by parliament in to tiiese rates. Newspapers mnst alyfuye be
18S9, and went intooperationin 1840, nnderthe prepaid, bat thronghoot France the postage is
snperrinon of ite oiigiDator. Ite principal pro- onlj' 1 son, and if treating on qneations of po-
Tisiotis were : therednotionofallinlandpostage litical or social economy oaly half that price.
teaDniformrato(liiforBringlehalf ounce); For foreign countries, the weight prescribed for
the weight of a letter, and not the nnmber of single postage is 7^ granmieB, or abont J oz. In
pieces;, to form the basis of the rate ; the entire 18E9 the total nnmber of French post offices
abolitiottof thafrankingprivilege; thedespatck was S.VOS; the total number of persons em-
of the TQaile at more fraquent periods ; and in- ployed in ib« postal service was acont 88,000.
creased speed in the driver; of letters. To In 1821 the receipts were 24,000,000 francs
these w-ere enbsequentlj added payment by ($4,783,000): in 16G9, 58,808,000 trance (tU,-
gtamps and prepayment. In 184fi the trans- 250,444). Toe number of letters conveyed by
mission of books by post was granted, at first post in France in 18G9 was £59, 450,000; 90 per
at 6il. per lb. This was sobsequently modified cent, of the whole nnmber were prepaid. — In
so as to giro increased ftoilities for forwarding the £n^h colouies which subsequently be-
proofi, piotnres, and indeed every thing except came the United States, a postal system was
mannecripts and letters, at low prices. The projected as eariy as 1692; bnt owing te the
rttea to the ooloniea are also snob ss to en- thinness of the population, it was not organ-
courage the transmienon of letters and small ized till 1710. By act of parliament of that
paekagea thither by mail. Letter postage b 6<J. year, the postmaster-general of the colonies
per ^ oz. to the colonies ; email packages, not was " to keep his chief letter office in New
letters, 8d. for 4 oa.. Si. for 8 ok., and Bd. addl- York, and other chief offices, at some oonven-
tionji.1 for every 8 oz. or fraction thereof. These lent place or places, in other of her m^esty's
rates are increased Jon packages or letters sent provinces or colonies in America." The revenne
to A-iutralia, New Zealand, Ascension island, was for some years very smalL In 1756 Ben-
or British India or China. The money order jamia Franklin was appointed postmaster-gen-
^stam, i. «., granting oertifloBtes by the post- oral for the colonies, and was gusranteed the
masters for a small percentage for eums nnder sum of £S00 per anniun for the salary of him-
£5, payable by any other postmaster, was adopCr self and his asristent. He brongbt his nsnal
ed in 1810; it was copied frxim the Qerman execntiveabilitytetheworkof remodellingaud
poet offloe system, where it had long been in extending the operations of the office, and in a
pravtice. At first 6 per cent, was charged for few years materially increased its revenues. He
these orders ; hut in about a year the commie- startled the people of the colonies in 1780 by
aon was reduced to Sd. for sums nnder £2, and proposing to ran a stage wsgon, to t»rry the
id. for snms under £5, and at these rates the mail from Philadelphia to Boston, once a
■moont remitted inthe United Kingdom in 1859 week, starting from each city on Monday mom-
was £18,250,080. In 1855 pillar letter boxes ing and reaching its destination by Saturday
were introduced, and London was divided into night. In 1774, while in Endand, Franklin
10 diatricta, for greater bcility in the distribn- was removed from office by the British govem-
tion of dty letters. At first, under the new ment, in conseqnenceof hieeiposnroof the du-
postage law, the English post ofSce department plicity of Governor Hutchinson of Massachn-
did not pay expenaes; bnt ite net revenne has setts, and his adherence to the canse of the
been gradually inoreanng, and is now consider- colonies. In 17S9 the constitution of the
aWy greater than nnder the old ^Btem. The United States conferred upon congress the ex-
nomber of persons connected witli the postal elusive control of postal matters for all the
•ervtce in England is about 26,000, of whom states; and congress proceeded, immediately
8,800 are employed in the London Strict — In upon the adoption of the oonstitation, to or-
France the carriage of letters and newspapers ganize the post office department, and to pass
was formed out, like most of the other sonrces the necessary laws for the protection of the
of state revenues, from 1876 to 1791. The mwls, &c. to 1790 there were bnt 76 postof-
laasea were for 5 yean, and the rates of post- fices in the country, and the whole amonat of
agefixad. The revenne to the government rose, postage received was $87,085, yielding a net
dnriDgthatperiod,&t)m 1,400,000 to 10,800,000 revenue of $5,796 to the government ; in 1800
franca ($270,200 to ^,084,400) per annum. In the number of post offices had increased to 908,
1791 the management of the department was the amount of postage to $260,804, and the net
resnmed by the government, and variously revenue to $86,810. The rates of postage from
modified daring the revolution and the differ- the organization of the department nntil 1818
eat govemmHtta which followed. Uniform were: for a single letter (that is, one composed
rates of poatage for inland and cit^ letters were of a tingle piece of paper), nnder 40 muea, S
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6U «»T
ote.; under 90, 10 oto.; imdflr ISO, JH cts.; In the next Mngrew an Matmm nwde to
nnder 800, 17 cts. ; under 600, SO cte. ; over T&iw theu rates, as tke postal TOvenue did sot
£00, 26 otB. In ISIStbese rates were modified defray expenses ; it was onsaooeeeftil inreg^rd
Bsfollows: A angle letter carried not over SO toletterpostage, bnttzanne&tneirepaMrBvejra
miles, 6^ eta. ; over SO and under BO, 10 ets. ; cliarged 8 cte., and prepaTment reqmred ; ths
over 60 and nnder 160, IS^ots.; over 1 GO and postage on cironlais was rmsed to Soto.; nevs-
nndar 400, 16} eta. ; over 400, Sfi ots. ; and an paper postage to Oregon and Oalitoaitt wai
additional rate for everj additional piece of fixed at ^^ots., and letter postage to tii«Pa<^o
paper, and if the letter vreighed an ounce, 4 territories, via Ohagret and Pananu, at 40 ots.
times these rates. Newtptqiera nnder 100 InlS4&Uiepostageontrannentn««spai«rswH
miles, or vithin the atate where published, 1 reduced to ordinJarT' nBWBp^>w rstea, bnt pn-
ct ; over IDO, and oat of the state, 1| ots. ; payment still leqmred. la 18C1 anoutcr eoffit
mssazines and pamphlets, 1^ eta. per sheet, was made to raise tiiepoatage, which pirovednn-
nnder lOO miles, if periodicalB ; over 100, Si Bnccessfitl ; bat a law was passed establishing
cts. per aheet ; if not periodicals, 4 and 6 eta. the following rates : For a un^ letter (i &,
Ah the facilities for transportation of the mails of i oz. weight) under S,000 mUee, if prefwid,
by steamboats, railroads, &o.. increased, these 8 cts., or if not prepaid, 6 ots. ; over 8,000
high rates occasioned much dissatisfaction, and miles, 6 or 12 ota. ; to foreign countries, not
in various ways the law was evaded, and the over 2,500 miles, except where postal arrange-
poetol revenue thns reduced. For several years ntente have been made, 10 eta; over 2,G00, !0
letters were carried in large numbers by ex- cts. ; drop letters, 1 ot ; ship letters, a eta., or
press between the principal citiea, at rates if delivered where deposited, S eta ; if sent
much below those of the post office. The rev- through the mula, the ordinary postage is add-
enne reached its highest point in 1640 and ed. Weekly newspi^eia, to actoal anbecribera
1S43, being in the former year $4,539,266, and in the connty where pablished, free; nnder CO
in the latter (4,546,244. From this point it miles and out of thecoonty, 6 cts. perqnarter;
receded. Even with Lhia revenue the estab- over GO and under SOO, 10 cts. ; over 800 and
liahment did not pay expenses, there being a under 1,000, 16 cts. ; over 1,000 and nnder
defidenoy every year subsequent to 1837. The 2,000, 20 ots. ; over 2,000 and nnder 4,000, 81!
subject of a redaction of rates was repeatedly eta. ; over 4,000, 80 cts. Monthly papers i,
broached in congress, and measures for that and Kemi-monthly } these rates; semi-weekly
porpoae were proposed by Ur. Edward Ever- double, tri-weekly treble, and oftener than tri-
ett in 1836 ; but no well digested plan waa weekly 5 times these rates ; newspapers under
brought forward. In 1S48 the general dia- 300 si^uare inches, i these rates ; if psid qnar-
content of the people on the subject was ex- terly m advance, a deduction of one naif to be
preBsed in the form of resolutions by the legis- made from these rates. Transient newepapeia,
Ltares of several states, instmctmg their sena- circulars, and other printed matter, 1 ct per
tore and requesting their representatives in 02. under GOO miles ; over GOO and under l,GO(t,
congress to take some measures for a reduction. 2cts. ; over 1,600 uid under 2,600, Seta.; nn*
Hi. C. a. Wicbliffe, at that tune postmaster- der 3,600, 4 cts. ; over 3,600, 6 cts. Books un-
general, made some investigation in regard to der 82 oz. in weight, 1 ct. per oz. if prepud ;
the English system, and in on elaborate report if not, 2 cts. per oz. In 1862 the following
advoot^ed some reduction, but not a radical modifications were made : Letters sent over
one, on the ground that the department would 8,000 miles, and not prepaid, 10 eta. postage ;
become a heavy charge upon the government newqiapere, drculars, &o., nnder 3 oz., 1 ct;
if a large reduction were made. A hill was every addiuonal oz. or fraction, 1 ct.; Bmall
drafted reducing the rates to 5, 10, and 16 cents newq>apers and periodicals, published monthly
for different distances ; this bill passed the or oftener, and pamphlets o{ not more than 16
senate, hut was lost In the honse ; the next octavo pages, sent in ungle packages of not len
year it was again brought forward, bnt again than 8 oz., prepaid, ^ ct. per oi., or if not
failed. In the next congress a new bill was prepaid, 1 cL BookE, bound or nubonnd, lest
presented, which became a law, Uoroh 8, 1846, than 4 Iba., under 8,000 miles, 1 ct. per oz.;
and went into operation on July 1, 184G. Its over 3,000, 2 ots. per oz. ; 60 per cent added
rotes were : For a letter not exceeding i oz. in when not prepaid. By the act of the eame
weight, whether of one or more pieces of pa- year, postage stamps and stamped envelopei
per, nnder 800 miles, 6 cts, ; over SOO, 10 cts. ; were ordered. By a law passed March 8, 1855,
and an additional rate for every additional i and taking effect July 1 of the same year, the
oz. or fVactiou of i oz. Advertised letters, 2 rates on aincle inland letters were rednoed to
ots. additional ; drop letters, 2 ota. ; (orcnlars S cts. for all distances under 8,000 miles, and
Qusealed, 2 cts.; pamphlets, magazines, &c., per 10 cts. for all over that distance; and all inland
oz. Si, and each additional ox. 1 ct Newspa- letter postage was to be prepaid. The chaige
pers nnder 80 miles, free ; over 80 and under for advertUng letters was reduced to 1 cent
100, or any distance within the state where The only modifications sinoe made in th« law
published, 1 ct ; over 100, and out of the are those of 1660, eetahlishing letter boxes on
state, li cts. Oarriage by express was prohih- lamp posts, &e., in cities, requiring all letten
ited, unless the postage was previously pud. deposited in them to be prepaid with a penny
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
■ttonp to ixbtj the eoet of Oieir aarriage to
ths post odSc«, and redaoiog the carriers' fee
for the deliTei7 of letters at their address to 1
cent par l«tter. Yarioas attempto have been
made to aboiiah the franking privilege, but
hiUierto without anooeaB. The ngtat to frank
tatten sod doonmeDta of aaj eiae la now graat-
ed to th« pr«ndent, ex-presidents, the vioa-pres-
idant, former Tioe-pNadenta, and the widows of
President* Harrisoa and Polk. Hemliers of
nii>Hiiw and delegates from territoriee, fr^im SO
daja before theoommenoement of each oongresa
inntil the first Uondaf in Deoember after the
expiration ef Uieir term of office, and the seC'
retarj of the senate and the derk of the hoosa
rf repreaentatiiTea dnring their official terms,
can send or receive free letters weighing not
over S oa., or pnblio dooomenta weighing not
over 8 IIm. Tii6 governor of an7 state can
•and frae tha laws, records, and documents of
the l^alatnre to the governors of other states.
The cabinet officers and tii^ assistant aecte-
tariea, the eomnuBsioners of offices and heads
of fanreaos, the general-in-chief and a^jntant-
gcueral, and the snperintendent of the coast
auvaj and hia assi^ant, may aend and receive
free all official oorrespoudence, bat not their
private letters or papers. The chief alerka in
the departmenta maT send free pnblio ofBoial
lattera and docnmeatB. Deputy pcstmastera
eaa aend fr«e all letters and paokagee relating
exclnairelr to tha bnsinees of their respective
officer ; and those whose compensation did not
exceed |aoo for the vear ending Jane 80, 1840,
nuijr alao send i^ee ul letters written by them-
■drea, and receive free all letters addressed to
them, not weighing over | ot. Exchange
nawq>apers, magazines, Ico., between editors,
foss five. All pablioationa entered for ci^r-
right, and which nnder the act of 1848 are t«
be deposited bt the library of congreaa, pass free.
Sisoa the dose of the war with Mexico and
the annexation of California, the transportation
of the mail to the Pacific coast baa greatly it
creased the expenditure of tbe department,
large snbddies having been paid dnring a por-
tion of tbe time to the lines of st^onehips con-
rt 616
neottng with that ooast, and of late very heavy
sams for an overland mail. The importance
of onr relations to tbe Pacific states fnlly Jus-
tifies these expenditures, thongh the amount
of postage received does not defray them. —
Postal treaties have been oonolnded with most
of the oonntries of Enrone, and throngh them
letters can be forwarded to nearly every part
of the world. The mazinmm postage of a
letter weigljing J oz. to any known port is 50
cts., and tiiia only to Australia and Kcw Ze^
land ; the nsnsl rates range from IG to SO cte.,
to which is to be added inland postage nnlesa
the letter is sent direct from a seaport. Let-
ters not prep^d (except drop letters, where pre-
payment is optional) and letters advertised, bat
not called (br, are forwarded after a sufficient
time has elapsed to the dead-letter office of the
post office department and there opened, and if
containing any money or valnables the writers
of the letters are notified, and the amoont for-
warded to them on application. Letters on
which the address of the writer Is written are
returned unopened from the dead-letter office.
The annual number of dead-letters is ahont
S,000,000 ; of this number 600,000 are drop
letters, and 60,000 are held for postage ; about
184,000 are from foreign countries, and ore re-
turned unopened. By the act of Uarch 3,
1866, the postmaster-general was authorized
to establish a plan for the registration of valu-
able letters, on the application of parties desir-
ing it, and the payment of a registration fee of
6 cts. ; but the government wiU not, like that of
France, be responsible for the safe carriage of
such letters or packets. The whole amount of
postage received for registered letters ia 1860
was $36,068. Only the states of Massaehasetta
Rhode Island, and New York, and the District
of 'Oolumbia, receive a larger amount of post-
age than is expended for the transportation of
the mails and the compensation of those em-
[ Joyed in the postal service. — Tbe accompany-
ng table pves a view of tha oomparaiiva ex-
penses, receipts, expenditures, and other statia-
tics of the post office service to Great Britain,
France, and the United States:
of pcniM* •oqrioTMl la poMal m
ef l-tun tniimlEMd
E^hUrad lettar
StuDDsaold.....
EipiodiUn fur i
m
S,«M,«01
MSon
ii.8T«,ire
lO^O.tOS
POST, Wbisht, an American phyaiclan and went to London, where fhim 1784 to 1780 he
nTKeon, bom in North H«npstead, Long ial- studied nnder Dr. Beldon. Ketuming to Amer-
aod, Feb. 19, 1759, died at Throgg's Neck, ica, he delivered a course of lectnrea on anot-
iue 14, 1S28. He waa a mediou pupil of omv in Oolambla college, and in 17B3 was
Dr. Ba^i^ of New Twk fbr 4 yeara, and Ihta made profeasor of snigery In that institntion.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
616 POTAfiH
He w«nt to Enrope immediate!; after the ap- oxide of iron, and alnndna, from most of wfaicih
pointment, and visited all the f^'^at medica] it may be freed by disralTliig in absolnte tleo-
Bcbools, and on his retam in ITBS resigned the hoi, evaporating, and ag«n ftiging. Hydrate
professorship of surgery and became professor of potash may be economically separatM from
of anatomy and physiology. This ofBoe he some feldspars and ndcaa by caldning the min-
held 80 years, during whiclk time he became erals with lime and leaving the prodncta fiw
widely known bj his skill in performing many some time in contact with water. According
delicate and difflcolt operations. In 181S he to Fncbs, 19 per cent, of potash may thos b«
was made professor of anatomy and physiology obtained from feldspar, ana 15 per ccuL from
bi the college of physicians and surgeons in mica. The pnre hydrate is a white solid snb-
ITew York, and in 1815 made another visit to stanoe, of crystalUne fracture, and apeciflc
Enrope. In 1821 he was elected presidentof gravity 1.7. It is very deliqaescent, dissolving
the college of physicians and surgeons, which readily in water, the solution of specific grav
office he held S years. ity 1.68 containing S1.3 pur cent, of the ajkali,
POTASH, or Fotabsa, a term varionsly «p- and boiling at B2S° F. It foaos at a low red
plied to several oomponndB formed by the me- heat, and at a white heat it volatilizes without
tailio base potaaainm, and other elements. In separation of the water. It has an acrid taste
chemistry it is nsed to d»i^ate the protoxide and corrosive action npon the coticle, disstriv-
(EO), consisting of one equivalent each of this isg and decomposing organic tissaea. It b the
base and of oiygen, and this is the ingredient most powarM base known, and is hence larce-
in ^e componncb, hydrate, carbonate, nitrate, ly employed for decamporings^neoomponnda,
aolphate, &c., of potash, combinattuna respee- the acids of which it seizes. It absorba car-
tively of this Bnt«tance with water, carbonic bonic acid from the atmosphere, and must oon-
acid, nitric acid, and sulphnric acid. The hy- seqnently be preserved in glass-stoppered Iwt-
drate of potash (EO HO), also known as cans- ties, and the glass of these must be free troia
tie potash, is sometimes called simply potash, as lead. Mixed with the fat oils it forma soaps ■
ore in the arts and commerce the cmde carbon- and in various other ways it is a most os^ril
ate and hydrate from which most of the other article in the arts, in chemistry, and to some
componnda are prepared. — Potash, the protoi- extent in medicine. The pharmacentical pr^>-
ide of potasfdnm, is of itaelf of little mterest aration known as ligvor potaaa is a solution
or importance. It is obtained as a white pow- in water of the hydrate of ^)ed£c gravity abont
der when the metal potassium is exposed ia 1.06, and containing 4.7 per cent of potasaa.
thin slices to dry air. At a red heat it frises, Its properties as an antacid, &o., are however
and at higher temperatures is volatilized. In as conveniently serviceable in the carbonate of
contact with water it ignites and forms a fnsi- potash. In excessive doses its poisonous ac-
ble hydrate, which is also known as caustic tion is nentralized by vinegar, the milder adds,
potash. This compound is of great importance or the oils. — Commercial potash, the cmde
In the arts, chemistry, and pharmacy, not only carbonate and hydrate, is wholly obtained
as the base of numerous useful salts, but for i^ from wood ashes, and is the chief portion of
own independent properties. It is commonly the soluble matters which these contain, e
EeparedfromtheoBrbonate,aBoli]tionofwhich cept when made from plants that grow ~ ~
10 to IS parts of water is boiled with about the salt water. In these the pota^ is
n equal quantity of freshly slaked lime, made or less complet«]y replaced by eoda, so that
in a paste with water, and gradually added to they are used to prodnce this alkali in the
the solution. The boiling is performed in a same manner that other plants afford potaiih.
clean iron vessel, and is continued for about The alkalies that exist in the soil are aerired
half an hour. The lime seizes the oarbonio from the decompoution of different rocks and
acid of the carbonate of potash, and leaves the minerals. Feldspar and mica, ingredients of
hydrate ofpotash in solution; and the operation granite, are particularly prolific sources of pot-
Is fonnd to be complete when no effervesoenoe ash and soda. They cannot, however, be made
is observed on t^ing out a portion of the to yield these alkalies so economically as the
liquid and adding a little hydrochloric add. It plants, which have taken them np in their aap
may then be drawn off in part trota the calca- and hold them in a solnble state, combined
reons sediment, and the remaning portion be with oxalic and tartaric and other vegetable
recovered by filtering through a cotton filter, acids, and also with silicic and salphnrio a<uds.
protected as much as possible from the air, hy By burning the plants, the salts of the vege-
which it might again be partially carbonized, table acids are decomposed, and the potuh
The clear solution is now evaporated rapidly combines with carbonic acid, remaining with
in a polished iron or silver vessel, till it be- the ashes as a carbonate. The ashes, more-
comes of an oily consistence and hardens on over, contain as eoiuble ingredients carbonat«
cooling. Before it is allowed to cool it is usu- of soda, the snlphates and silioatee of potash
ally nm into cylindrioal moulds, and thus is and soda, and chlorides of ih^ metak, indnd-
formed in sticb, which are the canstio potash ing chloride of potasinnm ; and beside theee,
or potaua fun of the pharmacopceia. It con- insolnble earthy matters, which are of no v^oe
taini impurities, as sulphate and carbonate of in connection with the production of the alka-
potaiji, chloride and peroxide of potassiam, lies. The proportion- cf these two rlnnnon (rf
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POTABH Sir
iiigr«dieiita variea in aehea obtdned from Ait- dac« Bapp1i«s for oommeroe. These are the
ferent planU sad their parts, ranging generallf northern American statea and Canada, and
&om iV ^ js inBolnb]e|^and conseqnentlj leav- Gennanv, Bnsaia, and the other cotmtdes of
ing Tt^'^9 solnble. Berthier found the sol- the north of Europe. Variona other vegetable
able porbOD of the aahee of oak wood to productions beside forest trees are consumed
amount to 12 per cent, of white beech wood for prodocing potash, and, as will be seen from
1B.22, red beeoh 16.3, biroli wood IS, fir wood the above table, some of them, as the herbo-
SG.7, fir charooal 60, pine wood 18. S, whe&t ceous plants especisllj, afford a much larger
ibraw 10, and potato vines 4.3; and other proportion of aah than the solid wood of trees.
ebemists report the ashes of bean vines to oon- Straw, among articles that are readily pro-
tun S3 per cent, of soluble matter, of pea vines cured in large qaantities, is partioularlj pro-
2T.8, of 170 straw 19.4T, &o. The branches ductdvo, and in Bnssia it Is burned together
and bark contain more saline matters than the with weeds for potash. In France the lees
solid wood, a distribution perhaps dependent of wine and other refase of the ^stiUeries
on the pot^b existing chiefly in the sap. Ta- and vine7ards fumiah an abnndant source of
blee presenting these values are contained in potash ; and in Java it b obtuned from the
the treatise on this subject in the first volume stems and leaves of tbe indigo plant after
of Dr. Knapp's " Chemical Technology," trans- the coloring matter has been extracted. The
lated bj Dra. Ronalds and Bicht^son. A method pursued in the American forests is to
table is also found there giving the proportions born the wood in large heaps to ashes. Bar-
of ash Jbund bj different chemists in various rels sawed across in tlte middle furnish tubs,
plants and in their different portions. See also which are provided with a false bottom perfo-
a table of M. Violette in the article Fttkl, vol. rated with holes and supported upon cross sticks
vii. p. 780, representing among other ingre- a littie above the real bottom. Straw is l^d
dients the quantity of am in different parts of upon the false bottom, under which is a cock
Ute oherrj tree. The whole amount of asbes for letting off the lye. The ashes nuxed with
' from the solid wood of trees generally falls atwnt ^ of lime are now placed in tlie tnba
short of 1 per cent, of the whole weight, but and drenched with successive portions of water,
sometimes exceeds this 2 or 8 times, llie bark which are allowed to remain for an hour or
oft«n produces S per cent, of ashes ; and vines, two. Those first drawn off, being saturated
straw, &0., still larger proportions. Thus po- with the soluble salts, are conveyed directly to
tato vines have given 15 per cent. ; pea vines the evaporating pans ; but the succeeding por<
to diSerent experimenters 5, 8, and 11 per tions, being weak, are retained to use again
cent, respectively ; wheat straw 4 to 7 per upon fresh ashes. The pans are of iron, broad
cent. ; corn stalks 12 per cent., &o. The prO- and shallow, and with corrugated bottoms to
portions of potash actually separated iVom dif- increase the heated surface. When the liquor
ferent plants are given as follows by Vauque- becomes of slmpy consistence the heat is
tin, Fertnis, Kirwau, and Be Saossure ; checked, and the oontente of the pan soon so-
P„^^ pwctrf lidify. These when cold are dugout witii some
_i.ik. pcud. difficulty and placed aside as crude potashes.
\ o™'.Si£: i"™ "^"^ ■'■'* intensely alkaline, and of a reddish
i BttaiMiB. '.'.'..'.'.'.. '.'.'. s.ooo browncolorfi'om the carbonaceous matter they
I ^^iidf'iS^tl \ ^•'^ retain. They are afterward purified by heat
1 Buflmr rt2ju!.„... s.MO *>^ ^^ ^"^"^ °^ ^ fbmaoe, losing most of the
I CommrMnaUU s^MO snlphnr that may be present, 'Uie excess of
I T£!Sitakui;iWtt;-S:MO ^"t*"-, and other Tola&e matters, the whole
I Dry wiuat itnw baibra loss amounting to 10 or 15 per cent. The prod-
I w°*^''wo(id' tISo '"* ^ white, of a bluish or pearly cast, oon-
I t^Motj ..'.'.'.','.'.'.'.'.'.'. i-»oi> tains a larger proportion of carbonic acid than
I ijigeWsa. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'... a.ma the erode article, and is known as pearlash.
The effect of the lime added to the a^es is to
The etalka of tobacoo, potatoes, beet leaves, decompose tbe sulphate of potash found among
tansy, sorrel, &ts., contain large proportions of the salts of the ashes and reoover the potash,
potash, and the removal of snch products every while the sulphnrio acid is rendered insoluble
year from the soil must cause its impoverish- by combination with the lime, and is retained
ment, nnleas the potash is restored in other with this portion of the ashes. Orude potash
way& — When ashes are treated with water a and pearlssh ore both somewhat Toriable in
strongly alkaline solution is produced called a oompoution. The former contains a large nor-
lye, and when this is drawn off and evaporated Hon of canstio or hydrate of potash, and its
to dryness the soluble salts remain behind. The percentage of absolute potassaotten amounts to
evaporation nsed to be conducted in iron pots, 60. In the latterthe potash is intbecondition
and henoe the name potash. The manufacture of a carbonate, representing a percentage of
is largely carried on in several wooded coun- about 60 of absolute potossa. The commercial
tries, especially where it is desirable to dear off vaineof the article ia determined by the amount
the forests for agricultural purposes ; but it ap- of odd required to neutroliEO the alkaline reac-
pears to be northern oounlxiee alone that pro- tion of a Iraown weight of the salt, as described
^is^EE
Bvk «t«>k Iwlgt
ThEattHudflu^ia*.
^^.'^r;;::::::
618 HyrASH porAssnnc
in the artiol« Alkaiootut. Qradiuted in- compoaed \ij it, uid a poition of Ba]phat« of
Btrnmenta, called allialimeterB, are ia qm for pota^ is deported. The uae of tlie bisnliihata
fooilitating this operatioD, and voriona modifi- u as a finz in chemical opera^ona requiring
oatioua of the process are given in the chemical the action of an acid at high temperatures npon.
worka. Pearlash is purified b; dissolving it in salts or metallic oxides with which it maj be
one and a half times its weight of water, ap- Aised.
plring a gentle heat, and then drawing off the POTASSIIIU, the metallic base of potash ;
BolutJon from the saltsthat settle in the bottom, ^mbol E {kalxum), chemical eqniTaleDt 89.
The liquid ia rapidl/ evaporated hj heat, and That the alkalies and earths were of oomponnd
as it is allowed to cool and begins to crrstal- natnre had been for some time snepected be-
liie it is kept in agitation ao that only small fore Sir Eomphry DaTj, in 1807, demoDstrated
crjatala of nearlj pure carbonate of potash the iact in reg^ to this alkali, a discoTery
maj form. The solation obtained bj treating which was soon followed hj the resolution of
the bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar) with the other coimionnds referred to Into their
water filtered and evaporated, affords still conatiiaenta of oxygen and a metal, and by
purer crystals of carbonate. Cryatallizod oar- the important mod^cations in chemical adence
Donate of potash contains two equivalents of involved in these great discoveries. Davy
water, and ia represented by the formula £0 effected the decompodtion by employing the
COi, 2H0. The diy anhydrous salt is very hydrate of potash, moistened on its sorface by
deliqnescent, attracting water till it becomes exposare to the air for a short tim& and subject-
liquid ; it fosea at a r^ heat, and dissolves in ing this to the action of a galvamc battery of
leastban its weight of water. It is notsolu- 200 pairs of 4-inch plates. Previooa attempts to
ble in absolute alcohol. It consists of one decompose the potash in solation in water had
equivalent of carbonic add, 23, and one of failed on account of the volUuc cnrrent acting
potaasa, 47.S = 69.2. In the chemical arts upon the fluid rather than the alkali; the dry
carbonate of potash is largely employed to hydrate, bang an insulator, was Dot affected
neutralize acids, also as a flux, and to form the by the current. Globules of potaa^um appear-
other salts of potash. Ia medicine purified ed at the negative pole, and bubbles of oxygen
paarlash, often called salt of tartar, is variously at the positive. The metal thus obtained was
employed— sometimes as an antacid, also as a very small in qnantity, and on account of its
diuretio and antihthic For cutaneous erup- great affinity for oxygen it was found necessary
tions it is one of the most effectual remedies, to protect it from both sir and water, cither
and is employed both internally and eitemaUy. in mercury, with which it formed an onialgam.
The pure carbonate, prepared from cream of or in naphtba. The ndit year Qay-Lussac and
tartar, and formerly known only OB salt of tar- Th^nard aucoeeded in decompoung melted hy-
tar, is to be preferred to putined pearlash for drate of potash by causing it to pass through a
the preparation of citrate of potossa, known as gnn barrel, which contained iron filings and
the neutral mixture or effervescing draught, an was kept at a white beat The oxygen of the
excellent refrigerant diaphoretic, very gener- potash end of the water it contained was tatcn
ally adnunistered in remittent and other fevers, up bv the iron, and the potassium set free paaa-
— Various other salts of potash are extensively ed through and was condensed tn a cool re-
employed in the arts and also in medicine, cetver of copper. The method now employed
Among the most important of tbceo are the to produce potassium is that invented by M.
nitrat«, saltpetre (see Kites), the chromates Ouraudan and improved by ]L Broimer, and
(see CnnoHniii), the bitartrate (see Cssam or particularly described in the AnnaUi dt ehimie
XABTAn), the hydriodate and pruasiate (see (iii.), zixv.p. 144. The reducing osent in this
PoTAssitm), the chlorate (see Cklobatss), and process is charcoal, and to ohtun it m the most
sulphate. Bulphate of potash (KO, SOi) is ob- effident form and most intimately mixed with
toiued in anhydrous crystals of the form of 6- the potash, cream of tartar (bitartrate of pot-
aided prisms terminating in 6-Bided pyramids, ashj is employed and ignited in a dosely cover-
or in oblique 4-uded prisms, by neutralizing ed iron crucible, tilt it oeases to emit combns-
with carbonate of potash the bisulphate of pot- tible vapors. Tlie operation is facilitated by
ash that remains in Ihe manufacture of nitric the intermixture of about 10 per cent, of
acid from nitre. The crystals are unalterable coarsely pulverized charcoal, which keeps the
in air, and thesalt is one of the least soluble of masa open and permits the gaaea to escape. As
the neutral salts of potash, rc(|uiring about 10 the vegetable acid decompoaea, its carbon is
parts of cold or 4 parta of boiling water to dis- left intimately mixed witn the resulting car-
solve it. In alcohol it b inaoluble. Its use bonate of potash, giving the product a black
is in_ medicine, its properties being those of color. The crucible ia cooled rapidly by cold
a mild pui^ative. The hydrated bisulphate water applied to the outside, and the contents
(KO, S0i-f;HO, EOi), the residue in the prepa- broken into small pieces are introdnced into
ration of nitric acid from nitre, the tal tnwaa an iron bottle, as a quicksUver flask, which is
of the alchemists, is obtained m a white crys- provided with a dischai^e tube, also of iron,
tolline mass. It crystallizes from a strongly and placed horizontally in ■ f^tmace. The dio-
acid solution in rhomboidal tables. Tlie saU charge tube is of good oapod^, and is mode
disBolvee readily in water, but is in part de- of the least posdble length to enter the reoeiv-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POTASSnTM 619
tr, wbloh ia pIao«d olOM up to the iron plate minating in naphtha contained in a eqHwiona
of the fomsce. These precautions are neceBBaiy flask. It ma7 also be pnrifled bj Moeedng ft
on account of th« danger of the tnbe becoming under naphtha throngh a piece of linen irith
obstraoted b^ the aoonmnlation of potassinm. wooden pHera. Potassium is a eilver-vMte
When tbe retort is rusod to a red heat, it is metal, at ordinary temperatnres soft tike wax,
sprinkled over with vitrified borax, which toward the freezing point malleable, and at
melts and protects tbe iron from oxidation. The tbia point brittle and sometimes crystallized in
fire is then nrged to obtain a moat intense beat, cubes. At 70''it is semi-flnid, and at 180° it is
and after a time greenish vapors of potassimn liqnid. Its density at 60° being only 0.86G, it
appear at the end of tbe tnbe, banting as they floats npon water; and thns placed itsstrongaffi-
mix with tbe air into a brilliant flame. The sity for orygen is remarkably exhibited. The
receiver already prepared is now adjusted to tbe water is decomposed, and great heat is «volTed,
tnbe. It is oonstmoted in snch a manner as to so that the potosdom ti£u fire, and the by-
be kept cool, while the tnbe from tbe bottle is drosen of tbe decomposed water also bnms
red-hot, and at tbe same time to exclnde the air with it. Tbe metal darts rapidly about npon
bota withont. In one fbrm it consists of two tbe snrfkce, accompanied by a brilliant flame,
cylindrical vessels ofsbeet copper, the npper one till at last, cooling down sufficiently to come io
set with its open end down into the lower one, contact with the water, it disappears with an
to which it serves as a cover. The connecting explosive burst of steam. Exposed to the iSi,
tnbe enters it near the top tbrongh a closely potaasinm soon becomes covered with a film of
fitting socket of copper, and by the interposi- tbe protoxide, and when heated till it begins
tJoQ of a partition or diaphragm, which di- to form vapor it takes Are and bnms wiui a
rides the npper receiver into two parts, all the violet flame. The prodnct of this combnstion
prodnots of the distillation are forced to descend is the peroxide, KOi. — The most important
within two inches of the bottom, where some salts of potasrium are the iodide, also known
rectified petrolemn catches the potassinm as It as hTdriodato of potash, and the combinations
&II9 drop by drop from the end of tbe tube, of the metal with cyanogen. Iodide of potas-
Oarbonic acid also comes over, and paasiog tin- sinm (KT), mnch used as a medicine, is pre-
der the diaphragm escapes ibrongb a glass pared by several methods which are given in
tnbe inserted for the purpose near the top of the pharmacopceiaa. One of these ia to di»-
the receiver. To prevent the connecting tnbe solve iodine in a strong solotion of potash,
from becoming clogged with potassium, an whence results iodide of potassinm and iodate
opening is made directly opposnte to it on the of polash in colorless solution. When so much
other Bide of the recei'ver, and also through the io^ne is taken up as to give its color to the
diaphragm between, by which an iron wire liquid, this is evaporated to dryness and can-
can be used to remove the obstructions. The tiously brought to a red heat. The lodate Is
receiver is kept oool by means of ice placed in thus converted into the Iodide, which fuses,
a wire cage that is set over the upper portion; and if too strongly heated volatiliies. It is
and the lower part may also be set in ice. next dissolved in water, filtered, and crystal-
Asother form of reoeiver is that of aa iron box lized. It takes the form of cubes or rectango-
a foot long, 6 inches wide, and only ^ inch lar prisms, which are generally wMte and
deep. It IS made of two pieces of wrought opaque, and hare an alkaline reaction trom a
iron, the pan below and its cover, which are trace of carbonate of potash. The salt, eom-
damped tightly together. One end has a short manding a high price, is often adulterated. If
neck with an aperture large enough to receive pure, it should not effervesce nor turn brown
the oonnecting tube, and the other is open the on addition of hydrochloric acid, the former
whole width of tbe box. The apparatus is efiect indicating the presence of carbonate of
kept cool by a wet cloth placed npon it. The potash, and the latter of lodate of potash. It
potassinm condenses immediately in the box, should dissolve completely in 6 times its weight
and the carbonio acid gas posses out at tbe of alcohol. Tbe chlorides of potassium and
open end. Through this end an iron rod is in- sodium and the bromide of pot^sium are also
trodnced when necessary to remove any ob- often found in this salt, and the last named is
stmotiona in the tnbe ; but if this should be- sometimes fraudulently subatitnted for it. The
come closed the flremnst be immediately with- presence of a chloride is detected by titrate of
drawn by removing the bars that support it. silver producing a precipitate that is readily
As soon as the gases cease to flow the receiver is soluble in ammonia. Bromide of potassium
removed and instantly plunged into a vessel of may be distinguished from the iodide by ita
naphtha, which ia then covered tight and im- giving no precipitate with bichloride of mer-
mersed in water. When cold, the potassium is cury. This salt is varionslv employed in medi-
detached from the receiver and preserved in cine, and its eflects upon tne secretions, when
naphtha. It is not safe to keep it except it be administered as an alterative, are very marked.
purified by a second distillation ; but beibre the It may be regsj^ed as an antidote to the poi-
connecttng tube buaed again it should be wash- sonous effects of lead and mercury which re-
ed in water to remove the impure potassimn main fixed in the tissues. These, being c(hi<
that collects in it. A smaller iron bottle may verted by it into Iodides, are rendered soIuUa
Iw used the second time with a bent tube tor- and pass ott. When orbited in connection
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
^0 POTABSIOU
with certain eoroponnds of meroniT, it has metalliirg? thia salt is used u A flux, snd slao
been observed to increase the activitj of these in the nuuinfactare of eteel from wrongbt iron,
medicinoB in a remarlfable degree, probabljbj to which when melted together it imparts the
making them solnble. As an antidote to the carbon neceasory for the conversion. It haa
poison from the bites of venomonB reptiles, its also recently come into general use for increaa-
properties have been allnded to in the article in^ tbehardnessof st«el upon tbeiaoeof 'which
PoiBOH. The Bait paaseeqaickly into the nrine, it is melted. In pharmacvit is used to prepare
in which it has been detected in 6 minutes dilntedhydroojanicacid, FraBsianblue,aiidtbe
after swallowing. It b employed externally cyanides of poteBBiam and silver. In medicine
as an ointment, either alone or mixed with it is found to possess the properties of a seda-
iodine. — The oomponnds of cyanogen and po- tive, diaphoretic, and astringent, but is little
tassinm present 8 or 4 very important Ealts: nsed. — The sesquiferrocyanioe of potassiaiii,
the ferrocyanide, also known as yellow pras- or Prosmn bine, is a pigment of great Tttlne
siato of potash, the sesqniferrocyanide or Pros- diaoovered in ITIO by Diesbach, a color maker
sian blue, the lerridcyanide or red prnssiate of at Berlin, and the first account of its manoiac-
potasb, and the cyanide of potassinm. The ture appeared in 1T24: in the "Philosophical
first named, from which the others and all the Transactions." The salt is the precipitate ob-
other oompOondB of cyanogen are derived^ is tuned hj mixing a solution of a persalt of
manufaotored upon a large scale by calcining iron with one of ferrocyanide of potassium,
at a high temperature nitrogenous animal mat- and its compodtion is represented by the for-
tera, as dried blood, hoofb, horns, parings of mula Foi, Fcyi. Tho iron sslt nsnally em-
hides, woollen rags, refuse of tallow chandlers, ployed in its preparation is the green vitriol,
and other such substances, with an equal sulphate of the protoxide, which before mix-
weight of carbonate of potash and about i ing with the potash solution is converted into
their wdght of iron filings, in a covered iron peroxide. It is used on account of its cheap-
pot^ or Uie filings may be in part or wholly ness, bnt the nitrate is much better adapted
omitted, in which case the pot itself and the for producing thefinest sorts of FrusaanbiDe;
stirrers used furnish the required amount of for the sulphate is rarely deprived altt^tlier
iron. A dark ^ray mass is obtained, which of the protoxide salt, and any portion of this
b^ng treated with hot water yields what was remaining produces a blue of inferior quality.
formerly known as the lixkium tanguinit or Buch is the basic or soluble Prussian bine,
blood lye. This being evaporated prodnoes distinguished from 'the genuine blue by its
impure lemon-colored orystEds of prussibte of character of solubility in water. The charac-
fotash. By rediasolving and crystallizing by ter of the products is also materially afiect«d
ong continued evaporation, they are obtained by that of the ferrocyanide of potassiuia em-
ngam perfectly pure in large tabular forms, ployed. The best, such as the Paris blues, are
transpsrent, and of composition represented b^ made with this salt pnrificd by successive crys-
the formula K>, Fe Oyi -{• 8H0. The salt is tallizations, whQe the more common sorts are
very soluble in water, but is insoluble in alco- made from the crude solution before crystal-
hol ; it has a aaline bitterish taste, and has not lizing, and the inferior sorts even from the
the poisonous properties of some of the cyano- mother liquors from which the salt haa been
gen compounds. It b tough and not readily orystallized and separated. As all ferrocyanide
redncibls to powder. He^ied to 212° F., it of potaasinm except the purest contains soma
loses its water of crystallization, amounting to carbonate of potaui, this must be neutralized,
12.6 per ceut of its weight, and crumbles to a and for this purpose sulphuric acid is added
white powder. At a lea heat in close vessels either to the iron or potash solution. But in
it fuses, and finally decomposes in part, nitrogen making the common Berlin blues a solution of
escapiog and cyanide of potassium and carbu- alnm is employed ; this involves a precipitate
ret of iron being formed. By the admission of of alumina, which becomes mixed witii the
^ the cyanide b converted into cyanate of color, and adds essentially to its weight.
potash. The uses of thU sslt are numerous and Sometimes chalk, plaster of Parte, and starch
very important. In dyeing and calico print- are purposely introduced as adulterants. The
ing it is the source of some of the colors em- method of mannfacture recommended by lie-
ployed, especially the bices. In chemistry it big b to divide a solution of 11 parts of green
IS' a reagent in me wet ws; for diHtiugoishing vitriol into two portions, and mix one of these
met^ in solution &om esdi other. The pre- with two parta of hydrochloric acid, gradually
cipitates it oecasians in acid metallic Bolotions adding to the miitare chloride of lime untU
are generally combinations of the cyanide of the whole of the protoxide is converted into
the metal thrown down with cyanide of iron, peroxide. Then &e two portions are to be
and the metal b reoognized by the peculiar mixed together, and a eolnlion of 10 parts of
color of the precipitate; thus with salts of ferrocyanide of potassium added. The blue
copper the precipitate b reddish brown, with precipitate thus obtiuned b not, however, per-
salta of cobalt yellowish green, with proto- fectiy pure. YaHons other processes for m&k-
salts of iron white changing to blue, with per~ ing tlib color are in nse. Prussian bine is
aalts of iron a deep blue, Ac. Thus are ob- usually prepared for sole by drying the pre-
tained some of the colors used in dyeing In dpitato in cubical or irregohr Bh^>ed masses ;
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
POTABBIUM POTATO 521
but as theee are not afterward readilr reduced potassinm and 8 parte of carbonate of [wtash,
to tbe fine state of division of the precipitate, to which may be added one part of chanx^
this is sometimes sold to the mannfactnrerB of brought to a red heat in a close iron cmcible.
paper hangings in the form of a paste. The When the yellow color disappears and no more
dried color breaks with a doll fracture, but bubbles of gas are seen, the fueed cyanide is
whenrabbed presents ft beantifnl reddish me- poured off from the fermginons residue. Ifno
tallic Instre like bronze, and altogether bears charcoal is added the product is milk-white,
mnoh resemblance to iadigo. It has neither and contains cjanata mixed with the cjanide;
taste nor amell, and is not soluble in water bnt if obarco^ is used to reduce to cjanide
nor weak aoids ; but washed with dilnte hydrO' the emanate that forms, the faaed salt when
chloric acid and then rubbed with j its weight poored out is black and must be freed from
of crystallized oxalic acid, it is rendered aolu- the particles of unconsnmed charcoal that color
ble. A flue blue writing ink is prepared by it. This is done by treatment with boiling al-
diasolving this mixture in 40 or 60 parts d cohol, and filtariag ; the salt separates by crys-
water. PrDsaan blue is decomposed by the talUzing when cold. This treatment is nnne-
alkaliea and their carbonates, oxide of iron be- ceasary if the salt is designed for forming- and
ing liberated and a ferrocyanide of the metal dissolving the cyanides of gold and silver, or
remaning in aolntion. The addition of potash for electro -metallurgical purposes. The crys-
tbos reprodaces the yellow prussiate, and is talsof cyanide of potassium are colorless cubes,
an excellent method of preparing this salt in a which become opaque and deliquesce in damp
state of pnritj. Fms^an blue when heated in air, and are very solnbla in water. The sola-
tbe open ur takes fire and burns like tinder, tion has the odor of hydrocyanic acid. Pre-
Its use in the arts is as a pigment. It makes served in a tight bottle, the dry salt may b«
a b«&ntiful water color, which however is not kept for a long time without losing ite proper-
very permanent. It is also of value in dyeing ties, and for this reason it is to be preferred to
and calico printing. Btarch is colored by it, the acid poison. As it is sold, it la, however,
and it forms the " blueing" for coloring linen, of very uncertain purity, commonly contain-
In medicine It is Bometimos used forils proper- ing water, the hydrate, carbonate, cyanate, and
ties as a tonic, febritbge, and alterative, and formiate of potash. The carbonate is the chief
also externally as an application to ulcers, impurity, and altogether sometimes makes h^
mixed with some simple ointment. — The fer- the weight of the salt.
ridcyanide of potassium, or red prussiate of POTATO, an eacnlent tuber produced by
Kt^h (Ki Fci Cyo), is also a valuable salt, the tobnum (ui»v(Ufn of Bauhin and Linnaiua.
tb as a reagent in chemical analysis and in The genus aolanum is the type of the natural
calico printing. It is obtained in splendid ruby order toUmaeeix, composed of exogeas with 6
red crystals on evaporating a dilute solution free stamens, a monosepalous hypogynous ct>-
(A ferrocyanide of potassium through which a rolla divided at top into 6 lobes, and a 6-parted
current of chlorine has been passed just to the calyx, persistent, inferior ; the estivation plait-
point when the liqaid ceases to ^?e a blue ed, imbricated, or valvate ; the fruit either a
precipitate with the persalts of iron. As it is capsule or a berry ; the leaves alternate, undl-
ripared on a large scale for the calico printer, viued, or lobed. They are natives of most of
u generally obtained by decomposmg the the warmer portions of the world, especially
solid yellow salt by means of chlorine. The the tropics. Hauy genera beside the typio^
red crystals left from the solution are anhy- one belong to this order, several of which conr
droits ; they are soluble in less than 4 parts of sist of poisonous plants, and others are of im-
cold water, and in BtUI less hot water. The portanoe in medicme. The genus (ulanumcon-
nlutjon of the salt is nged as a test for various tains planto of the herbaceous, shrubby, and
m^als, producing in their solutious difierently tuberous-rooted esculent kinds, of which may
colored precipitates. Thus the protosalts of be mentioned the tomato, egg plant, bitter-
iron are recognized by the beautiful Pmsaian sweet, winter cherry, the nightshades, and the
bine color, the salts of nickel and of copper by potato. There are two principal variations of
yellowish green, of cobalt dark reddish brown, this last, as shown in the color of its tubers,
cadmium yollow, zinc and silver orange, man- yii., those in which they are red, blue, or
ganese bronze, die. — Cyanide of potassium (K purple, and those in which the white or yel'
Oy) is a salt largely prepared for various uses low is the prevalent tint ; and the sub- varieties
in the arts. In electro-gilding it ia added to under these colors are exceedingly numerous.
the aolntion of gold to give it clearness and When raised from seeds, no permanency in
prevent the deposition of a black deposit ; in form, color, general oharacterisUos, or qualities
photography it is nsed to fix the image upon can be anticipated. A good variety having
the plates; in metallurgy it is a powerful re- once ori^ated, it can only be secured by prop-
dncing flux for the oxides of the metals ; and sgation in some other way. Instonoes are on
in phaiTnacy and medicine it is a substitute for record where, out of 800 seedlings, not one
hydrocyanic or prussio acid, having the same was like the parent, and only 8 of the entire
poiaonons qnalities. (See Evdbootanio Aoid.) number worth perpetuating. In order to pro-
It is prepared from a mixture of 8 parts of cure the seeds for sowing, the berry-like fruit,
careftillj dried and pulverized farroeyanide id or potato ball aa it ia termed, should be gath-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
SSZ POTATO
ered when it is perfeott?' ripe and dried, and It is ociiBidered adTtsable to plou^ Hie laod
the seeds rnbbed ont witb the bond. The? deep and to break it ap with the hoe. When
Bhoold be kept in some dry place nntil the greensward is used Jnst before planting time,
next spring, and then sown in shallow boxes the latt«r precantioo is not so neoewaiy. Ma-
in B good pulverized soil When 4 or C inches narea that will lie lightl:r are found ^TsntA-
high, the yonng plants should be carefallT geoas, and next to these, kinds ^lat ferment
transplanted into properly prepared beds, al- alowly. Next in value to a new soil is the nae
lowing 6 inches space for each plant, and keep- of old salt bay or oak leaves, and sin^lar vege-
ing the beds clear of weeds. At the end of the table matter always at band. New lands re-
sesson sraall tubers will be found on the roots cently burned over also prodnce excellent po-
of every plant, which most be stored throngb tatoes. As a crop the value in a commercia]
the winter and planted oat the next spring, view depends less on the qnanUty raised than
At the end of the second year some idea of on the quality of the tubers. The higher the
their value can be obtained. By aooh expert- land is manured, the greater the quantity, bat
ments a few superior sorts can be produced, not always the better the quality, ii the
and these perpetuated by the usual modes of northern and eastern states the tune of plant-
I^antia^.^Mfferent modes of raising potatoes ing may be from Hay 1 to tbe end of June;
prevail in different parts of the world. In £u- but su^iient time should be allowed for the
rope the tubers are carefhlly out into small foliage and stems to come to maturity and
bits, each having an " eye" or stem bud. In ripen, otherwise the tubers will not be well
Ireland it is not nnuanal to out these early in grown. In preparing the seta or seed potatoes,
winter and save them nntil ' the period for as tbey are often c&Ued, some advise catting
planting ; by this means the cut part has time into small pieces, and othen planline oitire
to dry and harden on its surfara, and is not so and large tubers. Where the ground u rouch
liable to rot if planted in moist soih These and stony, the older method of planting in hills
fragments are called " sets," a term also ap- may be as good as any ; but in rich and tnel-
plied to the entire tuber used in planting. AH low soil the drill method is preferable. This
the kinds of potato will grow in almost any can be done in an expeditions way by cutting
BoU, but prefer a moderately light and dry one fhrrows with a horse plongh, dropping the
and an open sitnatioiL There are various sets, and corering them by pawing the [Songb
modes of planting. In the dibbling method, along the back of each fiurow, and levelling
small holes 4 or S inches deep and 12 inches afterward. When the crop ia ready for ho^g,
apart are made by a blnnt^pointed tool, and a the cultivator may be employed between
Bunple cutting or set being dropped into the each furrow, weeding the ^Imts and keeping
hole, the sonaoe of the ground is smoothly the soil loose and mellow around them, avoid-
raked over. The drill method is by the nee of ing too much hilling np. On harvestmg the
a hoe, the drills being 4 or 6 inches deep and crop, exposure to the sun's rays ahoold be
9 feet apart; into these the sets are dropped at avoided; it shonld be boused as soon as con-
proper distances and covered with about 4 venient in cellars or cavee dug in a dry scul.
Inches of earth. The apade is used in furrow and protected from frost and light. Toward
planting. In light ground a system of trench- spring the sprouts are to be removed and the
ing to a Bpade'a depth is practised ; and in very potatoea kept dry for table uae. — The potato
wet lands the soU is thrown np into high broad differs in shape of the tuber, in foliage, Qowtn,
beds with deep alleya between, the sets being and prolific qualitieB. The leaves of some re-
dropped upon some littery maunro and covered semble those of the ash b«e, and these are
with earth taken {torn the alleys. In harvest- called the ash-leaved sorla. Tbe blossoms are
ing, the potatoes are lilted ont by a blnnt-point- white, violet, or pale, and the tubers are in
ed &-pronged fork, the haulms or dead tope shape globular, kidney-shaped, flat, long cylin-
being bnmed npon the ground or removed for drical, tapering, curved, conical or pioeapple-
litter or for covering used in garden pnrposes. shaped, and imbricated ; their exterior is
The potato is sometimes forced by selecting smooth, rough, granulated, or warty, and in
dwarf kinds and planting in a hot-bed very color white, yellow, pink, purple, blue, or al-
earty iu the year. For early crops, drills most black. Uore than CO distinct kinda are
3 feet apart and 7 or 8 inches deep should be known, each possesabg some particular meriL
formed in some warm and sheltered situation. Of these many are foreign sorts seldom or
Half decomposed stable dung is laid in the never seen here, and varietiea beat suited to
drills and mixed wi^ the soil, and a covering each climate or even to particular diatricts ori-
of mould laid to within 4 inches of tbesnt&oe. (pnate and are perpetuated. Some sorts, too,
The sets ahonld be uncut, the upper or orown are prolific in flowers and seed balls, whUe
end of the tuber nppermtHit, and placed in the others are nearly or entirely deficient in them ;
drill, with about on inch of mould strewn over and the sterna and leaves of some are ranker,
them, and occasionally a sifting of wood ashes, coarser, larger, and of a deeper green than
The rides of the drills are lined witb dry leaves those of others. It has beat proved that such
to guard agunst frosts. — The process in the as ordinarily seldom produce blossoma can be
United States ia leas diverelfied, the potato be- made to do so by robbing the ^wing plant at
ing more generally regarded as a field crop, aome of its tubers. In the United States many
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POTATO {t28
nlnabl« sorts liSTe gone out ofgenersl use or b«ng found rotting late In the entimui of tlut
been mperaeded b; others. "Die long red, jear ; while in 1846 a smglQ week's time was
Ohenango, blue nose, state of Uaine, Jaokson snfficient for It to destroy uie entire orop, pre-
wbite, strawberry, peach blow, and Davis's seed- vionslj to which an abondant harveat was (Or
Ihig are esteemed, and ma; be cited as exsm- ticipated. The acooimts from all parts of the
pies or specimen sorts. — The pot^o boiled is oonntry gave foil proof of an impending oni-
considered an excellent food for swine, and the versa! l^ine. Rehef oommittees, new means
English Qse it in a parboiled state for cattle ; of industry, and liberal assistance from abroad
boiled add mixed with meal. It can be fed were provided. In the United States similat
to fowls. The tubers are eztenrivel; used for losses to the agriculturists ensued, and the po-
maklng starch in domestic economy, and by tato crops were Beriouslyinjiired. It was soon
^stillAtioa they produce spirits. The farina ascertained, however, that particnlar varieties
or starch of the potato b often fraudulently were most liable, and seleetionB were accord-
sold for arrowroot, but the microscope readily higly made of those freest from contagion,
detectstheimpostare. An extract of the leaves Rfusing new sorts from the seed was resorted
is a powerfnl norcotio, ranking between bella- to, the older kinds being r^ected. At present
doQoa and oonium, and pardoularly serviceable the variety called Jackson white is considered
in chronic rheumatism and painftd affections beat suited to the market The disease appesra
of the stomach and atoms. — ^The potato is siib- toward the end of Angnst, blackening and kill-
jeet to diseases which serionaly affect its value ing the foliage and the stcuns of the most lim-
as a crop. In Europe, the foliage sometimes riant crops in a few hours. Fields thus affect-
presents the appearance of a rough and uneven ed are left to as late aperiod as possible before
SQrface, snpfiosed to be due to a preternatural they are dng, but frequently after storage the
inspissated condition of the juices in the firm work of destruction goes on, until the whole is
and mealy tuber used in planting. This injury a mass of putrescence. Putrefaction having
to the leaves is called the curl, and is attributed once taken place or decay been induced, the
by Ur. Andrew Knight to the stat« of the sap, varioua parasitical growths ending in more or
which could not circulate freely within the less dev^oped fnugi are to be naturally ezpect-
growing foliage. He experimented npon some ed. Thus resnits and sequences have been
sprouts which he carefulli' detached from the taken for causes. According to the Eev. M. J.
tubers of diseased and onrled plants, and found Berkley, at least 6 fimgi have been charged
that on being planted they depended for growth witb this evil, though he oonsiders botrytit in-
entirely on the soU and its water, instead of fettaTU to be the principal one. Oertain it is
drawing nutriment from the tuber ; by this that the potato when planted on new soils and
means no ourl appeared, while morfl than nine in poor ground, or when vegetable subatauoes
tenths of the plants raised from the same dis- are used for mannrin^, b usually healthy;
eased tubers proved very much infected. From while lands manured with the eznviffifrom Uie
tins it would appear that tubers used for sets bam are peculiarly liable to impart the disease.
when not quite ripened would be productive of Another disease, known as dry rot, does not
a cleaner and healthier foliage. Such unripe entirely destroy the Talne of the root for feed-
bib«v hare bean found the best to plant lor ing to swine, bnt is equ^y destructive to the
early crops ; and when the set is cut, the end germs, so that no sprouts will appear. — The po-
of the potato which has been last produced has tato is sometimes liahle to the preeenoe of an
proved to be preferable. In some particular excess of a poisonous principle known as sola>
varieties thb dbttnction between the ripened nine, eibtinE in several species of toUmmn, bnt
and unripened end b more apparent. The po- particularly In spronted potatoes, snch as are
tato,onaccount of its remarkable nntritivequal- stored for winter uee. Avery small quantity
ities, has been made a principal article of diet, of this principle will produce symptoms of poi-
especialty with the laboring olasaes of Ireland, soning, as basbeen proved by ootnal experiment.
Partial milures of the potato crop and conse- Sprouted potatoes when about to be used as
quent dbtress have been frequent in that conn- food prove better if pared and soaked for some
fry. In 1789 a severe and early frost which hours in cold water ; and snch a preoantion
d^royed the tubers in the ground caused great may preclude the posnbility of any poisonons
sofferiog and famine, and in 18S2 the rottiug of result from their nse. — ^Ihe native oountry of
the potatoes after being stored produced the the potato b a matter of doubt, but common re-
same effects. In 1831 famine and pestilence sno- port refers it to Pern, The potato now in nse
eeeded the failure of the crop in the western is s^d to have been carried to England by Sir
countie8,re8ultingfTomanineiplioablephonom- Walter Raleigh from Virginia in 1C86, As
enon to which the name of the taint was given ; early as 1597 Gerarde gave a figure of the po-
it reappeared in 1838. la the meanwhile the tato plant in hb " Herbal," and 48 years later
Sotato disease, under the varioua names of mil- Parkinson published a figure of it in hb "Thft-
ew, murrain, rot, and pestilence, was working atre of Plants," describing with it several kinds
its way all over Europe, baffling the inquiries of umilar roots which were eaten, bnt which
of BcieutiSo men and of practicaJ agriculturists belong to entire! v distinct genera. Pedro Cieea
alike, in seeking its cauae or its preventive. It in his " Chronicle" (1668) says that the people
first appeared &tinotiTS1y in 1846, the potatoes of Quito eatatnberons root which they call
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
624 POTATO {Swm) POTEMKIN
M|p(u ; and some of the eame were sent from flovers yiYAto and large, Ttie hatatat raacro-
Flanders to Olosins, & diBtingitiBlied botanist of rliiza orjalapa (IJndlej) has a very lai^ root,
thatday. ItBeemshighljprobablethatthepo- and isfonna in similar sitaatjons ; it ia some-
tato was introduced into Earope bj the Span- times eaten hj the negroes, being foood tori-
iards, but tliough thus known to botanists and naceons and saccharine,
others its use as an esculent was very tardilf POTATO FLT. See Cakthabidbs.
adopted. Donbfless it was a long time before POTATO ■WORM. See Hiwx Morn.
amelioration from climatic influences rendered FOTAWATAHIE, a B. W.co. of Iowa, sepa-
it of good size, farinaceons, and palatable. rated from Nebraska bj the ICissonri river, and
POTATO, BwEKT, the tnber of an eiogenons drained by the Boyer and "West Fork of Niah-
plant belonging to the natornl order ecntolvu- sabatona riTer, beside several large creeks ;
laeeiB, and called by Ofaoisy batatas edulU. It area, 960 so. m. ; pop. in I860, 4,S62. Its soil,
differs from the convolvolus in having a 4- which fa diverHffied by prairie and forest, b
celled ovary, each cell containing a single seed, generally fertile. The productions in 18S9
The native conntry of the sweet potato is nn- were 16,G6I bushels of wheat, 238,686 of In-
known, but it probably originated in tropical dian com, 9,884 of oats, S6,9H of potatoes,
America. It moat have been early intro' 4,806 tons of hay, and 40,463 lbs. oi butter.
dnced into Enrope, and naturalized in the Capit^^aneaville.
warmer parte of Asia, where a red-rooted va- POTEMKIF, GmooKi ALSXiXDBOvncH,
rietr of it is extensively cnltivated for food. It prince, a Rns^an stateeman and soldier, horn
is also known in Spain, in the sonth of France, near Smolensk in Sept 1786, died between
and in Italy. The sweet potato has a creeping J^assy and Kikolaiev, Oct. 15, I7S1. He he-
stem, rarely twining; its leaves are variable in longed to a noble Polish family in reduced cir-
shape, usadly nngnlar ; theyare also lobed and cirnistanoes, entered the Knasian army et an
frrnbhedwith a petiole, smooth or even slight- early age, and became au ensign in the horse
!y hair7 ; the flowers are 8 or 4, pednncled ; gnards. After the revolution of 1768 at SL
the sepals 6, acominate, mucronate, rarelysnb- Petersburg^e was appointed by the empreas
tmncate, outer ones a little shorter ; corolla Catharine II. colonel and gentleman of the
campanulate, of a purple color ; stamens B, en- bedchamber, and admitted to her piivate dr-
closed ; stigma capitate, 2-Iobed. The genus cle. Having served for a while under Boman-
hatata», according to Don, comprises 16 dis- zoff aguust the Turks, he waa sent from the
tinct species, moatiy natives of the tropics and army to present the empress with the keys of
conspicuous for the beauty of their flowers, the city of Bender, and was bold cnoagh to
They reqnire much artifioial heat in cultira. make in ^er presence an avowal of passumate
tlon, a treatment which is given to the swcct admiration which was not unfavorably re-
potato in some parts of Europe. Oatesby, in his ceived. He superseded Gregory Orloff in the
"Natural History of Carolina," speaks of 4 or good graces of Catharine, and for jeara had
6 kinds with different colored roots. He Hays entire control over the heart and the councils
that they shonld bo kept in winter in caves of his imperial mistress. Ha favored the pol-
seonre from the frost, o method practised now icy which brought about the first partition of
with those designed for planting ; and such are Poland, but turned his attention principally to
likewise packed in dry sand and kept warm the East ; and under his influence the Bussians
until the end of winter, when they are started pushed their conquests toward the Black sea
in hot-beds, and the sprouts having grown a with the ultimate view of reachbg Constanti-
few inches long are carefully taken off. In nople. As early as 1774, by the treaty of
this state they are sold at the seed stores under Kootchook-Kain^i, they were possessed of
the name of slips ; these, being set out, produce Azov, Ycnikale, Kertch, and the banks of tho
new plants and abundance of tubers. They lower Dnieper, while they had destroyed Turk-
delight in a tolerably rich, light, and sandy ish influence in the Crimea. By Potemkin'a
soil, no extra care being needed except keep- advice, the foundations of Cherson were hud
ing tho plants clear of weeds and drawing the in 1778, and the new city soon became the
soil up around them as they grow. In the chief emporium of south Kusda. In less than
Bonthern United States the cultivation isextcn- 6 years he took possession of the Crunea and
sive; in New Jersey and tho western states the the Eoohan region, to which their ancient
produce is remarkably good ; and even in the names of Tauris or Tanrida and Caucasus were
neighborhood of Boston, Ifass,, hundreds of restored ; and as a reword for his servicea, he
bushels are annually raised on the light sandy received from his sovereign the governorship
soil, the yield per acre being little inferior to of the new provinces, the surname of Tauridian
that of the common potato. In all hot conn- (Tavridtcheskoi), and the magnificent Tsurida
tries the tubers are largely consumed as food, palace at St. Petersburg, built expressly for
either boiled or roasted. Thtilatata^littoralia nim. He now prevailed upon the czars of
of Ohoisy grows wild in the drifting sands of Georgia and Imcrotia to do homage to the em-
the sea coast from South Carolina to Florida, press. In 1787, having persuaded Catharine
Itslenvesare 1 toSincheslong, oval or oblong, to visit bis government, he accompliohed won-
cordate, notched at the apex, entire or hastate- ders to impresa upon her mind the importance
lobed, the lateral lobea entire or 2.cleft, the and prosperont condiUou of her new ftcqnid-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOTEUEnt FOTOOEI 686
tkma. Bhe came Bnrronnded b^ the ambasaa- fiiHed, mndh to his regret, to obt^n for him
dors of all nations and Tollowed bf an e.naj the orders of the H0I7 Spirit of Franca and
of 40,000 niea. Along the road she travelled the garter of England. He owned immense
happy-looking crowds cheered her paasaso; estates nitli C,000 seris in RoBsia proper and
bftsntiAil villageB bad Epmng np in the wilder- 40,000 in Polish Enana ; bia income and peD-
Deas,andtheconDtr7seemod tob«st oaoe pop- dons were enormons ; he received 80,000
nlous and wealth/ . All these were bat scenic robles for the expense of his table alone. The
exhibitions prepared hj the art and lavijtb ex- property he left on his death amonnted to over
peoditare of the governor. The journey was $85,000.000.
Boarc«Iy completed when the war broke out POTBIER, Robkbt Joskph, a French Jnrist,
ag^ between the Porte and Russia. The chief bom in Orleans, Jan. 9, 1809, died tbere,
command was given to Potemkin, who bad March S, 1778. He was judge anocesstvely
several experienced generals under liis orders, of the court of the Obfttelet in bia native city,
and Turkey was invaded. At tha bead of the and of the pritidial, and in 1749 professor 01
principal army, he took Otchakov by storm ; French law in tiie nniversitry of Orleans. Herft
victory followed upon victory ; Bender sur- he used to assemble bis pupils at his own boDie
rendered ; Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Walla- to give Uiem Bain)lementary lessons and talk
ohia were occupied, and the strong fortress of wi^ tbem more familiarly about the subject
Ismail fell. But the Bossian treasury was ex- of their stndies, offered prizes to encourage
hansted, and Oathaiine was willing to moke the most meritorious, and frequently assisted
neace witb her conquered opponent Potem- tbem with his purse. His great um was to
kin, who thought himself turly " on the road harmonise legidotion with divine and natur^
to Byzantiunv' wanted to push on tbe war law. His principal work is bis Pandacta Jvt-
more eoergeldcally than ever; and in tbe hope tinianamNcmmOriinem Aigmtm (3 vols, fol.,
of bringing over tbe empress to his policy, be Paris and Ob artres, 1748-'62). Initbot' "
rqunred to 6L Petersburg. But wbue he was oil Uie texts of tiie Digest which were ar-
kere giving a magnificent entertainment to his ranged with little orno method in tbe original
misCreBB and her court in tbe Tsurida palace, work, and elucidates conflicting deoisionB by
secret orders had been despatched to his lien- thorough discussions and annotations. Both in
t«iaat Repnin, who hnstened to win a new America and England the antbority of Pothier
victory over the Turks, and to grant tbem an is greater than that of any other foreign Jurist.
irmistice preliminary to the conolosion of His treatises on " Maritime Oontracts," trsna-
peace. On hearing of it, Fotemkln in a rage lated by Caleb Onshing ^oiion, 1891), on
started for tbe south, overwhelmed his lieutoi- "Contracts of Bale," byL. S. Gashing (Boston,
ant with reproaches and insults, and swore 1839), and on "Tbe Law of Obligations or
that "he would undo all that the other bad Contracts," by W. D. Evans (Phitadelphio,
done." He was now at Jossy, where plenipo- 1840), are regarded as authorities oa tbelr re-
tentiarles bad met to negfrtdate. For some un- speotive snttiects.
known reason be lefl Qiat oity for NikoMev POTOOKX a noble Polish family, whose
while suffering under on epidemic distemper ; principal se^ was in tbe former palatinate of
on the Joomey be was seized with a violent Cracow, and which still holds large estates es-
oolio, alighted &om his oarriace, threw bim- peciallyin Oolioia and the Ukraine. Since the
self on tiie grass by the roadside, and in a 16tb century many members of this family
few minutes expired in tbe arms of his niece, have attained high portions in church and
the princeaa Branicka. — This remarlmble man state in Poland. Jan and Jakdb were generala
owed the commencement of bis fortune to bis in the time of Sigismnnd IH. ; Stanislaw, sur-
figure and features, but afterward vindicated named Revera (bom about 1B89, died in 1667),
lus claims to it by enterprises that redounded was chief hetman of the crown ; and Waolaw
to the profit and honor of Russia. Notwitb- (bom in 1698) was a poet and translator of the
landing bis faults, bis pride, avarice, intemper- Argenit of Barclay. Of tbe later members of
•nee, and coarseness, he was evidently guted the family the following are most distingnished,
with ft powerM intellect, or be conld not so I. BTAinsLA.wFKLix, field marshal of tbe Polish
bng have influenced his benefactress. She artiUery, bom in 17fi0, died in 1808. Hepnb-
loacUd him with favors of every kind ; be was lisbed with Bzewni^ and Branioki, in 1792,
field marshsl, commander-ln-oluef, and inspeo- the famous manifesto of Targovitzo, and was
tor-«eneral of all the Rusdan forces, president active in promoting the objects of tbe confed-
of tne college of war, colonel of ^•a Preobro' oration of that name with the aid of the em-
BhoDski gn^rda, and of 8 other regiments of press Catharine II. in 1798 ; but after the np-
cniraader^ grenadiers, and dragoons, grand ad- rising of Poland under Kosoiosiko in 1794, he
miral of the Black and Caspian seas, and gov- took refbge in the United States, and was eon-
ernor-general of the provinces <tfEkat6rint»lav denmed to death as a tr^tortohis country.
and Taurida. Catharine moreover bestowed The victories of Suwaroff restored him to lua
upon him all tbe Rossian orders of knight- native land, and CaUiarine made him field mar-
hood, and caused him to be created a prmce sbaL Ee passed the rest of bis life principally
ef tbe German empire, and to be knighted by on hisestatea in the Ukndne, tortured by re-
the kings of Fmsda, Sweden, and Potaad, bat morse for his political acts so disastrooB to Us
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
S26 FOTOOEI POTOfll
oonntrj. IL IavAOT,gr«idi)unIinlofUUiii- POTOVAO,atamrtTCroftheTriihed&lMtea,
■nia, cooMn of the prooedlng, bom ia 1761, constitotiiignearlj the vbolebotmdvT between
died Aug. 80, 1809. He was one of the framers HarylandaiidVirgiiiiaiandfoniMdbytliejtitio-
oi the oolutitntion of Mkj 8, 1791, and, when tionof the North and South brauohes on the N.
the invasion of the Soanaiu took place, was border of the latter state. The North branch
obliged to flee to FroMia. The sacceaa of Eoe- riaee in the Allagfaaniea in the north of Tir-
cdoEzko called him back to Waraaw, where be ginia, and the Booth branch in the Shenando^
become a member of the new goveroment, bnt range near the centre of the state. From th«
was captured hj Snwaroff and oonvejed aa a Jnnction, which ia abont 80 m. B. £. from Omn-.
■tata priaoner to BohlQaeelbnTg. In 1766 he berland, its conrse forma an irregnlar cnrre,
received hii freedwn fhHD Paul, and went to first N. E. and then generally B. E., nntil it
Oalkda, where he lired in retirement nntil the reaches the dtj of Waahlngton. Thence Q.ow-
approaoh of Napoleim in 1800, when he was ing B. and B. W., it expands into an estnair
imprisoned a leooiid time, but was released &om S to 8 m, broad, and aftw a ooane of
after a detenticm of a few months. HI. Btak- about SO m. ag^ ohanms to the B. E. for
iSLAw Edstka, brother of thepreoeding, bom abont 70 m. and cntera <A«sapeake ba^ n m.
in 17fi?, died Sept. 14, 1621. He was a man of from the Atlantic, the entira length being
vdent ]>atriotlsm, was one of those who aided nearly 400 m. Its principal tribntarr is the
in framing the oonatiCDlion of Haj 8| Itil, Bhenandoah, which enters it Jnst W. of the
and after the second partition of Poland was Bine ridge. Several other streama, bnt none
arrested b^ order of the Anatrian govemmeut. of oonaderable size, also oontribnte to its vol-
After an unprisonment of several months he nme. Of these the prindpal are the Savage
was set at liberty, and tcom this time devoted and Uooocaoy rivers, and the Oonegoeheagna,
himself to the stadj of the arta, sdancea, and Patterson, Aqnia, and Opichcm crc«ks^ aU of
literature. At the organization of the dnchy which are navigable for mort dlsttDoea. Tb9
of Warsaw in 1807, he retnmed to his native tide eiteods to Georgetown, ISO m. from Ita
land, became assodated in the ministry, and in month, and it is navi^le for ships of tba line
1816 was made minister of pablio instruction, to the city of Washington. Frtaa Ita sonrce to
On aecoont of hia great talenta aa an orator be tide water the river bos a great desoeut. There
was called prine^ eloToaUim. He wrote sev~ are a number of &lla, indnding Honre^ tho
eral works, of which tbe most noticeable are Shenandoah, Seneca, Great, and littk ; and
his treatiae " On Eloquence and Style" (4 vols,, from Westport. to Woabinaton, abont 220 m.,
Warsaw, leie^, and an excellent althongb nn- the difference in its altitude ia 1,160 feet It
finisbed disquurilaon on the " Art of the An- abonnda in beantifiil aoenery, and its passsge
oients" (S vols., Warsaw, 1816), founded on tbe throagb tbe Bke ridge at the jnnction of the
work of Winckahnonn, IV, Jus, a historian, Shenandoah at Harpw'a Fwry ia renowned
bom in 1761, died by his own hand in 181S. as, in tbe langnago of Jefibrson, one of the
HedevotedbimselftoSlaTichistory,aadforthiB most stapendoos sceneein natnre. Thenavi-
purpose studied the various Slavic langnages gation of this river was an early object of st-
and travelled throogh the countries inhabited tention, and by the operations of the Potomac
by that family of nations. Eis chief works company, incorporated by Maryland and Tir-
are: "Travels in Turkey and Egypt in 1784" ^ia in 1784, many improvements wore ef-
(Worsaw, 17881; "Essay on Universal History &cted.
and Inveetigauons in regard to Barmatia" (6 POTOBI, a town of Grant oo^ Wis., on
vols., Warsaw, 1786) ; " Chronidea, Memoirs, Grant river, abont 2 m. fhmi its entrance into
and Researches for tde Preeervatjon of the His- tbe MiseisBippl, 80 m. S. W. from Madison, and
tory of all the Slavic Nations' "(Wersaw, 1798) ; IS m. N. from Dnbnque : pop. in 1860, S,7t9.
"Iravels in Lower Saxony" (Hamburg, 1796); It is ritnated inadeepananorrowTallay inthe
" Blatoiioal and Geographical Fragments iu re- midst of lead mines, Ute prodnots of whh^ fbr-
gord to Soythia, Sannatio, and the Slavi" (4 nishtheprinoipaltradaofthetown.. Itisdivided
vols., Bnmswiok, 1796) ; and "Early History into 6 villagefl/Potosl proper, Yan Bnren, Rock-
of die Rnsdan People" (St. Petersburg, 1803). viUo, British Hollow, and Varaon B^Uetnent.
These works were all written iu French, and POTOBI, a department of Bolivia, bcnmded
are espet^ly important for the materials ool- N. hj Omro and Obnquiaaca, E. by Ghaqoisftca
looted. Only 100 copies of each were printed, and Tot^a, S. by the Argentine confMentlan,
V. ELAtmniA, OonntesB Drialynrita, wife of and W. by Atacama and Fem ; area, 66,600 aq.
Count Bernard Potocki, bom in Eumik near m. ; pop. in 1668, 281,239. The sur&ce is an
Fosen in 1803, died in Guieva, June 8, 1886. elevated table land, mostly nigged and monn-
She hastened to Warsaw when the Polish tainous, being traversed by numerons abnipt
revolution of 1880 broke out, and devoted ridges, which increase in height towatd tbe
herself to the care of the a<k and the woond- Cerro de Potod. This mountain rises to the
ed with an earnestness ukd heroism which at- bei^ of 16,087 feet above tbe sea, and is of
tracted universal admiration. She subsequent- conical form. Tbe Oerro de Porco ia situated
ly went into erile, and after her death her at a little distance to tbe 6. W. of it, and both
countrymen raised a monument to her memory are celebrated for mineral wealth. The oonn-
in Geneva. try is ganerally of volcanic fbrmation, bnt Qie
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOTOBI POTTEB 037
Oarro da Potod is oxnpooed of qiurtsOM Took. preMrred la tli« ume ttata in irUoh the; were
ICore Uian S,000' miuea IiaT« toea wenediD leftbrhim. Sftos Sofun, the &Yorite residence
its Bununit in search of silver ore, ana OMtop of the aame monaroh, lies near the town. It
has been oompletelf honey-combed and ez- is a long low building erected in 1745-'7. It
haosted and the miners foroed to oanrj on ib^ eontaine the apartments ooonpied hj the kiiw
<q>erations lowtx down, where the great qnan- and Voltaire, u well as Frederio's dock, whl£
tity of water lias oompelled tham to abandon was stoNted at the inataat of bia death. .An-
nuay of the riobest veina. The country ia bar- other palaoe in the same groimda was built af>
rea and aterile, aod the chief prodnction is the ter tbe 7 years' war ; and at no great distance
silver obtained from the mines. Between 1S56 is the beaatdful TiUa of Oharlottenhof built In
and leOO the mines of Potosi yielded fQ24,- the Italian style. Other royal reddenoes in
tUi,820. — FoTosi, the oa^iital, is situated on the the neighborhood of Potsdam are the marble
N. elope of the mountam of the same name, polaoe, and the villa on Peacock island in tbe
about K.fiOO feet above the sea, in lat. 19° 86' Havel. Potsdam ia connected by railway wiUi
a, long. 66° 24' W. ; pop. in 1868, 22,860. The Ma^eburg and Berlin. It oocupieaabeautifbl
forronnding country is bleak and barren, and position, and has the advantage of every powl-
tbe atmosphere, ezcaijt where tempered by tbe ble variety of scenery in its ndghborhood. The
son's rays, cold and piercing. It is the second manufactures include cotton, lace, silk, linen,
city of Bolivia, and atone tmie covered a large wool]en,leather, porcelain, ohemioalsnbstaiUMi,
extent of ground, and cont^ned 1SO,000 in- and flreanns.
habitants. Tbe greater part of the town is in POTTER, a N. oo. of Penu., bordering c^
ruins, but tlie central square, which conteioa N. Y. ; tffea, about 1,100 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860,
the government bouse, public offices, a church 11,467. It has an ^evatea and mountaioona
and convent, ia sUU in tolerable repair. The surface, and is drained by the bead waters of
mint b a very lar^e edifioe, and contdns the the Alleghany and tbe Q«iesee, and by several
macbinery which m former times did a vast branches of the Bnsqnebanna, as well as by a
smonnt of work, but the present eslaJ>Ushment number of creeks. Muob of it ia covered by
only coins $3,000,000 annually. There are nu- twe forests, and lumber b largely exported,
tnerona cJinrches, a oolite which aoeonuno- The produt^ons in 1860 were 18,869 bushels
dotes SOO pupils, 4 primary schools, and a few of wheat, 18,663 of Indian com, 80,814 of oats,
others for the use of tbe children of the miners. 8,717 tons of bay, 184,887 lbs. of maple sugar,
The plaza of Ayacnoha was constructed in 23,018 of wool, and 166,677 of butter. There
honor of tbe battle which decided tbe indepen- were 8 grist mills, 60 saw mills, and 1,020 pu-
denoe of South America, and contains a lofty pUs attending public schools. Capital, Oon-
cvliadrioal shaft surmounted by a statue of derroort.
Uberty. Tbe town is fluppUed with water flrom POTTEB. I. Axoino, D.D., LL.D., an
3T tanka, 8 or 10 m. distant, which were con- American clergyman, bishop of tbe Protestant
Oraoted at great expense about 300 years ago. Episcopal ohnrob in Pennsylvania, bom in
All supplies have to De brought from a distance, Beekman (now La Orange), Dutchess oo., N.
as the connt^ in the immediate neighborhood Y., July 10, 1800. He was graduated at Union
ptodnoes noOiini;, and considerable quantities college, N. T., in 181B, became a tutor in the
of various En^ish and French manufactures college in ISIS, snd was elected professor of
ire oonanmed there. matbematics and natural philosophy in 1831.
POTOSI, in Mexioo. 8ee Bait Luis dx Po- Having stndied for the church, be waa ordain-
1091. ed deacon in April, 1831, and priest in Aug.
POTSDAM, a township and village of St. 1834. In 1825 he was elected president of
Ixwrence co., N. Y,, on Backet river ; pop. in Geneva (now Hobart) college, H. Y., but de-
1860, 7,362 ; of the village, 2,423. It is prin- dined the post. He was isvited to the rector-
dpally noted for its extensive quarries of sand* ship of Bt. Paul's ohuTch, Boston, in 1836^
(tone used for flawing and building, much of where he remained till 1881, in which year he
whlcb is sent to Hamilton, 0. W. Abundant became vice-preddent and professor of moral
water power is supplied by tbe Racket river, pbilosopby in Union college. He received tbe
utd aeveral mano&ctories are in operation, degree of D.D. from Harvard and Gombier eol-
The Potsdam and Watertown railroad and its leaes, and in 1646 that of LL.D. from Union ^
conneetions afford communication with all college. Having been chosen bishop of Penn- '
parts <rt tbe state as well as with tbe East and sylvania, be was consecrated Sept. 28, 184S.
West. The township contains a bank, a print- He has published " Tbe Principles of Science
ing office, and 10 churches, viz.; 1 Baptist, 1 applied to tbe Domestic and Mecbanio Arts,"
Catholio Apostolic, 1 Episcopal, 8 Methodist, 3 Ac. (12mo., New York, 1841) ; " Political Econ-
Presbyterian, 1 Roman Catholic, and 1 Uni- omy, its Ohjects, Uses, and Principles oon^-
vMBalist ered" (ISmo., 1611) j "Handbook for Readers
POTBDAU, a town of Pmsaia, ntuated on and Students" (ISmo., 1847); "Discourses,
tbe Havel, which here forms a rauU lake, 17 Charges, Addresses," &o. (12mo., Philadelphia,
m. S. W. from Berlin; pop. in 1640, 89,864. 1868); and, in eo^jnnotion with George B.
It contains a royal pslaoe begun in 1690. Ti " " *"' " ■ ■ . " i . .,... •<
spartments occupied by Frederic the Great ai
Emereon, "Tbe Sohool and Soboolmsster"
(ISmo., New York, 1844). II. Hobatio, D J).,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Uj.D., brother of the preceding, an AmerioKa these casea he brieves that If i&e patient U-rea
olergTinan, bishop of tlie Protestant EpiBcopsI the ganglionie or STtnpethetib B7st«in, after a
ohnrch in the diocese of New York, bom in faw"weekB,B8aameBUiBtftinctionoftbec«rebro-
Beekman, Dotohesa co., N. Y., Feb. 9, 1808. spinal axis which re^olates the processes of as-
His earl/ education was obtained at the acad- similation and nutrition. In a case of ampn-
emy in PougliiieepBie, N, Y, ; he was gradn- tation at the hip jobt reported in the " New
ated at TJnion college in 1826, ordained deacon York Jomnal of Medicine and Coltatcnrsl Bci-
in Jalj, 18ST, and priest the next year. In ences" (June, 18S4), he introdaced a metiiod
182S he waa appointed professor of mathemat- of amputation In snch oases which was at that
ics and natural philosophy in Washington time deemed novel. Proceeding as if for am-
(now Trinity) college, Hartford, Conn., where pntation at the npper third of the femnr by
he spent S years. While in Hartford he was flaps, he extended the eitenial incision np to
Invited by Bishop Uoore to become his assist- the trochanter mqjor, and dissected ont the
ant in ihe Mocnmental chnrch, Richmond, Ya., head of the bone, by this method obt^nlng
hot declined. In ISSS he was called to the among other important advantages a large
rectorship of St. Peter's chnrch, Albany, N. Y. mnscnlar stnmp for an artificial limb. He has
In 1637 ne was elected to the preeidency of repeated the same operation sncoessfnlly sinoe.
Trinity college, Hartford, but declined. He POTTER, Jomr, D.D., an English prelate,
received tJie degree of D J>, from Trinity ool- bom in Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1674, died
lege in 1833; of LL.D. from Geneva college, in 1747. He was the son of a linen dr^ier,
H". T., in 1858 ; and of D.O.L. from the nni- and waa graduated at University college, Ox-
vereity of Oxford in 1660. On the death of ford, in 1099, and in 1664 was chosen fellow
Bishop Wainwright in 1864:, Dr. Potter was of Linoolm college and took orders. He was
chosen provisional bishop of the diocese of known as a scholar very early in life, his edi-
New York, and consecrated Uov. 22, 1854. By tion of I^ntarch's De AtidieiUu PoetU having
the death of Bishop B. T. Onderdonk, April beenpnblished whenhewasonly 19. Hiabest
80, 18S1, he became bishop of the diocese. known work, "AnUqnitles of Greeoe," was pnb-
POTTER, Haubd Arnold, U.D., an Amer- liahed in 1697, when he was !8 years of age.
ioan physician and surgeon, bom in Potter He was made D.D. in 1706, and soon after chf^
township, Ontario, now Yates Co., K Y., Deo. laininordinarytoQneenAnne, andinl708was
31, 1811. He was sradaated M.D. at Bowdoln chosen r^ns professor of divinity and canon
collie in 1836, and begaa the practaoe of his of Ohristohnrdi, Oxford. Seven years later
Srofeasion in Rhode Island, bnt after a red- he became bishop of Oxford, and in 1787 arch-
ence there of a few months retnmed to hia bishop of Canterbury. His theological works
native town. In ISC8 he removed to Geneva, were collected in 8 volnmes (Oxford, 17S3).
K Y., where he enjoys a bi^h reputation as a POTTER, Loms Jonpa Aktoihs db, a letd-
snrgeou and consulting physician. In 184d he er in the Bel^an revolntion of 1880, bom in
trephined the spine for depressed fracture of Bmges, April 86, 1786, died there, July 29, 1859.
the arohes of the Sth and 6th vertebrn, and Ha waa bom of rich and noble parents, spent
has performed the same operation twice since, hisyonth parttyin HtJhmd, partly in Germany,
Hehas performed ligatnre of the carotid artery and lived from 1809 to 1811 in southern France,
S times, 4 times succesefnUy, removed the np- and the 18 foUowins years in Italy, where he
per jaw 8 times and the lower twioe, and sue- devoted himself to the study of church liistor7.
oesflfully removed the 6th rib on the left side In 1834 he retnmed to Bmasels, was one of
tKxa the eternam to within 8 inches of the the bitterest opponents of the king and the
spine, for caries of the bone aocompanied by ministry, and for his free expreaaion of opii^oii
abaocssiutheleftbypoobondriam. Dr. Potter waa aentenoed in 1828 to 18 months' imprison-
wos early convinced of the safety of operations ment and a fine of 1,000 florins. Considered
within liio abdominal cavity, and in 1848 per- by the people as a mar^, be was home in
formed gastrotomy for the relief of intussus- triumph to bis prieon, and there wrote a pam-
oeptiott of the bowels with perfect snccess. pblet on " The Union of the Cstholice and the
He has removed fibrous tumors of the ntems Libert" For other publications of a revoln-
from within the abdominal cavity 5 times, and tionary charaoter he was tried on a charge of
eoccessfully in 8 cases. He has extirpated by high treason, and In April, 1830, was Genteooed
ovariotomy 8 ovariMi tmnora, S of them sno- to 8 years' banishment. After the French revo-
oeesfnlly, and in one of the snocessful cases InlJon of Jnly he took op his residence in Paris.
both ovaries were removed at the same time, and from there addressed a letter to tlie king
In another case, also Baooessfol, the operation of the Netherlands, adrlriiu; him to cuistitute
was repeated upon the same patient twioe with Belgium a separate state. Upon the breaking
an interval of IT months ; each time the tn- ont of the Belgian revolution in September he
mor and its contents weighed nearly 80 pounds, returned to Bmaaela, where he was reeeived in
Dr. Potter was also one of the first sn^eons triumph and made a member of the provisdonal
who called attention to the presence of arterial government. He favored the MtabHsbnient of
or bright red blood in the veins of the parts a republio, but was opposed by his coUeagncA
paralyied by depressed fracture of the cervical and defeated by a large m^iority in the na^ul
vertebm, which he first observed in 1887. In congress. After the dissdution of the provi-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^[e
POTTEH POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 629
■ionsl govenunent he vaa obliged to flee to nian rains &re often preserved hierog1n>liice
iVance, aad took no fortlier part in political (see Ookbitobu Inboriptionb) of no little his-
affoits. The most important of his numerous torical Interest; and npoQ the walls of the
works is his " History of Christiaiuty" (8 vols., tombs in ^ypt ore pictured the varions pro-
Paris, 1836-'7). cesses employed in the production of the earth-
POTTER, Pavl, a Datch painter, born in enware ntensils. These, though rudely con-
EnkhnjBen in 16S£, died in Amsterdam, Jan, dncted, were similar in principle to themethods
16, 16M. He was instructed in his art by his nowinuso — the potters' wheel, which is also nl-
fkther, Peter Potter, aa artist of moderate ladedtoin thoOld Testament, beingrepreaent-
ability, aad aa early aa his 16th year had so ed, es well as a farnace in which the articles
great a reputation for his cattle pieces, that he were baked. These articles were of ^at va.-
conld with diffioolty sapplythe demands of his rioty, some being intended for domestic, some
patrons. He exoelled all contemporary artists for religions, and some for funereal purposes.
m the painting of oows, sheep, goate, and other Those of each nation possess a dlstinctire cbar-
doinestio animals, whioh he inyarishly studied acter, while a general resemblance is peroeived
from the life, making the landscape and other in their qnality and uses. Among the Egyp-
parts of the picture subordinate to them. Some tians vases or jars appear to have been thepre-
crf' hia beet works were executed for Frederic v^Ling ntensilH for a great variety of purposes,
Henry, prince of Orange, who had a high ad- and in eastern countries they are still employed
miralaon of his genius. He was ardently de- in the place of nomerous wooden and metallic
voted to hia art, and found his chief relazalioa vessels and baskets of more advanced nations.
from the labors of the stndioin sketching from These were of all sizes, from several feet in
nature during his walks iuthefields. Ezoesalve height down to scarcely anineh, and varioosly
applicaiion undermined a naturally delicate shaped to suit the purposes required. Some
constitution, and he died at the age of 29 in the were water jars witli wide net^ and some
very matnrity of his powers. His best pictnrea with contracted throats iiimished with spouts,
are of small size, exhibiting ezqniHite finish, Wine, oil, honey, milk, dmgs, ointments, grun,
a free handling, and brilliant effects of snn- and nomerons other articles had their pecullar-
Elune ; but some are painted of the size of life, shaped vases or jars, and the several tradesmen
Of the latter class a notable example is the ana artificers employed vessels specially adapt-,
picture known as the " Yonng^BuQ^" now in ed to their uses. Thus, to this ancient people
the mnsenm of the Hague. Of hia cabmet-sized earthenware was obvionsly of &r greater Jni'
pictures one of the finest is a landscape with portance than it is to us. Uany articles were
catde and ^ures in the possession of the mar- loigely manufactured and esteemed by them of
quia of Westminster, imother Dictnre repre- great value, which have long wnee ceased to be
Benting4ozeninameadow, whicnsoldinlTCO used. Such are those employed iu their tu-
tor £26, was bODgbt in 1815 by the emperor of nereal and religious rites ; vases for the mum-
EoBsift for £2,800. Uony similar instances of mies of the sacred ibis and other animals, and
an advance in the value of his works are re- others fbr contuning theportionsof the human
eorded. Ho executed some admirable etchings, bodies removed in the prooess of embalming ;
POTTERS' CIAT. See Olat. models of mummy cases kept by ondertakers
POTTERY AHDpORCELAUr.bakedearthen- to show to the friends of the deceased, as de-
ware, the former opaque and of coarse quality, scribed by Herodotus; thabti or sepulchral
the latter translucent and of fine quality. The mummy-like figures to be deposited with the
name pottery is said to bo derived from the deceased in the tomb ; and singular conical-
low Latin potut, a pot, uid poroelsin is sup- sbtqied sepulchral ornaments, upon which, aa
posed to be from the Italian p^Mf£ana,adrink- upon iJiesAoiti were inscribed various legends
ing cnp. The manufacture is often called the relating to the dead, or of more general inter-
ceramio art (Gr. «pa/ioc, potters' earth), and its est The tombs were the receptaclesof amul-
prodncts fictile ware (Lat.jin^o, to form). The titude of articles supposed to have been de-
bshioning of various utensils in clay and bak- posited for the nse of the deceased in the ^ture
ing them either in the son or by &ie has been li&. All these were made in terra cotta or un-
practised from the remotest periods, and by the glazed common ware, and the color was red ;
ancient £^;jptiauB the art was attributed to the their date goes back as far as the 8d and 4th
gods, showing that ila date preceded their ree- dynasties, or from 2,000 to 8,000 years B. C.
ords. Frequent allnsions are made to it u the Some of the finer articles appear to have been
Old Testament, and the relice found among polished by some mechanical process. Glazed
the mins of different eastern countries show ware was in use in the Sth dynasty ; the glaze
that the manufiu:ture was practised among appearsto havebeenformed of pulverized silex
nations widely separated from each other by and soda and colored by varions metallic ox-
religiou, manners, and laws. Indeed it is to ides; the blue tint discovered and used at this
BocS fragile memorials of the past that we are early period retains its lustre to the present
indebted for much of the knowledge we have time, and is nnsnrpaseed by the productions
of the history, customs, and superstitiouB of the of modern art. Beside these were numerons
ancients. Upon the brioka ana articles of pot- articles worn for ornament, as beads, amulets.
tery found in Egyptian, AsqTian, and Bal^lo- &o., which from the nombera preserved must
vol- xni.--34
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
B80 FOTTERY AND POBGELAQT
have bMD mamflBcbired in wonderM pro- wme of the dtiee in gnat BbnadaiKW. niMt
ftiaion. The apewuens of AwTrittn pol^r; and the Krchitectnral onumenta were painted
that bare been preserred are for the most in appropriate colors bj ortiBta spedallj devot-
part bricks and inscribed tiles, ojUadera, and ed to tlus object. Lamps of a fine paste, of
prisms. These were used aa tablets for preaerr- delicate oonstmctioD and bearing inscr^itioos,
ing the records of the Assyrian kings, and in are fomid, and those th^ may be referred to
their reigns eonstitnted with other ainular the period of the Boman dominion are \6rj
doomnents the libraries and the archives of iiDmerouB. Vases, called amphorm, osually ctf
the monarchs. Glaidng and enamelling the cvUndrical or egg sh^>e, were luUTere^; em-
snrface of bricks, tiles, and other articles of ployed for the storing and transportation <^
eiulbenware, were practised by the Aasfrians, oil and of other commodilaee, aa also for differ-
bat not with the skill of the EgTpUans. The ent domestic purposes ; and op<m thurhandlea
Babylonian r^cs of this class are similar to were stamped trade marks and other devices.
tiicse of Assyria. Bass-reliefs in terra cotta Ornamental vases also of remarkably fraceftil
a pear to have been more common, and gener- forma are very nmaeroos, imitating the figures
y produced in moolds; they represent fignrea nf aninmlaj ImMlaiif Rannh)mfa«, Am ^ wi^f highly
of men and animals, and some of great inter- decorated with figores in relief, and with elsh-
eet for the artistic ezecntion have been model- orate coloring. In many of them the colore
led by hand. Large images were made in clay are protected and their brilliancy increaaed by
and covered with brass or bronze ; to such al- a transparent gliue, composed of an alk^
losion is made in the book of DanieL The sUei, alnmina, oxide of iron, and lime, in pro-
golden idols were probably formed of clay npon portdoDB not milike those fonnd in Tolcanio
the potten' wheel and overlaid with gold, ashea, thus snggesdng that these mw have beoi
Ooatings of this metal and of eUver were ap- spread over the snrface and fbsed The ceramic
Elied not only to such objects, bnt to the biioks art declined in Greece from the 3d oeotoiy B. 0.
itended for the principu edifices. — In Eorope The introdnction by Alexander the Great of
the most ancient pottery worthy of notice was vases made of the precioos metals led to their
that of the Etroscans. As far back as the ?th sobatitDtion for the better varieties of fictile
and Bth centuries B. O. their vases, of a coarse vases. Those of metal soon became c<»nmon
dark brown ware, in great variety of sizea, in Sparta ; in the 1st centnry B. O. they bad
adorned with figures in relief, were fabricated entirely superseded thoee of earthenware, so
in forms of such perfection and beanty aa to en- that in the time of Augnstos the latter were
tiUe them to the rank of worlu of art. In the antiqne cnriositJes. The finest q>ecimens of
prodactions from the Gth centnry B. C. the effect Greek vases, among which are many elaborately
of intercourse with the Greeks is perceived in ornsmented with pictorial devices representing
the change from the native style to imitations of scenes of historical or mytholo^csl character,
the Hellenic. The Etruscan relics of this class are foand in Etmria, and were the work of
are chiefly vases of black, brown, red, and jel- Gretuan artists removed thither, or of Etrnscan
low terra cotta; and they owe their preserva- artists edooated in Greece. Some of umilar
tion to the same cnstom as that of the eastern character ore also fonnd in central and southern
nations of that period of interring these articles Italy. Beantifal examples of these are pre-
in the sepalchres with the remains of the dead, served inthe British mnsemnandin the mnseom
The sarcophagi themselves were constmcted of of practical geology in London. — Pottery was
slabs of pottery, and two of them preserved in applied by the ancient Bomans to tbeoonstmc-
the British rausenm are elaborately ornamented bou of atatnes and architectural ornaments ;
on the sides and ends with bass-reliefs, and on and when marble and bronse were at lat«t
the covers with ftill-Iength effigies of Etruscan periods snbetitDted for it by scnlptora, the mod*
females. A vase, also in the mnsenm, is a els were still made in terra cotta. A great va-
model of on ancient Etruscan cottage, with a riety of articles for domestic purposes made of
movable door and a vaulted roof imitating the thia material are enumerated by Birch in his
wooden rofrers. This probably contained the " History of Andent Pottery" (Xondon, 18GS).
ashes of some distiognished person, and being Toses, aa with the eastern nations, were stm
placed in another large two-nandled vase, the the most nomerons and nsefnl prodnots of this
whole was buried in the earth. — The pottery art. In general they were made with less re-
mann&ctnre was quite as important in Greece gard to beauty of form and ornament than to
from the Sth to the Sd centnry B. 0. as in any the purposes for which they were detdgned ;
of the other countries named ; and it indodcd and they are conseqoentiy &r inferior to the
even a ^p«ater variety of artides which were Gredan manu&ctnre of the same period. The
finished m higher styles of art. At Athens and finest ware is that known as the Bantion or
other cities of Greece there were at times ex- Aretine, of the potteries of Samoa and Aretium,
hibitions of these prodnctJcau, by which a spirit now Arezzo, in Tuscany. The latter was pro-
of competition wasinoited. Most of the relics dnced fh)m the 1st to the Sdoentarr A. D.,and
now preserved are those that were depodted in was widely scattered throu^oot die colonies
the tombs, chiefly vases ; among other artides established by the Eomans. Even in Britain
small terra cotta flgnrea, resembling modem relics of it have been fbnnd in considerable
plaster oasts, have been found near the sites of quantity at the stations occupied by the Bo-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POTTEBT AST) POROELADT 681
mans. Tlie wore is remarkable for the rich mora than S eentariee have ei^ored the ape-
red color of Its paste tike that of sealing wax, cial patronage of the emperors, 9,000 fUnnaces
and for the thorough and admirahle manner in are nov in constant operation. Among the
which It must have been worked. The color ohoioest productions are the vases known as
botli of the paste and glaze was derived from "crackle," the glazing of which is covered
oxide of iron. The articles are t^in and deli- with a network of fine cracks produced b;
cate, and wherever found are remsrkablr ftlike sodden chilling at a certain stage of the hairing,
in form, atraotnre, and stfle of ornamentation. Beina then washed over with a colored glaze,
Thef were evidently highlj valned, as frag- which is sometimes mby red, the cracks are
meats bave been foond neatly riveted together filled with it, prodndng a beantifnl efiect. In
with lead. Bowls were the most beantiAil and another variety the color is hronght ont only
celebrated of these articles, and npon their ex- when the vessel is filled with a liquid. This
temal Bnrface are seen arabesques and pictorial is effected by p^ting the dedgn on the inner
UlnatrationB of the religious habits and onstoms surface of a very thin cup, and washing over
of the people. These are sometimes moulded this more of the paste, so that the figures are
in reli^, and sometimes impressed in intaglio enclosed between two snrfiiioeB. The outer snr-
from a stamp of the figure in relief. Buch face after the baking is ground nearly to the
stomps have been fonnd tt^ether with the colored fignres and is then glased. The liquid
modelling tools, s^les, pnnohes, and other artt- acts as a ftil to bring tie desi^ into view. In
cles employed. — little is known of the early another the design is plainly vwbleiqton a per-
pottery roannflsctnre of the East. The Chinese feotly smooth snrface of pore white ; an effect
aicribe its invention to the emperor Hoang-ti, produced by impresmng the design from a
S700 B. O., and the first production of porce- mould in relief and then restoring the smooth-
lain tbey fix in the Han dynasty, about 18S neas by a thick glaze of fine consistence. The
B. 0. Common pottery is manofactored to an egg-shell ware is very ancient and celebrated,
immenae extent for the requirements of the Onps, Jars, vases, &e., are made of this, so thin
hnmbler classes, and earthenware vessels of and d^lcate as to be almost transparent. At
very lar^ size are employed by wealthy Ohl- one time in the 16fh oentniy it was produced
nese as reservoirs for gold Sib and aquatic as thin as bamboo paper. It is sometimes
C' its, and for storing grain, &o. ; but porce- pnre white, sometimes of cream color, and
has extensively supplanted it as an article ag^n of an exquisite shade of blue derived
of export. Forcel^ is used not merely for do- from oobalt The chief domestic sources of
mestic uten^ but also for dabs and tiles, with this color were exhausted in 1600, aud since
which costly edifices are coated. Such was the that time the Ohinese have procured their best
famona pagoda of Nankin, destroyed in 1866. cobalt from Europe, principally from England.
Marco Polo, in the latter part of Uie 18th ceo- The porcelain manufacture of Japan is of simi-
tnry, was struckwith the extent of the porcelain lar excellence to that of China, and is supposed
mann&cture in China, and the extraordinary to be nearly as ancient. — Upon the American
cheapness of the ware, B cups of which could continent the manufacture of pottery is also
be parchased for a Venetian groat. The finest traced back to remote periods, and the produo*
articles were not exported, and great care was tions of some of the South and Central Ameri-
taken to prevent strangers from learning the can aborigines and of the " mound builders'*
mocesses of mannfacture. The French Jesuit of the West are particnlarly interesting. The
D'Entrecolles was the first person permitted to works of the ancient Peruvians that BtuI exist
witness these, and from what he saw and learn- testify to a high degree of skill as attained by
ed from Chinese books on the subject he was their potters, and the varied uses which the
eoabled to send to France in 1712, from a seat articles in pottery served. Drinking vessels
of the manu&ctnre at Jao-toheou, such an and fiasks appear to have been the most com-
acconnt of the operations that, idded by the mon productions, and the latter were frequents
specimens of the two most important mate- ly provided with two necks, a characteristic of
rials, iUso sent, Reaumur succeeded in learn- sucn vessels among both the ancient and mod-
mg the true character of the ware and how em potters of South America. The past« is
it might be made in France when Holtable ma- nsnally red or yellow, and ornamented with
terials should be discovered. Buch ware was figures in black, red, white, and yellow. Many
afterward produced In the Sdvres porcelain, of the flasks are beautifiilly formed with long
The histoncal (hct8 above cited relative to delicate necks, and others are heads of animals,
the manufacture of porcelain in China are as the jagnar. Others have the forms of birds
from the work of M. Stanislas Jnlien, an and of some of the native fruits. InTareoasea
eminent Chinese scholar, who published in the human face is seen in relief on their enr-
IBS6 in Paris a translation of a Ohinese work face, and some are true vase busts. A flgnre
on the history of the porcelain of King-te- of a drinking vessel ^ven by Ewbank in his
chin, to which he added an elaborate preface " Life in Br^il, " about 9 ^ohes in height,
and notes from other sources. From this ac- is ahead of theoelebratedcaclque Rnminhauy,
count it appears that there are at least 56 es- and probably oorrectiy represents his appear-
tablishments devoted to the manufacture ; and tnce, as it introdnces particular marks, such as
at tiie great works of Ejug-te-ohin, which for the loss of a tooth and a wonnd In the cheek.
U.gmzoQbyGOO^le
682 * POTTEET AND POEOELAIN"
Th« pott«i7 now made bj the PeravUn In- some were el&borat«l7 finisbed if no^tasteftillj
diansia ftv inferior ia qoalitj and form to that wvamested with dots and lines, evidentlymade
of aaoieat times. Some peculiar forms com- with a pointed eCick or bone in the material
man to the ancient wares Ewbank est«ems when soft. — Few among the most sarage utt-
worthy of iioitation, anch as the doulile-neoked tiona ere so low in intemgence as not to bare
" monkey" or jng oommon in Brazil, one small manifeated more or tees aldll in the maanfac-
neck being deidgned for admitting ur, while tore of pottery wares of some sort. Some
the liquid is poured out from the larger one, have not attained the art of bsMng their pro-
Ce states that the prodnction of crockery in dnctions in the fire, bat merely dry them in the
Brazil ia enormoos, and that cargoes of boats bus. Pidcering states that the Fe^eeans pro-
are freqnently seen almost entirely composed duoe articles of large size and of nniforro shape
of the talhat or large water vessels. These are and dimensionB, and glaze them with the resin
made of a lighfTed porons clay, are nnglazed, of a tree. — After the decline of the Roman
and hold (rom 10 to Ifi gallons each. The empire pottery as a dccomtive art was lost in
wares of Bahia are mnch eaperior to those of Europe. The Arabs introduced it into Spain
Rio. The rains of Central America have for- on their oosqueet of that conntir in the early
nished earthen Tessels well baked, ornamented part of the 8th century, and also into Sicily in
with different colore, and covered with a vit- the next centnry. Their prodnctions were ft»
reoQs glaze such as was unknown in Enrope the most part tiles for pavements and for the
fbr many centuries after their probable date, decoration of the walla of bnildin^^ a branch
The Mericana also had early attained ahigh of the artin whiohthByezcel]ed,gi\ing to the
degree of perfection in their pottery. That of slabs a yellowish white enamel of high lustre,
the Cholulana, according to Herrera, was ex- and ornamenting them with elaborate designs
tremely delicate, rivalling in beaoty the Flor- in gorgeous colors, yet harmoniously blended,
entine mannfactnre ; and that of the Tlascalans representing, with sorolla, arabesqaes, and in-
WBS ansnrpassed in its excellent qnalitiea by scriptions ^ oriental origin, figures of birda
any m Europe. About the ruins of New Mex- and other animals of the country, and oo-
ico and Chihuahua rehca of these ancient wares oasionally the local coat of arms. With such
are fonnd in the greatest abundance. For miles tUes they adorned the Alhamhrs, and in Si-
around certain ruins in the country of the Fi- cily the great mosque at Palermo. Into It-
mos Indians the surface is found strewn with aly also the manufacture gradually spread,
broken pottery of fine quality. The colors are and by the 14th century the art was there im-
red, block, and white, and many of the articles proved as well by nalive inventions as by the
are painted on the inside, vhUe modern Indian mtrodnction of Grecian processes from Byznn-
and Mexican wares are punted on the out- tinm. In Peearo at this period was practised
side. Amoiw the relics found In the western what may be regarded as the basis of the cele-
monnds by Messrs. Sqnier and Dayia, and de- brated M^olica ware, the overlaying of an
scribed in the Ist volume of the Smithsonian opaque white surface upon the common pot-
" Contributions to Knowledge," are very cu- tery groundwork. This foundation being par-
rious and interesting specimens of pottery, tially baked, it was covered by immersion with
Some of these were earthenware pipe bowls a thin coating of a pure white clay, with which
moulded in clay in the form of various ani' were intermixed oxides of lead and tin. The
mals and birds, some of which are not found baking was then completed in tite kiln. This
nearer than the gulf of Mexico; others were style wasgreaUyperfbctedbythesklU and genius
of the form of the human head and very skil- of the Rohbias, uncle and nephew,of Florence,
fdlly executed ; but the heat pipes were mostly For two centuries the finest works in pottery ia
carved in stone. The vasee from the monnda EnropewereofMqjolica ware, characterized by
were well executed, thm, and handsomely or- its peculiar lustrous enamel, and named it ia
namented. Some of the finest from Ohio are supposed from the island of Majorca, where
dark brown and highly polished: those from similar work had been produced by the Moors.
the southern mounds are coarser. Most of them The grMtest variety of utensils were made of
appear to have been merely hardened over a it, and in their ornamentation were employed
fire, not horned in a kihi. In his account of the designs of the most diatinguiahed artists,
the " Ahorigmal Monuments of New York" To such extent was this carriea that the ard-
(" Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," oles came to be prized only for their decora-
vol. ii.) Mr. Squier remarks npon the great tions, and theu? utility waa lost sight of. Urbi-
profiision of fragments found upon the site of no, Gnhbio, Castel-Durante, and Faenza were
every Indian town in that state and the rarity places eq)eciaUy famous for this ware, and the
of entire vessels. The ahape of the articles term/ay«nMby whichalso itisdesignatedwas'
waa like that of a gonrd, the bottoms round- probably derived from the last named «ty. In
ed, rarely flat, and protuberances or a groove the 16th century this class of pottery mannfao-
around the vessel were supposed to be made tnre was introduced into Nuremberg in Ger-
to facilitate their bemg sn^ended by a cord, many and Nevers in France, and was also prac-
The oapadty of the vessels was from one to tised with great success at Saintes by Pslissy
four quarts, but some of them were much " Uie Potter," whose colored enamels were pro-
larger. They were generally very plain, though dnoed npon a tin glaze. But in both France
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FOTTEBT MTD FOBCEELAIN - 68S
and G«niia]i7 otlier stflee of enamelled pot- In 16S0 Bnralem In this district was noted for
teiy had been mannfaotored for eome oentn- its various ficUle productions, and Ifewcastle-
Ti«a prerioUBlj. The Dutch have been fsmona nnder-Lyme for ita maniifBctare of tobacoo
from the ISth c«ntury for their glazed colored ^pea. Bait glazing waa discovered here in
tUea and other pottery prodnced at DeUl and 1680. In 17B0 Joaiah Wedgwood was bom at
its vioioilj. From that period thej continued BnrBlem, and 80 years aflierward he hod pro-
to be largely introduced into England for dnced spedmena of the pecnliar cream-colored
chnrt^ee and ezpenaive maneioos; and in the ware, which bj permission of Queen Charlotte
Ifith c«ntQry their dishes for dinner service he was alloved to designate "qneen'a ware,"
vera well known thronghont Europe. The and which soon came to be applied to a
Dutch in their omomentel designs appear to gfoat variety of articles. (See Bisonr, and
have copied the old porcelain of Ja^wn, with Wedswood.) By means of his chemical ao-
whioh they were early acquainted. — Ohineae quirementsandextraordinaryskillheBncceeded
porcelain via imported into Europe hj the in imitating in porcelain famous cameos and '
Portngnese in the early part of the 16th con- antiqnea in pmnous stones, aa seals, and hie
tniT. and waa known as ohina. The Dnt«h artificial jaspers were wonderM faoahniles of
and English afterward brought the ware fi'om tho natnral mineral. Hia imitations of the fo-
tfae East, and as it became known every at- mous Portland vase, of which he produced 60
tempt waa made to asoertoin the secret of ita copies, were bardl; snrpaased in beauty b; the
beautiful transluoenoy and to produce the some original it8el£ In 18C2 the Staffordshire pot-
ware in European coantries. BOttoher, an teries comprised 188 establishments, which gave
apothecary's assistant at Berlin, a refiigee in emplo^rmeut to more than 60,000 persona. All
E^ony on aoconnt of bis reputation aa an al- branches of the art are there earned on, indud-
chemist, first discovered the nature of the ma- ing the production in the ancient aCjIe of in-
terial, and soooeeded in producing in 1709 a laid tiles andmoulded architectural terra cotta.
genuine white porcelain of natnral olays with- The "statuary Parian" or "Oarrara biscuit"
out metaUio flnsea. The elector Frederic Au- ware, for statuettes and other objects, was in-
guBtua waa so much pleased with it, that he vented there in 18*5. In these potteries were
established a mannfactory at Ueissen of which consumed in 1B66 about 760,000 tons of coal ;
BOttcher waa mode director. Inthiagoodporce- the value of the gold used for the ornamento-
Un was produced in 171S &om the kaolin of tion of the articTea was about $260,000. In
Ane in the Erzgebirge. Such was the origin 1869 the monn&ctnred ware sent out of the
of the porcelain works of Dresden, from which d^idct amounted to over 110,000 tons, which,
the art extended to Vienna and Berlin, where at the average value of £26 per ton, was worth
were fbnnded in ITBO and 1751, respectively, J2,600,000. A very l&tm proportion of the
the works in which the famous wares of those exports are to the United States. — In the
places have since been prodnced. The experi- United States, anch is the eheapnesg and the
ments of Reaumur, alreadj referred to, resulted excellence of the imported potterj, the monn-
tn the invention of a compound of earths and ftcture baa made little progress, notwithatand-
dnxes, which when partialtj melWd in the fire ing good niat«riala for different aorta of ware
formed a material resembling porcelain, and are sufficiently abundant. Small establish-
known 09 soft porcehuu. Worka for manu&o- ments for the production of the commoner sorts
tnriug the ware were established in 1786 at of eartbenwore have long been in operation in
Ohantflly, and 10 years later at Vinoennea. In nearly all the states, and some have engaged in
1754 by royal sanction the works were re- the manufacture of atone or white ware. At
moved to SSvrea, where after 1769 they were the Jersey City potteriea porcelain waa made
supplied with true kaolin (see Olat), and also in 1816, and again at an establishment in Phila-
with the feldspar or petunae which hod been di»- delphia, which closed in 1 836 ; and at a pottery
covered with it near Limoges. Porcelain was at Liverpool, Ohio, a small amount of the "Pa-
made in England in the middle of the last cen- nan" ware has been produced. The Jersey
tnry, first at Ohelsea under the patronage of Olty works are now engaged in the monufao-
George 11. and the duke of Oumberlan^ also tnre of the cream-colored or " 00" ware, the
at Stratford le Bow, Derby, Plymouth, Wor- olays for which are obtained from the r^on
cester, and other places. The works at Wor- of npner secondary rocks about Amboy. In
ceeter, patronized by Oeorge HI., have been New York city and Brooklyn several potteries
styled since 1786 the royal porcelain works, are in operation. Two at Greenpoint, Brook-
Theyhave continued in operation to the prea- lyn,proanoeporoelainof fUrqnohty. TheNew
ent time, and their productiona have been York city potteries in 18th street ore largdy
fitmons for their beaotifol translucenay and engaged in the manufacture of the common
the rich variety of their colored and gilded oream-colored, dipped, and white granite wares,
decorations. EKaffbrdshire is also an impor- employing about 100 workmen aad ptodu<»ng
tant seat of th« porcelain numn&otnre. There about $76,000 worth per annum. The blu«
also are the most estenrive potteries in £ng- clay used at these works is trom Woodbridge^
land, established upon the same spots that N. J. ; china clay from England and Delaware^
were occupied for similar purposes by the pot- and some from South Carolina ; and the feld-
ters of the period of the Soman occupation, spar is from Uiddletown, Oons. The oonuuiHi
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
6M • POriEBT AND POBOSLUN
silt-glaEed and red iraru are made in aereral oompOied of finer materiala moM caniaJlj et-
other potteries in the citj. The other moBt im.' lected, ooataioioff no iogredient used as a flus,
portant potteries in the United States are at the raaBs white, hard, and sonoroua, of earthy
TroDtoa and Perth Amboj, N. J., East Liver- fraotnre, and oovered with aoTstal glaze con-
pool and ZanesTille, Ohio, and East Feoria, BL taiuing lead or borax. Delft ware is an infe-
At Bennington, Vt, there was also a large ee- rior variety, formed chiefly of potters' day and
taUishmeut, recently stopped. Ooarse potteir marL 8. Stoneware, fine and conunon-the for-
iu large qnaulitEes has been for eome time man- mer inclnding the Wedgwood wares. They dtf-
n&otnrea at Hamburg, 6. 0> The imports of for from fine earthenware by the use of Cornish
pottery of all kinds into the United States dnr< stone as a flux, the heat employed in firing be-
mg the year ending Jsne SO, 18GB, amonnted in^ snfBoient to partly fuse it; and from porce-
to t3,48If,082, of which |2,6C6,770 was from lain by the almost entire abseoce of traasln-
England and ^QD,OSO from France. — ^e fol- oenoy. TSa glfljing mixture is applied to ihem,
lowing table presents the order of the intro- bnt sometimes a ^aze is otherwise prodnced.
duction of the Beveral sorts of pottery in diSnz- Common stoneware is produced at a higher
ent countries : temperature and by a simpler process. It ia
dense and yitreous enough not to require glaz-
ing, bnt thia ia sometimee done by throwing
_^ ^ ^ ^ Baft into the Idln, which vaporizes and forma
iKit-<^ibaa^6nnUnS[pMtrj. with the silioa a soda salt. It is of Tariooa
•w^S'.'b^^iS^'' "*"' ^ ™" ''"^ "^'"'^ »«t°«J oolotti. or others are imparted to it br
ns— Coil(«*<tfpott<Binititgt»db7N[tDw. external applications. 4. Porcelain, the hard,
Sit^M^^SiMoStrnMB traoBlnoent varietr, prepared of carefully selects
Baib»th>ChrtatiiD*nt,biitorDB«ttiiad*t«,*»ttt«CF«ii- ^ kaolin and pulTerized quartz and feldspar,
t>h,OtiIs, Bratini, Q«mu, ud BeudluTlBn pottaty. and covered withagltue of similar composition,
1 ».■_ I J... .1. . ..J.., ,. .i|j jj,^ ^^^ somewhat more forible than the mass, with
which it becomes intimately ineorpor&ted at
Wto^W^^w^ G^^n Dottorr *^^ ^'^t temperature employed in fiie baking.
Til tn TB»— Tiniihtd Arab pgtteiy. ^^^' The tme hard porcelains are distininushed for
il»;3^»ai^. their infowbility. The so called soft or tender
W^LMOradUniAL^ porcelain formerly produced at Sivres is not of
UU-Looi dalb Bobbia NHoDBDed Ikrimm. the nature of pottery, bnt more like glass, into
iSn.?inS!S;:*Sif ^ "^ *^° "**'™i^ ^""t** which it would melt at the high heat at which
UU ta ino—Bunnd Ptlliay (unullad IkfaiiM nd Ddit tme porcolam IS baked. It contains no clay, but
''*»- b composed of fusible mixtures of silica and
alkaline and earthy fiuxes, covered with a lead
INB— Freuah ttnin p<iicel>lii,0|M mumlkctiiio tolerably
ITOS— Battcbsr nuda porolita In Buoiit, whence the art glaze of harder conusteuce than the mass, but
i«n-?^*ii„7!LSf.'S^i^Sff«'*""- softer than true poroelaio. TTie term soft,
ITw— KngUin One urtbcmrarv with mnt. , , ■ . , ^ ^ ^-i a-
1741— Fnneh tendu pornliin, •Kond nuiiti&ctim, nrj however, has prmcipsl reference to the readi-
,,_ *••■,, ... , , ness with which the material boftens in the fire.
"SlwSC^ftJe'^^w.ra. The English tender porcelain ia also a very
iTTi— SiTTOihudpaTceiiiiL fusihle mixture, containing a large proportion
boraoie add iBErodDoed. and borax, Ooniiah granite and kaolin, how-
lB80--Fi»BwttBn*iir8b™ii^ttoTi^^Mi, intwdnoUoa ever, form its basis. The bone ash, composed
ofk«u,.iutothe i«t«.»dh.«ie.dngrfth.«i«.. ^ pkoephate of lime, carbonate rfiime,Zla
— The articles included in the term pottery are little magneda, makes an exceUent flax ; and
of a great variety of composition as well aa of the phoBphorio acid in baking diffiiaee itself
figure and uses. Bricks and tiles (described in through all the materials, uuituig them into a
this work under their own names) are examples translucent enamel, which has little tendency
of the coarsest wares ; and from tiiese there b a to lose its form by shrinking. This is the only
regular gradation, commencing with the com- kind of porcel^ m^ in England, for tha
mon red earthenware through the varietiea of reason chiefly that suitable "seggars" for hold-
stoneware, to the differwt sorts of porcelmn. ingtiiearticles in the kiln, and capable of with-
These varieties are too numerous to be partion- standing the intense heat required for produo-
larly desi^ated in this article. The fojlowiiw ing the hard porcelain, cannot he cheaply
general divisions may be recognized: 1, Son enough obtmed. — The preparation of the«Q
pottery, including the wares oi open, porous varietiee of pott«ry depends upon a multitude
structur^ comp<ffied of natural mixtnrea of of miitnres of olays, pulverized quartz or flints,
sands and olays, or of the latter artificially tem- and feldspar, and sometime of coloring mat«-
pered with sand, always colored, usually fired rials for the mass or body, beeide numerous
at a moderate temperatore, and either glazed or glazes more or less oomplioated in their com-
not. The texture is usually not homogeneous, position. The enameJs and various et^lea of
These wares are bricks, tiles, drain pipes, ohim- omamantation add largely to the range of the
ney pots, Hessian orneihles, and a great variety snljeot ; and bnt few of the topics embraced in
<of ordinary red pottery. 3, Pine earthenware, it can he particularly noticed. At the Stafiord-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POTTSBT AND FOBOELADr .
dtlre pottcriM th« oUja and other materiib
are flirnishedflximdi&breiitpftilaof Oreat Brtt-
Ain, the firo olayB ooming from th« «»] mew-
ores in the vidni^ of the woA& the kaoha
and Ooniish stone from Comffall, and flints
and oballc from the ohalk formation at Graves-
end and Kew Heren. Common plastic claj
also is obtuned from difibrent Boaroeii, and ste-
atite or so^tstone is hronght to be introduced
into the mixtnrei. For CQe porcelain and fine
eaitlienirares the materiab ere redooed to fine
powder and raioosl^ mixed to form the paste
for the eereral Tarienes of these irares. The
▼itreons ingredients are eomettmes calcined to
form a frit, vhioh ia mixed with the mass.
8noh miztores for the t«nder porcelain are as
foUoirs : bone ash 600 parts, kaolin 800, Oom-
iah atone 800, frit 40— the Isist being composed
of 100 parts of bone ash, SO of sand, and 7 of
pearlaah. Sometime^ la in the case of table
vare, all the ingredients are mixed without
calcisSng, in the following proportions: bone
ash 4fi0, Cornish stone 300, kaolin 160, bine
day 45. Articles of saoh composition, after
havfaig been once fired for aboat 48 honrs at a
Tery nifh temperature, are converted into a
porooB biMniit, which for most purposes re-
qnirea an exterior glaze to render the ware im-
perrioos to liqntds. A yariety of preparations
are in nse for this purpose, mixtures of some
of the following ingredients : silex, feldspar,
gTpsum, carbonate of lime, borax, boraoio add,
oommoa salt, potash, soda, and oxide of lead.
Colors are given bj the addition of the ozides
of manKsnese, cobalt, iron, copper, ohromlum,
Ac: while opaque glazes or enamels are formed
by introdndng oxide of tin or phosphate of
Ume. The glaie made into a paste is appUed
upon the surface of the biscuit, and this is re-
heated at a less temperature (in England) and
for ashorterperiod manintbo flretflring. The
following analyses from Ent4>p's "Obemical
Technology" represent the composition of some
of the tJ^s deprived of water and porcelaina :
(Udk, pomlilD pUU. . ,
— ^e mixtures for tme porcelain are much
more rimple than those for the soft porcelain.
They oonfflst ohiedy of kaolin and Kronnd feld-
spar, the proportions varying in tue same es-
tsblisbment with the vaiying oompodtion of
the kaolin, which is a natural mixture of de-
composed feldspar with particles of the same
Utoeral nndeoomposed and also of quartz, all
which by grindiug and mixing are thorouglily
booriiKiratod together. A little carbonate of
time 18 also introduced. The mixture shonld
8've as near as may be the proportions of the
iris ware in the foregoing table, and this at
one time may be presented by the following
qoantitiee;
^
COiMIM^
BUM.
*1>Ml».
Um.
F>tak.
4S
«s
4
100
SO.OO
ISJO
1T.0*
O.OB
eu
4.00
ElS?^-'^---
101
Total
H.80
sa.s«
4,M
l.»T
ia attainable only by the use of the natural
mineral compounds. The ajaze Is also feldspar,
to which a Uttle ^psum bsometjmea added,
bnt no metallic oxide. It is slightly more fii-
dble tJian the mass, and being of the same na-
ture with it a thorongh adhesion of the two
readily takes place, and no liability is incurred
of the splitting into a fine network of cracks,
known as oroziiig, which is not nnnsual with
the glazea of other wares. This glaze b also
muob harder and wears better than those con-
taining lead. — Borne of the mtitores for white
fine stoneware may be as follows, the first se-
ries being adapted for Jnga, pitehera, &c., and
the second for Wedgwood mortars:
iuu*ta.
I
"■
m.
nr.
1.
11. UL
IT.
SSie,-^.".::::
BO
oo
40
so
40
•0
IS
s
too
so
w so
so to
BO U
:: -i
M
»
OlMl
^^ "When it is desirable to glase these wares, the
It is remarkable that mixtures of the pure ma- effect is produced by " smearing" over the in-
terials in these and dmilar proportions fail en- dde of the seggan a wash of certain miztorea
tirely to produce the porceuin strootnre. This of salt, nltzv, oxide of lead, &a., in hot water,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
586 POTTERY ASD POl
AB flint porder 10 parts, bone uh 5, nilre 8, and thus a thin gU» is laid over the ■ni'&ce
saltG; orlead6, Cornish stone 8, salts. Tol- oftbevare. The oompodtionctf several varie-
atile portions of these, as the salt and lead, ties of stoneware in 100 psTta is seen in the
combine in part with the silica of the masB, following table :
i™i,.r.
h.ii^
A.™l-,
O..I™.
Ll«.
UVHb^
Alk.lL
I—.
I>«ripU-.
'AtSf,;-:.
S1.10
I^
ta«
0.U
0.81
Duk fcwn body, Bm, well moulded, cannd
1
Tuihill
ai7
Vaj Bat wbiOib bodr.
i
«.«
0.15
Jl"
1.08
Uww
tnat
1.00
D^*
Chtn.
«.W
MOO
14.00
OCO
ti«e
1.00
lUO
For fine earthenware a great diversitj- exists
in the proportions of the ingredients employed.
Some of the mixtures are as follows :
HUiriili.
tbiHinlta
i-dj.
F..-*™.
gT"""
190 E0[> TO
'SI!!!!
eo ISO HI
so
BOO
SM
TO BOO goo
T™„ol«rt-n...
SDO BOO ISO
The tnrqnoise stain consiste of 1 lb. bine co-
balt, 2} lbs. flint, and 10 lbs. oxide of zino,
calcined together and finely ground. Nnmer-
OVB receipts are given of colored clay mixtures
for ornamentation.— The preparation of the
crude materialfl for ahaping into articles of
pottery is a work of no little labor and time.
The manner of collecting the kaolin is noticed
In the article Cla.t. AS the other materials
are ground to very fine powder, and are than
mixed by atirring them with water in large
cisterns. The surplna woter is afterward re-
moved from what is now called the slip by va-
rioQs methods. It is absorbed by the gvpsum
bottoms of the boxes Into which it ia drawn,
or pressed out through Imen bngs, or separated
sistence of dough it is then to be worked over
thoroughly by kneading, treading, beating, &c.
Porcoliun p^te especially requires long con-
tinued working, and should after this be stored
away moist for a year or more to go through
the " moulding" process, by which its plaatlcity
is increaaed. Finally it is worked over by the
slapping process, which consists in dashing the
Inmps into which it is cut by a braes wire
against each other and thus incorporating them
together. Form is given to the articles either
by the pott«r'8 wheel, a proceea known as
"throwing," or in moulds by "casting" and
"pressing." The potter's wheel has expe-
rienoed little change since its use in Egypt
2,000 years B. O. It is a flat disk noon an up-
right Bile, tnmed by a belt from anottier wheel,
bv hand, or by the foot of the workman ap-
wied to a wheel attached below to Its axle.
The potter throws upon the centre of the disk
a limp of clay cut oy the brass wire of the
ilapper into the exact size of the piece to be
made, and as it slowly rovolvcs as in a laAe
ho abapes it with his hand, hollowing ont a
cavity for the interior of the vesael and giving
to the exterior its true outline. When the
oavity is too small to admit the hand, be nsea
somo simple tool, as a wet sponge attached to
a crooked stick, and for the outside when exact-
ness of form is required a piece of metal having
the profile of the intended article. Some articles
roughly formed at first are allowed to dry par-
tially before the shaping is completed. Moulds
are made of gypsum, which partially absorbs
the moisture in the paste. They are single for
the simpler forms, shaping but one snr&ce ;
others are donble for giving the shape to both
sur&ces ; and others are in several parts for
moulding complicated forms, which, made sep-
arately, are afterward united together. The
thin slip or paste is prepared for the mould in
a sheet either by "throwing" or by rolling,
after the manner of rolling dongh; and if for
a plate, it is laid over and pressed down with
a wet sponge upon the mould for forming its
inner surioce, which mould is set upon a re-
volving disk, and as this carries the sheet round
the surface is shaped by a metallic profile of
the intended shape brought in oon^ct with
the paste. The mauipolations of this sort are
gcatly varied according to the work in hand.
audles, spouts, and the ornamental pieces are
separatelymonlded and then attached by means
of slip. Afterbeingmoulded thcvesselsreqnire
a careful revision, usually on the potter's wheel,
in which all roughness and excess of paste ia re-
moved, and sometimes an ornamental surface
Eiduced by a delicate sort of carving with the
ife. The effect of lace upon the drapery of
figures is very ingeniously obtained by attach-
ing to the paste real lace dipped in dip, which
is afterward destroyed in the firing. In the
drying distortdon is very ant to occnr from tbe
moisture not Koing off nniformly, thus causing
unequal ahrinkage. Great pains are taken to
guard against this, and the pieces are put upon
sheWes end veryjdowly dried, away from the
direct rays of the sna and from artificial heat
The application of glaze to porcelain biscuit
(that IS, aflier a preparatory firing) is made by
dipping the vessels into tubs contuning the
glaze compodtion In slip SDspended in water.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
POTTEKY AND POKOELAIN POTTO 637
The dipping is dona as qnicklj aa possible, and Is the n^ooal eoUeetion of the Japanese palaee
the composition is then brughed off from those fonnded by the elector Frederic Angastns L
parts which iroDld come in contact with the In this collection the oriental china alone oo-
Bopport upon which the pleoea are to rest. The cnpiea 13 large rooms. The progress of the
firing is oondsoted in tall cylindrical kUns, like Dresden mannfacture is represented bj a great
f}aaa famaoe^ into which the flames pass Tarietjofwell selected pieces. The museum of
through fiues from ontside fireplaces. The ar- the porcelfun works at B^vres was arranged
tides to be baked are careflilly placed in drum- bj M. Alexandre Brongniort, commencing in
ahaped ol^ veasob, called seggara, which when I8I2, for the purpose of illustrating the prog-
flllcd are piled upon each other, forming col- ress of the ceramic art from the manafactnre
arnnB that fill the kilns. These must necessa- of the radcst ware to that of the finest porce-
rily be capable of withstanding greater heat Iain, and also the geography and chronology
than that required for the ardcles they con- of the art. The collection is eminently of a
tB'", and upon the possibility of prodncing practical character, made np of illastratire
anch vessels at moderate cost the snccess of the specimens alone not merely of the finished
porcelain mannfactare in any locality is chiefly works, bnt of the materials nsed in the mana-
dependent. The time reqoired for the firing facture in all parts of the world. Each one of
varies in difi'erent places and for different wares, these, to entitle it to a place in the collection,
bnt for French porccliun it is osaally from 8£ to mnst be provided with a label describing its
30 honra. When this is completed the Iriln is character, locality, date, use, &c. This mann-
closed ap and left from 6 to 8 days for the ware &ctare affords an eminent instance of the value
to anneal. When It Is removed a portion. Imparted to worthless materials by skill and
sometimes amomiting to J, ia found to be mis- science. Single vases of SSvres china 12 to
sliapen and ruined, and all the pieces require a 16 inches high have repeatedly sold for $6,000,
final reviijion and dressing with a stone, grind- M^olica plates for $500, Chinese kyolins or
Ing wheel, &c. — The pigments used for paint- antique vases for $1,500, dec. ; and the market
iog porcelain consist of a flux with a coloring is constantly rising, as with every improvement
ingredient, whicJt is commonly a metaLic oxide, in the modem art choice antiqne specimens are
Those colors which withstand, the high heat of more eagerly songht. — The pnncipal works on
the kiln are termed refractory colors, and are pottery are : A. Brongniart, TVaiCi det arts
applied before glaziu2. The others, termed eeramiqut» on dea poteria eoruidiriei daiit lent
nmffle colors, from the Kind of fnmace in which KUtoire, Uur praUqua, et Uur thiorU (Paris,
they are barnod in, are applied after the bak- 1844); A. Brongniart and D. Eiocreni, De-
ing. and therefore involve an additional process; Kription mithodi^itt du mtuee ceramique de
and as the tint of some of them varies with the la mamifacture royaU de porealaine dt Shra
temperature, this is carefnlly watched and reg- (Paris, 1845) ; Joseph Marryat, " A History of
nlated. Gold is applied in its precinitate mii»l Pottery and Porcelun, Mediffival and Uodern"
with A its weight of oxide of bismuth, and (2d ed,, London, ISSn ; Samuel Birch, F.S.A,,
robbed up with thickened oil of turpentine. "Hiatory of Ancient Pottery" (London, 1858) j
UlIb ia applied with a brush, and after firing and Knapp's " Ohemical Technology."
the gilding is brought out by burnishing.— The POTTO (cereolepCei, Dlig.), a genus of cor-
varie^ of porcelain biscuit called Parian or nivorons mammalM, of small size, inhabiting
Carrara ware was introdnced about the year tropical America. They resemble the bears is
1S45 in England, and has since been employed their plantigrade movements and in their den-
as a beautiful material for statuettes, which re- tition, but differ in other characters ; they seem
■emble the marble itself. It difi'ers from porce- to form the connecting link between the quad-
'■" ' ■' <■-'-" ■efiia"" — '" 1 ■- ' ■ "■■
1^ chiefly in the use of a feldspar more fumble mmana and the plantigrade camivora. The
than the Oomiah stone. Its application to the molars are f:|, small, the anterior 2 conicid,
prodaction of models has engaged the attention and the others tnberculate with flat crowns.
of eminent sculptors and potters in England, canines short and blunt; muzzle short and
asd exquisite small works of art are now rounded; the eyes large ; the tongue slender,
clieaijy furnished in it. The work, however, long, and extensile; tail long, hairy, and pre-
requires great care and skill, the figures being heiuile ; feet plantignLde, but the 6 toes are
cast iu different parta, which are afterward separate, capahle of independent motion, and
Quited together. A very thin slip is poured provided with sharp claws ; lege short ; fur
into the mould, and a considerable time is woolly. The common potto, sometimes called
allowed for it to harden before it is removed, kiok^'ou {0. eaudlvohiilut, Illig.), is about the
The parts not well supported are kept in place size of a cat, but more slender, of a general
by props until the mass has acquired sufBcient yellowish brown color, sometimes reddish
consistence. — In Europe the forming of colleo- brown; in form and habits it resembles the
lions of pottery has been an olject of interest lemurs, and is nocturnal, an excellent climber,
not only to Bumerooa wealthy amateurs, but nsing the fore paws like the squirrels to convey
also to the governments of states. In England food to the mouth; it is omnivorous, feeding
more than 100 such collections are noticed by on fruits, honey, insects, eggs, and small birds
J^oseph Uorryat, aeveral of which are limited and mammals, like other plantigradea ; it ia
to a special variety of ware alone. In Dresdeo fond of plonderiiig the nests of wild beea, ob-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
688 FOTTBTILLE FOUSD
tsining the honer bj mesns of lt« long tongue, ospital |8S,000 ; oarpet &iAorj, $60,000 ; duir
vbence it has received the name of hone; bear ; &ctoi7, |eo,OOD ; and U. Vassar and oo.'a brew-
it u a native of Oniona, New Granada, Pern, ery, capital $160,000, vhioh makes 80,000 bbls.
and Bome of the West India inlands. Being of ale per annnm. 7iiereare21 ohnrohe«,TiK.:
gentle and playful in diepositioo, it is often 3 Baptist, I Oongregational, 8 Episcopal. S
tamed ae a pet, and la not nncommonlj seen in Frieaoa', 1 Jewiah, 1 Lutheran, 6 Uetbodist,
menaferiea. — Potto ia alao the native name of I FieabTterian, 2 Refbrmed Dutch, 2 Boman
an African lemnr. (See Lori.) Oalholio, and 1 UniverBalist, On Jane 4, 1861,
POTTSVnjXaTillaffeof Kwwegian town- eronndwas broken for the fonndaldon of the
ahlp, and oapital of SehnjIkilT oo., Fenn., on Vaaaar female college, for the ereotioo and
the Bchnvlkiil river at the entrance of Nonve- endowment of which Hatthew Vassa^ E^-,
gianoreeK; pop. in 1660, e,4C4. Itistheter- of Foaghkeepde, haa given $400,000. Itisin-
minnsof the Philadelphia and Readingrfdlroad, oorporated by a charter granted bj the I^liJa-
bf which it is 98 m. N. W. from the former tnreinPeb.l8Ql,anditsaffaire areinthehaads
and 8S m. from the Utter. The village ia eito- of a board of tmstees. It is to be completed
ated near Sharp mountain, on a very nnevon in 1868. Steamboats plj between Poughkeep-
earfaoe,inthemidBtof aneztendvecoalregion, sie and New York, and the Kew Tork md
from which tta chief aonroe of prosperit; is Albany steamera touch here; and it is eon-
derived. It oodtaina, beside the oonnty offices, nected bj a steam ferrj with New Paltz on the
4 fonnderies and maohine shops, a braes foond- opposite side of the river. — Ponghkeepde was
ery, an iron safe manoiiaotorv, a steam factory originally settled by several Butch families in
of sashes and woodwork, 8 En^ieh and 8 Ger- ISeO-lTOO. In 1778 the legislature was eon-
tnaa weekly newapapera, a Welsh monthly vened by Got. Olinton at the Yan Kleeck
magadne, and IS ohnrchea, viz. : 1 Baptist, 2 honae, a stone building pierced for muaketry
Episcopal, 1 Evanselioal, 1 German Beformed, and used for defence, and among other acts
It Lutheran, 1 Uethodist, S Presbyterian, 2 Ro- gave its assent to the articles of coufederatSon;
man Oatholio, and 8 Welsh. and it was here on Jnly 26, 1788, that the
POCCHED RAT. Bee Gopbxr. national oonsdtution was ratified in the state
POUCHEr,FiLixARaHiifii>E, a French phy- couveutiott assembled for the pur|K«e of its
•ioian, bom in Bonen, Aug. 86, 1800. Be consideration. Fonghkeepde received a dt;
Hodied medicine in his native city, and subae- charter in 1864.
quently in Fario, where he was admitted to FOUTTXET, Ou.in>K Sebvau Hxtbiab, a
practice in 1617. UponbisretamtoRoneDhe French phyncist, bom at Ouzanoe, department
was named professor of natural history in the of Doul», Feb. IB, 1791. He was educated at
museum Just founded there, and in 1838 pro- the normal echool. was saoceedvely a profbaaor
lessor in the Rouen medical school. He has there, at the Bonrbon college, the polytechnic
written Zfolofit clamgut, on hitUnre natvrellt school, and the Borbonne, was prec^tor to
du rigne 4inunaJ(2 vols. Svo., Rouen, 1841); thesonsofLonis Philippe, and finally director
B«eKinKt» tur tanatomU et la phywlogu det of the eotutnatoire daarUet mitien. He was
moUutgutt (4to., 1842) ; I7iiori« jtoritwe dt also an opposition member of the chamber of
Vvtulation tpontanie ^ dala yfamdation itt deputies, and opposed the eowp £itat of Louis
mammifirti et ie Venice hwuaitM (8vo., 1S47), Hapoleon. He has written extenore^ on
and other works. phyacs and electridty.
POCGHKEEPSIE (said to be from Ind. POUJOULAT. JiiS Joseph Fraitcois, a
AjXhhtep^ink, pleasant harbor), a city and the French author, bom at La Fare, department
capital of Bntohess oo., fi. T., on the £. bank of Bonohea-dD-Bh6ne, Jan. S6, 1808. Having
of the Hudson river and ou the Hudson river been educated at the college of Aix, he went
railroad, 75 m. N. fh>m New York and 69 m. to Fsris in 1^6, and became acquainted with
B. from Albany; pop. in I860, 16,000. The IL IGohaud, whom he aaaisted in preptuing
greater portion is boilt on a table land, fit>m his BtbUotM^ da enitada, and in 1830 ao-
160 to 200 feet above the river. About a nule otmipanied bun on a tonr tbrouKh the East, an
baek is a hill, 600 feet above the river, on which account of which they pnblished in thdr Oor-
Is the Poughkeepsie collegiate echooL fVom rwpoiuIanM d'Orimt (T vols., Paris, 183S-'G).
this emineuoe the e^ has a ranm of about ^anbaequentlr edited with Michand the d^-
S,600 sq. m. The aty is r^nlarlj laid on^ wJI* eoBtetien da mtmoirm four tenir d VhiM-
and has good public bniUings and many el«- (Mrs ds J^Vanes demttM le 13* niele jiaffii'd b
gant private residenoee. Itcont^nsacitybaU, jia du 18* (83 Tola. Svo., 1836-*a), and has
jbanka, a savings bank, an academy, Spuhlio aincapnblifQied many works npcu historical and
■choolawith l,900papilB,aIaweclH>ol,lyceam, literary sulyecta.
andorphanaaylamandhomeforthefriendleas. POUND (Lat jwaafna, a weight L a me«snr«
It has a public library containing about 6,000 of wei^t. Aa mentioned under AvoimicTaia,
volumes. A rural cemetery of tt4 acres haa two different pounds are in use. One is called
been laid out a short diatanc« balow the city, the avoirdnp<na or commercial pound, and is
l^ere area nomberofmanu&ctortesv the prin- equal to 7,000 gruns; and the other the
cinal of which are the Pou^tkeepaie iron works, wothaearies" or troy pound, of S,7S0 grains,
with a o^jtal of $200,000; a caniage tattorj, (See Avomocpois.)
PODJro PODBSIN 68d
FOUKD (Anglo-Sax. pund, a fbldk tn lav, amid great poverty and priratioiu, he nuln-
a pen, piofold, or endosare of anj kind an- tained this "ragged school "to the verj d^
thoiized b^ l&w and belonging to a town, of his death, s period of nearly 50 years. Hia
eit7, or county, in which horses, asaea, molea, school, though a little later than that of Tata
aheep, goata, and swine that are wandering Giovanni (see Boboi, QiovAJSsi), was prompted
kbont, or are treapasang, maj be confined untu by the some motives, and was, at least in Great
clumed and taken ont by the owner, by due Britain, the beginning of " ragged schools,"
jirooeea of law or in a lawfhl way. The prac- since so extensively established in the United
tice of impounding ab^y or misoluevous cat- Kingdom and elsewhere.
tie IB extremely ancirait in England, and waa POUSSIN. I. Nicolas, a French painter,
adopted by the AmerioKQ colonies fh>m their I>om in Andelys, Normandy, in 1G94, died in
beginning. The whole process is oarefolly Borne, Nov. 19, 1865. He waa descended from
regolated by statutea in the United States, an ancient bnt impoverished family of the
The provisions of these Btatntes differ very Prenoh nobility, and was oarefhUy bstmcted
mncb. Perh^B the most important of the in literature and the soienoes nnder the snper-
prevuling principlea of law on this subject vision of hia father. He acquired the elements
(resting however on antho^ity rather than upon of his art from two French pdnters of moder-
statutes) ia, that a pound keeper is bound to ate ability, bnt received his first ideas of style
receive every animal offered to his custody in and compoeition &om stndying engravings of
due form of law, and is not amenable whether the works of Raphael and Gialio Romano,
the animal be pounded fbr legal and sufficient The Italian poet turino, struck by some of his
eaoae or otherwise. earlier efforts, indnoed him to visit Borne, where
POUND STERUNG, a denomination of be arrived in 1024, and was preeented to Car-
money, originating from the pound weight of dinal Barberini, The dnwrtore of tbia prelate
rilrer, whicb anciently was divided into 240 from the oil? and the sudden death of Uartino
parts called pence. These pence were desig* left hipi, without friend or patron, to stru^e
natedMfM'fin^, whence the name "sterling," the for himself, and for several years he earned a
le^ description of the English current coin, bare subostemM by disposing of his pictnrea
This ia supposed to have been derived origi- for trifling snms. At this time he lived with
nally from kasterlinge, the popular name of the scnlptor Frani^is dn Qnesnoy, and under
traders from the Baltia and from Gemmny, the influence of this association, as well as of
who rinted London in ihe middle ages, and the tastes with which hisclasdoel training had
some of whom were probably employed in imbued him, he made close studies of the most
coining. The pound sterling is a money of ac- celebrated antique statues and bass-reliei^. He
count ; the gold coin representing it is called a also ^fited mnch by the pictures of Raphael
sovereign, whose current value in U. B. money and Somenichino, bat his style was founded
is(4.Bl, and its actual value slightly more. mainly on the antique; and so engrossing were
POUNXIS, Jonx, an English philanthropist, Ais studies of the ancient statues that, as Bir
bom in Portsmouth in 17^6, died there, Jan. Joshua Reynolds has observed, "he may be
1, 1839, Being crippled by an accident in his aaid to have been better acquainted with them
youth, while working in the royal dockyard than with the people who were about him."
at his native place, he took up the occupation FuseU, in allurion to his enthusiasm for the
of a cobbler. At the age of S3 he undertook antique, said that " he painted basso-rilievo."
to support a child of his brother's, who was a His " Death of G«rmamons" and " Oaptore of
eripple from inversion of the feet. After many Jemaalem by Titus," pitted for Oardiual Bar-
efforts he succeeded in restoring the child's berini, first brought nim into notice, and in
limbs to their true position, and commenced 1039 his reputation was so well established
teaching him to read. Thinking that he would that Louis XITT. sent him a special invitation
leam fiuitei* if he had companions, he invited a to France made him his first painter in ordi-
poor neighbor to send his children to his shop nary, with a pension, and lodged him in the
for instruction, and in a few months extended Tuileries. The Jealonay of Simon Vouet and
tbe invitation to other families, till his shop, 0 other rival artists rendered his life onoom-
by IB feet, was filled with seholara. These, by fortable, and in 1642 he gladly availed himself
prooeases of his own contrivance, which bore of an opportunity to retun to the more conge.
a strong reeemblanoe to Pestalozzi's, though nial atmosphere of Rome, promising however
he had never heard of that celebrated eduoa- to revisit Paris. The deaui of Loais and of
tor, he instructed in the rudimentary branches, Rioheiieu in the sacoeeding year afforded him
. and under hia tnition they gained as thorough an excuse for reftanng to ftalfil his engagement,
a maaterr of them as the children in the best and the remainder of hia life waa passed in
public schools. There were always many more Rome. He lived quietly and nnostentationsly,
^plicants for admission into his school than atraorbed in the practice of his art, and pro-
ms little shop would hold; but when there was dneed subsequent to his retnm from France
a vacancy be always selected the most turbu- many easel piotorea of large aiie, whioh he
lent and vicious children, and seldom fmled to readily disposed of at moderate prices. So
make them quiet and well behaved. With- liberal waa his disposition, that notwlthstand-
odt any pecnnlary aasiBtaDoe from others, and tng hia ftngal lift ne left at his death a prop-
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
640 FOU68IK POVELL
«rty aiiiotmtiiig to orHj 1S,000 Boman scn^ Wios of the highest ^eaiitB and Oto hmm »■
As a painter of history, Clascal mythology, or fined taste." Ab a pamlu' of ideal t«iiJ«^f
allegory, and of landscape, Ponaadn was one of aocording to the Bame antliority, " hia coactp-
the most remarkable and teamed of his age ; tionof nsinrelBEerioaBandBolenm; »gtKirB
and hia works, which are widely disperaed of form prevula as in hia historical reii.
among pnblio and private galleries, are atill held while his coloring, which never poewcHt sj
in great eeteem. Hia historical works, accord- great charm, ia sometimee almort bor^'' ^
ing to Dr. Waagen, represent three distinct landscapes are commonly embelUshed irah ^-
Seriods: the first, comprising his early resi- olent architecture or figures taken from claawl
SDce in Borne, being distingQished by hard- mythology and history, and preseat eni£a
Dess of onlline, thin coloring, and defective qieoimens of what is called the ** heroic" $?!i
comfjosition; the second, by eioellenoe of o<mi- of this department of painting. H. Gts^
portion and eipresdve heads ; and the third, brother-in-law of the preceding, bcmi in Est
by an imitation of the antique which finally in ISIS, died there in 1676. Hb &niilj ust
becomes mannered and mouotonons. Of hia was Dnghet^ bat after the mnrrioge of McvJi
lai^ historical pieces the Lonvre contains a Ponssia wiUi his aster, be was adc^ntd ';•
noble collection, inclnding the "Selnge;" Nicolas, who had no- children, and asEoiEid 1j
"Bape of the Sabines;" "ElieEur and Rebec- name. Under the instmction of his b^x^^■
ca;" the "Finding of Moeea;" "Christ up- in-law he became very eminent in the dtp.i-
C earing at the Prayer of St. Frands Xavier and ment of landscape^ dcpictiag the finest rttsisj
ealing a Japanese Woman," which Waagen in the vicinity of Borne, Tivoll, and Fraa:SL
calls the best of all his altarpieces ; and " Christ and, in imitation of his mast«r, oompteiiij idol
healing the Blind Han of Jericho," according pictures. He was a rapid aad &aie paiiUii.
to the same authority, the most satis&otory firm in his handling, and so carefiil a siDdi:^
of his later worka. In the same collection of nature that he gave to every tree and striLb
are his oalebrated JS tn Arcadia Ego, aptly the peonliar character of ita epedek F« strii;
described as "a noble pastoral in which the effects and chiaroscnro he was ahDOSwuiral-
mntability of all earthly things ia snggested in led, although his plctnres freqneotl; ban a
the finest and most toaching manner;" and aombre tone, which is believed to be ihe i?tvl
"Eu^diee bitten by the Serpent," conveying of time. In his earlier works he f(^wrid«
a simUar moral, and like its companion pictore manner of Nicolas, with which besnteeqaiiLj
distinguished by its sentiment of repose and its combined striking peculiarities of his oitd. 'in
grand and simple landscape. The Louvre also composition, though fonnded on the k.-c;;
contains the series of " Four Seasons," painted style, having a brighter and freer chiisc*-'-
duringthelastGyearsof hislife. IntiieBritish whi<ji forma a h^py contrast to the M^iK
national gallery are some of the finest of hia earaestoess of his master. He inq>rcnJ \cs
purely classical or mythological subjects, one color by studying the works of Claode 1>(-
of which, the " Dance of the Bacchanals," rQ# raine. Kugler says : " It is what may be eiI-
flects so completely the spirit of antique sculp- ed the living sonl of landscape which £rft ^
tore that it might have been copied from the pears with its full effect in Ga^iar Poovki
basB-reliefi of a Grecian urn. But the most works." His peculiar skill in atrial effect* 's
celebrated of Poussin's works in Kngland are shown in his land storms, which he eierxi^
the two sets of the " Seven Baccaments" in with remarkable power, and of which a vH
Belvoir castle and the Bridgewater gallery. In known example, representing Dido utiSarH
the latter collection is also a fine picture of taking refnge from the tempest in a cate. i^
"Hoses striking the Rock," and in that of Ur. contained in the British national fiBerr. In
IGles at Leigh Oonrt the well known " Plogae the same collection is a landscape entiikd
of Athens." Bc&ttercd thronghout his works "Abraham and Isaac going to theS»cri£c«."
are also pieces from sacred and profene history which has been called thopainter a master[*rct
of much sweetness of tone an4 expression ; "a POWELL, Baden, an ^igUsh clwgyniaz icd
proof," observes Ifrs, Jameson, "that Kioolas author, bom in 1796, died in London, Jane II.
Ponsein could be, when he chose, a poetical 1860. He was gradnated at Oxford in UlT.
and effective colorist." On the other hand, he and in 1827 was elected Bavilian profesor >i
conld descend to the most revolting treatment geometry in that nniveraty, which appcit:-
of a snbject, as in his " Usrtyrdom of fit Bras- ment ho held until his deaiQi. He was iRV-t
mns " in the Vatican, in which the entrails of in his efforts to introduce into Qie nuiveff ii; i
the saint are in tho act of being wonnd out of greater attention to the natural sciencer. «>i
his body by a windlass around which they are although in holy orders, he held no living. &
twisted; a work Justifying the remark of Dide- writings are either atnctJy scientific in tid;
rot, that if all the martyrdoms painted by great character, or treat of the connection betfffc:
masters should escape the ravages of time, pos- science and theolo^. Among the formef i^}
terity would regard the present race of men as be mentioned a "History of Katnral n£aJ-
" ferocious beasts or anthropophagi." Notwith- phy" (1834); "A Qenersl and EJemrBU.*^
standing his pedantry and faults of style and View of the ITndnlatory Theory of ly.'.'
color, Ponssin was, in the estimation of Eugler, (1841) ; and a large number of p^>ers in t*
" a great man, and his pioturea bear character- transactions of various sueutiSo socieoci. ^
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
POWER POWEES 641
vbioh flte most remftrkable wero "Reports on "Inipressiona of America" (S vols. 8ro., Lon-
s Meteors," ''On the RepalsiTe Power don, 188S); "The King's Seoret," a novel:
if Heat," " On the Dispersion of Light," "On "The Lost Heir," &o. He was a man of geni^
!:ili|)tio PoUriEation or Light," and " On Irra- hahits, and mnoh aimabiUt:^ and native humor.
liation." Of the second class maj be mention- POWEBd, Eisui, an Amerioan sector, bom
A "The OonnectJon of Natural and Divine inTFoodstook, Vt, JulySe, 1805. He was the
[^Qth, or the Study of the Indnctivo Philoeo- 8tb of a familj of Q ohildren, and passed his
ihj considered as Bobaervient to Theolc^" yonth on hia father's farm, scqairing the rudi-
Loodon, I6S6); "Essays on the S[dTitof the ments of a district school edacation, and some
nduotive Philosophy, the Unity of Worlds, knowledge of drawing and of various kinds of
Ad the Philosophy of Creation" (185S); handier^ The farm proving miBQCcesaftil, ho
'Christianity without Jndaism" (18C7); "The emigrated with the family to Ohio, and npon
)rder of NaCnre oonudered with reference to the death of his father soon after established
he Claims of Kevelation" (18GB) ; and " On himself in Cincinnati, where, after being sno-
he Study of the Evidoicea of Christianity," in cesuvely employed in a reading room connected
'Essays and Reviews" (1860). The piu^ose with one of the hotels and In a prodnce store,
if the worka of the latter class was to maintain he procured a situation with a clookmaker, for
hat the rejeotion of Ideas generally prevalent whom he coUectod debts, beside dding in the
ipon theological anl^ecta, which in the prog- mechanical part of the business. Abont this
ees of raodera eoience have been called m time he became aoqoainted with a German
laostion, or at least modified, is in no way a sculptor, from whom he learned the art of
liadrance to a sincere belief In the oardhial modelling in plaster, and after a little practice
ruths of religion. he was able to prodnce plaater busts of oon-
POVER of a quantity, in nuthraoatlcs, the uderable merit The taste for art fostered by
vsatt obtained by multiplying that qoantity a this employment indaced bim to form a con-
■ertain nmnber of times by itselt Thus, the nection with the western mneenm at Cincin-
Id power of 3 is 8X3 = 4; the 8d power, nati, the waxwork department of which was
I X 9 X 3 := 6. The degree of the power, or for 7 years nnder bis oirecdon. Aspiring to a
he nnmber of times that the given quantity is higher walk in his profession, and feeling that
aken as a factor. Is expressed by a number he might depend fbr a snpport npon his labors
'ailed the exponent, written above and at the aa a sculptor, he repaired in 1836 to Vashing-
ight of the quantity; thns, 2* denotes the Sd ton, and was for sometime profitably employed
loirer of 2. and 2 is Btyled the root of 2'. in modelling busts of distuiguiahed men. With
POWER, Ttromb, an Irish actor and anthor, the prooeeos derived from these efforts, and by
>oni in eonnty Waterford in 1795, perished at the assistance of Ur. Nicholas Longworth of
ea m 1841. His mother, having been left a Cincinnati, he was enabled in 1687 to carry
ridow during his infancy, removed to Glamor- into effect a long cherished desire to visit Italy.
ranshire, Bonth Wales, and in the theatre of In the same year he established himself m
he neighboring town of Cardiff Tyrone made Florence, which, with the eiception of oooa-
lis debot upon Uie stage as Romeo. For a wonal visits to Rome and elsewhere, hss oon-
inmber of years sabseqnent he performed at tinned ever since to be his home, and for sev-
Uffarent provincial theatres, attempting both era! months devoted himself chiefly to model-
omic and pathetic parts, although the fbrmer ling bnats. Gradually gaining confidence in
rare better suited to him. In 1818 he retired his powers and facility in the nse of the chisel,
rem the stage, but in 1821 reappeared at sev- he produced in 1838 an ideal statne of Eve,
ral London theatres. His first decided sue- which excited the admiration of Thorwaldsen,
ess in the metropolis wos achieved In 1624 in who pronounced it a work which any sonlptor
he part of Paddy O'Halloran, and thenceforth might be prond to claim, aa his masterpiece. A
le found it to his advantage to devote his abili- year later he finished the model of his ' ' Greek
ies exclusivelv to tjie delineation of Irish char- Slave," his molt widely known and popniar
ctm, tawhion he was unrivalled. Toaprepoa- work, and of which upward of 6 dnplicatesin
easing personal appearance he muted a viva- marble are in existence, beside an immense
: :- _ !_ _ !...._ ..-r.,, .. niunber of plaster casts and reduced copies in
parian. Amongotherwellknownworksbyliim
ue«e qualities made his personation of such are the "fisher Boy," of which 8 repetitions in
Mtsas the "Irish Tutor," RoryO'Hore,Unr- marble have been produced; "II Fengeroso;"
Mh Dehmy, "Teddy the Tiler," Sir Patrick "Proserpine," a bust; "California;" "Ameri-
)'Plenipo, Phelim O'Flonnigan, and raanyoth- ca," modelled for the crystal palace at Syden-
rs, written expressly for hun, among the tri- ham, England ; and portrait statues of Wash-
mphs of the comic stage. In 1888 he visited ington for the state of Louisiana, and of Cal-
lic [jQited States, where he obtained great sue- boun for South Carolina. The latter, hia best
SS3 in his leading parts ; and in 1840 he mode work of the kind, after suffering shipwreck
Qother professional tour in North Amerioa. off the coast of Long Island, was safely de-
(eembarkedUarohll,1841,forEaropeinthe posited in Charleston. Of hia busts, which
'eamship President, which was never subse- comprise by i»x the greater part of the pro-
oently heard of. Power was the anthor of duotiona of his ohlael, those of Adams, Jsck-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
64a FOWEBS FOZZO DI B0B6O
son, Webster, Oslhoni), Ohlef Jnstioe UirduIL mm. 'When Nevport nhwqiMntlr r«tamed
Everett, Van Bnren, and other distiDgiudiea to VirglnUfhMaEii^iaDd,hewaac(Hia>uaBioned
Americans, are well known and striking spe- to disoovar the Boi^ sea ; and as he was ob-
dmens. One of his latest prodndions ia a llgod to pass throogb Powhatan's tMrritorr, a
bronze etatae of Webster, now erected tn the nnmbw of presents were brought hnn, ose <^
state boose gronnds at Boston. Ur. Powers is whtoh wss & orown, and tlie ceremonr of ooro-
the inTentor of a process of modelling in plaster nation was performed a few d^s later, when
which, bf obvlatuig the necessity oT taking a In order to have turn eioap it was &nnd nece»-
dajr model of Iho subject, grestlj expedites the laiy to lean hard upon the shoolders ot the
labors of the sculptor. In^an monarch, whose comprehension of the
POWEBSjUaoHAinoAi. See Ubohanios. ceremony seema not to have been very clear.
POWESHIEE, a B. E. 00. of Iowa, droned For the honor shown him, Powhatan gave
by the North fork of Sknnk rWer, which tray- Newport his mantle and old shoea O^dn
erees the B. W. comer, and Beaver, Sogar, and Smith afterward made an nnsaocessAil attempt
other creeks ; area, 57ft sq. m. ; pop. hi 1860^ to cszrture the " emperor" in order to obtain a
0,070. It has a fertile soil. lie prodndions BDpply of corn ; and in revenge for this, Pow>
in 1859 were fiO,470 bushels of wheat, 6,69S hstan prepared to attack the English by night,
of oats, 241,000 of Indian com, 10,780 of pota- bnt wss foUed by the watdifnliieM of Poca-
toes, 4,09S tone of hay, 4,786 galls, of sorghnm hoataa. The qtiarrels between Powhatan said
molasses, 78,672 lbs. of bnttu', and 6,S66 of the English did not oease nntil the marriage
wool. Capital, Uontezoma. of his dan^ter with Bolfe, after which he was
POWHATAN, a S. E. CO. of Va., bordered their firm friend.
K. by the James river and S. by the Appomat- POWKAIIi, Thoius, an English statesman
tox ; area, about 800 sq. m. ; pop. ia 1860, and anthor, bom in linooln in 1729, died in
8,891, of whom 6,408 were slaves. It has a Bath in 1800, He emigrated to America in
level snri'aoe and a natn rally fertile soil, mnch 1768, and in 1767 wea f^pointed governor of
of which, however has be^ exhausted. The the colony of Hassachnaetts B^. Having been
Erodactions in 1800 were 216,160 biuhels (tf recalled at his own request, he snoceeded Sir
idian ooro, 116,487 of wheat, 89,189 of oats, Francis Bernard as lientenxnt-goveraor of New
1,000,490 lbs. of tobacco, and 14,071 o{ wool. Jersey lo 1760, and soon afterward became
There were 19 churches, and 806 pnpils at- govemor of Sonth Carolina. In 1761 be re-
tending schools. Value of real estate m 1866, tamed to England, was msde comptroller-cen-
$1,927,689, showing an increase of 26 per ersl of the expenditures of the army in Ger-
cent. since 1860, Capital, Soottsville. many, and in 1708 was elected to parliamenL
POWHATAN, a sachem of great authority He eamestly opposed the measures of the gov-
among the Indian tribes of Virginia at the enunent agsinst the colonies. After being 8
time of its colonizstion, died in 1618. He was times returned to parliament, he retired in 1780^
a man of great native talent, and hod raised and passed the remainder of his lifb in aoti-
hlmself from the rank of a chleitsin to the qasrianstndies. His princ^al works are: "Be-
oommand of 80 tribes, which nnmbered abont scripdon of tiie Middle States of America"
8,000 sods. His dommions included the conn- (1776); "A Hemorioi to the Sovereigns erf En-
try between the rivers James and Potuxent, rope on the State of Afiaira between the Old
and in the interior as far as the Mis of the and the New World" (1781) ; " A Uemorial to
ohiefrivers. Of his two places of abode, Pow- the Sovereigns of America (1788) ; "Notices
hatsn, on the present rate of Richmond, was a and Descriptions of the Antiquities of the
village of 12 wigwams only; but a guard of Provincia Bomana of Gaul " (4to., 1788); "In'
40 warriors constantly attended his person, tcjleotnal Physics ;" " Principles of Polity ;"
and his dwelling was watched at night by 4 " Administraaon of the Colonies;" and a
sentinels. After the extension of his power "Treatise on Old Am."
northward, however, he resided principally at POZZO DI BORGO, Oablo Asdbxa, count,
Werowocomoco, on York river, in the present a Russian diplomstist, bom in Alalain Corsica,
county of Gloucester. He was disposed to March 8, 17S8, died in Paris, Feb. 16, 1843.
look with dislike upon the coming of the whites. He was descended from a noble but inqwver-
though when the first expedition under New- ished family, snd after reoeiving anelementaiy
port and Smith viait«d him at his residence in education in his native country oompleted his
Powhatan, he treated them with hospitality, studies at Pisa. At theoutbreakof thePrench
Subsequently, Smith having been taken prisoner revolution he was an advocate in Ooraca, and
and about to be despatched by dabs, Fowha- intimate with the Bonaparte family. He em-
tan, through the intervention of his daoghter braced liberal views, and was sent to Paris with
Pocahontas, spared his life, and nltimatdy sent Gen. GentUi to offer to the constituent aasemblj
him to Jamestown with strong proteetations of the thanks of Cornea for having declared that
regard. Daring another vidt from the English, island an integral portion of the territory of
Powhatan succeeded in overreaching Newport Prance. He was elected to the IVenob legia-
in trade; but an eqnivalent advantage was ob- lotive assembly in 1791, joined the Girondists,
tained by Smith, who exchanged a pound or and acted Eealously with the war party; but
two of blue beads for 200 or 800 bushels of &lling under suspicion, he returned to Corsica
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
POZZO DI BOBGO FSADT 648
att6T the dissolufdon of the sBMonblr, attached POZZTTOIAIVA, a raddish. potOTis, friable
himself to the part^ of Paoli, aad when the minend of Toloanio origin, ^hen rednoed to
IslAod was freed from the domimon of France a fine powder and mixed with lime, it forms a
became president of the ooonoiL When the cement of stonj hardness. It was discocered
English withdrew he went to London, and there by the ancient Romans in the town of Pnteoll
as the agent of the French reftigees began his (now Fozznoli), and called iwlcu puteolanvt,
cvMr as a diplomatist. Hehad entirely broken They made great nseof it tn their submarine
with the Bonapartos, and hia eympatMes were Btmotoraa, aa it hardens as well when im-
altogether wiui the anti-QalUoan party. In mersed in water as when exposed to the air.
1798 he went to Vienna in order to bring about FBADIEIt, Jbah jAogtias, a French bcii]|>-
B ccttlition between Anetrla and Hossia against Tor, bom in Qenera in 17B2, died in Paris m
Franee, accompanied Snwaroff in his oampaign 1852. He belonged to a family which bad
of 1799, and in 1803 entered the Bobsibii eer- left Prance after the revocation of the edict of
Tice as oooncillor of atate. As Bnsaian com- Nantea, was sent to Paris while yet a boy,
nuadoner he was despatched in 1808 to the studied nnder the sculptor Lemot, and received
BqmUd, Elfish, and Neapolitan army in the tcom. Napoleon a am^ pension. He gained k
north of Italy, was snbseqnently sent on va- gold medal when SS years of age, and the next
riona missions to Prossia and Austria, and was year obtained by his " Fhiloctetes at Lemnos"
present in the battle fonght off the isle of thegreatprizeofscnlptnTe, which entitled him
Tenedos, Jnly 1, 1807, between the Bossian and to a residence of 4 years in Italy at tbo expense
Turkish fleete, in whi<^ the former was victo* of tiie gOTemment. At the exhibition of 1819
rioaa. On acoonnt of the treaty condnded b»- a gold medal was awarded to him, and In 1837
tweffli Alexander and Napoleon, Fozeo left the he waa elected a member of the academy at
Bossian service in 1S08, fearing that he wonld fine arts, to fill the Beat left vacant by his maa-
be delivered over to the latter, and suocea- ter Lemot. Among the most admired of his
sively went to Vienna, to Constantinople, and works are "Psyche," the "Three Qraces,"
in 1810 to London. After the close of die cam- " Oyparisgns," " Venos and Onpid," " The Bai>
paign of 1812 he waa recalled by the emperor ohante and the Satyr," "Phryne," La poitit
Alexander, ^is whole influence was constantly ligire and the two muses which adorn the
exerted to keep Alexander ateadfast in the war fountain of MoliSre in Paris, " Indnstry" in the
against France, and the junction of Sweden Paris exchange, "Liberty" In the chamber of
with the allied powers is ascribed mainly to deputies, "Phidias" in the Tnileries garden,
his representations. In the be^nning of 1814 and statoas of saints in several Paris cbnrchea.
he went to England to seonre the active co- PRADON, Jbus Niooub, a French post,
operation of that power, atrenuoasly advocated bom in Bouen in 1683, died in Paris in Jan.
the bold resolution of marching upon Paris, 1698, In 1874 he prodaced bis first tragedy,
and in the congreas of Ohfitillon opposed ao- I'irame et Thiibif which attracted so much at-
ceding to the offers of Nwoleon. After the tention tbatwhen in 1B77 Racine prodaced his
abdication of the emperor he was made Bna- Phidre^ the duchess of Bonillon and her broth'
nan commissioner to the provisional govern- er thedukeof Nevers,whohada piqne agunst
ment, attended the congress of Vienna, and the great poet, canaed Pradon to write a tra-
afterward waa ambassador at the French conrt, gedy on the same subject under the title of
He was present at the battle of Waterloo, Phidre et BippoljiU, and managed to have it
where he received a slight wound, and after performed at the same time in a rival theatre.
the second restoration was offered the post The duke and duchess, secnring a number d
of minister of the interior, but declined it. seats in both hooses, sent crowds to applaud
He remained in France in tiie capacity of Bus- the play of their protigi, while they thinned
sian ambassador, and signed the treaty of Paris the ranks of the spectatora of Bacine. This
in Nov. 1816. In 1828 be was made ambassa- lasted for 6 nights in succession, and Pradon
dor extraordinary to Spain, bat soon returned, was apparently Ae more successful of the two.
and npon the accession of Nioholas to the In order to complete hia triumph, he wrote ft
throne waa created a count. He was amba»- comedy, Le jugemmt (TApollon tur Pkidre, a
sadoratPariswhentherevololionaf 1880 broke weak attempt to ridicule Bacine. Everyone
ont,and in the following year his situation was of his 11 tragedies is below criticism.
exceedingly unpleasant in consequence of the PRADT, DomsiQUB Drroue, ahb6 de, a
eonrse parsued by Bngsia in suppressing the French political writer, bom at Allanohea,
Polish insurrection. So great was the detests- Auvergne, April 38, lIGi, died March 18, 1887.
tion of Russia in Paris, that on the arrival of On the breaking out of the revolution, be waa
Uie news of the £b11 of Warsaw in Sept 1831, vicor-general of the archbishop of Bouen, waa
the populace came near storming Pozzo's hotel, elected by the clergy of Normandy deputy to
In 1833 he was recalled, but soon aent back, the states-general, aided with the royalists in
He waa afterward twice sent to London on the constituent assembly, and in 17QI fled to
bnslnoss relating to the oastem and Belgian Hamburg, where in 1798 he published a pam-
qnestiona, but after 1S86 he retired from pnb- phlet entitled L'antidoU au eongrit de £at-
uo life on account of his health, and lived in tadt, ouplan d'un nouTel igviliira Earopim,
Paris nnti! his death. In another tract, La Pnuia tt ta netitraliti
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
e41 PRAED lUJeiOE
(1600), he urged & co&lition of Europe gainst FILSKESTE (now Pal^Mtia), an Bncdent
the Frencb republic. He retcnied to l^^nce city of Latinm, sitnated on aepurof the Apen-
In 1801, when bis TroU dga de» coUnUt (8 nines, 23 m. E. 8. E, from Rome. It was prob-
to!b. 8vo.) ttpposred. Through the means of ably older than Rome, althongh it is first men-
his relatiTe Gan. Duroo, he was appointed tioned in history in the list of cities of the
almoner to the emperor, received the title of Latin leagao given by Dionysioe. Its gr«st
baron, and became bishop of Poitiers. In 1608 power, arising partly from its almost impreg-
he accompanied Napoleon to Bayonne, was nable position, rendered it a place of impor-
instrumcDtal in bringing about the abcUcation tance in the early wars of Italy. Ori^BUj
of Charles IV. of Spain, and was rewarded by opposed to Rome, it formed an alliance with
a handsome gratuity and the archbishopric of that republic in 499 B. 0., bnt a century later
Uechlin. In 1812 he was appointed minister became engaged i& a war with it In S80
to the grand duchy of 'Warsaw; bnt baring fail- its inhabitimta marched to the very gates of
ed to fulfil the intentions of the emperor, he Rome, and were routed with great elaughter
was disgraced, deprived of his office of CTond on the banks of the Allia by T. Qnintius Cin-
slmoner, and sent to bis diocese. De Pradt cinnatua, who, following np bis advantage, took
even represents Napoleon as saying that bat 8 towns subject to Frffineste, and compelled
for him ho would have made the conquest of thedty to suunit. In 840 Pnenest«wasacon-
the world. On the invasion of France by the giicuoua member of the Latin league agwust
combined armies of Enrope, he hastened to Bome ; but the deieat of the combined forces
Paris to join the rojaliats, and after the battle by L. Camillns at Pedum In 838 pnt ao end
of Waterloo pubUshed his ffistoire de Pamiat- to the war, and by the terms of the peace
tadt dan» le grand duchi de Vareotie en 1618, which followed the city was deprived of a port
In which he violently denounced the conduct of its territory. At the end of the social war
of the ex-emperor, and whichpaasedthroughQ the inhabitants received the Roman frnnchiee.
consecutive editions. His zeal for the Bourbona During the civil war between Marina and Sylla
however was received with ooolnefis, and hav- it was one of the chief places in the hands of
ing been obliged to resign his archbishopric, in the Uarian party, and the place of refuge of
which hohad not been confirmed by thepope, the jonn^r Marius after his defeat Sylla
be retired to his estate in Anvergne, and pub- captured it after several attempts to bring it
liflhed a number of political works of no per- relief had failed, massacred the inhabitants,
msnent importance. In 1827 he was elected demolished its fortiflcatioas, and planted a nul-
to the chamber of deputies by the department itary colony on its territory. Althongh not
of Puy-de-D6me, but resigned in 1828, and destooyed, Prteneste seems never to have re-
spent the rest of his life in obscurity. covered from this blow. It became during the
PEAED, WiNTHBOP MiorwoBTH, an English existence of the empire a place of summer re-
poet, born in London in 1602, died July 16, sort for the Romans, and was alao much visited
1889. He was the son of a prominent lawyer, on account of its temple of the goddess For-
and was early sent to Eton, where he was Joint tune, the seat of a favorite oracle. Its answers
editor of the " Etonian," a school magazine, were made by the voice of the priestess or by
in 1620. At Trinity college, Cambridge, he the eortei Praneitina, characters stamped on
obtained an unprecedented number of prizes dice and drawn from an nm. Daring the mid-
for Greek odea and epi^oms, and for English die ages the place became once more conspic-
poems. During his residence at Cambridge, nous as the stronghold of the Oolonna family.
Charles £night, the pubUsher, commenced a It was taken by Pope Boni&co VUI.^ who dis-
magazine of which 8 volumes were published, mantled the fortifications, confiscated the prop-
written by a little clique of poets and essay- erty of the inhabitants, and razed the bnildings
ists, conspicuous among wbom were Praed to the ground. It was rebuilt in ISOT, resisted
and Thomas Babington Yacaulayj then rivj an attack of Rienzi, but in 1436 was captured
leaders in the Cambridge 4ebatmg society, by Carilinal Yitelleschi, who in 14S7 destroyed
Praed was graduated in 1826, and called to the it. In 1446 it was again rebuilt by the Colon-
bar in 1829. In 1880 and 1881 he was return- nas. In 1680 it was sold by Francesco Colonna
ed to parliament for St, Germain in Cornwall, to Carlo Barberini, brother of Urban Till., for
and soon took a prominent place among the the sum of 776,000 scudi. The modem town
younger conservative members. In 1684 ho of Palestrina is situated principally on the
was appointed secretary of the board of con- ruins of the temple of Fortune. Among the
trol, and in 188G he was returned for Great ruins of the old city many statnes and other
Tarmonth. Tie was afterward member for Ttdoablo remains of antiqnity have been dis-
Aylesbury, recorder of Barnstaple, and deputy covered, and among others the celebrated mo-
high steivard for the nniversity of Cambridge, sale, considered the finest of the ancieat mo-
In 18S6 his failing health compelled him to re- saics now existing. According to Mailer it is
sign his appointments. An edition of bis poems a natnral-historioal and ethnogr^bical repre-
was published in New York by B. W. Gria- sentation of Egypt.
wold, and an enlarged one in 2 vols, appeared FR^TOR H^at. prain, to lead), a Roman
in 1869. No complete coQeotion of bis writ- officer whose duties were chiefiy Jadldal, and
ings has ever been made. also, according to Cicero, the ^e given to the
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
PR^TOBIAN GUABDS PBAGUE 646
MDnds as leaders of the Itom&n anniea. The pop. about 8,000. Here ia 1666 Uie Poles were
office was first cre&ted in Sfl6 B. 0., when the defeated b? Oharles Gostavus of Sweden ; bat
consulship was divided between the patricians the chief interest belonging to the city b coa-
aod plebeians, and it waa given to the former sa nested with the iosurreotion of 1TS4. Eos-
an indemnification ; it was not held bj a pie- cinazko having been defeated and made pria-
beian nntil SSS. It was a kind of third consul- oner in the battle of Uaeieyowiae, the dispirited
ship, the prtetor being called the colleagne of and disorganized remnante of the Polish armj
the consuls, and appointed in the ecmitia Mn- defended the rampartB uf PrsAa against the
luriata with the same aoEmiceB, When the victorious Bnsian forces usder Suwaroff. On
consnla were absent from Rome, he eieroisod Nov. 8, 17B4, the Russian general ordered an
their functions in the city, Che senate, and the assault, and after a fierce struggle the ramparts
comitia. He was a oomle magistrate, and had were carried, more than 1Q,000 Polish soldiers
the imperium, although subject to the consuls, being slain, drowaed in the Vistula, or taken
between whom and himself there was also the prisoners, and an almost equal number of nn>
difference that he was attended b^ only 6 tic- armed inhabitants of Praga, of every age and
tore. Originally the pnetor was a consul of sex, brutally massacred. In the evening a
the preceding Tear, and after the admission of great fire arose, which destroyed a large part
plet^ians to tne office it was filled for some of the oitv. After the result Snwaroff wrotft
time alternately by the patrician and plebeian from the field of battle to the empress : " Hnr-
conanl of the preceding year. In 246 another rah I Praga 1 Bnwsroff ;" and received his pro- '
magistracy, that ot prtBtor ptreffritwijWaa are- motion in the following answer: " Bravo 1 field
sled with the special duty of deciding dia- marshall Catharine." — The vicinity of Pra^
pntes between foreigners and between citizens was the principal seat of the Foheh war ib
and foreigners; and in distinction from him 1S81.
who filled this ofilca, the other pretor was PRAGUATIO SANOnON (Gr. irpayfui, s
called prator urbaniu. These two, after elcc- deed or act), a state ordinance decreed by the
tion, decided by lot which of the two magis- monarch or legislature. The phrase seems to
trades should be filled by each ; and if one of have originated with the Byzantine monarchs,
them departed from the city at the head of an but was early introduced into France, and is
■rmy, the other discharged hia duties. After now applied to several state decrees which
the extension of the Roman power beyond the have become historical. I. The ordinance of
limits of Italy and the formation of provinces, Louis IX. (Bt. Loois) in 1239, by which the lih-
pnetoTv were sent to govern them. Thus In erties of the Galilean church were established,
227, Sicily and Sardinia having been subjagat- U. That of Oharles VII. of France, proclaim-
ed, pnetors were created for the purpose of gov- ed at Bonrgea in I4S8, confirming the decrees
erning them ; and the some thing happened on of the eooucil of Basel, and thereby anthoriz-
the conquest of Spain. Under Sylla the nnm- ing the election of bishops by cathedral chap-
ber of prtetors was raised to B ; nnder Julius ters, &c. It was abandoned by Louis XL, but
Cesar successively to 10, to 13, to 14, to 16- after his qnorrel with the pope it hod again the
nnder Au^astus it varied, but was finally fixed foroe of law until, in 1516, Francis I. subetitnt-
st 12 ; and under Tiberius it rose again to 16. ed for it his concordat with Leo X. HI. The
By OUudiua two preetors were created for mat- ordinance confirming the decrees of the same
tars of fldei eommima, but Titns redOced the eounoil, adopted in Germany In 1439 by the
Dumber to one; another, however, was created dietofMentz. It was abandoned in 144S by the
by Vcrva with the duty of deciding qaestions diet in consequence of negotiatiouB with Pope
between the JIkv* and individuds. At all Nicholas V. IV. The instrument by whidi
tones, however, the prator urbanui was the the Austrian emperor Charles VL, in de&uk
first in position, and was specially spoken of as of nude heirs, endeavored to secure the saccca-
the pnetor. He was the chief magistrate for sion to his heirs of the female line. This ordi-
the administraton of Justice, and conld not be nance was ratified by the estates of all the king-
away from Rome for more than 10 days at a doms sndprincipalitieB of the Austrian empire,
time. His daty also woe to snperintend the andbymostof thesovereignticaof Enropefrom
Ivdi ApoUirtara. He, along with the prator 1730, In consequenoe of this, the archduchess
peregrimu, had the right of issuing edicts, and Usria Theresa, wife of Francis of Lorrune, aa-
these edicts were one of the sources of Roman cended the throne. The attack of Frederic the
law, under the title ot jut honorarium or pro- Great of Fruasia on the Austrian province .of
toriam. Under Hadrian these edicts were col- Silesia, however, was the signal for a violatiOB
lected and arranged by Balvius Jnlianus, and of the instrmnent and for a general war
entitledwiieiumjwrpitdium/andafterthereign throughout Europe. V. The instrument by
of that emperor they no longer exercised t£c which Oharks III. of Sp^n, in 1759, settled
ri^t. They however eiisted long afterward, theright of sncceswon to the throne of the Two
PR.<SrORIAK GUARDS. Sec GuAiins. Kcilies upon his third son and his descendants.
PRAGA, a fortified town of Russian Poland, PRAGUE {Johem. Praha; Germ. Pro?),
in the government of Warsaw, on the right the capital of Bohemia, aitaatcd on both sides
bank of the Vistula, opposite Warsaw, with of the river lloldan, 7G m. S. B. E. from Drea-
whioh it is oonneoted by a bridge of boats; den, in lot. S0° 6' N., long. 14° 26' £,; pop>
vol. xni. — 36
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
548 fKAQUE FBAHOE DOG
titaat 146,000. It is oTsrlooked upon all rides said, it> stadotts nnmbwed 30,000. The ori^
by Todcy eminences, and Bnirotiiided hj a wall nal sahool is now entirely devoted to iiutrao-
13 m. in oircnmfereDce, which has B gatei. tiou in medicine, law, and the idencea, and a
The city is divided into Sportiooa, the Altetadt, new one ie established for education in theology.
Keuatadt, Josephstadt, Hradschin, and Elein- Fiagne has mannfkctorieB of printed cotton,
Mite. On the right or £. bank of the river are linen, dlk, and woollen fobrics, jewelry, mathe-
the Altstadt, or old town, the principal bnaineat matical and mnsoal instmmaita, paper, leathn',
Saarter ; the Nenatadt, or new town, which hats, liqneors, earthenware, &c. Several aunoal
as broad, regular streets, but is inhabited fairs ore held. — Thedateof theori^nof Kwie
chiefly by the poorer claases ; and the Joseph- is not known, bst a portdon of it waa probably
Btadt, or Jadenstadt, the Jews' quarter, a laty- built in the 8th century. It has suffered great^
rinth of narrow, dirty streets, snd low hooses. from tlie ravsges of war, particolarly dnring
The Jews have magistrates and a tJiwa hall of the Hnssite contests. It witnened Uie first
their own, in which they condnct the affurs ontbreak of the 80 years' war in 1618, and in
of their community. On the left bank are the 1620 the battle which ruined the fortunes of
Hradschin, with many edifices of historic in- the elector Frederic was fought near its gates
tereat, and the Eleinseite, which contains the at the foot of the White mountain. InlSSlthe
houses of the aristocracy and the ancient Bo- city was taken by the elector of Saxony, and the
bemian noblea, with gudene and shrubberies next year was retaken by the imperisli^ □ndo'
that in many oosea extend high np the irregn- Wallenstein. The Swedes gamed poaaefson
lar hills behind. Two bridges span the Moldan of the Eleinaeite in 1648, but evacnated it in
within the dty, beside the railroad bridge of the &ame year upon the conclusion of the peace
t^e Prague and Dresden line. The CarlebrQcke, of Westphalia. Pra^e was taken by the
1,790 feet long, has 16 arches, and is ornament- French and Bavarians m 1741. In 1744 it was
ed on each side with 28 statues of saints. Fur- reduced by Frederio the Great after a severe
thcr up the river is an iron anspenBion bridge, bombardment, but restored by the peace of
built in 1841. The most interesting of Uie Dresden in the next year. The same monarch
public buildings of Prague is the castle of defeated the Aostrians before the city in 1757.
Eradsohin, for centaries the residence of the In 1848 Prague was the seat of the Staria con-
Bohemian kings, and sdd to contain 440 spart- gress, and the scene of a national Bohemian
ments. It was orimnally bnilt in 1363 by the ontbreak in Jtme, when a desperate contest
emperor Oharlea Iv., bat having been destroy- took place. Windisohgrstz, however, gained
ed by fire in the 16th century it was rebuilt In posseauon of the Hradschin, and thence bora-
the 18th. From a window in this edifice, nearly barded the rest of the city, and by the 19th of
BO feet above the ground, two onpopular mem- Jmie the inaorreotion was entirely put down,
bera of the imperial government were thrown PBAIKIE. Bee Pluhs.
in 1618 by the Bohemian nobles and depnties ; PRAIRIE, a central co. of Ark., bounded £,
this act virtually began the SO jears' war. In by Whit« river and N. by Oypreas bayoo, one
the Batbhans, or town ball, in the Altstadt, of its branches, and by bayons Metoe and Dea
portions of which date from 1400, the ancient Arc ; area, 1,060 eq. m. ; pop. in IBGO, 8,804,
corporations of Prsgae held tbeir deliberations of whom 2,8SS were slaves. It has a nearly
and banquets. In the Josephstadt is & Jewish level surface covered by prairies and forests.
synago|nie remarkable for its antiquity, it be- The productions in 1854 were 134,996 bushds
ing believed to bo the oldest in Europe. The of Indian com, 1,456 of oata, and 1,484 bales
oatbedral, which stands near the Hradschin, of cotton. Capital, BrownsvUl&
finished in 1486, of Gothic architecture, con- PRAIRIE DOO (eyjumyt, Raf.), a genns of
tains the chapel and ahrine of St. John Ne- American rodents, intermediate between the
pomnoen, ornamented with abont 87 owt. of marmots and the spermophiles or prune eqair-
silver, and a splendid mausoleum erected by rels. The cheek pouches are very radiment-
Budolph 11. over the bodies of several Bo- ary ; the eyes large, and the ears very short ;
hemian aovereigns. The Theinkirche in the 6 distinct claws on all the fe^ those on the
Altstadt contains the tomb of the astronomer fore feet much the largest; the body thick and
Tycho Brahe. On the highest pohit of land in low, the feet large, and the tail short and thin-
Prague stands the Btrahow monastery, which ly haired; the skull short and very broad, with
haa a library of 60,000 volumes. Of the nn- the zygomata strongly convei^nt anteriorly;
merons palaces in the Kleinseite, the most re- molars very largo, arranged in curves, stron^y
markable is that of WaUenstein, which, though divergent anteriorly, and near leather behind.
unfinished, is of immense extent; some apart- The common prairie dog ( (7, Xfuioetcumua, Ord)
ments with their furniture remain in their ori- is about 18 inches long, with the tail 4 mora;
^nal state, and the palace still belongs to a the color above is reddish or cinnamon brown,
branch of Wsllenst^n's family. Some of the with lighter tips to the hairs and a few Uack
palaces contain considerable libraries, as the ones intermixed; beneath, brownish white or
Lobkowitz palace, which has 70,000 volumes, yellow; tail like the back, with a black tip; in
and the Einsky p^sce, which haa 40,000. The winter the color above is more grayish; the
university of Prague was founded in 1S48, and hind soles hsve a hairy patch. This wood-
at the be^nning of the 16th caatnry, it la ohock in miniature is ^nndant on the plains
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PRAIRIE DV CmTKK PRAIRIE SQCIREEL 647
w«st of the JOncmii river, extending u tai PRAHtlE BQUIRBEI., the common nsme
aoT&i M the Ihnits of the United Btates, and of the North Ameriean Todente of the genua
eonth to lat 80° N. ; it is confined to the prai- ipermopHlui (Cut.), most of them coming nn^
lies, and feeds on plants and oooasIonaU? ou aer Brandt's snb-genns ototpsrmopMlv* ; ihtfj
insecta. Prairie dogs live in Bocietr, hundreds belong to the marmot family, and seem to con-
in the same district, their nnnierous barrows nect these with the ground sqnirrels. The ears
placed oloae together, and aometimea extend- are moderate but generallj distinct, the tail
iogover a apace of milea, meriting thecommon long and Bqnirrd-lilce, and the cheek poaches
name of dog towns or yillagea ; around the well developed ; the Bolea behind the toes are
month of the borrows the earth is heaped np hairy in winter, naked in sommer ; the claw
to a height of abont IS inches, fh>m the top of of the thumb ia very small, or is replaced by a
which ue occupants delight to surrey what is flat nail ; the body more slender tnan in the
going oa in the oommonit; ; their barrows are marmot OT woodchnck. These animals take
so deep and eztensiTo, that riding among them the place of the tree sqnirrels in the West,
ia ottea dangerous to horses' limbs ; fond of and are fitted for t«rrestrial life on the grassy
standing erect at the mouth of their borrow, prairiee, feeding on the roots and seeds tn
and nw«lf going a great distance from it, prMrie plants; the body ia rather thick-set,
they retreat in a comical tumbling manner at and the legs and toes short, with straight naib
the least riga of danger, aftor a short time for digging ; they pass the winter in a torpid
peeping ont, aqoirret-like, to ascertain the state in the cold regions, careftilly stopping up
caase of alarm. They feed chiefly at night, are the months of their holes; they are diumd
very dij, and when shot, unless killed ont- and gre^^oiiB, thongh to a lees extent than
right, ahnost always manage to get into their the prune dogs. The Oalifomia prturie sqnir-
holes; they are active, playfU, very proliflc, rel (S. Beedieyi, F. Ouv.) Is about 11 inches
and from their habitat as yet not iqjnrions to long, with a tail abont 8 ; the general color
vegetation; their flesh is tender, fat, andjnicy. above is an indistinct mottling of black, jA-
In the northern districts they hibernate during lowi^ brown, and brown ; below pale yellow ;
winter. The prmrie dog was probably so a broad hoary white patch on the aides of neok
named from the sharp tone of its chatter, some- and shoulders, extenoing hack a short distance
what resembling the yelp of a small dog, as it on the aides ; ears acnte and promiuent, block
beai3 no resemblance to the dog in external on the inside ; tail flattened and well covered
appearance ; it is the petit ehien of the French with* hairs ; body slender, and the head acute,
Canadians and the wUUonwUh of the western with long whiskers ; fur short, thin, and coarse.
Indians. Borrowing owls and rattlesnakes oo- This ^edes causes mnch damage to the farmer
copy the burrows with the prairie dogs, both in the fields of grun and the vegetable garden,
doubtless feeding on the young rodents and and by disturbing the soil in their excavations.
occasionally on the half-grown animals; it is The grayprairie squirrel or gopher (3. Franh-
rbable that they could not master the adults, lini, F. Ouv.) is mottled yellowiah gray and
regard to the snakes, Mr. Kendall, in his brown, with a gray hoad ; the length is »
narrative of the Santa F6 expedition, says that inahes ; it inhabits the western states, some-
the prairie dogs are " compelled to let them times annoying the farmer by digging up his
pass in and ont without molestation — a nui- newly planted com and eating the grain as it
aanoe, like many in more elevated society, that fills ; it is fbnd of burrowing under drains and
cannot be got nd of." A smaller species, with ditches. The best known species is the striped
a shorter tail, is fonnd ou the plains near the prmrie squirrel (A tredeetm-lineatut. And. and
Colnmbia river: this, the V. Oolumbiantu Bach.), 6 inches long, with a tail of 4; the
(Ord), is of a reddish color above, with the tail color is dark brown above, with 9 stripes of
edged and tipped with white. this color alternating with 8 of a yellowish
PRAIRIE DU OHIEN, a village and the gray (17 in all, the lower ones not always dis-
capital of Crawford co.. Wis., on the Hiausaippi tinct), the 6 central ones of the former wiHi
river, 4 m. above the month of the Wiscoosm ; yellowish dots and spots; lower parts and tail
pop. in 1S60, 8,000. It is sitnated on a pnurie brownish yellow, vie latter margined and
8 m. long and 2 m. wide, bordered on the E. tipped with blackish. It is found abundantly
by rocky blnSk, There are a number of ancient on the western prairies, above lat. 40° N.
mounds in the village, and in the vicinity are In Iowa, Wisconsin, tUnnesota, and northern
rich copper mines. It oonuJns 4 obnrchee Illinois, it is commonly called gopher; for the
(Uethodist, Congregational, Episcopal, and Ro- true animal of this name Igeom^t hurtarmt,
man Catholic), and an academy directed by Rich.), see Qophsb. It is not fonnd in heavy
Dominican nuns. It is the terminus of the timber lands, but sometimea in oak openuigs,
^waokee and Prairie du Ohien railroad, 192 and generally on t^e prairies ; its burrows aro
m. in length, and has steamboat commnnicatioa bo shallow that a tew pdlflus of water will
with St. Paul's and other ports of the Wssis- commonly drown it ont. The ftrod consist*
nppL Prairie du Chieu is one of the oldest of grasses, roots, seeds, insects, and fleld mice;
towns in the West, having been settled by the though it is sometimes destrnotive in newly
French about 1740. eultivet«d diatriots or in neglected fields, to aa
PRAIRIE "BES. 8eeGBOii8E,vol.vilLp.019. extent which may require a second planting,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
PBAranr. WOUP
jt disappears before the plough, and rarely at- vote hU time to literature. Haviiis prodooed
taoks old and well onltivated fields ; it brings aereral TOlnmes of poems, he publiahed in 1849
forth 6 or 7 joong, once a fear, in Uaj or a volnme entitled "Politiciu Bonge," among
June. Its sooUiem representative is the 3. whioh the "H711111 to Italj" and the "Bong
MeseieamuCWtanX of the Future" became famona in Italy.
PRAIRIE WOLF. See Wou. PRATINCOLE (jflareola, Brise.), a genna of
PRAM, CmiwirAS Bbbbikbeii, a Danish wadiog birds of the plorer familj, inhabiting
Soet, born in Qnldbrandadalen, Sept. 4, 17fifl, the temperate and warmer redone of tlie iM
ied in the island of 8t.Thomaa,NoT. 20, 18fil. world. Abont half a dozen species are deecrib-
He was edacated at the tmiyersit;' of Oopen- ed in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Anstralia, fr»-
hagen, and in 1T81 wasappointedtoatitnation qnenting the borders ofrivers, lakes, and marsbr
in the ohamber of commerce. Abont the same es, in low and in high regions ; the food conosts
time he fomided the SandtUtideade or " Jour- of wonns and insects, ^cliich thef pick irom the
nal of Oommerce," with which he was con~ rtc'Di^ er aquatic plants, or take on the wing
neoted ft>r 6 years. He originated the "Ui- nke swallows; thej flj and nm ywrjaviSij;
nerra," a literary periodical, and in coi^nnction the nest ts a dight atmotore on the groosd,
with some friends established the Scandinavian among the thick herbage of the marshes, and
literary society, of whioh he was president for the eggs 8 or 4 in nnmber. The collared pra-
a number of years. Ee held an ofBcial ap- tinoole {G. pratineola, Pall.) is abont th« nte
S ointment in St. Thomas at the time of hia of a blackbird, B inches long; it is brown above,
eath. Hia principal works are the Sterr-Kbd- white on the mmp and below ; the throat sor-
der, a poem in 16 cantos upon the old Bcandi- rounded by a black circle ; the base of the biB
navian legends ; and the tragedies "Damon and and the feet reddish. It is plendfiil in Anv
Pythias" and " Frode and Fingal." A colleo- tria, and has received one of its qjedfio names
tion of his miscellaneous works was ]>iiblished (Jurtrfocd) from that country; it is occasionally
by Rahbek in ]824-'6, in 4 vols. found in England, and is extenMvely ^atribnted
PRASLIN, a French marqnisate, deriving over the old world ; it is usually seen in flocka,
its name from a village of Oiampagne, near which are very noiey ; the food conmsts diiefly
Bar-snr-Seine, department of Aube, whioh was of beetles and grasshoppers. It so resembles
in possession of the main branch of the house the swallows in its forked tail and Sight, that
of Choiseul, but in lOBO came into that of the it was at first placed among them by linntens;
counts of Obevigny, another branch of the from its appearance and habits on the ground
same house, and in 1T62 was made a dnke- it is called seapartridgeby the French, though
dom. I. C£sAB Gabbul DB OBOTSBin., dnke of rarely found near the coast. The cream-coloKd
Praslin, bom in Paris in I7l2, died in ITBC, pratincole (0. laeUa, Temm^ is a emaUer q>e-
sQcceeded his cousin, the celebrated dnke de cies, living on the banks of the Ganges ; its
Ohotseul, as ambassador at Yienna, and in 1TS3 color above and on the wings is cinereous white,
signed the treaty which pnt an end to the 7 below white; quills and under wing coverts
years' war. He was afterward suooesmvely black; tail feathers, except the outer ones,
minister of foreign affairs and of marine, im- with a black spot. The Australian pratincole
Cting^reatenei^ to naval afi'airv, and shared {0. habella, Vieill.) has the breast and upper
oonsm'a disgrace in 1770. II. AuroiNBOft- parts lightmfons; throatandnppertailcoverto
SAB Ffiuz, grandson of the preceding, bom in white ; abdomen bright chestnut ; quills and
1776, died in Paris, June 28, ISSB, a zealons tinder wing coverts black ;- it has a stouter bill
follower of Napoleon, and' chamberlain to the and longer legs than the other species, Imd ap-
empresa Msria Louisa, was made fioer during the proaches the coursers (eunoriui, LaUi.).
Hundred Day?, struck off the list after the res- PRATT, Ohasles. See Caksxb, Eabi.
toration, and reinstated !n 1B17. III. Csaslks PRAWN, a marine decapod omstacean, of
LADitsEnQTisaTHftoBALD, son of the preceding, the macrouroua division and genus palain»ii
bominl786,diedAag.28,1847. Hemaniedhi (Fabr.). About SO species are described, mostly
1825 the daughter of Uarshal Sebastiani, who of email size, though some trom tropical re^ns
brought with her a large dowry, and bore him are a toot long ; they somewhat resemble the
10 ohildren. On Aug. 18, 1847, she was found crawfishes in appearance, habila, and move-
mnrdered in her house in the fkubourg St. ments. The carapace is broad, prolonged an-
HonorS in Paris. Suspieion fell upon her hna- teriorly into an acute, laterally fiatteaied ros-
band, who had been for several years estranged tmm, with 8 or 6 teeth above and 8 or 4 below,
and partially separated from his wife ; he was usually extending beyond the peduncles of the
carried to prison, and there died from taking antennte; the eyea large and prominent; the
poison. His guilt was placed beyond all donbt. let and 2d paira of feet terminate in 2-fingered
— The present duke aod head of the family is claws, the 2d pair the largest and longest;
GAaroH Lotns Pmuppx, bom Ang. 7, 1834. carpus inarticulate ; external jaw-fe«t short and
PRATI, OiovAinn, an Italian poet, born at stender; external antennra very long, with &
Daadndo, in the IVrolese Alps, Jan. 27, 1815. ecaleat the base, and sometimes with 8 threads;
The snooess of his first poem, £dmengarda (Mi- fi pairs of fin-like fringed feet under the tail, the
PRAZITEUS PREBLE 649
jnindpal Bwimming organs in fbrvard looomo- I7 eclipsed the funs of the draped Btatoe. So
tion ; tail ending in movable leafiets as in the highly did the Onidiaus tbemaelvea esteem it,
lobster, b; which the animal darts rapidly baok- that when King Nicomedes ofTered them as the
ward when alarmed. The beet known, most price of it to pay off the whole of their heavy
eommoD, and most esteemed as food, is the eer- pablio debt, they preferred not to part with a
rated prawn (P. terratui. Leach), found on the work which gave their city its ohief renown.
coasts of England and France, in rooky ^tna- The statne was afterward taken to Oouatanti-
tioQS, and in still, clear water, living among the nople, where it perished by fire in the reign of
floating sea weeds; itiaaboatlinchealong, of a Jnstinian. Praxiteles also made two marble
bright gray color, spotted and lined with darker gtatnea of Eroe. It is said that in his foadness
pnrplish gray ; it turns red by boiling. It is for Phryne, the artist had promised to give her
tttken in traps resembling lobster pots, but of whichever of hia works she chose, but would
smaller size and closer meshes, and in bag neU. not tell her which of them he thought the beat.
The flesh b tender, sweet, nntritions, and easily To dieoover this she sent a aiave to tell him
digested ; it ia generally cooked in vinegar and that a fire had broken out in his honse, and
salt; on aoconnt of the thinness of the shell that his works would perish, whereupon he
the whole animal !a eaten ; lai^e nnmhers cried out that all his toil was lost if the fire
ore consumed, and the London market is sup- had touched his satyr or his Eros. The words
plied prindpally from the isle of Wight and the were reported to Phryne, who chose the Eros,
Hampshire coast ; the females in spring, when and dedicated it at Thespiffi. It was of Pente-
with eggs, are most highly esteemed ; they are lie marble, with the wings gilt, and repreeented
also used as bidt ; they must be cooked very the god ia the flower of youfli. The aatyr is
soon, as the flesh decomposes quickly, and with s^d to have stood alone in the street of the
an almost insnpportable odor. Very many are tripods at Athens, and it is supposed that sev-
devoored by fishes, but their numbers are kept eral marble statues, which represent a aatyr
undiminished by their remarkable fecundity, leaning against the tnmk of a tree, are oopies
They are rapid swimmers when alarmed, of it. The best specimen of these is in the
There are other species in the Mediterranean, Capitolinemnaenm at Rome. The marble statues
the largest of which are salted, and are con- of Praxiteles are thought to have been covered
snmed by the Greeks and Armeniuis during with a thin encaustic varnish of flesh color.
Lent, with the allied genosj^itiuBui^Fabr.). The PREBEND (Lat.^f>rE&«7uIa), in thedinrchof
American prawn (P. vulgarity Say) is mnoh like En^and, a sum set apart from the revenue of
the P. iquiHa (Eabr.) of Europe ; it is a little a cathedral church for the snpport of a clergy-
la^er than the shrimp, ahont 1^ inches long, man called a prebendary, on the condition of
and may be known by the large, upturned, hia officiating occasionally therein. By the act
toothed rostrum ; the fingers of the Sd pair of 8 and 4 Victoria, all prebendaries are hence-
feet are shorter than the hand. Larger species forth styled canons, " honorary," who have no
are the P./orMpsfU.Edw.), from Rio Janeiro, emolument, and "reddent," who receive a ati-
Ci inches long ; P. omaUu (Oliv.), from the In- pend, and the number attacdied to each oathe-
diaa archipelago, 0 inches ; P. Jamaicmtit dral is defined.
(Oliv.), frvm the West Indies, 10 to IS inches; PREBLE, a B. W. co. of Ohio, bordering on
and P. eareinw (Fabr.), from the Indian seas, Ind,, and drtdned by Franklin, Four MUe, and
about a foot. Sl Olair creeks, tribotories of the Great Uiami;
PSAZITELES, a Gtreek soalptor. who lived ar«a, 482 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 21,820. It has
intheIatterha]fofthe4thcenturyB.O. Noth- a nearly level snrface and very fertile soiL
ing is known of his personal history, escept The prodaotions in 1S30 ware 1,175,391 bnsh-
tiiat he was a resident of Athena. He ranks els of Indian com, 3S8,485 of wheat, 161,936
at the head of the later Attic school. Without of oats, 10,221 tons of hay, and 73,121 Iba. of
any attempt at the sDhlime impersonations of wool. There were 18 grist tnillti, 24 saw mil la,
deity by which Phidias had become famous, 4 woollen factories, 8 tanneries, 3 newspapers,
he was unsurpassed in the exhibition of the SI chnrobes, and 8,120 pnpils attending publio
softer beauties of the hnmAu form. In the schools. It is intersected by the Dayton and
Onidian Venus, his most oelebrated work, of western, and the Oindnnati, Eaton, and Rich-
Parian marble, modelled from the courtesan mond railroads. Capital, Eaton,
Phryne, he expressed perfectly the idea of een- PREBLE, Edwabd, an officer of the U. S.
suat oharms. The position of the left hand navy, bom at Falmouth neck, the site of the
was the same as in the Venus de' Medici; the present city of Portland, Me., Ang. 16, 1761,
right hand held some drapery which fell over died in Portland, Ang. 26, 1B07. His father,
a vase beside the statne, and was intended to Jedidiah Preble, served under Wolfe, waa
indi<:ate that she had just left the bath. Pliny wounded at the capture of Quebec, subsequently
reconnta that Praxiteles made two statues held a commission as. brigadier-generJ from
of Venus, the one draped, the other naked, the provincial congress of Massachusetts, and
and that he thooeht them of equal value, and was a representative and senator in congress
offered them for the same price; that the peo- (ITBO) ana judgeof the court of common pleas.
pie of Cos bought the draped one, the people Edwud entered the provindal marine of Mas-
of OnldnstheoUier; and that this latter total- saohnsetts as a midshipman in 1779, was in tlie
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
utioB betmen fiw Protoetor, 96 gmu, utd tbe the gnn boata, btnnb TMsdfl, and prim in tow,
£d(^u1i prirataer Geoeral Dnff, Which blew op and bkiiled nff under com 4rf th« Ooutitn-
after a MTere omnbst, vas aftwward colored tion's fin. The AmeriiMn loaawaa but 14 UUed
off the Penobaoot, and became a priaoner on and -woimded. On the 6tlt another attack was
board the priaon abip JeiMj in the harbor of made, bnt with leaa roeoean, aa tite Tiimditana
New Tork. On bang liberated he joined the kept oloee within the harbn. Oneof freble'a
HassaohoHtta reiatl <rf war Winduv^ Oaptdn gtm boata waa irank. Anothw genmd attadc
Oeorve Little, end diatangniahed binwelf bj was made on tiie 28th, when ^nt S o'ck>ck
boarding, with 14 men, an Engliah armed brig A. IL the gnn boat^ eorered by the biiga and
Ijing at anchor off Oaitine, wd eaiTTiiiK her schooners uidaocoi^ianiedbj all tlw boala of
oat ander fire cf an Engliah battery. He re- the aqoadnm, anchored wiA apringa on their
ceiTedtheGomDnasionoflieatenantintheU.B. cablea cloae to the rocka st the antnnoe to the
navyinlTSBiand tookoonunandof the Picker- harbor. Thej' weav in two divimona aa before,
ing, one of Commodore John Barry's aqnadron and aa soon aa they anchored ootDmeoeed a fire,
stationed among tlie Windward ialands. Atthe Aaday dawned the ConstitntitaiRtocd in ander
close ot 17W be waa promoted to be captain, a heavy fire, and at this time IS IMpolitan gnn
the intermediate rank of master commandant boats and galleys were cloeely engaged with tlM
being passed over, and appointed to command 8 American boata. As the ammmutkui ot the
the Essex, 88, in which he went ont to BataTia, latter waa nearly exhaaated. Com. PreUe wder-
and convoyed home a fleet of 14 merchant ves- ed them to retire, and as his frigate came op
•els. Owmg to ill health he remained nnem- opened a fire npon Uie Tripolitan boala, I?
ployed until 180S, when he received command which one was sank and two were driven
of the sqaadron sent s^unst TripoU. Hie flag- adkore ; the rest retraated. The Constitntkin
ship waa the Oonatitation, 44; and the other laythreeqaarteraofaahonrwithinmndetahot
veaaels of the squadron were the Philadelphia, of the mde, pouring a heavy and deatmctiye
88, C^>t. Bainbrid^; Argos, 16, lient. De- fire upon thetownbatterie8,nntiI0Mn.I^eble,
oatnr; ^en, 16, Lient. Charles Stewart; £n- finding that all his ranall vessels were ont of
terprise, 12, Lient. Isaac Ball ; Naotilns, 19, gnn d^ot, haoled off. The American veasela
Lient. Bichard Scmers; and Vixen, 13, Lient. were mnch cat np aloft, bnt otiierwise sua-
John Smith. The att«ntioa of Preble was first tained little iiyory. A boat of tike John
directed toward Morocoo, and anchoring at Adams (which had joined the a^oadron on
Tangiers with a part of his squadron in Oct. the 6thl waa ennk by a ^ot which kiQed S
1803, he opened negotiations br which he final' men. A heavy ahot from one of the Ameri^
ly ])laced onr relations with that power on a can gon boats pasaed throngb a room in the
friendly footing. On Nov. 13 he gave formal castle in vhich Capt Bainbridge was con-
notice of the Uookade of Tripoli, off which port fined. He was in bed at the mcnnuit, and the
he supposed the Philadelphia, the Vixen, and shot reboonding from the opponte wall fell
otiier small veeaels then to be. On the 97th he npon his bed within S inches of him. On
arrived atUalta, where he received letters from Bept 8, a 4th attack was made. The Tiipoli-
Capt. B^bridge apprising him of the csptore tans had in the mean time ruaed and added
of the Philaddphiai At the anggestion of to Qidr fiotilla their boata which had been
Bdnbridge, with whom he kept np a corre- snnk on Ang. 8 and 86. They alao very jndi-
qMUdencc^ the Philadelphia was destroyed at cioosly changed their mode of fightings by
her anchorage in the harbor by Lient. Deoatnr keeping thor boata nnder way while in a^on.
Stee Deoatus, Strphkm), Feb. 10, 1804. On On this occasion the bomb veesds were direct-
oly 2S Preble was before Tripoli with 16 sail, ed to throw aheUa, iritile the gnn boata in two
indnding 9 bomb vessels armed each with a IS- divirions, commanded aabe^e by Decatarutd
inch mortar, and 6 gnn boats of 2G tons, bnilt Somers, and covered by the brigs and edkoon-
for harbor service, and carrying each a 24- era, attacked t^e Tripolitan flotilla. Ccon.
ponnder. These gnn boats and bomb veasela Preble brooght to in the OMistitirtiim very near
were borrowed of the Ke^»olitan government, the rooks, in a position where 70 heavy gone
The first attack was made on Ang. 8 npon the bore npon his idiip. Here she opened a very
enemy'a gnn boata, which were anchored in heavy fire, ailencing the enemy's batteries in
8 diviaona, two ot them outside and one inside sncceaaion. The ship suffered ve^ much, as
a line of rocke which forms the harbor, the waa to be expected, fbr she waa expoaed to
whole being vrotected by batteries <m shore, more than douole her nnmber of gnna, ^ner-
Aboatlo'idookF.l[.Prebleatoodfwthot«wn ally of heavier calibar, and protected by atone
in the Oonstitation, his gnn boata fbllowing in walla. After throwing more than 800 round
two divisious nnder Deratur and Bcmera. As shot, she hwiled off, having byngnal previoas-
tbey neared the harbor the Gonstdtatdon abortr ly dmoted the other veeada to ^ so. By this
enc^ sail and opened a destractive fire n^Kin time preparationsforanotliwniecaesof annoy-
the batteries, while the gnn boata dosed with ance, which Com. Preble bad meditated fv
the Tripohtans, carried 8 of the largest by some time, were completed. The Intrepid, a
boarding, and snnk B others. After a desperate ketch, oaptnred from the enemy, and which
hand-favband confiiot of more than 8 hours, the IJeut Decatnrhad naed indesb«yingtbePhil-
Bmaller vessels of the American aqoadron took adelphio, was ooitveri«d into a flre£ip. In •
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PbEOESSION OP THE EQUIKOXBB FEEM.aSBTB.A.TES6US& 661
BBftll maguiDe pnqpar«d fbr the pnrpow 100 tbe^laneoftheeoliptic. ItiBsooaQedfromita
tMirela oi mnpowder in bulk were placed, and oaosmg the sua to arrive in either equinox ft
OB the dac^ immediBtelT above it were depos- little earlier than he otherwise would. The
ited 160 diells, with a large qaantity of eliot, effect is to increase Che longitadee of the fixed
Ac, and a proper traia was laid. Oapt. Som- stars at the rate of ahout 60^" annoallT. The
en omumanded the expedition, and lieat disoover; of the movement is doe to Hippar-
Wadsworth of the OonstitDtioa was aeoond in ohus, abont 150 B. O. Gopemicua was the
command, both volanteera. The night of Sept. first to give a trae explanation of the phenom-
4 wae selected for the attempt, and the la- enon. Newton disoorered ita physical canse.
trepid stood in, accompanied 07 several small This canae is the attraction of the snn, moon,
remels, which hove to at different stations to and planets upon the spheroidal figure of the
pick up the retreating boats. Two of the fast- earth, giving to the axis a gyratory or conical
est boats of the sqaadron, manned by volan- motion well repreeented by the waving or nod-
teera from the Oonstitution and NaatUns, had ding of a top in spinning. The pole of the
bean selected to bring the party off. The wind eqnator is thoa made to shift ita place, perform-
was li^t, the night dark and hazy, and the ing a complete revolntion aronnd the pole of
sea perfectly smooth. The Intrepid when last the eoliptio in 36,868 years. The valae of pre-
BMU was not a musket shot from the mole, and oeamon ts erroneonsly gives by Ptolemy. The
seemed to be still standing in. Abont this Arabian aatronomera reached a resnlt much
time the batteries opened, and after a few mo- nearer the true value.
menu of suspense a light like that of a volcano PREf^HPTION'. See OoonPAiroT.
illnminated the harbor, which was followed by PREGNANCY. Bee Uxdioai. Jubibfbii-
• cononssion that shook even the vessels in the dbsoe, and OnsrEnaos.
offing. The transient light of the explosion PREMONSTBATENSIANS, a reli^ons or-
enabled the fleet to see t^t the Intrepid bad der in the Roman OathoUo choroh, founded in
not reached the point at which she umed. It the dioceee of Laon, France, in 1120, by St.
■was now th^t the return of the adventurers Korbert, a canon re^niar from Xant^, Ger- -
was looked for with the most intense anxiety, many, who afterward (1127) became arch-
bnt they never reamieared. The vessels on bishop of Magdeborg, died in 1134, and was
this datj remained on the harbor nntil the son canonized in 1584. On a meadow sitnated in
roee, bat, with the exoeption of a few fragments the forest of Ooncy, and pointed ont to him, as
hero and there upon the rocks, nothing of the he believed, from heaven (whence the name of
Intr^id oontd be seen. One of the TripoUtan the order, pri vumttri, " the meadow pointed
gon boats was missing, and some other dam^e ont"), Norbert gathered his first disdples, and
vas supposed to have been done, bnt on the gaTethemtheatrictmleofSt.Aagastine. They
whole a serions loss was sostuned by the were at first a congregation of regular canons,
Americans without any commensurate damage and as snob were confirmed in 1128 by Pope
to the enemy. It was subsequently known, Honorins II. ; but ^adually they assumed all
through Capt. Bainbridge, that the bottom of the distinctive peouliarities of a monastic com-
die ketch grounded near the mole, and that munity. The order ^read with great rapidity;
some mangled bodies, which could not be iden- in France it gained great popularity through
tified, were pitted np. On Sept. 8 Oom. Sam- its efforts for t£e suppression of the Albigenses,
oel Barron arrived off Tripoli in the President and in Oermanyitaooomolatedimmense riches,
44, with the Oonstelladon, 88, and relieved and several of the abbots were raised to tlie
Oom. Preble, who soon after sailed in the John rank of princes of the empire. The abbot of
Adams for the United States, where he arrived the parent convent of Pr6montr£, near Coney,
Feb. S6, 1805. His services were fully appre- had the title of general, and he formed with
dated by the country. He received a gold three other French abbots the enpreme coundt
medsJ from congress, the thanks of which of the order. From time to time he called to-
were also bestowed upon him and all the offi- gether the superiors of all the houses for a
oere and men nader his command. A marble general ch^ter. A female branch of the or-
aonument, executed in Italy, was erected by der was esbtblished simultaneously with that
Uie officers of the navy in 1806 to the memory of monks, and, as in several other orders found-
of the officers who feU at Tripoli, in the navy ed at that time, the female convents were at
yard at Washington, and was afterward trans- first contiguous to those of the monks, and
feared to the grounds of the navat school at only separated from them by a wall. Later,
Annwolis. The health of Oom. Preble de- however, this arrangement was given up. At
clined after his return. In 1806 President Jef- the time of the reformation the order had about
feiEon desired Xo place him at the head of the S,000 convents, of which abont 500 were for
Davy department but the state of his health did women. As the great majority of the conventA
not permit him to accept the position. Ue was were in England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany,
an offioer of the highest professional character Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, the order snjf-
aod conduct, and hia inflnence upon the disci- fered great losses in consequence of the auo-
plins of the service was lasting and valaable. cess of the reformation. The strictness of tha
PBEOESSION OP TEE EQUINOKES, a primitive rule having been abandoned, r»-
dow regression of &6 equinoctial points upon fonued congregations " of the strict observ-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
fi63 PBENnOE FBSPOSmOK
utce" were estAbllshed in Spain ^678) and in dection, he was chosen a representtliTe in
Franoe, which remained however in connection ccmgresa, but on aniTing at Waabington ibnnd
with the other convents, and the anion was his seat clumed t^ a memlMr chosen at a q>e-
etrengthened by new Btatot^s in 1680. In the cial election held in the preceding Jnly for the
18th centary the nnmber of convents greatlT extra ses^on of congress called in that year
decreased, and the female branch became al- by the president's proclamation. In the closelr
moat entirelj extinct. In 1860 the order bad balanced state of parties at that time in the
8 convents in Germonv (that at Prague being honse, a single vote was of great importance,
now regarded as the chief convent of the or- and that fact and the principles involved in the
der), 11 inHangarj, 2 inFrance, 4 in Belginm case rendered the "MiHraHaippi election con-
and Holland, 1 in the United Btates (at Sao test" one of nnoBaai interest. The question at-
Prairie, WiaconBin), and 1 in Cape Colony, tracted universal attention in the conntry. In
Booth Africa. The female branch, in tlie same a speech continued for 8 days llr. Prentiss
J 'ear, nnmbercd 6 convents in Poluid, Switzer- ar^ed bis claim before the hoose witli an
Uid, and Holland. abihty and oloqneace that gave him at once
PBENTIOE, Oeobob DEinBOii,an American the highest reputation as a congressional or»-
editor, born in Preston, Oonn., Dec. 16, 1803. tor. By the casting vote of the speaker the
He was educated at Brown university, Provi- honae decided against tiis admtssioD, and rc^-
dence, R. I., where fae was gradnat«d in 1828. red the matter back to the people, who at an
He stndied law, but did not engage in the prao- election in the following April sanctianed his
tice of the profession, and in 1828 became edi- claim by a triumphant minority; and on re-
tor of the " New England Weekly Review" at turning to Washington he took liu seat avow-
Hartford, a literary Joomal, which he conduct' edly under the election of November. He took
ed for two mots. At the end of that time he litUe part in the liusiness or debates of the
removed to^^niaville, Xy., where in 1881 he honse, but maintained his reputation aa an
became editor of the "Louisvillo Journal," a orator by a speech against the sub-treasarybilL
position which he atill holds, and in which he At the end of his term he declined a reelection,
nas won a high and wide-spread reputation for and devoted himself thenceforth to his profes-
political ability and for wit and satire. For uon, rarely taking part in politics. In 1B40,
many years the " Journal" was a leading advo- however, as a whig candidate for presidential
cate in the West of the policy of the whig elector, he made an active canvass of the state
party, and at present (Jnne, 1861) maintains in behalf of Gen. Harrison. He strocgly op-
with great zeal and ability the cause of the posed repudiation, and in 1846, partly in diasat-
17nion against the secesmonista. In early life isfactionwith thecocrsoadoptedbyHisasdppi,
Ur. Prentice wrote several pooing, which are he removed to New Orleans, where he passed
to be found in the collecttons of American the remunder of his life, gcdng to Natches
{>oetry, bat have not yet been gathered into a in his lost illness. Though only 41 years old
volume. A selection has been published from at the time of his death, Ur. Prentiss already
hb newspaper paragraphs nnder the title of ranked among the most eminent of American
" Prenticeana" (New York, 1860). orators, " He was distinguished," says Henrj
PBENTISS, SzAKOENT Bmith, an American Olay in a letter relating to his death, " l^ a
orator, bom in Portland, Me., Sept. 80, 1808, rich, chaste, and boondieas imapnation, the
died in Natchez, Mias., July 1, 1860. He was exhaustless resonrces of which, in heaatifhl
the son of a prosperous shipmaster, who doring loognago and happy 11 lustrations, he bronght
the war of 1813 retired to a farm in the town to tbe aid of a logical power which he wielded
of Gorham. The sou by a violent fever in in- to a very great extent. His voice was fine,
Joncy was deprived fbr several years of the use softened and I think improved fay a slight liap,
of his limbs, and it was not till the age of 10 which an attentive observer could disoem."
or 12 that he was able to walk, and then only Mr. Crittenden in a similar letter sayi : "It
with a lameness which continned through life, was impossible to know him without feeling
He entered Bowdoin college in the junior class, for him admiration and love. Bis genius, so
and was graduated in 1826. He immediately rich and rare; his heart, so warm, generous.
Judge Pierce of Gorham ; but in the follow- and so genial, could not fail to impress these
ing year, impelled by the wish to seek his for- sentiments on all who approached him. Elo-
tone In the West, he went to Cincinnati, in quence was part of hb nature, and over his
which city fae remained a few montlis, and private conversations as well as hb pabUo
thence proceeded to Natchez, where he sup- speeches, it scattered ita sparkling jewels with
ported himself as tutor in a private family more than royal profusion." — A " Memoir of
whUa he pursued his legal studies. He was 8. 8. Prentiss" has been edited by hb brother
admitted to the bar in 1839, and began practice (3 vols., New York, 1866).
at Natchez in partnership with Gen. Felix Hn- PKEPOSITION (Lat prapotiivm, placed
Eton. In 1682 he removed to Vicksburg, where before), a word expressing a relation betweoi
fae soon attdned a high repiitation as an advo- different words, and placed generally before a
cate. He was elected in 18S6 to the state nonn, which in English it governs in the ob-
:legialBtnre. In ISS'^^.at the iicigiilar November jective case. According to Home To<^e, all
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FBESBDSG FRESBYTEBIANISM 563
pnporitioiu were originallf elUior TM-bs or of tlieword and aaonunente areonan oqnalitj;
noaoB. Grammaiiane generallj class them mling elders, as the Tepreaentatives of Uie
with relational words, or those which serre people, form a part of all ecclesisBtical bodies,
only to denote the hearing of one thing to in whioh tbe^ have eqaal authority with teoch-
anothar, as " the son of John," and notional ing elders ; and a series of judicatories, rising
words, which in themselres express ideas, one above another, secures to each church the
Some of the Qreek gnunmarians enomerEited watofa and cai« of its appropriate judicatorf,
prepoaitionB with oonjnnotions under the com- and to the whole bodf an efficient system of
mcMi name of mnitvimt, or " oonneotive." In review and contool. Though there maj be
G(reek there are IS prepontions, in Latin abont much divermty in the names of the several
60, and In f^Ush about 40, not including a judicatories, as well as in the minuter details
number of particles called inseparable jirepo- of arrangement, jet any church embodying the
ediiona, beeause Uiey are never found singly, above principles b strictly a Presbyterian
as in be-stir, be-nteak, &c. church. — Presbyterians believe that the repre-
PEtESBDRO (Hnng. Pottony), oapital of the sentative system of church government, in op-
IlnDgariaa county of the same name, ^tnated position to that which is condacted by the
OQ ^e left bank of the Danube, and on the entire eccledasttcal population, has its genn in
Festh and Vienna railroad, 86 m. E. from the the Old Testament \ tnasmucli as the people of
latter city ; pop. in 1S67, 48,868. It stands on Israel, at various periods of their history, had
elevated groond, and is of semicircolar form, " wise and able men" set over them, who were
Willi the river on the B. side. The Danube is styled elders ; and especially as this is weH
here about ^ mile wide, and is crossed by a known to have been a distinctive feature of the
floating bridge. The fortifications have been synagogue system up to the time of the Savioar's
dismantled, bnt several towers have been advent. And as each particular synsgo^e
erected for the defence of the place. The royal was ^vemed by a bench of elders, of which
palaoa, on a height overlooking the town, is of the bishop or " angel of the chnrch" was the
great hiatoricaT interest, hut was destroyed presiding officer, bo the whole Jewish body
oaring tlie bombardment by the French in was reckoned as one. In cases of alleged er-
1809, and is now merely a shell. Among the roneoos Judgment, there were always appeals
principal buildings are Che cathedral, the arch- admitted to the " great synagogue" at Jerusa-
bishop's palace, the Roman Catholic and Oal- lem, where there was an opportunity of having
vinist colleges, the city hall, a Germian theatre, wrong decisions reversed. The first convert
snd TBTions private palatial edifices. The prin- to Christianity being all native Jews, who had
cipal manufactures consist of cotton, woollen, been accustomed to the exercise of government
and sUk goods, leather, oil, and tobacco. — Pres- by benches of elders, it was natur^ that they
borg b A phtoe of great antiquity. It became should adopt the representative plan in organ-
tbe capital of Hungary when Bada was taken iring the primitive church. Accordingly, we
by the Turks, and remained so till Joeeph II. read in the New Testament of "elders being
again made Buda the administrative capital in ordained in every church ;" of an important
1784. Presbnrg, however, continued the tegis- question being referred to a synod made np of
lative oapital down to 1848, by the laws of "apostles and elders;" of "elders who ruled
whioh year the seat of the diet was transferred well, but did not labor in the word and doo-
toPeath. TheHnngariankingsof the house of trine;" of the "elders of the church being
Hapsburg have all been crowned in Presbnrg, called for to visit and pray over the sick," &o.
except Joseph II. and Fruicis Joseph, who pre- So also Presbyterians hold that preaching the
ferrea to reign without taking the oath of alle- gospel, " feeding the sheep and the Iambs" of
gianoe to the constitution, which precedes the Christ, and administering the Ohristian socra-
ooronation. The hill on the Danube which the ments, are the highest offices intrusted to
kioKB after thdr coronation cnBtomarily rode Ohristjan ministers ; that a plarolity of elders
up, DrandLthing their sword in the direction of was, by divine direction, ordained in every
the 4 cardinal points as a token of their readi- church ; that In no instance in the New Testa-
nesa to defend the oountry against all enemies, ment do we find on organized congregation
is generally visited by travellers. In 1619 Pres- under the watch and care of a single officer;
baiv was captured by Bethlen Gabor, prince that bishop and elder are titles given inter-
of ^vnsylvania, bnt was recaptured by^eim- ehangeably to the same persons, showing that
perial troops in 1621. After the battie of Aus- the title of bishop in the apostolic age deslg-
terlitz, the treaty between Prance and Austria noted the pastor or overseer of a single fiock or
was concluded at Presbnrg (Deo. 1806). The church. They hold that there is but one oom-
eity was taken by the French in 1609. mission given to the authorized ministers of the
PBESBYTEEIANISM (Gr. wpt^&vrtpm, el- word and socrameaU ; ihattheordainingpower
der), a system of ohorcb government by pres- ia manifestly represented as possessed and ex-
bytertee or associations of teaching and riding ercised by ordinary pastors, and that ordina-
eiders^ In the Presbyterian chnrch, the pres- tion is performed by "the laying on of the
bjtery is the leading judicatory; the whole hands of the presbytery;" that there is not a
care of the fiock is committed to ministers or solitary instance recorded in the New Testa-
teaching elders and ruling eUere ; all ministers ment of an ordination being performed by ft
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
554 PBESBTTEBIAinBU
■bgleindiTidiial; thai «T6n whan duMiuirere gather with «Mt of oanoDtabdiahincllMooi]'
■et apart to their office. It is erklent trtaa the trol orer Mclesiaatica] meaaoiea wbich had
narratire (Acta tL 1-4) that a plnrality laid been oonoedod to th» iuferiw church jndicato-
hands upon them with fasting aad pra^r. ties. All tJiia met irith a prompt oppoaitioQ
Thej moreover believe tltat Uie whole Tiaibla from the mnltitade, and the du^ wete t«-
churob, whether in Jerusalem or in Aniiooh, proacfaed and inaoUad on everj ^de. The ^a>
iu Philippi or ia Ephesns, was regarded as one aatiafled in SooQand, and those who were dis-
body, subject to the same anthori^, and regu- affected toward prelaojr in En^and, ottered
IstedbjthesamejudicialdeoicdoDSiinillnBtra- into a oorobinadon binding tbemelvee, by the
tion of which they refer to the fut that when well known " Solemn Lewie and Gorenant,"
a qnestion arose which was of common interest to exterminate prelacy, aa beW nothing better
to the whole Christian commimity, it was de- than a corm|ited fitria of Cnri^anity; and
dded by a synod of the " apostles and elden they lent their ftiQ inflnence to the earryii^
at Jernsalem," and the deoreee of that aynod oat of those measnrea which resolted in the
were sent down to " all the ohnrohes" to be death of Oharlea and the eatabli^unent of tbe
tegistered and obeyed. Fasdns from the New commonwealth. Upon the restoration of
Testament to the earliest reoords of uninspired Oharlea IL, episcomcy was reestablished in
antiqait;, Freabyteriaaa assert that the system Scotland ; but the Prasbyteriana still reMlnte-
ot ecclMiastioal government dlacloaed by the ly adhered to their principlee, and npon the
epiaUM of IgoMaa Wtd Olemena Bomanoa is abdication of James IL they confidently an-
fnoronghly prediyterian ; that this system pre- ticbated the trinmph of their canas. Thrmgh
T^led for more than 100 years after tbe apos- William QL was bent on prerafing the aone
tolio age; that the first inroada which were form of eodedastioal soTemment both in
made npon it were by the pastors of the large England and Scotland, the bitht^ rofiiaed to
towns claming special preeminenoe and power transfer thor all^iaaoe to him, and ij this
as pecnliarly ue soooesaore of the apostles, and means the way waa opened ibr that eetabUsh-
tbat Uiis oLum oame gradnally to be admitted, mentof presbytery which had been raged npon
and waa at last permanently established. They him by some of his moat sealoos adhermta, and
HidntAln, however, that the admission of thu which waa ratified by an aot of parBament in
claim was never l^ any mesne nniversal ; that 1690, Thns, Scotland and England having
the Paolunana in the 7th ceutory, and after been aeparata kingdoms at the time of the re-
them tbe Taldenses and AllHKenses, earnestly formation, a difference of cironnistances in tiie
Moteated against all enoroaa&nenta on pres* two coontries ultimately led to different reli-
Dyterian dmplicity ; . and that when the refor* gious eetablishmenta ; and when the treaty of
m^on came, there was a vast preponderance nnion waa formed in 1T07, it waa agreed by
of opinion among the leaders in that enterarise both kingdoms that episoopaiT^ should Gratinne
in f^voT of the preabyterian system ; and the in England, and Presbyt^unism ahonld be tbe
reformed churches in France, OenoonT, Hoi- only religions system recognized by the state
laud, Hungary, Oeneva, and Scotland were in Scotland. Tlieonlyc(mfeasi<m of &ithl^al-
thoronghly presbyterian, both In principle and Ir established before the revolution of 16S8, >s
practice. Presbyterionism, as it has long ex- that which ia^nbllshed in the "Hiatory otibe
isted in these several ooantries, is substantially Refi>rmation in Scotland," attributed to John
the same system, differing only in minor de- Enoz. It conmsts of 80 artioles, aad was the
tails, and chiefly in the namee and arrange- confession as well of the Epiac^tal aa of the
ments of their several ecaleaiastical BssemblieB. Presbyterian chnrcb. The Oovenantera, In-
— PnisBYTSRiAN CiniitOH IN EooTLAKD. The deed, during the commonwealth, adopted the
diuroh or kirk of Scotland mt^ be said to have Weetminster ooufession. At the revolution ^Us
bad its remote origin in the first introduction confeesiou waa recdved as the standard of ue
of the principles of the reformation into that national &ith ; and it waa ordained by the aame
eonntry, about 1S27. This mesaore was met acts (tf parttameut which settled I^^ylttian
by a vigorous opposition on the part both of choroh government in Scotland, " that no p»<
the sovereign ana of the priesthood, while the bod be admitted or continued hereafter to be a
greater part of the nobility esponeed the inter- minister or preacher within thia church unleaa
eats of the people. When Andrew Uelville he subacribe the [that is, thia] confession of
arrived in Scotland bom Geneva, in 1GT4, he fsuth, declaring the same to be the eonfearioo
found a state of things in many respects favor- of his fdth." £y the aot erf union in 1707, the
able to the deaiffu of introdocing the Presbyte- same is required of all profeaaors, prinoiMl^
rian polity in Scotland; and tbts he aotoally regents, masters, and <dhera besJing office,
effected in 1G92. Jamee YI. wsa intent upon Tbe Westminster confenion of faith then, ai^
the restoration of episcopacy, even before bis what are called the lar^ and shorter cate-
acceasion to the English throne \ and after that chisms, contain the publicly reeognixed doe-
event be was enabled to aooompliah his otyect. triues of thia church ; and it is weUknown that
But Charles L, with a view to aasimUate in all these formnlariee are an embodiment of tbe
respeets the churches of Englandand Scotland, Calvinistio fkith. There is no liturgy or puhlio
determinedtointroducealitargy,whichinScot- form of prayer used in the church of Scotland,
land had been disused ainoe the reformation, to- the minister's only guide being the "Directory
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PBZSBYTBBIAHISIC
. vUoh pr»- pointed for 0 ,_.
Miibes the nuttier ratber tbaa the ezaot l&n- termpted by the tuKtile demoDstrations of a
fer tlM PnUie WonUp of God," vUoh pr»- pointed for ordinatton, or the Benrioea irere io-
""irrftther than the exact Un-
Lord's Bopper in evorf pariah four timea each nulitary were aometimes snmmoded to protect
;aar ; bat tbia law ia &ot rigidly obaerred, and tbem &om outrage. Manr exoellent mmisten
in the oonnby pori^iea partjonlarlj the ordi- denounced this Bjstem, and at lengOi the Ber,
lumoe is often aaministored not above onoe a !Bbenezer Erskine of Stirling Teotared to do
jear. The preparalion for this ordinance ooa< this in a formal and Terj earnest manner in a
Nsta in Iceeping a pnUio fost on the preceding diaeonrae before the ajnod of Fife. EefosiDg
Thnradar, and attending a publio aerrioe at to submit to the decision of this court, whioa
which there is preaching on Satorday. The]- was that he ahonld be pnblioly reboked for
have no altars or ohoDoels, and the oommnnion slandering the ohuroh, and obtaining no re*
ttblee are introduoed for the occasion. At the dreaa from the general osBembly, to which he
first table, the minster, after offering what is appealed, he, with 8 oUiers, left, the establiah-
called tlie oonseoration prajer, proceeds to meat in 1TS8 ; and they formed themselTes
read the words of the inatitotion, and then into a separate oommnnion, called the Assooi-
distribatee the elements to the two commoni- ated PresbTtery, which soon beoame a nnmer-
cants on either aide of him, and the elders ad- ona and flonriahins body. In 1V89 a sohiam
ministdr them to the rest. Bat before or dar- tooh place in this Dody, arUing from a differ-
ing tba aervioee of the suooeeding tables, enee of interpretation of a clause of what was
■iddreues are made to the oonunanicauts bj called the burgess oath, in which the person
me or more of the ministers (for there are engaged that he would maintain and defend
sereral present) standing at the head of the the relinon of his conntrj as hy law estab*
eommonion taUe. InsingingtheyuseRowse'a lished. The gOTemment deemed this oath ne-
metrioal rernou of the psalms of David ; and oeaaor; to be taken hj persons clothed with
within a ooinpBratiTel<r recent period there has dvil authoritr, in consequence of snspected
been introduced, hj permiaaion of the general intrigues of Jesuits and the probahilitj of a
a«»nbly, a oolleotion of tranalationa and para- French invasion. One part of the STsod ar*
phrases in verse of several passages of Scrip- oued that the taking of the oa^ hj any of their
tore, together with a considerable number of body was nnlawful, as it implied an approval
hjmna. The providon which has been made of the principle of a civil eetablishment of reli*
by the law of Sootland for the support of the ^on, and of all the abuses with which it had
clergy of the established church consists of a been followed in Sootland ; while the other
stipend, a email glebe of land, and a manse maintained that it was simply a declaration
(paraonage house) and oEQce houses. By an binding the individual to defend the Protestant
aet of parliament passed in 1310, .£10,000 per faith against open or secret violence. The for-
B granted for angmenting the small- mer of these were called Antiburghera, the lat-
w iBuuu stipends in Scotland. By this act terBarghers. Both prospered, wbde the church
the lowest stipend assigned to a minister of the of Scotland was in several respects proportion-
establiahment is £160 sterling, with a small ally d^ressed. In prooess of time these two
tmn, generally £8 tit. 8d., for communion ele- dissiaiting bodies began to iqiprozimate closely
meots- Patronage was abolished in ScoClaud toward each other ; matualJealouMeBgradnaUy
in 1S46 ; was revived at the restoration ; was died away, while the origmsl ground of oon-
partly abrogated at the revolntion, and again troTersy, the borgess oath, being now rendered
revived in 1713. The party nsnoily termed a nallity by the stability of the government at
arawgaiifjil has been greatly on the increase in the close of the French war, no obstacle re-
Utter years. In the appointment of minia< mained to the effecting of a reunion. Accord-
ters to vaoant churches, much greater at- iugly,in 16S0, this wasbronghtabont; and thft
teotion ia now paid than formerly to the two bodies, thus merged, took the name of the
widiee of the people. — ^The improper exercise United Secosmon chnroh. This name was af-
of patronage gave rise to the first seoesdon terward changed to the United Presbyterian
from the eaCabUshed (dinroh. At the refonna- ohorch, in conaeqnenoe of the acoesdon of an-
tion, the nobility and barons suzed on a large other body called the Belief. In 17G3 a oler-
part of the lands and odier sonroes of ecolesi- gyman named Qillespie, being required to offl-
iMieal revenne beloo^ng to the church, and oiate at the installation of a clergyman whom
tiwmed the harden of sapporting the clergj he coondered onworthy of a plooe in the min-
of the new &ith, each within his own domain, istry, reAued to perform the service, and forth-
Ptnoaa naturally thought that they ought to with left: the church. But he took anoth^
have the privil^ of appointing clergymen groond than Erskine and his associates; for
thna maintain ail at their expense ; and this while they rested their aeoeauon on the unoon-
practioe beoame very common, though it did stitationid acts of the ohun^ he struck direotlj
not raoeive the sanction of parliament until the at what be deemed the root of the whole evi^
rdgn of Qoeen Anne. In many oases these and r^eoted the principle of an establishment
apptrintmenta were violently resisted. The altogeuier. This became grodnatly a very in-
doors of ohurehea were looked on thedaf ap* flaential bodr> *nd its ui&mwith the United
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
666 PKESBTTEBIANISIC
Seceesdon ohnreh, whioh ttU cont«mplatad aa a yrM tbej ven Bg^ raised to the Btatns of
snre reetnh, though it might be remote, was miniBtan of the national establiBbment. At
hastened hj the course of political erenta in the restoration, when Charles II. attempted to
BritaJB. T^e passage of the reform hill in 1889 introduce episcopacy into Scotland, manj of
was huled bj the dissenters as the first step the inhabitants took refnge in Ireland; and
toward the separation of the chorch &om the thereby the caose of Presbjterianism rec^red
state, and their oonseqnent deliverance from a fresh impulse. This was not diminlBhed bj
the disahilitiea to which they had hitherto the accession of WiUiani, prince of Orange, to
been subjected. Almost all the cle^^menand the British crown; for he had been eduoated
lait; of tiio United Secession had taken higher in Holland to a decided preference forthe doe-
ground than that assnmed by the ErsJdaea, and trines and discipline of that ohnreh, Nor did
were therefore ready to nnite with anj reli- subsequent events tend to leaaen his respect for
ffions body of corresponding yiews of Ohriitiaii the adherents of that system in Ireland; for
doctrine and chnroh government, who would when James II. landed there, with a \iew,
cooperate with them m syatemat^o efforts to through the invasion of this kingdom, of ov^-
overthrow the establishment. Accordingly, a turning the government, the Freshyterians ral-
imiouvaa formed between these two bodies; lied around the Btandard of their Protestaut
but the controversy as to the theory of an ee- champion, and by their memorable defence of
tablishment was not confined to them ; it soon Iiondonderry, as well as the asnstonce tfa^
extended to the church of Scotland, and led rendered at the battle of the Boyne, mainly
to the most nnexpocted and important results, contribnted toward the succern of his anns. As
Varions causes had been at work from the com- a testimony of his gratitnde, he doubled the sun
mencement of the present century to give a originally given for the support of Ihar minis-
more earnest tone to the ministrations in the ten, hence tcnown as the regitim denvm. In
established church, and probably no two indi- conseqnenceof theincreaseof chnFdies,asweU
viduals contributed so much to thia result as as the greater expensivenesa of the means of
those great lights of the Scottish pulpit, Dr. living;, the snm has been repeatedly augmented
Andrew Thompson and Dr. Chalmers. From by the crown, and is now £70 each. In 1854
1633 to 1838 several important changes were the Presbyterian church was c«mpoeed of the
effected, anoh as abolishing a plurality of oleri- following bodies : the general synod of Ulster,
cal offices, rendering more complete ^e course the Presbyterian eynod of Monster, the iires-
of theological education, depomng from the byteiy of Antrim, and the Seceders and Core-
ministry men of unworthy characters, reform- nanters. The first two and most prominent of
ing the system of patronage, and commnni- these have since united, forming a body which
eating a fresh impulse to the cause of Christian embraces 5 synods, 86 presbyteriea, 491 con-
benevolence, and especially of foreign missions, gregations, and G93 ministfirs, and raises annn-
Bat in the prt^reas of this spirit of reform, the ally for missions and missionary schools about
ohnreh came into serious collision with the £9,000, besidesustainmKvariousolherevangel-
state; and after a protracted course of veiatioos ical enterprises. Thongh rect^izing the prin-
litlgation, in which the measures of the chnroh ciple of a dvil establishment of rellgiou, ita
were constantly thwarted by the civil courts, viewsof the subject ore more in harmony with
the memorable disruption took place, in which those of the Free church than of the establish*
originated the Freo cnnrcb. (See Fber CniTBon ed church of Scotland. — Pbesbttskuk Cbitrcs
o? BcoTLiBD.) In 1800 the church of Scot- » thb Uhitkd Statbs. The Presbyterian
land ni]mberedB4 presbyteries,!, ITSministerB, chnrch of the United States is nndoubtadlj to
and 1,208 churches ; and the Unit«d Presby- be reckoned as a daughter of the church of
tarian church, at the aame time, numbered 81 Scotland. Presbyterians began to emigrato
presbyteries, C26 ministers, and G86 churches, from Scotland and the north of Ireland to the
— Pbesbytbbian Ohdbch of Irelano. Pres- American colonies as early as 1689; and they
byteriaos settled in Ireland shortly after the quickly manifested a disposition to reproduce
reformation, and were at first admitted to the here their own peculiar institutions. Theor
privileges and emoluments of the Episcopal first and largest churches were established in
church. They were not tenacious about mat- Pennsylvania and Maryland, two colonies dia>
ters of ohnreh polity, for some of the pastors tingnished from the earliest times for their just
received ordination at the hands of a bishop, notions of religions liberty. The Puritan ele-
and the people ooniformed withont scmple ment early fonnd its way into the body from
to some of the ceremonies of the established Kew England, and the reformed churches 4m
chnrch. In the reign of Charles I., and doring the continent of Europe have from time to
the administration of Laud, the interests of the time made contribntions to it; bat the ori-
Irisli Presbyterians greatly suffered ; the stat- ginal organieation has always remained snb-
ntes of the college at Dublin, authorizing the stantially the same. The ministers of whom
admission of Presbyterians to ite privileges and we first hear as preaching and laying the foun-
houors, were remodelled ; their confession reo- dation of churches were the Kev. Franda
ognized in 1616 waa set aside; and their minis- UcEemie and the Bev. John Hsmpton, the
ters were ejected from their charges for nou- former from the north of Ireland, ibe latter
oonformity. During the protectorate of Orom- from Scxitland, both of whom appear to have
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
^ESBYTEBIANISU 657
bMR sent to thu ooimtrr bj a body of dissent- were more zealonB for orthodozT', for the rigid
era in IioodoQ for the purpose of preaobing the obserranc* of Presbjterian rnle, and for a thor-
gtMpel in the middle ana sontliem ootonies. oogbl; educated miuistrj, were called the old
They fixed their residence on the eastern shore mde ; while those who looked npoa departures
of Virgiiiitii, near the borders of Uarjlaad, and from ecclesiastical order with more forbear-
sallied forth on their preaohing tours in eveiT' ance^ and were less partioolar in respect to other
direetioD where their evangelical labors were qnalifloations for tlie ministr;, provided tbef
likely to be acceptable. It is ascertained that could have evidence of genuine pietj, were
there were several churches established some called the new side or new ligbte. Id 1729
time before the close of the ITth century. In the ejnod passed what was conimonly called
Harytandthere werethechorchesof Kehoboth, the adopting act, which conrasted of apnblio
Snow- Hill, Upper Uarlborongb, Honokin, and authoritative adoption of the Westminster con-
Wicomioo, the first mentioned of which is com- fassion of faith and catechisms, and made it im-
monly considered the oldest, and was probably perative that not only every candidate, but
formed asearly asldSO. The church oa Eliza- every actaal minister of the church, should, by
beth river in Yirgiiiia is supposed by some to anbsoription or otherwise, in the presence of
date ba«k to nearly the same period. The the presbytery, acknowledge these instnuuenU
chorchea in Freehold and Woodbridge, N. J., respectively as their confession of faith. Thia
were oonstitated in 1692; and the first cbnroh aot had to enoonnter great opposition, especially
in PhiJadelphia, as nearly as oan be ascertuned, from those ministers who luu come &om Eng-
in 1SS8. In Ifew Oastle, DeL, in Oharleston, land, Wales, and the S'ew England ohurohes.
S. O., and in eoine other places, Presbyterian The old ride, or atriot Presbyterians, having
churches were planted at a rery early period, thus gained their mtun point, the other ude
In the latter part tS 170S, or early in 170fl, a felt that something was to be conceded to them
presbytery was formed under the title of the also ; and accordingly, in 1784, they brought
Ereebytery of Philadelphia, among whose mem- an overture to the synod, directing " that all
era were the Kev. Hessrs. Francis McEemie, candidates for the ministry should be examined
John Wilson, Jedidiah Andrews, Nathaniel diligently as to the experience of a work of
Taylor, George McHTiah, John Hampton, and sanctifying grace on their hearts, and that none
Saianel Davis. ICr. Andrews was tiota New be admitted whoare not Enajudgmentof char-
England, and was graduated at Harvard ool- ity serious Ohristiabs." Though this overture
lege in 1695; the rest were all emigrants from was adopted unanimously, it was the harbinger
Scotland or Ireland. Asearlyas 1710 the Prea- of great disquietude. The two acta, embra-
byterian body had so far increased that some oing the favorite otgects of both parlies, it was
new organization was thought desirable; and found difficult to carry into execution; for the
accordingly there were constituted, instead of practice of the several presbyteries was de-
one, four presbyteries, namely, those of FhUa- oided by the aocidental circumstance of one
delphi^ of Newcastle, of Snow HIU, and of party or the other being in the ascendant;
Loog island; and these presbyteries were and this occasioned much debate, and aome-
fbrmed into a synod, under the name of the times painful collisiona, f.t the synodical meet-
■jnod of Philadelphia. Shortly before this Ings. In 1T88 the strict Presbyterians prevail-
•rrangement took place, several churches, with ed on the synod to pass an act directing " that
their ministers, in Estt and West Jersey, and young men be first examined concerning their
on Long island, hitherto Oongregationaliats, literature by a committee of synod, and obtain
had connected themselves with the Fresbyte- a testimonial of their approbation before they
rian church. From the period of the formation oan be taken on trial before any presbytery."
of the first synod in 1716, the body inoreased The presbytery of New Brunswick, regardless
rapidly by means of emigrants, not only from of this synodical decree, proceeded almost im-
Beotland aod Ireland, but from Wales, France, mediately to take Ur. John Rowland on trial,
Holland,and Switzerland; whUe numbers from and shortly after hcensed him t« preach. This
Bew Eng^d also were induced, from local brought that presbytery and the synod into di-
eonsiderations or other circumstances, to cast rect conflict ; the ooosequenoe of which was
in their lot with this deuominatioQ. The con- that, at the next meetdng of the latter body,
sequence was that the Presbyterian church Hr. Bowland's license was formally annulled,
began to assume a somewhat heterogeneous Ono n^ember of the Philadelphia presbytery,
eharacter, and the harmoi^ of its operations however (William Xennent, senior), recognized
was proportionately diminished. The points the validity of bis license by inviting him to
on which tiie oonfliots of opinion were most preach ; and when some of his congregation
strongly marked, were the ezaminatioD of oan- made complaints against him to hie presbytery,
didatea for the n^ietry on experimental reli- he earnestly defended his course, denied the
gion, the strict adherenoe to presbyterial order, authority of the presbytery to act in the case,
and the requisite amoont of learninK in those and " oontemptuoudy withdrew;" whereupon
who sought the ministerial office. In thesev- the presbytery oensured his oondnot as "irregn-
aral preabyteries these points were discussed lar and disorderly." This took place in Oct.
with great and often int«mperate zeal. Two I7S9. Within a few weeks after, the presby-
liialinot parties were now formed ; those who tery of New Brunswick, adhering to the ground
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
which the7 had alread; taken, proceeded to tionArjirar, whentheyoonldrMhm BbootlTO
ordain Ur. Rowland to the work of the minis- miniaterg, and a few more ohnrchea, chfeflj in
try ; and he oontinned a member of that prea- the states of New York, Kew Jersey, FeaaBjI-
byterj until 1743, when he was dismissed to Taoia, Delaware, Maryland, Tirginia, and tiie
join the presbytery of Kew Oastle. About this Carolinas. At the meeting of the synod of
time Whitefield paid his second Tiait to Ameri- Kew York and Philadelphia in Hay, 1780, the
«a. The great revival that took place in con- independence of the Umted StAtee being dot
nection with his labors was differently viewed Mtablished, that judicatory began to take those
amongtheministersof tbePresbyterianchnrch, steps for revising the publio standards of the
as well as among those of Kew England ; the church, which led to their adoption and eatab-
new side regarding it with almost unmixed lishment on the present plan. A committee,
favor, while the old side had a sharp eye for consisting of Drs. Witherspoon, Bodgers, Rob-
ah the irregnlarities attending it, and were not ert Smith, Patrick Allieon, Samnot Btuihopa
slowtoprononnoethewholeadelnsion. Undoe Smith, John Woodhnll, Robert Cooper^ames
warmth of feeling and speech, improper infer- Latto, George Dnffield, and Katthew Wilaon,
ences, and even motnal crimination, were in- was appointed to " take into consideration the
dtdged in, until at length, in 1741, the synod constitntion of the church of Scotland and
was rent asunder, the old side conatitnting the other Prot«stant churches," and to form a oom-
synod of Philadelphia, the new aide the synod plete system for the orraniution of the Pres-
of Now York, Soon after the separation, the hytorian church in the United States. In May,
synod of New York began to look toward the 1768, the synod completed the revieion and
education of its Aitnre ministers in taking mea- arrangement of the public standards, aod oi^
enres for the establishmeiit of the college of dered them to be printed and distribnted for
Kew Jersey. This institntion commenced its the government of the several Jndicatoriea of
operations in Elisabethtown In 1TM, but was the obnrch. The new arrangement consisted in
removed to Kewark the next year, where it dividing the old synod into 4 synods, namely,
remained till iVeTjWhenitwaannallyremoTed the synods of New York and New Jersey, of
to Princeton, Meanwhile the academies of Philadelphia, of Virginia, and of the Carolinaa,
New London and Kewark In Delaware, under and constituting over these, as a bond of ni
the Rev. Francis Allison. , and the Rev. Alex- a general assembly, of essentially the same type
ander McDowalL were liberally patronized by with tbe general assembly of the church of
the old side. An intense rivalship grew up Scotland. The Westminster confeKion <rf' faith
between the institutions of the respective par- was adopted with three slight alterations, and
ties, which-eerved to increase not a little uielr the larger and shorter catechisms with hnt a
mutual hostility. But the contest finally gave single iJteration; and a form of government and
way under the influence of time. Both parties disciphne and a directory for public worship,
jfTodually became convinced that they had acted drawn chiefly from the standards of the church
miproperly, and began at length to meditate a of Bcotiand, with such modifications as tbe
reunion. In 1749 the synod of New York IT. S. form of government and the state of the
made the first overtures in that direction ; but church inthiBCOuntrywerethonghttodemand,
it was not till 1758, making the period of sep- completed the system. Since tne date of the
aration about 17 years, that the desired con- reviaal and arrangement ^ust mentioned, no al-
sommacion was reached. In the course of that teration has been made either in the confetaion
year, mutual concessions having been made, of faith or in the catechisms of the church.
the articles of union in detail were happily ad- The form of government and discipline hare
justed, and the synods nnited under tJie title undergone two revisions, and a third is now
of "the synod of New York and Philadelphia." (18B1) in progress. — In 1801 a "plan of nnion
At the time of the disruption the old side was between Presbyterians and Congregationalista
tbemore numerous, but before the reunion the in the new settlements" was formed, with a
new side had become BO. Among the minis* view to prevent disagreement between the two
ters that were most conspicuous during this denominations, and to facilitate tb^ coOpera-
period of separatioa and conflict, were some tion in carrying forward various evangeliccd
of those meationed above, who still survived, enterprises. This arrangement continued 80
together with the 4 sons of the Rev. William years, and under it were formed hundreds of
Tennent — Gilbert, William, John, snd Charles — churches in the states of New York and Ohio.
Premdent Dickinson of Eliiabethtown, Presi- Previous to 1830 it bad become apparent that
dent Burr of Newark, President Davies, Preri- there were really two parties in toe Fresbyte-
dent !Elnley, the Blairs, &e., all of whom riaa church, the one fhvoring amore rigid, tbe
ranked as new side men. The Rev. Messrs. other a less ri^d construction of the standards
John and Samuel Thompson, Dr. Francis Alii- of tbe chnroh, which, though not often brought
son, the Bev. Robert Cross, and several others, into actual collision, hsd occasion sometimeB,
were among the most prominent on the old in meeting a test question, to indicate their
side. From the period of the reunion, the distinct existence. This was especially true
Presbyterian body went on in a good degree of the celebrated case of the Rev. Albert
of prosperity, conmdering the disturbed state Barnes, which, more decisively than any thing
of the country, untdl the dose of the revoln- which had prev!o*idy oocurred, pointed to an
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FREBBTTEBIAinSM £69
wproaohinff disraption of the church. From from the iiorlli of beland. For lome time, in
this timo the parties asstuned toward each other cases of difScnlt^, the miiuBters and eldera
a more and more opposing attitude, with each were wont to assemble infonnallj, and hold
Bacoeamve meeting of the general aasemblj, what might be caUed pro re nato meetings; and
nntil 1887, when, after on intense conflict, the where the; were nnAble to reach a sati^actorj
plan of onion was abrogated, and the i Byn- result, they sometimes asked advice of the
ods of Genesee, Geneva, Utica, and the West- sjnoi of Ireland. In 1745 the ministers re-
em Reserve were at^ndged as no longer solved, as preparatory to the step they were
constitnent parts of the Preabjterian chnrdi ; about to take, to observe, in connection with
and the division thus commenced was con- their congregations, the third Wednesday of
sammftted the next year. Since that period March as a day of fasting, hnmiliation, and
the Presbyterian ohnroh has consisted of two prayer. OnApriI16foUowing,theRev.Hessr8.
distinct bodies, known as the Old and New John Morehead of Boston, David McGregor
School, entirely independent of each other, of Londondeny, and E&lph Abercrombie of
At Uie fint meeting of the general assembly Pelham, with Messrs. James McEeen, Aleian-
in 1786, there were ft-om 180 to IflO min- der Ckinkey, and James Hnghes, met in Lon-
ist«n belon^ng to the whole Presbyterian donderry, and being "satisfied as to the divine
body. These were distribnt«d into i synods warrantj with dependence on God for oooitsd
and 17 presbyteries, embracing a large nmu- and aaaistanoe, tney, by prayer, consdtnt«d
ber of vacant congregations. In 1887, pre- themselves into a presbytery, to act, as fiir as
vions to.tbe exscin£ng of the western synods, their present clrcomstances will permit them,
the Presbyterian chnroh contained 23 synods, according to the word of God and the oonsti-
185 presbyteries, 2,140 ministers, 2,860 chnrch- tioa of Uie Presbyterian church of Scotland,
es, and 330,657 communicants. lo 1860 the agreeing to that perfect mle." The body was
Old School Presbyterian church contained called the Boston presbytery, and met, accord-
83 ajmods, 171 presbyteries, 3,093 ministers, ing to ac^oomment, in that town, Ane. 18,
3,592 churches, and 293,857 oommunieants. The 1746. From the close of the year 1764 till Oct.
yiew School Presbyterian church bad at the 1770, there is a chasm in the recordaj but at
lune time 32 synods. 104 presbyteries, 1,527 the lost mentioned period the presbytery con-
Dunisters, 1,483 chnrohea, and 184,988 commu- sisted of 12 congregations and as many minis-
mcanta. The aggregate of both bodies is 66 ters. At a meeting held at Beabrook, N. C,
ijrnoda, 275 presbyteries, 4,820 ministers, 5,075 on May 81, 177B, the presbyt«ry resolved to
chnrches, and 427,790 commnni cants. The divide itself into 8 distinct bodies, vis., the
Old School chnroh has boards of domestic mis- presbyteries of Salem, of Londonderry, uid of
aions, fiireign missions, edacation, pubUcation, Palmer; and the 8 presbyteries, thus organized,
and church extension. The New School has were then formed into a synod colled the synod
committees of publication, church erection, of New England, which held its flrat meeting
chnrch extension, education, foreign mission^ at Londonderry Sept. 4, 1776. At Boothbay,
and home missions. The amonnt contribnted Me., on June 27, 1771, a new presbytery waa
in the Old Sohool body in the year ending May, erected, called the presbytery of the Eastward,
1860, was $3,367,896 ; the amount oontnbuted consisting of 8 ministers and 4 ruling elders,
in the New Bchool body during the same year representing 4 chnrohea. It had no connection
was f305,885 ; total, |3,668,231. Connected with the Boston presbytery, and its ori^ is
with the Old School are 6 theological semina- said to have been In some way connected with
rieo, viz. : Princeton, N. 3. ; Western, All^ha- the removal of the Bev. John Morray to Booth-
ia, Fenn. ; Union, Prince Edward, Va. ; Dan- bay. It never exhibited on its roll more than
Tille, Ey. ; and of the North- West, Chicago, 8 ministers. Its last recorded adjoamment
BL There is also a senJnary, not under the now known was to meet at Kew Boston, N.
immediate care of the general assembly, in Go- H., on the first Wednesday of Oct. 1?92. The
Inmbia, S. C. In the New School there are 5 only relic of this presbytery known to exist is
theological seminaries, viz. : Union, New York a curious volume printed in 1788, with the
city; Anbarn, N. Y.: Lane, near Cincinnati, following title: "Bath-Eol. A Voice from the
0- ; Blaokbam, Camnville, 111. ; and Lind, Wilderness. Being an humble Attempt to sup-
Chicago, Ul. — Notwithstanding Presbyterian- port the sinking Traths of God a^unst some of
ism baa never prevailed extensively in New the principal Errors raging at this time. Or a
Bngland, it has had a distinct and independent Joint Testimony to some oi the grand Articles
existence there from a veir early period. The of the Christian Religion, jntlicially delivered
French church in Boston, formed of Hugaenots to the Obnrohes under their core. By the Tint
abont the year 1687, was the first chnrch or- Presbytery of the Eastward." In Sept 1782,
ganized on a Presbyterian basts, but was con- the synod of New England, finding their num-
tinued no longer than while its service was hers considerably reduced in consequence of
conducted in me French language. The first existing difficulties, agreed to dissolve and form
Presbyterian oi^anization in New England of themselvesintoonepresbytery, under the name
any permanence dates back to about the year of the presbytery of Salem. For two snceeed-
1718, when a large number of Presbyterians, ing years this presbytery met regularly in Mas-
with 4 mimster^ emigrated to this country saohusetts proper, but after this its meeting!
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
560 FRESBTTEBIAHBIC
were held !n the dktrict of If^e. Its last Borglier BTiiod, in eonsequence of repealed and
meeting was held at Gray, Sept. 14, IVBl^at earnest applicationfl, resolved upon establisb-
the cleae of which it a^jouraed Hns du. The fug a mission in America, though their pur-
tjiirf Associate Reformed presbTtery, afterward poae was not carried ont nntU 17S4, when the
called the Associate Refonnea presbytery of Bbt. Thomas Olark, minister of Balljbay in Ire-
Londonderry, was formed in Philadelphia, Oct. land, in companj with the greater part of his
81, 1782, and held its first meeting at London- contlregatioD, emigrated to this country, and
derry, N. H., on Feb. 11, 1788. It ceased to settled at Salem, Washington co., N. T. Two
belong to its original denominatioa in 180S, other ministers of the same conunnnion fid-
and was an independent presbytery until 1800, lowed them two yeara after, though one of
when it was received into the synod of Albany, them subseqaently retnnied to ScotWd. The
and has aince continued nnder the name of the Burgher ministers, not being disposed to keep
presbytery of Londonderry. The presbytery up a separate orguiization ou this side of tiie
of Newburyport was formed by the coucurrent Atlantic, united with their brethren ; but the
action of the presbytery of Londonderry and union was disturbed by the refasal of the
the synod of Albany. It held its first session Scottiah synod to approve of it The reroln*
in Boston on Oct. 27, 1836, and its last on Oct. tion of 1776 was chiefly instrumental in brin^
30, 1847, when it became reunited to the pres- ing about the union which prodaced tlie Aseo-
^tery of Londonderry. The presbytery of ciate Kefonned church. During the prt^rea
donnectiout, consisting of several ministers and of the war, several conventions were field be-
chnrchesprevioualybdonging to t^e presbytery tween the members of the Associate and the
of New York, was constituted by the synod of Beformed presbyteries with a view to the ao-
New York, Oct IB, 1860, and held its first complishment of this end ; the result of whidi
meeting at Thompsonville on Oct 29. — TJihted was tliat 3 presbyteries met in Philadelphia in
Pbksbitebiaji CuuBcn of North Ahesica. As Oct. 1763, am formed themselves into a synod,
tiiis body is composed of the Associate Re- under the name of the Associate Beformed
formed and the Associate ohnrcbes, it may be synod of North America, on a basis confiist-
proper to present an outline of the history of ing of the following artidee ; " 1. That Jesna
each of these bodies nn to ihetlme of the union. Christ died for the elect. 2. That there ia an
1. AuoHaU B^ormed OAvreh. In 1680 Lord appropriatioa in the nature of faith, S. That
OardroBS took measures for the establishment of the gospel is addressed indiscriminately to «n-
a colony in South Carolina, with a view to fnr- ners of mankind. 4. That the righteouaoeae
nish a place of refuge to his persecuted breth- of Christ is the alone condition of the cove-
ren. This was formed at Fort Royal ; but, in nant of ^ace. 6. That civil government ori^-
oonaequence of on invasion by the Spaniards, nates with God the Creator, and not with
the colony was abandoned in 1088. Many, Christ the Uediator. 6. The administration
however, remained in Carolina, who were of the kingdom of Providence is given into the
gathered into congregationa under the care of hand of Jeans Christ the Uediator ; and inagis-
s presbytery, which continued to exist until tracy, the ordinance appointed by the moral
about the close of the 18th centary. The only Governor of the world, to be the prop of civil
one of these chtu-ches now remaining is the order among men, as well as other things, is
old Boots' church in Charleston. FromlflflOto rendered subservient by the Mediator to the
less a large number of Presbyterians (amount- welfare of his spiritual kingdom, the church,
Ing, accordingtoWodrow,toaboutS,000) wore and has sanctified the use of it and of every
transported to the American plantations and common benefit, through the grace of the
sold as slaves. They were for the most part Lord Jesus Christ. V. That the &w of nature
sent to Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New Jer- and the moral law revealed in the Scriptures
aey; but scarcely any {[aces of their history are substantially the same, although the latter
now remain. In 1736 the Associate presbytery expresses the will of God more evidently and
of Scotland received a letter from a number of clearly than the former, ond therefore magis-
persons in Londonderry, Chester co., Fenn., trates among Christians ought to be regulated
requesting that an ordained minister or a pro- by the general directory of the Word aa to the
bationer might be sent to them, and promising execution of their office. 8. That the qnalifi-
that all the expenses of the mission should be cations of justice, veracity, &c., required in the
defrayed by themselves; but the circumEtances law of natnre for the being of a magistrate,
of the presbytery did not then allow them to are also more explicitly revealed as necessary
comply with the request. The first minister in the Holy Scriptures. But a religious test
sent to Uib country by the Secession church any fhrther than an oath of fidelity, can never
was the Rev. Alexander Gellatly, who arrived be essentially necessary for the being of a
ia 17S1, and, aftM* a laborioos ministry of S magistrate, except when die people m£e it a
years, died at Octorara, Fenn. The Covenant- condition of ^vemment 9. That bothpar-
ers, or Reformed presbyterians, sent ont the ties, when muted, shall adhere to the nest-
Bev. Mr. Culbcrtson in 17S1 ; and in 1774 he minster confession of faith, the catechiams, the
was followed by Messrs. Lind and Dobbin, directory for worship, and propositions concern-
Of these two denominationa the Associate Be- ing church government 10. That they shall
formed church was made up. In 1764 the cl£m the foil exercise of (Jiurch discipline
• UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PEESBTTERIANISM 661
wltbontdependeneeapanftirelgnJadlaatorieB." namben, thonch In later rears it became more
TJpoD this basis all the membera of the Be- prosperous; while the veBtorn Bjnod went on
formed preBbTteiy, and all the Associate min- rapidly extending itself and becoming mon
isters with the exception of two members of and more Tigorona erery year. About the
the preabjtery of Pennsylvania (Messrs. Mar- time of the separation of the western synod,
shall and Olarksos), nnited. A small minor- an unsnccessfid attempt was mode to nnite
itj of the people in the two oommanions also the Associate fiefonned and the Reformed
declined to enter into it; and in these minor- Dutch ohnrches, imder the name of the Ke-
ltic have been preserved the Covenanter or formed Protestant ohnriih of North America.
B«formed Presbjterian denomination on the Immediately after this, measures, which were
one hand, and the Associate on the other. The considered by many of very dabioua propriety,
earliest settlements of the Associate Reformed were adopted for effecting a anion between
church were in Pennsylvania, within the Onm- the Associate Eefbrmed and the Presbyterian
berl&nd valley; but ooloniea from these emi- bodies; the conseqnence of which was that a
?'ated to Soath Oarolina and Georgia, New portion of the former ohnrch became incorpo-
orlc, Kentncky, and even to New Hampshire rated with the latter, and the library of the
and Maine. One of the first acts of the synod, Associate Reformed ohnrch was immediately
after its organization in 1762, was the adop- removed &om New York to Princeton ; though,
tion of a series of articles, afterward published as the result of a legal process, it ultimately
nnder the name of " The Constitution of the fell back into the hands of its original owners.
Associate Reformed Ohorch ;" but these articles The synod of New York now resumed its or-
were severely attacked both by the Seceders dinary meetings, and took the place of the
and Oovenanters, and were finally laid aside general synod as the supreme Judicatory of the
for a fuller exposition of the church's ffaith. The church in the northern states. But the inter-
result was that the Westminster oonfesaion and ests of the churoh continued in a languishing
the catechism, after a careful revision at sev- state till 1829, when the synod resolved to re-
eral anccessive meetings of synod, in the ar- vive the seminary, whose operations had been
tides relating to the power of the magistrate, suspended In 1631, and to establish it at New-
wer« pnblished in a volume in 1769, entitled burg, nnder the care of the Rev. Joseph Mo-
"The Oonstitntion and Standards of the As- OarroIl,D.D., who was at the same time chosen
Bociate Reformed Chorch in North America." professor of theology. It thus appears that
The ground occupied by this body was sub- since 1822 the Associate Reformed ohnrch has
stantially the same wiQi that held by the existed in three Independent divisions, at the
church of Scotland. For 20 years the growth North, the West, and the South. An attempt
of the church was very rapid ; and this led to was made in 182T to revive the general ^nod
the adoption of a measure in leos, which on the old footing, but it proved a f^ure.
proved premature and adverse to its prosper- 2. 7^ AuoeiaU Prabyterian Church. From
ity, namely, the division of the church into the 1782, the period of the fonnation of the Asso-
i provincial synods of New York, Pennsyl- ciate Reformed church, the Associalo church
vania, Scioto, and the Oarolinas, nnder a rep- was gradually inoroased by ministers sent out
resentative general synod. In 1800 the Initia- from Scotland, aud also by the retom of a oon-
tory stops were taken for the establiahment of uderable part of those who had previously
a theological seminary; and, the requisit« funds Joined the union. The first institution for the
having been coUeoted, at a meeting of ^e pnrpose of educating students in theology by
synod in 1804 the plan of the seminary was this body was established in 1793, nnder the
framed. Dr. John M. Mason was chosen pro- care of the Rev. John Anderson, B.D., of
fessor of theology ; and the sessions of the Beaver co., Penn., who continued to serve aa
seminary be^an in the antumn of the same sole professor of theology until 1818, when he
year in the city of New York. This was the resigned on account of old age. The preaby-
seoood theological seminary established in the tery of Pennsylvania, being unable to meet the
United States. Dr. Mason's work on " Oatho- applications for preaching which were made
lie Oommnnion," published in 1S16, was re- from £entaoky and Tennessee, directed the
garded in many parts of the church as a prodi- applicants to apply directly to the synod in
gioos heresy in rM^ard to the subject of which Scotland for missionaries. They Hi so ; and in
ft treated; and this, in connection with some answerto the petition, the synod sent two mis-
other grounds of complaint, led the entire sionaries (Messrs. Armstrong and Andrew Ful-
rod of Scioto, in 1820, to withdraw from ton) to Kentucky, with authority to constitute
snpenntendence of the general synod. In themselves Into a presbytery. These misdon-
18S1 the synod of the Carolinos petitioned the arios arrived in Kentncky in the spring of
general synod to be erected into an indepen- 1798, and in November following formed
dent synod, on the ground that they were so themselves with roling elders into a presby-
distant from the place at which the general tery, by the name of the presbytery of Ken-
synod nsually assembled that it was impossible tnoky. This accesnon of strength enabled these
that they shoold be represented in it. The presbyteries to form themselves into a synod;
request was granted. For many years after and accordiigly the synod, or court of review,
that the soatiiem synod gained but little in dedgoated as the Associate synod of North
VOL. xm.-— 86
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
662 ^lESBTTEBIANISU FBEBOOTT
America, was ooiutitnted at PhOadelphiA in only in bo &r u it presents common traths,
H&7, 1801. Tlie synod consisted of 17 mlni»- And "binds todnties not p^cnliartothechorab
ters, who were divided into 4 presbjteriea, in the British isles, but ofMnmon in all lasda."
luunely, of Philadelphia, of Ohsrtters, of Ken- Soon after the organization of the prertijteiy,
tacky, and of Cambridge. Until the year 1818 4 yoong men vere licensed to preach the goe-
appeaJs might be t^en from the synod to that pel, who became efficient mianonaries in dinter-
^ Seotlrad ; hut at that time it was declared ent parts of the United States. In 1608 a sy-
a coordinate synod by the general Aaaociate nod, composed of 8 presbyteriee, was oonstititb-
■ynod of Scotluid. Betweentheyears 1889 and ednndertbenameofthe^nodoftheRefonned
1840seTerBlministeraweredepcsedorsaepend- Presbyt^an chnrcb in the United States of
ed for various offences, who sabseqnently farm- Nori^Amerioa. InlSSStheGOpremejudieatoiy
ed themselves into a eynod, and assumed the received the form of a representative nwrmbty
name of the Associate synod of North America, composed of ddegatcfl from preebytcaiee, and
Two ministers alao in the South, one in Vir- styled the general synod. The ecdeoastieal
ginia, the other in South Carolina, who were standards of this chiu«h are the 'Weriminrter
suspended on accoont of their connection with eonfeeidon of faith and catechisms, and her
slavery, became united with the Asaociate ite- " Declaration and Testiinoiiy," pnbliahed in
formed synod of the South. A minister of the 1S4S. In declsring her approbation of the
presbytery ofliiamialsojoined with a suspend- Westminster confession of faith, she makes the
ed minister of the same presbytery and formed foUowin^ disclumer : '^ To prevent all mismi'
what they denominated UieE^e Associate pree- derstendmg of the matter of the seoond article
bytery of Miami — In May, 1868, the Assootate of this formnla, which emlrraoes the oonfesdon
Reformed and Uie Asaooiate chnrchee, having of fbith and catechisms, it is declared in refer-
been separ^ed for more than three qaarters of ence to the power of the dvil ma^strate in
a century, were nnited again upon a common eccleaiastical things, that it is not now, and
basis, under the name of the United Presbyte- never was, any partof the &ith of the Reform-
rian church in North America. A small nnm- ed Presbyterian church, that the ciril magis-
ber on each ride nrotested against the union, trate is authorized to interfere with the chnroh
Id 18S0 this brancn of the church embraced a of God, in the assertion, settlement, or admin-
general assembly, 4 provincial synods, 4S pres- istration of her doctrine, worship, and order,
byteries, 44T ministerL 674 congregations, and or to assume any dominion over the rights of
about 60,000 commnmcants. Tha amount of eonscience. All that appertuns to the ma^s-
its contributions for benevolent purposes dnr- tratical power in reference to the church is the
ing 1860 was $263, IGO. It haa uieological protection of her members in taO posaesEdoii,
seminaries at Alleghany, Penn., Xenia, 0., and exercise, and enjoyment of their ri^ta. The
Monmonth, 111. It has boards of foreign mis- magistratical office is civil and poBtical, and
■ions, of home missions, of publication, of oonseqaentlyaltogetherezterior tothechnrcb."
dinroh eitennon, and of education. Its pe- Some Beformed fVeabyterians have entertained
riodicaj puhUoationa are one quarterly, one the opinion that the oonstitatjon and govern-
monthly, one semi-montlily, and 4 weekly news- ment of the United States are essentially infidel
papers. — Rbfobxbd Pbbsbttehiah Cburch nr and immoral ; and principally on this gronnd,
AiiEBioA. At the union of the Associate and s number of ministers and private members, in
Ute Beformed churches in 1782, a oonaiderable 168S, seceded from the general synod of the
number of the latter as veil as of the former ohnrch, and formed a eeparate organization.
communion refused their assent to it, and they Refonned Presbyterians are acattmvd over the
continued their original organization. Within middle and western states, and they hava a f«tr
10 years, 4 ministers emigrated from Europe, congregations at the Sonth. The chnrcb oon-
to aid in nmntaining the Reformed Presby- sists of 7 presbyteries, 66 ministere, and 114
teriaa caose, viz. : Mr. James Beid from Scot- churches and stations. The amonnt of their
land, who returned to his own country when contributions to benevolent objects in the year
his missionary tour was accomplished, and ending May, 1860, wastlO,Sie.24. They hare
Messrs. McGarragh, Bong, and McEinney, the boards of domestic missions, of for^gn mis-
latter of whom arrived in 17B8. The 8 last sions, and of education, and one theological
named gentlemen regulated the afiairs of the seminary; and they also publish one weekly
church as a committee of the Reformed pres- newspaper.
bytery in Scothmd. This, however, was a FRE600T, a town of Lancashire, England,
mere temporary expedient, and its end having 8 m. E. irom Liverpool ; pop. in 1851, 46,G37.
been accomplished, Messrs. McKinney and It stands npon a coal field, and has long been
King, in connection with Mr. Gibson, who bad a manufacturing town of importance. The
then lately come .from Ireland, proceeded in drawing of pin wire had its origin here ; and
1798 to constitute a presbyterial judicatory in- the works of watches, watchmakers' tools, and
dependent of all foreign controL This presby- small files of superior quality are manniaetnred.
teryn-os styled the Reformed presbytery of the PRESOOTT. I. Olivkb, an American p»-
United States of America. In arranging the triot,bornatGroton, Mass., April87, im,died
terma of her communion, she declared that she there, Not. 17, 1804. Be was graduated at
adopted the Beformed Freabyterian system Harvard college in 17C0, and aflm^rard prao-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PSESOorr S68
tiMd niedioina. Before tlie revolation he wu in Harrard nnivenity, At Beverly he prae-
taeaeaaydj mi^OT, Uentenant-oolonel, and oolo- tised his profesrion from 1187 to 1789, vhen
nd in the militU, snd ia 17T6 was appointed he removed to Balem, vhi<^ town, be repre-
1>7 the soprome exeoative oonnci] of ibABaoha- eeoted for several jears in tiie legislature, and
aette a biigadieiv-general of the militia for the was anbeeqaently elected hj the federal party
Donnty of Middlesex. The same Tear also he a state seoator. In 1805 and again in 1B18 he
became a member of the board of war, aad hi yras offered and refltsed a seat on the anpreme
1T77 waa elected a member of the supreme ex- Jadicial bench of JCassachQeetts. In 1808 fae
ecative eouDoil of the staCb. After eerring la removed to Boston, and in IBOSand forsevera!
that body S years, he declined a reelection. In years afterward was a member of the gover-
1778 he was created third m^or-general of nor's oonnoil. In 1814 he was ft delegate to
urilitia thronghont the commonwealth, and ia the Hartford convention, and in 1618 waa ap-
1T81 second, bnt soon after resigned. In this pointed a Jndge of the court of commsn pleas,
year he received from the government a com- which office he resigned at the end of a year,
nussion " to cause to he apprehended, and He was a delegate to the constitatlonal con-
eommitted to gaol, any person whom yon shall vention of Massachusetts, his last pnblio office,
deem tiie safety of the oommonwealtli requires The closing years of his life were spent in quiet
tobereatr^edofhispersonalliberty.orwhose retirement. "As a praotinng lawyer," says
enlargement within the commonwealth is dan- Kr. Hillard, "no person ever ei^oyed in a
gertniB thftreto." In 1779 he was made Jndge greater degree tiie coafldence of the communi-
of probata for the eonnty of Wddlesex, and ty or the respect of the courts. For the last
held that podtton nntit hie death. II. Wil- 81 years of his life there was no one in Boston
LiAii, an American patriot, brother of the pre- whose connsel was more solicited or more
ea^ag, bom at Oroton, Uass., in 1726, died at valued in important matters, whether pnbHo or
Pepperell, Uasa., Oct 18, 1796. He mherited private." Daniel Webster, in a pubUo address
a large estate from his father, who was a mem- on the death of Jndge Presoott, remarked that
ber of the governor's councQ. In 17GS he atthetimeofhisretirementfromthebarofMas-
■erved as lieutenant in the provincial army nn- sachnsetts he stood at its head for letral learn-
der Winslow daring the expedition agunst ing and attainment. lY. Wiluau Hiokliho,
Nova Scotia, and his oondnct in that campaign LL.D.,an American historian, son of the preced-
attrHoted the fovorable notice of the British ing, bom in Salem, Mass., May 4, 1796, died in
geaenJ ooAperatingwith Winslow, who offered Boston, Jan. 36, 1869. His mother, who died
Preacott ft commisMon in the royal army, which in 18C2, was the daughter of Thomas Hickling,
was declined. After the war Preeoott retired to for many years U. S. consul at the Azores, and
his estate in Pepperell, where he redded, with was eminently distinguished for benevolence
a high reputation for conrage, honor, and mili' and active charity. At the age of IS, yoimg
tary akiU, till 1775, when, on receiving the news Preacott removed with his f^iilyto Boston,
of the battle of Lexington, he assembled a r^- where he was placed In the academy of Dr.
ment of militia of wnioh ho was colonel, and Gardhxer, a pupu of Dr. Parr. He entered Har-
marebed to the oamp at Cambridge. When vard college in 1811, and was gradnated in
the oommittee of safe^deuded to occupy Bun- 1614. In th« last year of his student life,
ker hfU, Preecott was selected for this perilous while in the college dining hall, a classmate
service, and on the evening of June 16 marched playfliUy threw at him a crust of bread, which
to Oharlestown with a brigade of 1,000 men, strock one of his eyes, inffioting an iqjnrr
and threw np the intrenchments behind which which deprived the eye of sight except so
nnder hia command the Americans met the muoh as sufficed to distingalsh light tVom dark-
British on the following day. It is the con- nesa. Exceatdve nse of the other eye for par-
temporary reoord, aaya Bancroft, that dur- poses of study broaght on a rheumatic inflam-
ing the battle " no one appeared to have any mation, which deprived him entirely of sight
commuid but Ool. Prescott," and that "his for some weeks, and left the eye in too irrita-
braver7 oonid never be enongh acknowledged ble a state to be employed in reading for sev-
and applauded." He was among the last to eral years. Bubeequeotly for some years he.
qait the field, and immediately offered to re- wasenabledtoaseitformaayhouraof theday,
take the poaitioii if the commander-in-chief bat eventaally it again became so weak that
would give him three regiments. He served in during the latter half of his life Mr. Prescott
the army for two years longer, and was present conld only read for a few momenta at a time, and
aa a volunteer at tiie bottle-of Saratoga in 1777. conld sottfoely see to write at all. Soon after
After this battle he returned home, and sabee- leaving college he croaeed the Atlantic for the
qnentty sat in the l^risUtnre of Massachusetts bcaeflt of his eyes, and consulted the most cele-
for several years. IH. William, LL.D., an brated oculists of Loadon and Paris, who how-
Amarioaa lawyer, only ohild of the preceding, ever could give him no effectual relief. He
bom at Pepperell, Aug. 19, 17S3, died in Bos- travelled exteodvely ia Ensland, France, and
too, Deo. 6, IS44. He was graduated at Har- ItsJy, and resided for seversl months at Rome
vard noU^e in 1788, and stadied law at Beverly and Naples. On his return to Boston titer
with Nathan Dane, the distinguished founder two years' absence, he married and settled for
of the law professorship which bears his name life in his fiber's ftmily, He had begun tbq
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
664 PEESOOTT
atadj of the law, but relinquished It in conae- reader acqo^nted with Sponisli and otiier lan-
quenoe of the Btat« of hla eyesight, and reaol?- gaages of continental Europe, and conid witli
od to devote himself to lit«rature aa a profes- thia Md prosecnte his atadies with some degree
eion in which he coold regulate his own honra of facility. After more than 10 jears of labor
in reference to what his aight might enable the "Histery of Ferdinand and Isabella" was
him to accompliah. He had early coneeired a ready for the preaa. A few ccmiea irere pti-
passioa for hiatorioal writing, and in 1819 de- rately printed and ahown to Mr. Sparka, Mr.
termined to devote the nest 10 years to the Ticknor, and other friends, whose cardial appro-
study of ancient and modem literatures, and to bation at length encouraged the diffident author
pve the aacoeeding 10 to the compoMtion of to pnbliah the work. It appeared in Bostra
a Ldatory, He aocordinglr applied himaelf and London toward the end of 1887, in 8 vols,
to the etody of French and Italian literature, Sro., and was immediately reodved with great
and at one time meditated writing a life of favor by the public. Don Paacnal de Gayan-
Uoli^re, for which he made an aztensiye col- goa, the eminent Spanish scholar, reviewed it
lection of materials. This project, and another in the "Edinborgh Review," and pronounced
for the history of Italian literature, he re- it " one of the most sncceaefol historical pro-
luctantly abandoned because of the great ductious of our time." Ur. Bichard Ford, who
smomit of reading which they involved. Of was better Tersed in Spanish literature than any
hia atndies in thia direction the chief fruita other Englishmanofbisdayjpruaedithighlyin
were given to the public in a series of essays in the " Quarterly Review" as a work '' that need
the " North American Review" on "Uoli^re," not fear comparison with any that has issned
"Italian Narrative Poetry," and "Poetry and from the European press since this oentnrjr be-
Bomance of the Italians," which, with others gan." The work was soon translated into Ger-
on kindred topica, were printed in a volume man, French, and Bpaniah, and the rojal acad-
of " MiBoeUaniee" fLondon and Boston, 1S46), emy of history at Madrid elected the author a
of which aeveral editions have aince been pub- corresponding member. Kxyearsof labor were
lished. Abont 1826 ill. Prescott began to next devoted to the "History of the Conqnest
study Spanish literature and history, and after of Mesico" (8 vols. 8vo., London and New York,
much deliberation selected as the aulject of 1848), and four years to the " Oonquest of Pe-
his first work the reign of Ferdiaand and Isa- m" (B vob. Svo., London and New York, 1&47),
bella. He made at great expense a collection These works were received with the highci-t
of materials, and before bewming to write was favor in all parts of the civilized world, anil
able with the assiatance of his mends in £n- praises and honors were showered on the anthor.
rope to aecnre, as he says in the preface to Hewaa elected amemberof nearlysll thoprin-
the history, "whatever can materially conduce cipal learned bodies inEnr(H)e,and in 1816 was
to the illustration of the period in question, made a corresponding member of the institute
whether in the form of chronicle, memoir, pri- of Fruice. In 1860 Mr. Prescott made a short
vate correspondence, legal codes, or official doc- visit to Enrope, passing a few months in Fng-
mnents." Among these were variaos contem- land, Scotland, and Belgium. After his return
porary manuscripts, covering the whole 'ground he applied himself to the compodtion of a hia-
of the narrative, none of which had been print- tory of the reign of Philip it, which he had
ed, and some of them but little known to Span- long meditated, and for which he had made an
ish scholars. But when his materials were extensive collection of books and manuscripts.
collected, his eyes, which for a time had been The first two volumes of this work ^ipeared at
well enough to enable him to read a few hours Boston in I8C6, and the third in 1868. The
eaoh day, became worse than ever. He oly entire history was intended to comprise 6 vol-
talned the assistanoa of a reader, who however nmes, but was never finished. On Feb. 4, 1868,
knew no language but Enghsh. "I taught him Mr. Prescott eiperienced a slight shock of pa-
to prononnoe the Oastilian in a manner suited, ralyms, from the effects of which however he
I suspect, much more to my ear than to that soon recovered and resumed his literary pnr-
of a Spaniard; and we began our wearisome snits. Eleven months afterward, while at work
jonrney through Mariana's noble history. I with hia secretary in hia study, he was stmdc
cannot even now call to mind wiUiout a smile speechless by a second attack of paralysis, and
the tedious hours in which, seated under some died about an hour afterward. Beside bis his-
old trees in my country residence, we pursued tories, Mr. Prescott wrot« brief memoirs of his
our slow and melancholy way^ over pa^es friends John Pickering and Abbott LawT«nce,
which afforded no glimmering of light to hma, and supplied to a Boston edition of Robertson's
and from which the light came dimly struggling " History of Charles T." a sequel relating the
to me through a half intelligible vocabSary. tme circumstances of the emperor's retire-
But in a few weeks the lightbecame stronger, ment and death. — In person Mr. Prescott was
and I was cheered by the oonsoionaness of my tall and slender, with a fi«sh and florid corn-
own improvement: and when we had toOed plexion, and lively, graceftil manners. "His
our way through V quartos I found I could personal appearance," says Mr. Bancroft, "was
-'■■*"-*■' ' n . . . , ■ , lasing, and won for him e
once a welcome and favor.
had something that brong
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
understand the book when read about two singularly pleasing, and won for him every-
thirds aa &st as ordinary English." At a later where in advance a welcome and favor. As
period Mr. Presoott obt^ed the services of a couateoaQce had something that brought to
PBE800TT 666
mind the 'beantifol disdain' that hovers on middleofBToTembertothetniddleof Jnnoliere-
that of the Apollo. But wbils he was high- sided in Boston, at No, 6S Beacon street, where
Bpmted, he was tender and gentle and humane, he had acoaniiilated one of the finest private
His voice was like mario, and one conld never libraries in America, being especially rich in.
bear enough of it. His oheerfnlneea reached Italian and Spanish books. Tne summer was
and animated all abont him. He could in- always passed at Kahant, where he had a cot-
dalge in pl^olness, and oonid also speak tage, and the antnmn at Pepperell, in the farm
eameotly and prafoimdlj'; but he knew not hoosa in which his ancestor, the oommander at
bow to be nn^frocioaa or pedantic" A similar Banker hill, was bom and died. In the last
aooonnt of his personal oharaoter was ^ven jears of his life he abandoned Nahant and es-
Boon after hia death by one of his secretanea in tablished his somnter residence in the neighbor-
a commnnication to the New York " Tribune :" Ing town of SwampecotL He carried hie books
"Mr. Prescott's oheerftilness and amiability with him to his seaside and rural residences, and
irer* boify admirable. Hehadaflnely wronght, wrote therewith his nanal diligence. Sis mode
eensitire organization ; he was high-spirited, of composition waa as follows. His secretary
conrageons, resolnte, independent; was free first read to him all the books that related to
from cant or a&otation of any sort. Yet no the general sabJeot,Mr.Prescottdiotatingocoa-
annoyanoe, great or small, the most painful sional memoranda at the reading went on. The
illness or the most intolerable bore, oonid dis- plan of the work was then aketohed, a division
torb his «qiianimity, or render him in the least into ch^ters made, and the anUiorities fbr the
degree sollen or &etAil or diaeonrteoos. He topio of the first chapter gathered together and
was alwaya gay, good-homered, and manly; read to him careftQly, while he diotatedoopions
most gentie and afrootionate to hia family, most notes of their contents and of the reflections
kind and gracions to all aronnd him. He oar- or descriptions snggested by them. When the
ried his kmdnesa of disposition not only into pernsal of the anthorities was finished, the man
his public but into his private writings. In the of notes was read and reread to Mr. Fresoott
bondreds of letters, many of them of the most until their snbetance was flilly fixed in hia
confidential charaoter, treating freely of other mind. He then sat down to write, nsing for
authors, and of a great variety of peraons, which the purpose a writing instmment made for the
I wrote at his dictation, not a single nnkind or blind, oonslating of a trame of the size of a
faanh or sneering expresdon occnra. He was to- sheet of qoarto letter paper traversed by u
tally free ftom the Jealonsy and envy so common many brass wires aa there were to be lines on
among authors, and was always eager, in con- the page, and .with a sheet of oorbonAtedpwer,
versation aa in print, to point out the merits of such aa is nsed forgetting dnpliootes, paMed on
the great contemporary historians whom many the reverse aide. With on ivory or agate stylus
men in his position wonld have looked upon as he traced his characters between the wirea on
rivals to be dreaded, if not detested," In his the carbonated sheet, making indelible marks
habits he was singnlsrly methodical, and regn- on the white page below. He wrote with
lated bis doily life by an exact division of time, great rapidity, in a hand so illegible that none
He rose early, waked by an. alarm clock, and coald read it but himself and hia secretary,
clothed himself according to the weather aa in- The latter copied the mannaoript as fast as
Seated by the thermometer, putting on so written in a large and legible hand, on paper
many pounds of clothing more or less, his gar- so ruled that there was twice the nsnal spaoe
meats being all marked with their weight in between the lines to afford room for interlinea-
ponnds and ounces. He walked S miles each tion. "When the chapter woe finished, it was
day in the open air, or, if the weather was road to him several tim^ caraftilly revised, and
stormy, in the honse, in the latter case putting again copied before being eent to the printer,
on his hat, boots, and gloves, and takang his HetookcomparativelylittiepaiDawithhiss^le,
cane, as if ont of doors. He alwaya walked but was nnwearied in hia efforts to asoertain the
alone, if he could without discourtesy avoid truth of history. " The excellence of his pro-
having a companion, because while walking dnotions," sayaMr.Banoroft, "is tronsporentto
he occupied nis thoughts in composition, every reader. Oompare what he has written
His father hod the some peculiarity, and both with the most of wnat others have left on the
father and son for many ^eors rode out at the same snbject, and Prescott's superiority beams
same hour in the mormng, mounting their upon you from the contrast. Tne easy flow of
horses at the same door, and riding off in his language, and the faultiess Incidil^ of his
opponto directions. To hia literary labors ' style, may make the reader forget the nnremit-
be gave 0 hours daily, divided into 8 nearly ting toil which the narrative has cost ; but the
eqau portions of time, and for 2 hours a day critical inquirer sees everywhere the frnits of
listened to novel reading, which he thought investigation rigidly and most pereeveringly
.j! 1...3 H. ; ! J!._ J —v J -V. ij^g^jg^^ j_Jl __ . .i_i,.._ . , a
stimulated his imagination and enhanced the pursued, and an Impartiality and
animation of his style. His favorite novelists Judgment which give anthority to ererr state-
were Sootti IKckeaa, Dumas, and Sue. ^s mantond WMghttosveryoondusion." Edvud
aoconnts of doily expenditnrea were kept with Everett, in an address b«fore the Massaohosetta
the greatest ezoctneai, and one tenth of his in- historical society, shorthr after Ur. Freaoott's
come was alwaya devoted to charity. Fromthe dealii,eaid: "8olongaa!nage«fhrdistant,and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
566 PBKSOBIPTIOK
not only in ooimtriM noir refined and p<dk2ied, aH cases owners, lirjnBtioe wiQ sometimes be
bat in thoea not yet brooght into the domain done by depriving of thdr property ttiose who
<tf drilization, tiie remarkable epooh wbidi be olianoetolwoutofpoeaearicna. Bcooe arbitrary
baa described aball attract the attention of mle most therefore be oontrired to reconcOe
men ; so long as the oonsoUdation of the Spanish these conflicting natnnd rights of owuen and
monarchT and the expulMon of the Hoora, the possessors. This end woold obvionalj be at-
mi^tyuienieof the diseorery of America, the taioed by prescriinng a time within whidi tfaoae
wonderftil genina of Oolambiu, the msil-olad who claim to be owhotb, but are not in pOBse»-
fbrma of Oortes and I^HUTo, and the other ^im don, shall prove their rights, and afber the
eettamtiadorei, tramiiling new-fbnnd empires lapee of which posseesorB who have not been
nndar the hoofi of tneir csvalry, shall be snb- evicted shall be maintained in their posEession.
Jects of literary interest ; so long as tiie blood That this obvioDS rale la also a reasonable one
shall cnrdle at the omeltiee of Alva, and the will appear, when it is remenibered that occn-
fieree stmgnles of the Moslem in the East ; so panoy and oontinned use make the very fonn-
long will uie writings of oar friend be read, dation of title to things, and that the require-
With respect to some of them, time, in all hn- ment of nnintermpted poaaession for a pven
man probaldlity, will add nothing to his mo- period is only an application of the universal
tei4ale. It vas aald the other day, by onr mle of aoqnimlion. As a rule of this nature is
respected associate, President Sparks (a com- then eesential, it wiU be fonnd to exist in all
petent anthori^), tliat no historian, ancient ayetems of law. Here we have to do only with
or modem, exceeded Hr. Presoott in the depth the prescription of onr law. The oognato snb-
andaocnraey of Uareaearohea. He has driven Ject of limitation is treated elsewhere. (See
his Artesian eritddam through wretched mod- LnnrATioir, BTAxnTss OF.}-^In strictnees the
em compilations, and the trashy exaggerations common law allowed only incorporeal rights,
of intervening oommoitatorB, down to the snch as easements, rights of way, and water
original 'contemporary witnesses ; and the conrses, to be prescribed for. Lands and cor-
Bporkling waters of truth have gnshed np poreal ri^ht« were provided for by the statntea
from the livli^ rook. In the d^iula of hia of limitation. Bracton, however^ho wse one
narrative farther light may be obtained fhim of the earliest writers npon the EnK^ah jnria-
eonroes not yet aooeseible. The first latter of pradence, and who wrote before the statotea
Oortes may be brought to light ; the hiero- of limitation were so nicely developed as they
glyphics of Falenqne may be decipbered ; bat now are, and who moreover borrowed mnch
the history of the BpanisB «npire, during tbe of his learning immediately from the Roman
Kriod for which he nas treatea it, will be read law, lays it down that nndistorbed e^joym^it
posteri^ for general information, not in the may as well give tide to corporeal as to incor-
aadent Spanish aathors, not in black letter poreal rights, and that waa the prinuple of
ohronloles, bnt in tlie volnmee of Preecott." — prtKeriptio in the code of Jostinian. Amer-
A life of Presoott Is in preparation (1S61) by lean law, though it has, like the English law.
ICr. GoOTge Tioknor of Boston, the historian of its prescription and its limitations, yet does not
Spanish literature. aostriotiyaatbat limit the application of either,
PREBOBIPTIOK Qa the Roman law, pro- bat seems Bometimes to hold with Bracton that
•«rtpKo), a title acquired by possesdon, during prescription may as well apply to lands as to
the time and in the manner nzed by law. It is rights of common or way. So Judge Story
a natural and immutable priuoiple, says Domat, onoe remarked, that " the arguments fbr pre-
tliat the owner of a thing shall remain so, and scription apply, it is plain, as well to lands as
enjoy therefore all the rights of ownership, to incorporeal rights." (7 Wheaton, lOS, 110.)
nntil his property is divested either by his vol- The period which gives prescriptive right has
raitary act of alienation, or in some other legal varied in the law. Anciently the law required
mode. And it Is another natural rale of tne that the right claimed should have existed un-
law, that he who baa been for a long time in distairbed from time immemorial, or, aa the old
possesion of a thing shall be regarded as the phrase is, "from time whereof the memory of
owner of it ; beoanae, in t^e first place, men man runneth not to the contrary." When, by
ore natnrsBy oardU not to give up what be- the statute of WeBtminster tiie first, in the time
longs to them, and in the second place, beoaose of Edward I., vrrita of right were limited to a
it would be unreasonable to presume withoat certain period, it was thought reasonable that
proof tliat a possessor is a usurper. Yet, if the period of preecriptioix ehonid have a like
the fwmer of these rales, he ooDtinnes, be oar- limitation, and claims of ri^ht were therefore
lied to its flirthest extent, it will follow that declared to be indefeasible if they existed be-
hewhooandiowthatritiierbe,ortheytbrough fore the first day of the reisn of Richard I.
whom he olaima, have been owners of an estate, (July, 1169), but were invalidated if they had
will reoover it from the possessor, no matter a later origm. By later statutes the period of
how long the tatter or his ancestors may have limitation in real actions was still fhrth^- re-
been in poBHOsdon, unless he (the possessor) dnoed, and it would have been only reasonable
can show a particular divestiture of the claim- to oonform to it the time of legal memory or
ant's title. If, on the other hand, it is to be prescription. , This was, however, not d(»te,
Imperatively presumed that poesessora are la and it was left fbr a long time to the courts to
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
^ESCBiFnoN' fier
TVma^ taa unf^rneaa by equitable oonstrac- first groimd of title; that long Tmdutnrbed po«-
tiont. The device was hit upon b; them of (esaora ought to be proteoted in their oocnpaa-
piesnming, iuooseof thelongeqjoymeDtof an oj; and that even where lands hare been tnuu-
easement, that there had been a formal grant, ferred bj formal instnunents of oonTejanoe,
of whioh the evidenoe, that ia to sa;', the deed, jet these ma? be lost. Bat that the principle
waaloaL Ifthia presumption were not rebntted of preeoriplioa is inbodooed into oar law wiUi
bj proof to the contrsrj, the oconpant'a title gingnlar fitneu will appear when it is rememr
was cM3n6rmed. The eSeot was, that tboogh bered that is thia otnintiy all titles, even the
prescriptive right oonunencing aAer the reign oldest, are comparatirel; recent; that nqjost
of Riohard I. was not sustained, for the law on eriotion might be in maaj cases earner than in
that point was explicit and still imperatiTe, yet older coontries ; that dwiog the rapid eettle-
nossesfflon for a period far less even than that of ment of large districts of the conntry the ori^-
tegal memory sufGced to warrant the presump- nal inatruments of conveyance were often r^e
tion of a grant. Presoriptloa in its old aeaao and technically inexact; and fin^y, that in
was rarely pleaded, and time of legal memory many localities the original settlers had no
came to he of little importance. Bnt later, other right than th^ which ocanpanoy gave
and particularly by the statute 3 and 3 William them, a title whioh ongtom reoo^uzed at the
IV., the time of prescription was definitely lim- time as sufficient, bat of which snbsequent
ited by express enactments to periods varying grantees conld show no written evidence. —
from 60 to 20 years, aooordtng to the ciroam- Now, to regard briefly the partictdar qnalitiea
stances and the nature of the right claimed, of prescription, it is to he remarked in the first
The tendency of all modem legislation, indeed, place that the ei^oyment of the right prescribe
is to sabatitute a short certain period in lieu of ed for must liave been adverse; thatutosay,
the old immemorial prescription. Thia last it mngt either have invaded or limited the ex-
haa been aboli^ed in France, in Austria, where erdse of such aright of the owner as be conld
the prescriptive periods vary from 6 to 40 have asserted by action. Prescription there-
years, and in Fnuda, where they range from fore cannot be pleaded when possession has
80 to fiO years. In the United States the policy been eqjoyed by the mere permisBion or license
(rf the law has been to make the time of pre- of the owner, for this reoc^niaes the owner's
Bcription analogous to that of the statutes of title ; in short, the possession mnst have been
limitation; in other words, to applythe same enjoyed as of the poesessor's right. Foasesaion
rule to like caaee; so that we are gradually must also have been uninterrupted; for he who
bringing the cognate matters of preecripdon ceases to hold poasesdon seams hunself to ad*
and limitation together again, and throwing mit his lack of title. Glaim of prescriptive
them under virtually one title, aa they should right ia alao extingoished by nnity of possession,
be in &ot, and as they are in foreign codes. Thus, if B has acquired by long ergoyment a
Thia rnle of the American law is not only a right to have water flow throngh his land by
plainly expedient one, hut, as we have seen, it artificial courses upon A's estate, and then A
u the one by which the English period of buys B's land, and makes a oonveyaace of the
prescription was first defined. Furthermore, land which once was B's, the grantee cannot
the Engliab time of legal memory was a purely olum a prescriptive right to tbe water oonrses.
arbitrary one. When then it became neceeaary Uoreover, the right claimed by prescriptioii
for American law to fix such a time, there was mnst have been certain and reasonaole. There
already the precedent for settiing upon an ar- can be no prescriptive right to do a wrong, or
bitrory period ; hut there was b^de good rea- any thing tbat would be a nuisance to another j
■on why it should not follow the English rule, nor can ezolnsive right be prescribed for in re-
but ahould adopt one better suited than that speot to a common privilege, for example, by
to the age and circumstances of the country, one who has pastured Itis cattle for the pre-
The better opinion is that oar time of le^ Boribed period upon a common or a highway,
memory was generally 60 years, and that there- or has eqjoyed a way along a beach which ia
fore was the prescriptive period. Afterward, used in common by fishermen, fowlera, weed-
fbllowiog the statutes of limitation, it was re- gatherers, &c. Yet, as a member of tbe com-
dncad geuerally to 40 years. Uore lately, and munity, an individual may assert prescriptive
indeed now for a long time, adverse, exclusive, right in a public easement, as for example in a
and nnintormpted e^oyment for 20 years af- oonunon landing place or a highway. The
fords in moat statee conclusive presumption of claim of prescription most be proved snbstan-
ri^t. BtiU conforming to the statutes of lim- tially as it is pleaded ; yet slight and a:
itation. the time of prescription is in some tial variations in the proof will not invalidate
states less than that, as, for example, IB years the claim of right. In almost all the states the
in Yermont and Connecticut The doctrine doctrine of prescription la now regulated, ic
of prescription is not only applicable, but in application to the various classes of rights, by
many respects pecnliarly apphoable to the cir- express statate provisions. Generally SO years*
cnnutanoee of our oonntry. The same argu- nmntermpted possession ia required for th«
manta for it whioh iqiply everywhere else ap- aoqnisition of real rights ; and by statute in Maa-
ply equally here ; namely, the considerations sachnsetts, and by substantially the same pn>-
that occupancy is nmvenally the origin and visions in Maine, Indiana, and probably other
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
fi68 PRESERTATION OF FOOD
Btates, tlie owner of land maj defeat pregcrip- trork called flakes, and left for weeks to oe>
tdve acquiaitioQ by notifying the occDpant of come tjiorotigfalr drr. Salt, which is used aa
hie intention to dispute the title. Thia notice an aaziliary in these processes, is effective from
operates in behalf of the real owner as a le- its propert;^ of abstracting moietare from bodies
gal intennption to break up the nuining of in contact with it; it penetratea the pores of
the prescriptive time ; wliile the claimant may the meat, and placea one third or one half of
treat it as a trespass or a tortiona intmMon on the water the meat contained in a conditioii
his preaomed ownership, and bring an action to powerless for iiju7. It is more eSdHit in
determine the ngbt. drr salting than in the condition of brine or
PEESERVA'nOK OF FOOD. AH arttolea Bolntion of salt, which still, however, preeervea
need as nutriment (see Aument) are them- meats immersed in it. Beside merel; absorb'
aelves of organic natore, and consequently snb- ing moistare, it probably has some action npoa
ject to rapid decay. The elements of which the masonlar tisane, the nature of which is not
tbey consist, chiefly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, underatood. It certainly disaolyes and removes
and nitrogen, are loosely held in tiieir yuioos much of the nntriment contained in the joicm
combinations, and constantly tend to return to of the meat, and thus causes a conaideraMe
the simpler and more stable compounds rocog- loss. Sagar has the aame property with salt
nized as inorganic. Thus carbon, which con- of taking up the moistnre from bodies, and is
stitntes about one half the weight of dry vege- an important agent in some processes of pre-
table matters and a large proportion of animal serving food. Choice fish, as salmon, aresome-
Bubstanoea, is ever ready to leave the elements times kept by mbbing in sugar and afterward
that hold it in these bodies, and, nniting with a drying, and hama of superior quality are thos«
dne proportion of oxygen, escape in the form of known as " sngar-cnrod." Birnps are prodooed
carbonic acid gas; hydrogen in like manner seeks with thejnioea of fruits which are boiled with
its atom of oiyxen, with which to form water; sugar, and if these ainips are strongly saocha-
nitrogeu combmes witlk hydrogen to produce rine they are little liable to undergo change.
the volatile ammonia, and more hydrogen is Saltpetre possesses the drying property in a leas
still removed in combination with sulpnur in degree than salt or sugar. It is often used with
the noxions gas sulpbnretted hydrogen. (See salt, probably for the aake of the reddening
OoMBUSTioN, EsBKAOArsis, TsBMEsTiTios, ond action it has upon the animal fibre, thus cor-
PurBBFAtTTioN.) Food being irregular in its anp- reeling the somewhat bleaching property of
plies, and also required in places where it is not salt. Smoking, whiob is auotJier important
naturally produced, it is important to be able to method of preserving meata, Is efficient in part
check the tendency to decay, that stores of it from the drying action of the best, and in part
may be retained for nse whenever and wherever from the antiseptio properties of the pyrolig-
ueeded. As the preeenoe of water or almost neous acid and creosote generated in uie alow
any fluid facilitates tliese changes, mechanical- combostion of the wood fueL Bome woods
ly by increasing the mobility of the particles, impart a peculiar flavor to the smoked meats,
and also by the chemical reaction of its ele- which is not always objectionable. Westpho-
menta, the permanence of the compounds can- lia hama are thuB flavored by the juniper wood
not fail to be increased by its remoToL For with which they are smoked. Care is neces-
thb reason, the practice of drying meats in the aary in smoking as well as in drying meat, to
sun or by a fire Las been very generally adopt- prevent the temperature from exceeding 140°
ed, oven among mde nations. The flesh of F., the effect of greater heat being to co^^ate
the buffalo and the deer is thns preserved by the albumen and render it insoluble and innn-
the Indians of the "West, and the Mexicans and tritious. For some articles of food this is not
Spanish Americans have long applied the same objectionable, and vinegar is used aa a power-
method to the preservation of beef^ which, cut i^l preaervative, its action being exerted to
into long strips, dipped in brine, and hung upon render the albnmen (the ingredient moat
lines to dry in the sun, they designate ftunjo. ready to undergo putref^tive fermentation)
Such meat may be reduced to powder by inert and oonseqnentiy indigestible. But the
pounding it in a mortar, and thns prepared it articles tliua preserved, as pickles, &c., are
IS sometimea mixed with com meal and packed esteemed rather as appetizers than for the
in tight baga of skin to be kept as long aa need nutriment they affoiii. Low temperature is a
be. It h also sometimes mixed with half its perfect protection against changes in cranio
weightof melted fat, or with marrow and dried compounds. At the freezing point the jaioea
onrrants or berrie^ and again with flour, oat- arefixed by congelation; and at several degrees
meal, or powdered bard bread. Such is the abovet^eirelementaarelittledispoaedtochange.
pemmiean of the north-west toyagmin. Glue At the extreme cold of high latitndes ani-
ls the gelatine of animal bodies preserved by mal substances may be kept for indefinite pe-
thorongh drying. Fish are also preserved by nods, aswaaexemplifledin awonderftitmanner
the same method. Oodflsh taken on the banks by the diacoverr in 17T9 of the extinct species
of Newfoundland are immediately split open, of elephant in the ice of porthem Siberia, the
and thrown with some salt into the hold of flesh of which was unchanged, and served (br
the vessel, whence they are afterward taken the food of wolvea. Themarketa of nortbem
and spread out upon rade stands of wicker countries are often aappUed with froxan meats
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
;VATION OF FOOD PRESERVATIOH' OF WOOD 569
and fiah broo^t from distant places, and kept ing ia anj climate for anj length of time. Bj
toe a loEig time. Supplies of beef and pork at a lat«r Improvement the air is partiallj cshanst-
I«k« Baperior, Instead of being " pat down " ed from the canister white it la standing in
In the antnimi^ are commonly hang np as the hot water, and it is then imme^atel; closed.
nnimi^la are kUled, and at aaj time dnrii^ the Cans and bottles are now provided and largelj
winter fresh meat is out from the pieces, used for preserving froits, baving motoUia
Severe frost is iitjnrious to the flavor ; but a covers that screw tightly down, and the Joint
regular temperature at or a little above the is made still more secure bj the application of
freezing point ia effeotnal to preserve meats wax. The frnita are preserved eimer with or
witboat impairing their good qualities. After witbont sn^ar ; and if without, a gill of water is
b^ng fh>2en the thawing should be gradual, or introduced mto the can for ever; qnart of frait.
udden putrefaction is likelj to ensue. Yege- In everj case tbe con is set into boiling water
tables and fruits are best preserved in lai^ for IG to SO minutes before the cover is tightly
qoBotilies in dry places wbere the temperature screwed down, and after this for about half as
& wuformly low, but above freezing ; as in cool long. The second boiling is designed to con-
diy cdlars, and caves specially made for this vert any oiygen that may possibly remain in
porpose in dry sand banks. The introduction the can into carbonic acid. In Texas a veij
of refrigerators, or ioe boxes, in markets and nntntive and portable food called meat biscmt
private nooses, effects an immense saving in the has been prepared by mixing strong beef broth
preeervatioa of meats from decay. — Oommon with flour and baking. This may be cheaply
air, or oxygen, is as essential to the decay of produced tn large qnantities wherever cattie
organio bodies as moistnre ; hence, if it b ex- are destroyed for the sake of their skins only.
olnded, they are preserved. Fmits are pro- Metliodsofpreserving milk and butter are given
tected by their natoral skin ; bat if this is in- in the articles on those subiects.
jnred, the exposed part ia soon affected by the PRE8ERTATI0N OF WOOD. Under the
OCTgan of the air, and decay goes on from this bead of Dby Bot, one of the principal causes
polat. Once begun, it is not arrested, thongh of the decay of wood has been considered, and
the air be then excluded. 6rq>es maybe long reference was made to some of the methods of
preserved carefully packed in saw dnst, but the preserving wood. The protection of timber
pDDCtnre of the altin of one of them with a from decay is a subject which for some time
needle will soon be followed by fermentation, has been attracting much attention in Great
Hence the importance of carefully handling Britain, especially in reference to the use of
fhiits intended to be kept a long time. Fer- the timber in ship building, and also in the
mentation is checked by boiling, and the air construction of raUroads, the snbstnictnre of
b^ng then eiolnded, the articles may still be which consists of wooden sleepers partially
I»«served. On this principle the most effldent buried in the ground, and consequently under
Slaos of preserving food in their original con- the most favorable conditions for rapid decay ;
ition are foonded. U. Appert received in 1610 and in the United States it is of gi'eat impor-
from the EVonch government 12,000 francs for tance for the same applications. The methods
introdocinghisprocesa of parboiling provisions in use ore varions, but are generally based upon
and then confining them in air-tight Jars. His the principle of expelling the natural juices of
method was perfected by Donkin and co. and the wood and filling the pores with some snb-
Oamble of London, and as thus improved is stance possessing antiseptic properties, that
new in common use. It has proved of immense will coagulate the remaining albumen, or that
importance for navy and army supplies, and ia will prevent the admission of moisture. lit
Mpecially valuable for fHirnishuig fresh meats on the petroleum districts of Burmah and the
long voyages. Alimentary substances of almost Caspian sea, the quality of the natural rock
any kind are cooked in the usual way ; from the oil to preserve timber that has been immersed
meats the bonesareremoved, andtbeyaretben in it is well undorstoodj and the inhabitants
put in tin canisters with or without vegetables, employ the article for this purpose. The tim-
and the canister is immediately filled quite full ber of whale ships is more durable for tbe
with ricb gravy. A cover with a small hole oil it imbibes, and the staves of old oil ccsks
in it ia then fitted on, and the vessel is set in are little liable to decay. If timber is well
boiling water, or in a hotter aaUne solution, stesmed in large tanks and the temperature is
The heat eipels aU the air that may be in the suddenly lowered, the pores are freed from the
canister, and steam also Issues tiirougb the fluids and soluble matters in the wood, and are
Uttla aperture. This b checked by the ap^li- thus better prepared for the absorption of oil
o^oQ of a damp sponge, when the hole b in- or other preservative liquids. In England no
atantly stopped by soldering, and it b exposed fewer than 47 patents have been granted tor
Igsdn to a boiling temperature. As the con- processes designed " to preserve animal and
tents oool they contract, and the cover b bent vegetablosnbstances, including timber," 4 only
a little in by the external preasnre of the air. of which were in the last century, the earliest
If afterward, on b^ng exposed to a tempera- In 1737. The first thatwos extensively applied
tore of 100° F., pntreootion does not take place was the process of Hr. Eyan, patented in Eng-
tud burst the canister, no tcoa oxygen b pree- land in I8G2, and some time afterward Intro-
«nt, and tbere is no risk of the contents spoil- duoed into tlie United Statu by the inventor.
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
570 FKKSEEVATION OF WOOD
The wood VM inuneraed in n Bolation of cor- fanpre^ted In S4 hours ia kngOu of 9 feet ;
rodre sablimata tiU Bator&ted with it ; and if bnt sticka of the same timber 40 feet long re<
it were neceasar^ to hasten the prooets, this quired 10 Aa,j6 for the oompletion of the vro-
wsa done bj emploTing an ^-ti^t tank, ez- qbbb. Trees felled at any time between K&y
haosting the air, and fording in the solution b; 4nd NoTember were treated within 8 weeks of
estemal preuore. When faithftallr oondnoted the time of felling ; but if felled between No-
the effects were perfeotly satMaotory; hut, vember and Hay thej were kept till the Utter
except bj tbe nse of open tanks, which wss an month. Sulphate of copper, and the acetsto
extremely tadioos method, the difficulties en- also, bad been applied in England bj HBrgarr,
ooontered in the emplojrnent of so corrosive a and nsed to a considerable extent ; so thiS the
salt, together with ue great cost of the mate- novelty in I^. Boncherie's process Is the peca*
rial and the introduction of new methods, led liar and inez^enMve method of ii^ecting the
to the abandonment of what was known as solntion. It ts atill extenidvelf practised for
the fcysnjzing process. — Of the various prepa- ^paring sleepers and telegraph posts for the
rations now nsed in England, that of Mr. J. French railwajs. — Another prooese also esa-
Bethel, condsting of the oily mixtures oh- ployed in England, and more espcciaUy in
tained by a rough dktillstion of the tarry Frmce, is Ihat of Mr. Payne, patented in Eng-
liqnor of gas works, appears to be regarded land in 1811. The timb^ is introdQc«d into a
as the most effldent. A solution of pyrolig- long iron cylinder, which is then closed ur-
nate of iron is also dmilarly effective. From tight Bteam is driven in, expelling the air
the presence of creosote in these llqnors, and through a valve opened for the purpose, and a
its known antlseptio property, the process is oold solution of sulphate of bon <g^en vitriol]
oalled oreosotimg. The wood is put into a Is pumped in, which condenses the steam and
doae tank, from which the air is exhausted, produces a partial vaonum. This is made more
and the operation of the air pumps is eontinned complete by the air pump, and the cylinder is
several hours. The liquid is then admitted, then filled with the solution, which is still forced
and presanre ia ^plted to the amount of 150 in under considerable pressure. In a few min-
Ibs. t« the square inch ; and this is kept up by ntes the solution is let out and the cylinder is
eontinual pumping for 48 hours or longer, agun filled with lur. This is again excelled
Yellow pine is thns Increased in weight 11 1'^ by stesm, and a solution of another salt is sd-
to the cabio foot, and Biga pine about 6 lbs. mitted, of such character as will react npon
Theprooessia adopted by a large proportion of the sulphate of iron, producing doable decom-
the railroad companies of Engluid for the pres- position and leaving m the pores of the wood
ervation of the sleepers, and, notwithstanding an insoluble salt. Chloride of lime answers
its Bomewhat expensive character, is highly this purpose, and the insoluble sulphate of lime
improved of. Timber thus prepared retains a remams in the wood, the hydrocmorate of iron
disagreeable smell, which for shipbuilding por- being Bbsort>ed or washed out Several other
poses is ohjectionahle. It is slso more inflam- aaita mar be substituted for the lime salt, and
mable than before. Insects will not attack it, among tnese carbonate of soda has been advan-
and the preparation is a perfect protection tsgeously employed. — In the United States the
agsinst the teredo nii«aiit or ship worm. The process preferred to all the others ia that called
fibre of the wood is not only protected from bumettizing, conristing in the nse of chloride
moisture and the destructive action of altemat- of zinc. For this a patent was granted in £ng-
ing conditions of dryness and moisture, hut it land in l&SB to Bir William Bnmett, bat the
isgreaUystrengthened, BO that the most porous process was never patented in America. It
atM cheapest sorts of wood may be used for was first introduced at Lowell, Mass., where in
porposee commonly reqniring strong oak. — In I8S0 the "proprietors of the locks and canals
Franoe the process of Dr. Boucherie has been on Herrimack river," at the joint expense of
extensively employed for r^way and ship tim- the manufactnring companies, erected an ap-
ber. The material nsed is sulphate of copper paratus for carrying it on. The works proved
(bine vitriol) dissolved in 100 parts of water, so succeesM and capacious that a regular basi-
so that at 60° F. the density is about 1.006. ness was established, and lumber of various
The timber set on end is covered with a water- sorts has been submitted to the process for
tight cap, into which the solution is conveyed railroad companies and other parties at an ex-
tmvogh a flexible tube from the tank placed pense of $6 to $6 per 1,000 feet, board meas-
at an elevAtion of SO or 40 feet The sap b first nre. The cylinder in which the operation is
forced out at the lower end by the pressure, conduoted is of cast iron, 60 feet long and S feet
and when it is exhausted the copper solntion in diameter^ with one head movable, the iron
follows and oocupiee its place. Some kinds an inch thick. A rail track of 3 feet gauge
of timber are not penetrated by the solution ; leads into the cylinder, and upon this the tim-
hut it is perfecUy efiective in Ming the pores ber, loaded and chtdned down upon a heary
of beech, birch, larch, Scotch fir, alder, elm, low truck, is run in br steam power, the charge
poplar, &C. The time required to complete the amounting to about 7,000 feet The cylinder
operation depends on the kind of wood and the head being closed and packed, the air is ex-
kngth of the sticks. Timber thus prepared at hansted by an air pump of 13 inches diameter
Tontaineblean for the Frenoh navy was fblly and 8 feet stroke, and & Tscniim is maiataiiied
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
HT 671
<tf about 88 iaobee of merciUT', this op«ratii» be mt? require the opinion in writing of Ut«
lasting In all abont 4S minates. The pumps are prinoipal officer in each of the executive do-
then changed and ttie oyliuder is fiJied bj at- partmeots, upon tay mlgeot relating to the
mospberio preesora from a large oistem oon- duties of their respective offioes, and he shall
ta'n'ng a Bolntion of 100 parts of water and I^ haye power to grant reprieTea and pardons for
parts of dry chloride of ano bj weight, and the offences against the Tmited Stat«e, except in
preasore is raised to ISC lbs. to the aqoare inch cases of impeachment. He shall have power,
above the atmospheric pressure. To do this b; and with the oonsent of tbe senate, to ini^
occupies 20 minotes, and the pressure is mun* treaties, provided two thirds of the senators
tainwl 3^ honra longer. Tbe snrplns eolation present ooncnr ; and be shall nonunate, and,
is then drained off into the dstem, for which 11 07 and with tbe advice and consent of the
honrs are allowed ; the cylinder bead is then on- senate, shall f^ipoint ambaasadorB, other publlo
packed, and the truck with its load drawn ont, ministers and oonsnla, judges of the supreme
The whole time occupied, inclndingtbe load- C0iut,andalloU)ero£Sc6r8of the United Btatea,
ing and unloading, is 7 hours and 20 minutes, whose appaintments are not herein otherwise
To produce the best resolts, the obaive should provided for, and which shall be establiahed
consist of timber of uniform thickness, as bj law ; but tbe congress maj hj law vest tbo
otherwise the thicker blocks are not saturated appointment of such inferior officers as ihtiy
tbronghoat when the thinner have absorbed ma; think proper in the president alone, in the
more than b □ecessarj'. Tbe wood should not conria of law, or in tbe heads of departments,
be seasoned, aa it then absorbs the solatton Tbe president shall have power to fill np aU
with greater difficulty, and the inner portions, vacancies thst maj happen daring tbe recess
even of plank and other stnff of moderate dl- of tbe senste, by granting oommia^ons which
menuons, may not be reached by the solution shall expire (^ tiie end of their next session.'*
at sll. Of the concentrated solution as receiv- Section 7 of article L requires that evwj bill
«d from tbe manufacturers, containing about wbiob passes congress must have the president's
SB per cent, of the dry chloride, from 10 to 40 ugnatnre to become a Isw, unless, after ba
lbs. are taken np by 1,000 feet, board measure, has returned it to congress with bis objectiona,
or from about 2 to 8 ounces to a cubic foot. A two thirda of each house shall vote in its favor.
method of bnmettizing wood in open tanks, The president's duties, as determined by ar-
thus saving the expense of tbe costly apparatus tide ii. section 8, are to give to congress from
now employed, is proposed by F. Hewaon, O.E., time to time information of the state of thfl
in the " Jouroal of the Franklin Institute" for Union, and recommend to their consideration
Jan. 1859. — lime water has been recently em- sncb measures as be shall Judge neoeasory and
ployed in England for preserving wood, the expedient ; to convene both nouses on extra-
timber being allowed to soak in tanks contain- ordinary occasions, and, in case of disagree-
ing iL Tbe lime is said to penetrate the pores ment between them as to the time of a^joum-
01 the wood, neutralizing tne albuminous and ment, to adjourn them to such time aa he shall
saccharine principles. As tbe hydrate of lime think proper; to receive ambassadors and
changes after a time to the carbonate, the other pubha ministers ; to take care that the
porea become filled with the stony prodnct, and laws be faitbf\illy executed ; and to conunission
the effect is that of indpient petrl&ction, all the officers of the United States. He can
FBESIDENT (Lat, praiet), an officer ap- be removed from office on impeachment for
pointedoreleotedtopresideoTer a tribunal, a and oonviotioa of treason, bribery, or other
company, an assembly, or a republic. Thechief high crimes and misdemeanors. The presidents
executive officer of the United States bears this of tbe United States from the adoption of tbe
title, and tbe seoond exeoolive officer, the vice- constitution till Uie present time have been 16
S recent, is by virtue of bis office the presi- in number, viz, : Qeorge Washington OQai>go*
ent of tbe senate, and succeeds to the office rated April SO, 1789), John Adams, Thomas
of president of the United States on tbe death Jefferson, James Uadiaon, James Monroe, John
or disability of the regular inoumbent during Quinoy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van
bis term. The chief executives of Mezioo and Bnren, William Eeniy Harrison, John Tyler,
tiie repnblics of Oentral and South America James Enoz Polk, Zaohary Taylor, Millard
are also termed preaidents. The president Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, Jamea Buchanan,
of the United States holds his office for Uie and Abraham Lincoln (inaugurated March 4,
term of 4 years, begimung on the 4th day of 1881). Of these, five served two terms each,
Manib next succeeding the day of his election, viz. : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe,
He is chosen by electors who are tbemselves and Jackson; two died wbile in office, viz.:
chosen by tbe people, and be must be a native Harrison (April 4, 1841, one month after his
of the United States and at least 85 years inauguration) and Taylor (July 9, 18C0, 16
old. His powers are thus fixed by tbe conatitu- months alter inauguration) ; and the two who
tion of the United States, article ii. section 2: succeeded tbe last mentioned, Tyter and Fill*
" Tbe president shall be commander-in-chief more, were elected as vica-preaidents.
of the army and navy of the United States, and PRESS, Pbintino. See ParnnKo.
of the militia of the seversl states when called PBESTEB JOHN, tbe name ^ven by '&m-
into the aiAnal service of the United Stotee; peans in the middle ages to a supposea Obrio-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
672 FBSSTON
tian sovereign or i^nattj of loverelgm eatab- woollen &ctorr, S8 ehnrches, and 840 pnpQi
ii^ed in the interior of Ama. The name of in pnblio Bobools. Yalae of real estate in 185t,
thb personage oocora first in the lltb centnry, $3,960,604, HhowinK an inerease rince 1850 of
and according to one acconnt he vas an east- 166 per cent. It h travened by th« BBlti<
era potentate dwelling beyond Persia, who, mora sad Ohio railroad. Capital, Eingwood.
having been converted to Christianity by the PRE8T0N, a town of Lancaahire, England,
spirit of a departed saint, cansed his subjects on the rigfit bank of the river Ribble, SIO m.
to adopt the same Mth. He was at onoe sov- by railway N. W. from London ; pop. in 1861,
ereign and priest of his people (whence his 69,642. It oocnpies an eminence rising fWim
name Prester or Presbyter), and uis away, in the river. A handsome raUway viadnct, 68
its pastoral simpUoity tmd benignity, was oom- feet high, spaas the river. The staple mana-
pared to that of kings in the patriarchal times, iactare of Preston wasori^ally linen, which
This story was BnbseqDentJT fonnd to be a mere Is still made to some extent, bat has been eom-
TJtopian fancy. The oelief in the existence of pletely eclipsed b^ cotton. There are more
Prester John, however, took a more tangible than 60 cotton nulls, beside mannfactories ot
shape in the 13th oentnry, and on tiie anthority worsted, machinery, &o. Vessels of 800 tons
of some Nestorian priests he was said to be can ascend to the qnays. Preston owes its
identical with Ung Khan, a powerM Tartar name, ori^nally Priests' Town, to the nnmber
chief living in Earakonmi, in eastern Tartary, of religions honses it conbuned. It returns 9
who In 1302 was overthrown and sl^n by mMnbwB to pailiament.
Genghis Khan. Giovanni Oarpini, a Franciscan PRESTOIir. I. VfTLuix Cakpbxix, an
fKar, who in 1S46 was sent on a mission to American statesman and orator, bom in Phila>
Batoo Khan, the grandson of Genghis, failed to delphia, Deo. ST, 1794, died in Oolnmhiaj S. 0.,
discover the Cfiriatian monarch or his snl^eots, Hay 22, 1860. He was of a Virginia nunily,
bnt supposed him to be established AirUier to and his paternal grand&ther, who married a
theeastward- A few years later another Fran- rister of Patrick Henry, particmatedin the war
cisoan, Babrnqnis, penetrated as &r as the of independence as colonel in uie for«s of that
court of Bfttoo Khan in central Tartary, and commonwealth. His own birth happened in
was thence forwarded to Earakorom, the Philadelphia during Uie temporary re^dence
reddence of 2£aiigoo Khan, and the supposed of his father there as a member of congress.
seat of Prester John. His search for the latter In his 14th year he was sent to college at Lez-
waa unavailing, but from a few Nestorian ington. Vs., butbeingcompelledbytUhealthto
priests whom he met there, he asoertsined that visit the Sonth, he finished his education at the
tJog Khan had encouraged the propagation of state college In Columbia, S. C, where he was
Christianity in his dommlons. The existence graduated in 1812. Ketnming to Vu^iaia, hs
of Prester John nevertheless continued to be commenced the study of the law with WiSiam
believed, and as late as the close of the IGth Wirt, but .after a few months was again vma-
oenturr the PortuKuese, who had reached pelled to travel for the benefit of his healdi.
India by the way of the cape of Good Hope, After an extensive tour through the valley of
made fruitless inqniries for him there. About the Hississippl, he visited Europe, where he
the same time Peres da Covilham, a Por- remiuned several years, and at the nniverrity
tnguese traveller, made a journey to Abyssi- of Edinburgh pursued his studies under Pro-
niainqnest of the kingdom of Prester John ; fessorsPlayfsir, Brown, and Irving, InlSlShe
and finding the negut or king of Habesh to returned to Virginia, and in 1820 wae admitted
be a Christian prince he conferred the title to the bar of that state. Two years afterward
upon him, although it had never been claimed he transferred his reudence to Columbia, 8- O.,
by that monarch. Mosheim, in hiB"Ecclesi- aodBoongalaedarepatationasapublicspeaker.
astical Institutes," conjectures that Prester In 1828,and again inl830-'82,hewBaretnrned
John may have been a Nestorian priest, who, to the state legislature, and became one of the
gaining possession of a throne in eastern Tar- leaders of the nullification party. In 1886 he
tary, transmitted his title as well as his name was elected to the U. 8. senate ; but differing
to his Bucoessors. Others have supposed him with his colleagne, Mr. Calhoun, and his con-
to be identical with the grand lama. stituents in regard to the support which they
PRESTON, a N. W. co. of Va., bordering on gave to Mr. Van Buren, he resigned his seat axA
Pennsylvania and Maryland, and intersected resumed the practice of the law. He was thus
by Cheat river ; area, about 600 sq. m. ; pop. engaged when in 1S46 he was induced to ac-
in ISSO, 18,812, of whom 67 were slaves. It copt the presidenoy of the Sontli Carolina col-
occnptes a valley between the Chestnut ridge lege. The Institution had snnk somewhat in
on the W. and ^e Alleghany ridge on the K, public esteem on account of the supposed lax
and the soil is very fertile. Iron ore, coal, viewsofreligionentertainedbyitsformerprea-
sandstono, and slate are found, and extensive dent, Judge Cooper ; and notwithstanding new
water power is afihrded by the streams. The professors had been introduced, and other ro-
produotions in 1360 were 144,376 bushels of formsadoptedby thetmsteee, thestudentswere
Indian com, 163,496 of oats, 86,769 of wheat, ill disciplined and frequently in open rebellion.
tJrtS tons of hay, 48,970 lbs. of wool, and On Mr. Preston's assmnption of authority the
lTt>,S36 of butter. There were 4 tanneries, I college soon rose to a degree of prosperity un-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FBE8T0K PAKB 6TS
knoirn before. He held the ofBoe imtdl 1861, the Young Pretender and liie n^vl troops
Then declining years and health prompted his nnder Sir John Cope, 8ept 21, 1746. The op-
retirement. He soon after estabUsbed fhe Oo- posing armies oome withiD sight of each other
Inmbia lyoenm, which he endowed with hia on the afternoon of the SOth, Oope ocoapying
])brat7, containing 8,000 selected Tolnmea. As a strong position a^oining the village of Pre»-
an orator and a lawyer he held s dlatingaished ton Pans, and haTing his front protected bj a
place among the pnUio men of Bontb OaroUsa, deep morass, while the pretender's troops, con-
althongh his repntation in the former capacity etsttng mostly of highlanders, were posted on
int«rfered wiUt hia saccese at the bar. Judge a ridge about a mile distant The armies were
CNeaU, in his " Bench and Bar of Soath Oaro- nearly eqnal in nnmbers, the royalists haTing
lina," testiflet to his great abilitiee as a nitipriiu about 3,200 men, with S pieces of artillery, and
Iaw7er, and aaaerts that " bis oironit ti>e«)hefl, the insurgents 2,S00 ; bnt in appointments and
espeoially in criminal oases, were nnsaTpasaed." discipline the former had daoidedly the advan-
His style was ornate and florid, his eloontion tage, the highlanders being a hastily gathered
gracafol, and m his more elaborate prodnctiona rabble, without artillery or cavalry, indiscrim-
be evinced a considerable knowledge of Eng- inateiy armed with mnsketa, broadswords,
lish classical literatnre. II. Johit S., brother eoytlies, or Locfaaber axes, and kept together
of the preceding, born near Abingdon, Vo., chiefly by enthnaiosm for their oanse and the
April SO, 1S09. He was educated at Hampden expectation of plouder. Oope was ui^^ to
Sidney oolite and the naiveraity of Virginia, commence the engagement at once, instead of
and flobseqaently studied In the lav school of allowing the spirits of his men to be damped
Harvard university. In 1880 he married a by remaining on the defensive, bnt declined;
daughter of Gen. Wade Hamilton of Sonth Oar- and at nightfall bolli aimiea lay in sight of ea^
olinA, and dnring the politioal excitement of other. At midnight the pretender was infonn-
that period became on active nnllifieT. For a ed that a path leading to the plain below and
nnmber of years sabsegnent be was chiefly oo- avoiding the morass had been discovered, and
cnpied with sugar planting in Louisiana, where at a oomicll of chie& immediately amnmoned, it
he owned large estates, although he still re- was determined to march at onoe to the attack.
tuned his residence in Oolombia, S. 0. From Under cover of the darkness and of a heavy
1848 to 1666 he was a member of the Sonth mist the clans reached the plain in safety,
Carolina legislature, where he g^ed conuder- where Cope's forces, alarmed by the firing of
able repntation as an orator ; and during the tbeir outposts, were drawn up to receive them,
suae period he became more widely known in the infEutry oocDpying the centre, and either
this capaci^ by addresses before the "TO asso- wing being protected by a regiment of dra-
dation of Charleston, the literary societies of goons, in front of one of which, Qardinet's,
the Sonth Oarolins college, and particularly at was the artillery. As the snn roee, the high-
the celebration of the 76th anniversarr of the bnders, who were formed in 2 linee, the 2d of
battle of King's Monntaia, which was attended which was led by the pretender, unoovered,
by 15.000 persons from North and Sonth Caro- and having uttered a short prayer, rushed with
Ijn&, Virginia, and Tennessee. From 18S6 to a terrifio yell upon their enemy. The artillery,
1860 he resided chiefly abroad, so perin tending which was badly served by seamen collected
the education of his children, and in 18S0 he troia the fleet, instead of by r^ular gunners,
waaelectedadelegate to thenationaldeinocrat- was in a moment oveipowered; and the dra-
ic convention which met in Charleston in Hay goons in their rear, panio-atrioken by the fierce
of that year to nominate a candidate for the shouts and the impetooiu courage of tlieir op-
preaideacy, and in which he acted as chairman ponents, who, discarding tbdr mueketa after a
of the South Carolina delegation. Subsequently single volley, threw themselves broadsword in
he withdrew with bis associates from the con- hand upon the very muzzles of -the guns, gol-
veiition, and was not ^idn a delegate. His loped away in all directions, heedless of the
eonrse in participattng in the proceedings of euiortotions of their commander. Col. Gsirdi-
the convention at all, under the peculiar rela- ner. The other regiment of dragoons was
tions which Sonth Carolina then sastuned to scattered with equal rapidity, and the infantry
such bodice, subjected bim to severe censure ; uncovered at both flanks, were, after a brief
bnt havingpromptly joined thesecessionmove- though brave resistance^ completely routed,
ment after the election of Mr. Lincoln, he was " So rapid was this highland onset," aays Lord
appointedaoommissionerto Yirgima,andQpon Mahon, "that in 6 or 6 minutes the whole
presenting his credentials to the convention of brunt of the battle was over." Nearly all the
that state in Feb. ISfll, made on elaborate plea royal in&ntry were kiiled or taken prisoners;
in favor of her immediate withdrawal ftom the but the dragoons, owing to the lack of troop-
Union, which is esteemed the crowning effort era in the pretender's anny, mostly escaped.
of hia oratory. He has since ooonpied himself Oope himself headed the Aigitives, and scarcely
ahnost exclusively with his private business. drew rein until safe behind the walls of Bei~
FBESTON PANS, a village in Haddington- wick, where Lord Uark Eerr, the command-
■hire, Scotland, on the JHth of Forth, 8} m. E. ant, oongratijated him npon being the first
of Edinburgh, where was fouf^t a memorable genet«l on record who had carried Mie tidings
action between the Scottish Jacobites under of his own defM. The humorous Scotch bu-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
S74 PBESUMPnOH FKfiYOSr D'EXILES
lad, "Jolimii* Cope," wea inggested hj Uia Ldcita«os, Btatdtxb of.) — OoaclnsiTS pr^
precipitate flight of the Engli^genersl. Of BnmptiaiiB aro not verj oommon in the law.
the royal armj' nearly 400 were elun, inclnd' Bat disputable or rebnttablo i>resnmption&
Idk Col. Qardiner, a man of great worth and answering to the pram^tio jura of the civ2
gaJlantrj, who, after the flight of his dragoons, law, consUntlf oconr. thej are indeed little
pat himself at the head of a amall partj of in- more than legal inferences from existing evi-
&ntTj and was oat down by a highlander arm- denoe, open to modification er reversal by Air-
ed with a scyliie. His life and cnaracter form ther evidenco. They are mnch the same with
the subject of a memoir by his friend Dr. jirima faett oondnsiona or inferences ; as, for
Doddridge. The pretender lost aboat 100 men example, when one anca a promissory not«,
killed and woanded. The battle was called by and proves bis own possession and the agna-
the Jacobites that of Gladsmair, oat of respect tnre of the maker, the law presnmea the ^in-
to a passage In a book of prophecies print- tiff to be the owner of the note, and alsopre-
ed in Zdinbnrgh in ISIS; "On Gladsmnir somes consideration, and givu the plwntiff his
shall the battle be," althoi^ that place is a case, nnlesa the defendant overcomes the pre-
mile distant from the field of conflict. On somption by evidence on his part of tome
the following day the pretender made a tri- ground of defence. The general presnmptiona
amphsl entry into Edinbnivh, the pipers play- of innocence in favor of an allied criminal,
ing the old cavalier tone: "The king shall eqjoy and of absence of debt in favor of a defendant
his own again." in a civil suit, are of this kind. It will be seen
PREStrMFTION, in law, an Interenoe or as- therefore that diapntable prearunptiona do little
amnption which the law makes in the absence more than det«mune where the harden of
of evidence. Presnmptions are divirible into proof rests.
condndve presnmptions and disputable pre- PRETENDER, an epithet wplied to the eld-
Bnmptions. Oonolaslve premnnptions answer estsonandgrandsonof JameBll.,whDlaidclaiin
to the pra*vmpl4o jvrit et da jw« ot the civU to the throne of England. (Bee Javis Fbakoib
law. The law asserts them to be true, and will Eowaeo Stoabt, and Ohaki.es Edwasd.)
not permit evidence to deny or refate them. A PR£VILL£, the assumed name of Pierkk
fkmiliar illustration may be found in the rule Louis DcBiis, a French comediaa, bom in Faris
that a debt which has ran SO years, whether in 1T21, died in Beauvais, Dec. 18, 17B9. After
nnder eesl, or by judgment, or resting on other having performed at many provincial tbeatrea,
evidence, is conoluuvely oresnined to nave been he appeared at the thidtrt Fransait in Paris in
paid. If it be sued one day before the SOjears 1753, and was the favorite of the Parisian pab-
expire, the creditor need only prove the debt, lie for 83 years. Bis best parts were Bosie in
and the debtor must prove that he has In some MoU^re'a Amphitryon, Turcaret in Le Sage's
way satisfied it. But if it be sued one day comedy of that name, La^ssoIeinBouisadt'a
lat«r, not only is the debtor relieved from the Merevra galant, and Figvo in Beaumarchaia'
necessityof proving payment, but the creditor BarbierdeSitiiu»exiA.MaTiage da Figaro. From
wiU not be pennitbed to prove that the debt memoranda which he left, U. Oahalaae eoa-
has not been pud. If the creditor can prove posed hia Memmre* (Paris, 1818).
any thing which the law would reoc^tze as a PB£VOST D'EXILES, ANToimFnAir^is, a
new promise within 20 years, the suit may be French novelist, bora at Hesdin, Aitoia, Aprfl
maintained on this new promise, but the old 1, 1SS7, died near Chantilly, Kov. S3, 1763.
debt is conclusively settled. Another oommon He was intended for the chnrch and edncated
instance is the rale in respect to land, possesion at a Jeaait college, but in his 16th year entered
of which under a claim of absolate ownerahip the army. Soon returning to the college, in a
for a certain period constitutes a conclusive few months he ran away agatD, and for 4 or fi
presumption of a valid grant, which cannot be years led a very dissipated life. At the age of
disturbed by evidence. Thia period is now, in 22 he sought admission among the Benedictines
the United States, generally 20 years; bat iu of St. Mnur, took the vows in 1721, was or-
some it is much less, and in others extends dained prieat, and proved a sacceBsfal preacher.
to a longer period. (See Pbeboriptioit.) These Being sent to the abbey of St. Germain des
presumptions rested originally on the proba- Fr^s, he shared in the historic^ and literary
bility that they were true, but came at last to labors of the learned monks, and in the mean
stand upon the ground that the peace of society time diverted his mind by writing norela. Un-
and the possesnon of property should be pro- able to support the austerities of the convent,
tected against stale daima, which, after being he desirea to be removed to a lees severe branch
(nffered to sleep ao long, cannot be revived and of the same order; but the issuing of the brief
prosecuted wiuiout working an it^ucy. The of translation which had been granted to him
pr^mptions ariung under all the statutes of by the pope being unaccountably delayed, he
limitation may be considered as of this class; abandoned the order alt<^ther in 1728, and
and we have already stated the general prind- went lo Holland, where he snpported himself
plea applicable to these presnmplione, and the by his pen. Having publisbea Jlfemoirr* d'un
way ia which, from l)eing r^arded as statutes homme da qvalite (6 vols. 12mo., 1729), he
founded on probability, they came tobeoon- went to England, where he published ^«T«iaiid
■idered and treated as Btatntea of repose. (Bee (6 vols. ISmo., 17S2), and L'hittoirt d4 ifmcn
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PBIAU NtXCZiXD 676
Zneavt et du ehfialier ia* Orieva (VnS). The Green, both of whloh offloes he redgnad a short
lost named work is supposed to be a aligbtlf timebeforehia death. In 17ST he published hjs
di^isedacconct of the author'sown experience, "Review of the Principal Questions and IHffi-
and ranks as one of the best of French noTels, onlties in Morals," an attempt to found moral
In 1TS4 he was permitted to return to France obligation on intellectual instead of seutimental
and appointed almoner to the prince of Oonti. tests. Reason alone, he sa;e, did we possess it
He now wrote Le loytn de Killerine (0 toIb., !n a higher degree, wonld answer all the euda
1736), pnblisbedaFrench translation of Oioero's of the passions. In 1789 he published a treatise
letters jjd Familiares (l'I4S), undertook a SU- on reTersionar^ pajnnenta. drawing attention to
toire giniraU da voyage*, which he carried for- the defectdve principles adopted by several sooi*
ward to the 80th voluiae, and translated into etiea deigned to secure annuities to surviving
French lUchardson's "Pamela," "Clarissa Ear- widows, which resulted in their dissolution or
lowe,^' and "Sir Oharles Grandlson." In hb modification; the 6th edition appeared in 1808.
later jean he led a quiet religious life at Bt, He published in 1776 bis " Observations on
Firmin, near OhantUIy. Having lillen in a fit Oivit Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the
of apoplexy, he was supposed to be dead, and War with America," of which 60,000 copies
autopsy was ordered. The first stroke of the were soon distributed. The American oongresa
knife restored him to cooscionsness, but it had afterward invited hin), through their commis-
inflicted a mortal wound. His complete works siooers, to bec<ane a oitizeu of the United
comprise more than 170 volumes. a\B (Emret States, and to aid them in muaging their
choiiUi were published in 89 vols. 8vo. (Paris, finances, promising him a liberal remuneration
1788-'{i), and reprinted in 1810, with illuatra- if he should remove to America. He declined
dons. The Hittoire genirale ae$ eeyaget was the request, at the same time speaking of th«
abridged and oontinued bj LaHarpe. United States aa the hope and the future refuge
PBIAU, the last kmg of Troy, and according of mankind. He was an admirer of Plato, and
to the legend 6th in dMcent from Jupiter. He a firm believer in the immateriality of the sou],
was tlie son of Laomedon, and in his youth was He is the author of various works on religion,
taken prisoner by Heronles. Previous to this ethics, politics, and finance. His biography
he had been called Podarces, the swift-footed ; was written by William Morgan, B.D. (London,
but he was now bought from Herooles by his 181^.
aster Hesione, and was thence called Priamns, FRIOEI, Sm Utbdalk, an English writer oa
or the ransomed. According to Homer he had landscwe gardening, bom in 17^7, died in
SO children, Hecnba alone having borne him Foilej, Herefordshire, Sept. 11, 182B. He was
19; among them were Hector, Paris, Helenus, educated at Oxford, and m 1780 first appeared
Deiphobus, Potjzena, Cassandra, and OreQsa. in print as the translator of Panaaniae, in a
During the sack of Troy by the Greeks he was work entiUed " An Account of the Statues,
■I^n at the fuot of an altar by Pyrrhns. Pictures, and Temples in Greece." His fame
PRIAP08, in Greek and Roman mythology, rests chiefly upon h's "Essay on the Piotnr-
B type of fecundity, son of Bacchus and Venus, esqne, as compared with the Bnblime and
According to different Greek and Roman poets, Beautiful, and on the Use of studying Fiotarea
ha was the son of Bacchus and aNuad, or of for the purpose of improving Real Landsof^es"
Adonia and Yeoiu, or of Ueroury or of Pan. (17S4), which brought him into confiict with
He was generally represented in the form of Repton, then a prominent landscape gardener.
herma, or a head placed on a quadrangnlar pil- To his criticism Price replied in 1T96, in " A
lar, and painted red. His emblem was the Letter to H. Bepton, Esq., on the ApplioatioD
phallus, and bearing this his image was placed of the Practice as well as the Principles of
m gardens and vineyards. Landscape Painting to Landscape Gardening."
PRIOR, RioBiiBD, an English divine and In 1898 he was made a baronet.
moralist, bom in Tynton, Glamorganshire, Feb. PRIGHARD, Jaubs Cowlbb, KD., an Fng-
J3, 1723, died in London, April 19, 1791, The Ush ethnologist, bom in Robs, Herefordshire,
ton of a dissenting Calvinistio minister, he Feb. 11, 1786, died in London, Dec. 23, 1848.
was educated under private clerical tuition, He was graduated U.D. at Edinburgh, and
till in his I8th year he went to London to settled as a physician in Bristol ta 1810, but
complete his preparation for the ministry, devoted his leisure to ethnological studies.
His uncle obtained for him admission into a In 1818 he published his " R^arches into
dissenting academy, where for 4 years he the Physical IDstery of Man," and in 1826 a
studied mathematics, philosophy, and theology, second and greatly enlarged edition of it, in
In 1743 he became domestic chaplain to Vr, which he developed for the first time to its
Streathfield of Stoke Newington, in which full extent the philological element in eth-
office he remained IS years, at the same time nology. In 1841 be was appointed inspector
preach tog occasionally. The death of his uncle of lunatic asylums, and removed to London,
left him a small fortune, and he married !n where in 1847 he brought out the third edition
1767, and became morning preaclier in New- of the " Researches" (6 vols. 8vo,), compris-
in^n Green chapeL He was afterward an- ing the results of 87 years' study. He is also
pomted pastor of the Gravelpit meeting, HaoE- the author of various profesdonal works, a r^
ney, aud afternoon preacher at Kewington tumi of hie " Physical History ," " Natural
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
676 FRIOCLT FEAB PBIESI
Elatoiy of Man" (3 vols., 184S), and whAt is 1081 he wu made b prebendur of the cathe-
cttlled by Bunsen his most origiaal eontrihn- dral of Korwich, vhere he had a eontroTerej'
tioD to science. " The Eastern Origin of the vith the Boman Oatbolioa, which reeoUed in
Oeltio Nations" (London, 1881; new ed. bj his publiahing a Iwwk entitled "The Validity of
Latham). Dr. Friohard'a poeition as an eth- theOrdersoftheObnrchofEiiglaDdmadeoQL"
Dologiat was one of eminence in ^Barope ; the He opposed Jamea 11. in his proceedings against
same writer (Baron Bunsen) says of his groat the established ohnroh, and, having been ap-
work : " Up to this time there exists no book pointed to the arohdeaconry of Bnffolk, took
which treats all subjects bearing on the great after some hesitation the oatii of aUegiMice to
question of the niuty of the nnmau species 'William and Mary. In lflB6 he was made ti-
with equal depth and candor, good sense, and oar of TrowBe, near ITorwiah, and is 170S dean
Boond jodgment" of Norwich. He was the anthor of a " Life
PRICKLY PEAR. See Oaottis. of Mahomet" (IflW), " Directions to Chiuth
PBIDE OF INDIA, Pkidb of Ohiba, or Wardens" (IVOT), and a work on " TIAim"
Nbev TsBa (m«Ua a^n^rai^, natural order (1710) ; but hia last and greatest work was
melioMm), a native of Syria, Persia, and the " The Connection of the History of the Old
north of India, and cultivated in different parts and New Testaments," which appeared in!
of the world aa an ornamental tree. It grows parts in ITIC and 1717 (last ed., 1858),
to the height of 80 or 40 feet with a trunk of PBIES8NITZ, Ymoxs^ a Qennan pMsant
SO inches diameter; bat in open epaoes it Is the founder of the water cure, bom in Grifen-
spreadmg and not so high. Its leaves conaist berg, Austrian Silvia, Oct. 4-, 1799, died there,
of smooth, pointed, dark green leaflets, ar~ Nov. 88, 1861. His &ther was a farmer, and
ranged in pairs with an odd one at the end. Yincenz, after receiving the rudiments of an
The flowers, hanging In clusters at the ends of education, was reqaired to work on the &Tm.
the branches, are of lilac color and agreeable It was through an acoident which happened
perfome. They give place to bunches of ber- to him while thus engaged, that he was first
lies about as targe as cherries, and yellow when brought to employ the cnre whidi he sobae-
ripe. The pericarp has a&brded an oil for <{aenti; systematized. He then stndied medi-
economical pnrposes. The &mt ia sweetish, cine, and opened bis otdd water establiabment
and b generally supposed to be poisonons, bnt at Qrafenberg in 1829, (See HYnxorixHT,)
it may be eaten wim impunity. In the cities PBIEST, a person set apart for the p^itom-
of the southern states and npon many of the ance of religions offices and ceremoniee, and in
plantations rows of pride of India trees are particnlar for the performance of sacrifice.
very common, and in the automn the branches History shows the priestly office to be nearly
and the gromid beneath are covered with their coextensive with religion itself, and hardly a
berries. The tree has Bome repntation for its barbarous tribe has been discovered withont
medicinal virtues, and a decoction of the bark some sort of priests to gnide the people in the
of tiie root is administered as a cathartic and worship of their deity. The Old Testameait
emetic. It is considered in many places en es- contains bnt little information concerning the
cellent remedy for worms, and is mnch used exercise ofpriestlyfnnctions before the promol-
for children. In large doses it is said to pro- gation of the law of Hoses. We read that Cain
dnce narcotic effects, and anch appears to be and Abel ofifered their own BacriSces ; bnt it
the action of the ripe berries npon the robin seems that the priestly office soon came to be
redbreasts, which are very fond of them, and exercised by the heads of Aunilies only, aa
eat them until they become stnpefled and tail Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Job. The term,
to the gronnd. From this state however they priest, however, is not nsed respecting any of
soon recover, them ; It occurs only once in the book of Genesis,
PBIDEAtJX, nrapnsBT, an English clernr- when Melchisedek ia celled a prie^ of the Most
man and anthor, bom in Padstow, Gomw^ High, bnt nothing is added to define the natnn
May 8, 1648, died Nov. 1, 1734. He was edn- of his priesthood. The Mosaic law established
Gated at Westminster nnder Dr. Busby, and at a special priesthood consisting of three orders,
Ohristchnrch, Oxford, and assisted Dr. Fell in the high prieste, tlie priests, and the Levitea,
preparing an edition of the historian Lucius all of them taken from one tribe, that of Levi
Florae. Having been selected by the nniver- The priesthood was made bere^tary in the
dty to edit the inscriptions of the Arondelian family of Aaron ; and the first bom of the old-
marbles, he pablisbed them in 1673 after two est branch of that family, if he had no legal
years' labors, under the title of Marmora Ox^ blemish, was always the high priest Thia np.-
nientia ex Anmdellianii, Seldenianu, aUiigve pointment was observed till the Jews fell nnder
ecjifiaia, cam perpetuo Commtntario, In 1670 the dominion of the Syrian Greeks, and had
he was presented by Lord Chancellor Finch to theirfaith corrupted; then and afterward nnder
the rectory of St. Clement's, Oxford, was ap- the Romans the nigh priesthood was sometiinea
Ginted the same year Br. Bnsby's Hebrew put up to sale, and became a temporary office.
itnrer in Christchnrch, and published two In the time of David the inferior priests were
tracts of Maimonides in the ori^nal with a divided into 24 companies, serving in rotation,
Latin translation and notes, nnder the title D* each company by itself for a week. — The early
Jure Pauperis et Peregrini apvd Jvdaoi. In history erf the priesthood of the several pagan
roDgtons la rtUl InTolTed In great obscDrttr, ft well organized and krgelr prirfleged state
though elucidated in mxaj important details iustitation, which knew how to retain its eoolal
by modem oriticiim. With moat of the nn- position and political inflnence, when the be-
Givilized tribes the priest had a verj limited nef in its ^nltj of divining had entirely ceased
sphere of action; he generally appears as a amons the edncated classes, and when, as Oicero
sorcerer, who derives bj commnnioation with says, he wondered how two angnrs oonld meet
a spirit world the command of ma^o powent without laughing at each other. — In the Ohris-
for the relief of the distressed and suffering, tion sjetem the gospel represents Ohrist as the
With some tribes the power of sorcery seems one priest, who, for the redemption of the world,
to hftve been the only attribute of the priest- offered the one sacrifice, that of the cross. So
hood ; with others they were also clothed with far all who receive the record of the gospel as
the office of divining, and with that of offering infallibly true agree ; but thereisafiinaamenta]
sacrifices- In the Booiety islands and New difference of opinion on the qnestion, whether
Zealand the priesthood formed a hereditary tbls sole priesthood of Ohrist is or b not in-
corporation ; bat nowhere among pagan tribes compatible with the existenoe of a proper
hsve they l^en so powerM and nnmeroas as priestly office in the church. The Boman
in Mexico, where tney are said to have nnnr- Oatholio chnroh, and those eastern churches
bered 4,000,000 at the arrival of the Spaniards. (Greek, Armenian, Nestorian, Jacobite, Coptic,
— The idea of priesthood was much more fttlly Abyssinisn) which regard "ordination as a tme
developed by Brahminism. The Brahmins have saorament, muntain that the sacrifice of the
assigned to them the primacy of honor among cross was to be continued and kept present in
the 4 castes, and it is easy to trace in the enor- the chnroh throngh appointed representatives
mona pren^atives with whioh they are clothed and vioegerents of Christ, who for that purpose
the fundamental idea of a vicegerency of God continue and partake in the priestly character
npon earth, for the purpose of conveying to of Ohrist and his mediatorial office between
mankind the divine blessings. Brahmins are God and man, (See 0bdinati03'.) The other
also charged with preserving the tonndness of Ohristian dennninationa deny that there ia in
doctrine, and with presiding over aaorifices and the ChriHtiaa church any other real priest than
divine services. — The rationaUstio state oburch Christ, since there is no one after Ciirist who
of Ohina, which owes its final organization to has the power of offering sacrifices for the peo-
Conftacins, has no special priesthood, hnt the pie. Bat they believe, on the other hand, in
priestly functions are blended with those of the a spiritual priesthood of all Ohristisna, which
emperor and the anbordinate state ofBcers. they derive Irom their anion with Christ, the
The Bnddhist priesto, called lamas in Mongolia .sole high priMt They therefore do not r^ard
and Thibet, bonzes in Japan, rabans in Bor- tbe cleigy as an order of men specifically dis-
mab, talapoins in Siam, and gnnnis in Ceylon, tinct from the laity, but only as the body of the
are essentially spiritual guides. They are to be teachers and servants of the ohnrch, who, being
examples of a perfect life, consisting, according divinely called and properly appointed, possess
lo Buddhist views, in overcoming matter, accn- certain ecclesiastical rights end nndertake cer-
mnlating merits, and thus preparing for a high- tain duties, which they derive partlyfromdi-
er second birth. They do not form a cast* ; vine, partly from human law, (See Clkbgt.)
they live in celibacy, and their chief^ the dalol The A'otestant Episcopal chnrcbes of England,
lama, is regarded as the incarnation of Buddha Scotland, Ireland, and America have retuned
himself. (See Lamaism.) Thema^ of the Per- the word priest, to denote the second order of
eiana were the conductors of religious serriees their hierarchy, but with very different signifi-
ond the teachers of the people. In Egypt the cations, according to the different opinions en-
priests likewise formed one of the supreme castes, tertuned by the members of those chnrohes
endowed with many privil^es, and in partion- re^eotingthe Lord's supper.
lar exempted from paying taxes. Being divid- PRIESTLEY, Joespn, an ^DgUah theologian
ed into several classes, they constituted a com- and natural philosopher, born in Fieldhead, in
plete hierarchy, on a democratic basis, with a the west ridmg of Yorkshire, March 18, 1788,
chief priest, Pyromis, at their head. More died in Korthumberland, Fenn., Feb. 6, 1804,
than any other pagan priesthood, they distin- He was the son of a cloth dresser, and both of
gushed themselves as the teachers and eduoa- liis parents, and also an aunt by whom he was
tors of the people, and seonred the oontinuanoe adopted after his mother's death, were Oalvin-
of their prerogatives by keeping up their lit- istio dissenters. Early remarkable for his loro
erary superiority. The ancient religion of the of reading and study, he was designed by his
Greeka had no general priesthood, bot only friends for a learned profeswon, and was in-
priests of the several deities, who slaughtered struoted in the classics in a free grammar
the victims, and often secured a poweribl in- school. He learned Hebrew in his holidays
fluence as the interpreters of the will of the under a dissenting minister, and with little in-
deity which they served. Finally the priestly struction made progress in the Ohaldaic.Byriao,
office among them fell into utter insignifioanoe. Arabic, French, Italian, and German. His
The Boman priesthood was to a larger extent mother had deeply impr^sed him with religions
than that of any other great nation of ontiqni- and moral sentiments, and even in boyhood
ty charged with the office of divining. It was his seriousness bordered npon melancholy, ren-
TOL. XIII. — 87
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
578 FBIEBTLET
daring him Kverse to boyish iporta and light vaa elected to the royal tooie47, and receiTed
reading. Thoogh obUged by ill Iiealth to aban- the title of LL.D. fi-om the nniyer^ty of Edin-
don hu aUidiea for a time, he entered at the burgh. In ITT8 appeared his "Hiatory and
age of IB the diaseoting academy at DaTen- Present State of Disooveriee relating toViaion,
try (now incorporated with New ooUege, Lon- light, and Colors^l' which provea less anc-
don) as a theo]<wcal student It was Uien nn- ceaeful than his " ^tory of Electricity. " A
det the care of Hr. Ashworth, suoceasor of Dr. brewery near his residence suggested to him
Doddridge, He formed the strictest habits in the atody of pneunatio chemistry, which ho
the methodical division of hb time and labor ; prosecuted with great interest, pnbli^ed a
noted in a diary the occorrenoee of every day, pamphlet on " Impregnated Water with Fixed
the books which he read, and the refiectiona Air (1772), and received from the royal so-
suggested ; arranged at the beginning of every ciety the Copley medal for " Observationi on
year his plan of study for the whole period, the Different Kinds of Air" (1778). He discov-
and at the close took an aocoont of wnat he ered oxygen gas, which he named dej^ogisti-
had done, compared it with what he had par- cated air ; showed that the red color of the
posed, and struck the balance with a mer- arterial blood is due to its combination with
chant's eiactneaa. Ho had become an Armi- oxygen ttova the atmosphere ; proved the ab-
nian before leaving home, and on aocoont of stracUon of oxygen from the atmosphere in the
his doubts conoeminK orthodoxy had not been prooessesof combustion and pntrefaction ; and
admitted a cotomonicant of the Calviniatio recognized the property of vegetables to restore
ehnrch. Theological doctrines were constantly this constituent He adhered to the phlogiaiic
discnssed at Daventry, and he usually defended theory after Lavoiuer had overthrown it bj
tbeheterodoxeide,diough,heBayB, theeitreme further inTestigation. He discoven^ also ni-
of heresy in the place was Arianism. While trone gas, nitrous oxide gas, nitrons v^>or, car-
at the academy he composed the first part of bonio oxide gas, salphoroos oxide g^ fluoric
his " Institates of Nature! and Bevealed Beli- acid gas, ammoniacal gas, and moriatic gas;
mon," published in 1772-'t. In 17G5 be was and ho was the OTincipal inventor of the pnea-
uiviCed as asgifitsnt minister to tbe Independent matio trough. He received an advantageoos
congre^tion in Keedham Uarket, Buflblk, proposal to accompany Capt Cook on hia second
where he remained 8 years, suspected of heresy voyage to the Sooth sea, which wss however
and not popular either oa a preacher or teach- withdrawn in conseqnenceof his religious prio-
er. He there renounced the doctrine of the ciples. Ebnnme es a man of science was now
atonement, and wrote hie " Scripture Doctrine honored thron^out Europe, and the recom-
of Remission," published in 1761. His second _ mendation of JJr. Price made him &Torably
engagement was at Nantwich, Cheshire, where ' known to the earl of Shelburne, who engaged
he opened a day school, and by strict economy his serrices as librarian and literary compan-
waa able topnrchaseanairpnmpaud electrical ion. He accompanied the earl on ajonmey to
machine, with which ho began his researches the continent, and waa introduced to some of
in natural philosophy. His reputation for the most celebrated chemista and mathcraa-
ability and diligent investigation gradually ex- ticians, vbom he described as atheists, and
tended, and in 17SI he was chosen to soceeed whom he astonished by asserting his firm be-
Dr. Aikin as professor of belles-lettres in War- lief in Christianity, As an answer to similar
rington academy. He married, and composed prejudices he wrote his "Letters toaPhiloaoph'
several works, as the "Theory of Language ical Unbeliover" (1780), and his " State of the
and Universal Grammar" (1762), "Chart of Evidence of Sev^edSeli^on," with animad-
Biography" (I76G), "Easay on a Course of versions on Gibbon (1781). Ha continued his
Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life" chemical experiments, making discoieries con-
(1765), "Chart of History" (1769), ''Lows and cerning aeriform bodies, whidi he reported in
Constitution of England" (IT72), "Oratoryond his "Experiments and Observations on Air"
Criticism" (1777), and "Bistory and General (6 vols., 1774-'80). He published in 1775 his
Policy" (1788). During the soma period he "Examination" of Dra. Keid, Peattie, and Os-
was interested in generm politics, on which he wald, designed to refute the Scotch phUosophy
deUvered lectures. On a visit to London he of common sense ; in 1777, his " Disquisitions
was introduced to Dr. Price, Dr. Franklin, and relaUns to Matter and Spirit," a defence of
otiiera, and was advised by Franklin to attend avowed materialism, wbicn was more obnox-
more particularly to experimental philosophy, ions than any other of his writings; and in
He nndertook to write a history of electricjd the same year his " Doctrine of Necessity," of
discoveries, for which Dr. Franklin furnished which tiso he became the champion. The
him the requisite books; the work was pub- odium occasioned by these works was perhaps
liabed, with an acconnt of many experiments the cause of the dissolution of his connection
by himself, in 1767; it reached its 5th edition with Lord Shelbnrne ; and he retired with a
in 1794, though r^)idly and carelessly written pension for life of £150. He took up his rea-
amid other engagements. In 1768 ho was deuce near Birmingham, where in 17&0 he he-
chosen pastor of alorgecongre^^ationin Leeds, come pastor of a dissenting congregation. At
where he devoted much of his attention to the same time a subscription was rait^ by his
theological Bulyects. About the same time he friends to defray the expenses of hia oxpeH-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PRIESTLEY PRIESTS OF THE UKSION 579
ments. la 1782 appasrad bis " Satorj of fha bappiiieBi of his llf^ alnce he had eqjo^ed ths
ComwUona of OhrUtianity," which waa after- friendly aoqnaintanoe of aome of the best and
Tard banted bj the common hansman in the wisest men of his age ; asd his death was so
^7 of Ikvt, and a refhtadon of which was oalm that it was not notioed hj those who were
one of the subjects of the Eagne prize ee«aje ; sitting neareet to him. His doge was read be-
andittl786hiB"HiBtoryofEarlyOpinioii8con- ftire the French institute by Oovier, He was
ceming Jeans Christ." In each of these works remarkable for philosophic serenity of charao-
the divinity and prefixistenoe of Christ are con- ter, for patience and zeal is pnblic life, and for
trorertad on historical grounds. Daring the kindness in domestio relations. Hb " Doc-
exintementcausedbytheoatbreakofthePreach trinea of Heathen Philosophy compared witii
revolation he waa r^arded as the mover and those of Revelation" appeared posthumously,
champion of antagonism to all establishments, His autobiography, continued by his son, was
political and religions. Hisattachmenttofree- also pnblished in America poidLumonaly, and
dom he had evinced by several pamphlets and la contained with his correspondence in the
by bis interest in the cause of .AJnerioa during edition of his " Theolo^oal and 3Gsoellaneoi»
the war of the revolntlon ; and he had poh- Worka" published by John Towell Butt (25
lished aeveral volumes in maintenanee of the vols.. Hackney, 1617 «( mo.).
claims of dissenters. He exasperated the pop- PRIESTS OF THE inSSION, or Laubists,
niace by his ironical " Familiar Letters to the a congregation of regnlar olerka, fomided at
InhahiUntsof Bumingham," and by answering Paris UL 1625, hr St. Vincent de Pan], for the
Burke's " Reflections," and being eonsequeutly purpose of minutering to the spiritoBl wants
nominated a citizen of the French repahUc. In of tne poor. While Vmoent was residing wiUk
1791 some of his friends celebrated the amiiver- the connt de Joigny, the father of Cardinal de
sary of the capture of the Basttle ; and though Retz, he spent mudi of his time in preaching
he was not present himself, the event was the to the peasantry on his patron's estate, and ef-
occaaion of a riot in which his hoase.was feetedsomnch good that the countess became
broken open, hts library, apparatus, and manu- dedrons of founding a regnlar company of
■cripts destroyed, and himself obli^d to Kee mlsuouarias to engage in similar labors. In
Erom the place with his fauuly. His hooks concert with her husband she obt^ned in 16S4
were strewn overthe highroadforhalfamlle; from the count's brotherj Jean Pranf ois de'
the scraps of themanuscriptscoveredthefloora Qondi, arohbishop of Paris, a grant for this
aeveral inches deep ; and flnallyitwaa uusno- vaifoaaottbeeolligedetiontenj'antt. Shocn-
cessfully attemplea to set the honse on Are, He dowed the projected congregation with the sum
rec^ved ample remuneration trata the ooun- of 40,000 livres, and hsvlDg persuaded Vincent
ty and chiefly from private benevolence, and to undertake the direction of It, the enterprise
removed to Haokney to succeed Dr. Price ; bnt was put into axecntionthefbllowing year. The
noUi^g that his society was avoided even by associates at first were but S in number, and
his pbiloeophioal associates, and deepuring of when the deed of foundation was signed in
any further tranquillity in Etuland, he resolved Sept. 163S, they had only Increased to 4. In
on emigration to America. He arrived in Kew Uay, 1627, Louis XIH. issued letters patent
York Jnne 4, 1704, was received with distino- confirming the foundation, and in 1682 the
tion, took up his residence in Northumberland, missionanes were erected into ■ congregation
Penn., where his soa had an agricultural settle- by Pope Urban VIII. under the title of " IMests
meat, and soon established himself in hia old of the Oona;regation of the Mission." In the
habite, bosily writing and experimenting. He same year Adnen Le Bon, prior of St. Lazarus,
waa offered the profassqrBhip of chemistry in a house of the canons regnlar of St. Augostine
the univerdty of PenDsylvanio, but declined it, in Paris, placed them in possesnon of his
He delivered two courses of pnblio lectures in priory, from which they have been popularly
Philadelphia in 1798 and 1797 on the " Evi- known as Laiarists. Their first establishment
denoes of Revelation," which were published In Rome was made in 1S4S. In 1649 they were
and dedicated to John Adams, who was one introduced into the Barbery states, in 1648 into
of his auditors. He wrote and published in Ireland, and hi 1648 into Uadagasoar. The con-
America his " Oontinnatloa of the History of gregotiou was established In the United States in
the Christian Ohnrch fKnn the Fail of the 1617. The priests of the mission devote them-
We.'itern Empire to the Present Times" (4 vols., selves especiaH;r to the laboring classes, and it
Northampton, 180S), which was dedioated to was stipulated in the original deed of endow-
Jefferson, and also several minor theological ment that they should "neither preach nor ad-
works, among which were answers to Volney's minister any sacrament in oltieB which are the
and Paine's attacks on revelation. He never seatsof bishops, archbishops, or of courts of jus-
oompletely recovered from an illness in Phila- ace.eieeptincasesofextremeneoessity." They
ddphia in 1801, but he continued to write dili- receive no compensation for their minister!^
gently till near his death. In 1808 he asked offices. Auxiliary to their personal labors for
nis physician if he could prolong his lifb 6 the poor are their institutions for the education
months, adding that in that time he could and Improvement of the clergy. Very soon
complete all the works on which he was en- aAertheirfbnndatlon the dtrectionof annmber
gaged. In hi* l%st lUnesa he dwelt upon the of eccledastical semlnariea In France was com-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
580 PBQSTS OF THE OBATOBT PBQIATIOOIO
mttt«d to them, and they have ever aioce been wbb the reitorstioii of ecclesiastical disdplinfl
activelj employed in teaching candidates for among the clergy. They spread rapidly in
tiie priesthood wherever they have been estal>- France and elsewhere, and during the lifedme
lished. They also have honses to which priesta of their fonnder houses were established at
may retire from the world for religions eier- Uadrid, Borne, and ConstantxDople, and in Savoy
oises, called " spiritnal retreats." The priests and the Netherlands. The congr^ation soon
of the misrioQ take. the nsaal monastic vows became distinguished for the great niunber of
of poverty, chastity, and obedience. In 1860 eminent scholara among its members, snch aa
the oongregation had IG houses in Fraoce, 38 Thomassin, Malebranche, Uaasillon, Morin, and
in Italy, 6 in Germany, 1 in Great Britftin, 1 Bichard Simon. They became deeply involved
in Spain, 17 in Torkey, Persia, and Abyssinia, in the Jansenist controversy, and at the election
11 in the United States and 4 in other ooun- of several snperiors general they were ^vided
trie* of America, 6 in Poland, S in Algeria, tato a Jansenist and an anti-Jansenist party.
1 in Oaba, and 1 on the Philippine iahmds; After the ontbreak of the French revolntion'a
beside whiob, they have in Ohina the entire connderable namber of Or&torians jtnned the
ecdeuastioal administration of 0 diooeaes or constitutional church. The oongregation itHlf^
vicariates apostoUo. with all other religiona associationa, was £s-
PRIE8T8 OF THE ORATORY, or Oniio- solved. Aftertherefistablishment of theBonr-
Buxs, a reli^oQB society founded by St. Philip bons, the Oratorians reorganized themselves,
Neri. Ooin^ to Rome in his lOtb year, in order but in 1S90 they had only one establishment,
to pnrsne his theological studies, Sen estab- which was in Paris.
liahed there soon after a " Brotherhood of the PBIUATE, a title of honor given to ccrteiQ
Holy Trinity," to as^st him in visiting the hos- archbishope, and generally de«gnating the chief
pitals and prisons, and laboring for the conver- archbishop of a country or district, who pos-
sion of sinners. The brotherhood assembled sesses a superiority of power or dignity over
onoe a month, and the founder prescribed for the other archhishopa or bishops. In the Angli-
them certain religions exercises. After they canchnrch,thearchbi8hopof Yorkisstyledpri-
had been Joined by several persons of high mateof England, and the archbishop of Ganter-
rank, they determined to build a large hospital bury primate of all England, the archbishop
So entertain during 8 days all poor pilgrims who of Dublin primate of Ireland, and the arch-
came to Rome in order to pray at the tombs of bishop of Armagh primate of all Ireland.~In
the apostles, martyrs, and saints. This hospi- the Roman Oatholio chnrch, &e nrrmatiol see
tal was completed in 1GG8, and in the same year of Ireland is Armagh, of Spain Toledo, of Por-
Pope Paal IV. presented to the association the tngal Braga, of Germany Saltzhnrg, of Enn-
chnrch of St Benedetto, now the church of the gary Gran, and of Poland Gncsen. In France
Holy Trinity. After having been ordained B archbishopshavereceivedthetitleof primate,
priest (ISCl), Neri associated with himself sev- viz.: those of Lyons, Sens, Boui^ea, Bordeanx,
oral young priests, and gradually matured the Aries, and Yienne ; bnt the dignity tiiere is now
plan of the " Oongregation of the Oratory." merely titular. In the United States there is
One of its first members was the celebrated noprimate, though the archbishop of Baltimore
Baronins. The eongregation was formally es- has an honorary precedence of all other Boman
tahlishod in 1664, oonbmed in 1675 by Pope Catholic archhishops in this conntry.
Gre^ry XIII., and agwn by Paul V. in 1812. PRIMATIOCIO, Feahc^co, an Italian paints
Bnrmg the lifetime of Philip the congregation er, bom in Bologna in 1490, died in I^ia in
extended through all parts of Italy, new houses 1670. His f rst inatrnctions in painting were
being established at Florence, Naples, Lucca, derived fromlnnocenzodalmolaand BBagna-
Fadna, and many other places. Neri remained eavallo, two Bolognese artists, and he aubae-
the auperior of the congr^ation until 1598, qnently passed 6 years at Uantua in tbe school
when he resigned, and was succeeded by Ba- of Ginlio Romano, whom he assisted in the
ronias. The congregation was almost always frescoes in the Palazzo del Te. Francis L of
confined to Italy ; bnt in recent times a iionr- France having commissioned the dnke of Man-
iahing branch has been established in England, tua to send him an artist to decorate the royal
nearly all the members of which were formerly chateau at Fontaineblean, Primaticcio was se-
olergymen of the church of England. They looted for the purpose, and In 1681 repaired
have there two establishments, at London and to the French conrt. The remainder of hiti
Birmingham, and among their members John, life was passed in the service of Francis and
Henry Newman and F. V. Faber are best his sncoessors Henry II., Francis II., and
known. At the beginnmg of 1860 they had 41 Charles IX. Hia chief work in France was the
houses in Italy, 1 in Dalmatia, 3 in Spain, 1 in series of frescoos at Fontaincbleau representing
Poland, 9 in Mexico, and 1 in the island of scenes from ancient mythology and the Odys-
Ceylon. — The Fekbch Obatobiaks, or the con- sey, in the execution of which he was assisted
gregationof the Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus, by his pupU Nicolo dell' Abati. The greater
were founded in IBH by the abb6 (afterward part of them were destroyed in 1788 to make
cardinal) B^mlle, and confirmed by a boll of way for some alterations in the cliatean. Pri-
Paid y., May 10, 1018, under the name of maticcio was one of the most fadlo and ioven-
" Priests of ttie Ontorj of Jeans." Their aim tire of the followers of Raphael.
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
FBIME PBIHOaEMITUBE 681
PRIVE. I. SAKnELlBBNdnB,D.I>,, an Amtt- Uohaimnedan law gave aomethiag to dftOj^
ican clergyman, bora in BalletoD. Saratoga oo., tera, but allowed a twofold share to sons. The
N. Y., Nov. 4, 181S. He eatered WilliamB col- etateaofJSnrope which, after the decline of the
lego, Mass., at the age of 18, was graduated Id Roman empire, made ijio later Boman law the
1^9, and, after a course of Btady et the Frinoa- basis of their juriq)rudeiiae, did not find in that
ton theological seminarj, entered the miniatr}' code the doctrine of primogeniture. In France,
of the Preabjterian ohurch. In 1840, being for example, all historical evidenoes show that
compelled bj ill health to relinqnish the active under the first two races of kings, at least, the
dotiea of hta profession, he assumed the editorial eldest son shared equally with his brothers.
charge of the "New York Observer" news- Especially and certainlj is this true of the soc-
popor, one of the chief organs of his denomina' ceasion to the crown in those reigus, where
don, and his connection with which has con- most naturally the onstom of primogeniture
tinned to the present time. His contribuUona wonld have been enforced if It bad at all pre-
to tbla publication dgned " Irennns" have had vailed. It was not untU the Oapets came to
considerable popularity, and nnder his manage- the throne that the prerogative of sncceasion to
ment the " Observer" has become one of the the crown was reserved eicluwvely to the fint
leading religions periodicals in the country, bo- bom. The lords promptly imitated the kinga,
^de acquiring a ropntation for the conservative and secured their fiefs to their eldest sons, and
character of its political views. Dr. Prime is thus founded in France the drvit (PcAhmk.
theautbor of "Travels inEurope andthe East" Whatever may have been in any conntry the
(2 vola. 13mo., New York, 1866), and a work immediate origin of primogeniture, the custom
onSwitzerland, the results of an extended Jonr- was no doubt everywhere the peculiar policy
ney in 1853, and of several works of a religions of the feudal system. To make certain and
character, including " Thoughts on the Death efficient the render of military service, which
of Little Children" and" The Power of Prayer," was at once the canse and consideration of the
thelatter of which, asketchoftheFultonstreet grant offends (or fees), it was expedient to
(New York) prayer meeting, has been repub- render these indivisible. The fittest successor
fished in several European languages. IL to the original holder, as being the one first
ViLUAJi OowpRB, brother of the preceding, an capable of doing military duty, was the eldest
American author, born in Cambridge, Wash- son; and to him accordingly the feudal lav
ington CO., N. Y., Oct. 81, 1836. He was grad- qnite invariably transmitted the father's lands.
nUad at Prinoeton college, N. J., in 1848, and — It b possible, perhaps probable, that in Eng-
snbaeqnen^y became a member of the bar in land, before the Norman conquest, the cnstotn
the city of New York, where he has continued still prevalent in Kent, and known as gavelkind,
nntil the present time, engaged in literary pur- extended over the whole island. In virtue of
suits and the practice of his profession. Among this custom, the lands of one who died intea-
bb miscellaneons publications are " The Owl tate, leaving sons and daughters, descend in
Creek Letters," consisting of papers originally equal divisions to the sons, exclusive of the
contributed to theNew York "JournalofOom- daughters; but if he leave no sons, then the
merce ;" " The Old Honse by the Biver" (12mo., daughters share alike. But whatever be the
1353); and "Later Years" (1864). In 1856-'0 truth in respect to this matter, certainly the
be travelled extensively in the East and else- oonqnest introduced the policy and rules of tho
where, and published upon his return "Boat continental feudal system, and thus prepared
Life in Egypt and Nubia" (12mo., 1867), and the way for the general adoption of the custom
" Tent Life m the Holy Land " (12mo., 1867). of primogeniture ; so that eldest sons acquired
He has since devoted much attention to namis- the right of succession, primarily, to the lands
matios and Egyptian antiquities, and in 1860 heldinfee.andconsequently totiietitlesofdig-
he edited a work entitled " Coins, Medals, and nity which were appurtenant to them. The
Seals" (4to.). . canon of the common law touching descents
PBrUOGENrrURE, a rule of law which con- which perUins to this subject is, that if a man
fers a dignity or estate in lands on a person in dies seized of real estate of which he had the
virtue of his being the eldest male of those who absolute ownership, without having made aay
couldinheriL A preference of sons to daughters disposition of it by his last will, the wholo
was a feature common to many of the ancient descends to his heir at law ; and this heir at
systems of law ; but few or none of them reo- law is that one of his representatives who b
Ionized what In our lime is meant by the cug- the eldest male among those who are in tho
torn of primogeniture. Among the Jews, the same degree of kindred. On thb rule rests
first born son OS such received a double portion the English custom, and, as Gibbon calls it,
ia his father's estate. If a Greek father died the "insolent prerogative" of primogeniture,
iotestattt leaving daughters only, his [iroperty Large landed estates, however, are perpetu-
went to his nearest Kinsman. His will, if in ated in families in England f^ less by thb
such a case he made one, passed his estate not custom of primogeniture (which does not in-
to hb daughters, but to their future husbands, torfere wiUi the owner's lagal ciqiacity of
The earlier Roman law excluded daughters testamentary dbposol) than by the system of
from the inheritance. Justinian first admitted settlements and entaib, which rests on pdnd-
them to iharo equally with their brothers. The pies <iDite dbtJnot from the former. The Eng-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
5» PBDIKOra HtIH(n
Bsh lavr onoe alloTed land to be enUled in- /trinoM, linn.}, found on th« shores t^ th«
terminably, but Uiii power has b«eQ grsdnallr northern lakes, having dliptioal or obovate-
rednced, until now the loogeat settlement can Iwioeol^e leavea, the lower mrbees aikd the
extend onlj- SI years beyond Uvea in twing entire luToInore oovered with a white, mealy
when it ia made, and the preferenoe of the eld- powder ; the flowera S to 30 in number, hav-
est SOD, though oniTersal, is in this case alto- ing a yellow eye in tba cenb« of the pale lilac
gether volantory, b8 in that of a will. Tet the ooroUa ; and by a pret^ q>edea 3 to 6 inohn
entail very rarely expires with the original high {P. Mutturinita, Mi.), with spatnlate,
limitation, as the first heir on ooming of age thin, veiny leave*, flowera 1 to 8 in nnmber,
may Join with the eziatiug poaseaaor ui reset- the corollas broadly and deepdy obcovdata,
tlingtheeststeandsopToltHigiiiKtheentail. In flesh-colored, fbnnd in the nwlbern piwtioDe
eas'e of personal property, theright of prlmogen- of the state of New York and of Vermont and
itnre does not eiist. it France primogeniture on the shores of the upper lakes. — The name
was aboliahed In 1789, and since that period the of primrose i» also applied to the genus «ns-
tendency of legislation in all conntries except M«ra, oomprising rank, coarse-leaved plants,
the British islands has bees to its abolition, common to Europe and seen in gardens. Lot
Id Portugal, where the custom of primogenitnre tbe finest species of which are na^ves of the
most extensively prevuled, the younger sons of western prairies, with large conspionona blos-
the great families, though too proud to work, soms, either lemon-colored or white. From
were not ashamed to beg, and not rarely lived the blossoms opening at sonset, theae have
on alms. Id France they crowded into the been termed evening priiiiroaee.
church and the army, or led a life of complete FBINOE (I^ pnnetfty, a title q>[>ertaininf
and often desdtote idleness. to a sovere^n>i to the mue offspring of kings,
I^DtROELE {primula tmlgaru, Linn.}, an or to persona of eminent rank who are without
early flowering perennial plant, native of En- the attributes of sovereign^. The word^r^-
rope, with many single, pale yellow blossoms, Mfw was employed by the Romans to duiote
which spring from a common stalk concealed a senator of rank who held the office oteutfot
in the bosom of the foliage, thus rendering of the dty, and was adopted by Augustas and
them apparently stemless; ita leaves are alt his suoeeBsors in the'imperial ^uraaatitleof
radical, erect, oblong-ovate, unequally orenate, dignity. In England the title strictly be]<mgs
smooth above, but veiny, wrinkled, and some- only to persons of the blood royal, who receive
what rough beneath; flowers with keeled, tn- it by rigntof birth, and without aformalinveet^
bnlar oalyces, divided at top into 6 sharply meot, as in the creation of dokes or other or-
poinCed teeth; the corolla monopetaloos, sal- ders of nobility. The younger bimis (tf tt>e sov-
ver-shaped, with 6 entire, spreading segments; ereign retain it until another title ia oon&rred
stamens S, with very short filaments and ereot upon them, but the danghters remain prin-
anthers ; pistil fnmiBhed with a long straight cesses. A specisl exception is made in the
style; fruit a capsule filled with numerous oaseof the eldest sou, who is created by patent
brown seeds. The plant delights in a moist, prince of Wales. In France, under the old ri-
cool, clayey aoil, and under cultivation is sub- gimt, the title was borne principally by persons
Jeot to many variations, there being white, of distinotitm connected with the blood royal,
purple, lilat^ and even double-flowered perma- as the membera of the hoases of Orleans and
Dent varieties known to florists. Even the Bonrbon-Cond6. Napoleon I. ccmferred it upon
polyanthus has been known to spring from tt, several of his marshals and ministers. Previous
when some peculiarity of soil has sSeoted the to the present century Germany comprehended
plant; and tbouf^h classed by most botanists a number of petty states called principalitiea,
as a distinct species under the name of P. ela- and governed by hereditary princea, many of
fi»r, it is considered by many as no more than whom at present have no territorial sovereign-
a permanent variety, with brown-colored flow- ty. In Rossia, where it was formerly borne by
era elevated on a taller peduncle and liable to the sovereigns, and elsewhere in Europe, the
infinite, richly marked tints, spots, and pencil- title is one of the highest recognised.
lings of the corolla. (See FOLTAirrHCB.) A PBINOE, Tiiokab, an American dergyinan
very popular species, much cultivated aa a and historian, born in Sandwich, Mass., Jklay
house plant, b Uie Chinese primrose (P. Smeti- 15^687, died Oct. 23, 17G8. He was educated
tit, Lindley), with downy, soft, large-toothed at Harvard college, and in 1711, aAer visiting
leaves on long footstalks, and nnmerons pale Barbados and Madeira, settled aa pastor of a
lilac blossoms borne in a spreading umbel upon church at Combs, in SafToIk, England. Here
a common scape. There are varieties with he remained until about 1717, when he r«-
white Sowers, others with Mnged or fimbriated tunied to Maasachnsetts accompanied by aer-
petols of great beauty, and others with double era) of his congregation, and diortly afterward
flowers, ail deurable on account of their oontin- became colleague of the Bev. Joseph Sewall
ning in bloom the entire year, but of special in- at the Old South church in Boston, where he
terest in the winter montiis. They are readily remained until hia death. In 1727 appeared
raised from seeds and from cuttings, preferring the first volume of his " Annals of If ew Eng<
a rich, sandy soil. — In the United States the land," materials for which ha had collect^
primrose is represented by the bird's-eye (P. with great care while in England. It was ap-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PEmOR XDWABD FBDTOE VILLIAU 688
proved br tlw kgUatnn, bnt owing to the In- bora on the N. oout on much frequented,
mffisrenoe of tiie pnUio wm never completed. The fisbeir u piinoipaUT in the hands of fish-
Ha mbo pablisliea » nnmber of Mrmons, &nd ermen from the United States, who during the
devoted ue last yoar of Us life to a iwridon Bummer months employ from SOO to 800 ves-
of the New £^luid ver^n of the Psalms. »els. The raanafBctiireB are of very little im-
PRINOE EDWABD, » B. oo. of Ya., boi^ portanoe; and the trade oonsiatB of the exchange
dend N. hj the Appomattox and S. by the of agricnltnral prodnoe, timber, and some fisn,
Nottoway river, and drained by eereral small for American and British mannihctnres. Dnr-
streams ; area, about B60 sq. m. ; pop. in 1890, ing the year 1BB8-'B the total valne of the es-
ll,8t4, of whom 7,M1 were slaves. It has a ports was $862,741. The population is com-
dtrannfled snrboeand a gmerolly fertile eoil, poeedof miiedraceB,aboiit|ofthewhoIebeing
and oontons mines of oool and oopper. The natives of the island. The oivil estabUshment
prodnctlons in IBM were 314,850 bushels of coosista of a lientenant-govemor and a chief
Indian com, 7S,?6S of wheat, 87,289 of oata, Jostice, with the nsosl assistants. In 18S2 the
9.571,860 ItM. of tobaooo, and 16,189 of wool, revenne was £S0,86a and the expenditure £14,<
liiere were S grist mills, fl tobacco factories, S 867. Oitixens of the United States can hold
tanneries, 1 iron foimdery, 1 newspaper office, land in the colony to the extent of SOO acres.
£4 ohnrohee, and 877 pnpils attending public The island is in telegra^hio oommnnioalaon wilji
BciioolB. Toward the N. it is intersected by the continent of America.
the Bonth side (Petersbn^ and Lt^ohbnrg) PRINCE aEOROE. I. AS. W. oo. of Md.,
rvlroad, and acroes the 8. £. by the Biohmond bordered E. by the Patoxent river, and W. by
and Danville rulroad. Oapital, Princ« Edward the Potomac and the district of Columbia, and
Ooort Honse. drained by the west branch of the Patoxent,
PRINCE EDWABD ISLAND, an island and and Piscataway and Anaeosta creeks ; area,
eolony of British America, situated on the 6. abont 600 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 38,827, of
aide a the galf of St. Lawrence, between lat. whom 13,470 were slaves. Its aorbce is some-
46° 68' and 47° T N., and long. 63° and 64° 27' what hilly, and contains great qnantities of
W. ; length about 140 m., breadth (torn 6 to 40 iron ore ; the soil is generally very fertile.
m. ; area, 3,184 sq. m. ; pop. in 1856, 71,503. The productions in I860 were 1,090,040 bnsbels
It Is divided into Prince's, King's, and Qaeen's of Indian corn, 281,687 of wheat, 67,386 of
connties, the capitals of which are respectively oats, 47,468 of potatoes, 6,667 tons of hay, 4S,-
Princetown, Georgetown, and Oharlottetown. 409 lbs, of wool, 100,947 of bntter, and 8,880,-
It b separated from Nova Scotia and New 861 of tobacoo {the largest amount of tobaoco
Bmnswick by Northnmberland strait, which yielded by any connty in the Union). There
varies in width from 9 to SO m. The shores were 4 grist mills, 3 cotton fhotoriea, 1 woollen
are Indented by numerous bays, some of which factory, 1 iron furnace, 1 newspaper office, 81
extend so Ha inland tiiat the island is divided chorohes, and 240 pupils attending public
Into S peninflnlas connected by narrow isth- schools. It is intersected by the Baltimore and
mnflee, one of which is onl^ abont 1 m. broad. Washington railroad. Capital, Upper Marl-
The coasts are bold and lined with red olifiS, borough. II. A S. E. oo. of Va., bordered N.
varying fWmi 30 to 100 feet in height. The by James river and N. W. by the Appomattox,
mrboe is well diversified, and watered by and droned by the sources of the Blackwater;
nnmerons springs and rivers. The soil is fer- area, about 860 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 8,410, of
tile, and consists for the most part of a thin whom 4,996 were slaves. Its surface is hilly
layer of decayed vegetable matter over a li^ht and the soil moderately fertile. The produo-
lotun abont a fbot deep, below which is a stiff tions in 1860 were 361,610 bushels of Indian
day generally resting upon sandstone. No oom, 81,043 of wheat, 38,600 of oats, and 18,-
valuable minerals have been discovered. The 660 lbs. of tobacco. There were 14 chnrches,
dimate is very healthy, and much milder than and 198 pnpils attending public schools. Value
that of the a^oining continent, and is generally of real estate in 1866, f 1,963,626, showing an
fN<e frY)m fogs snon as are prevalent on the increase of 46 per cent, rinoe 1860. The N. W.
shores of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia. The portion ia traversed by an extension of the
island was formerly covered by extensive for- Petersburg and Lynchbnrg railroad. Cq)ital,
ests, bnt they have been nearly all removed, Prince GeorgeCoart House,
and there is now only sufficient timber for in- PRINCE WILLIAM, a N. E. co, of Vs., boi^
dostrial purposes. All hinds of grun, fmit, dered £. by the Potomao and N. E. by the Oo-
and vegetables common to temperate regions ooqnan river, and drdned by Cedar Run, Broad
succeed remarkably well, and bear abnndant Run, and Qnantico creeks; area, about 825 sq.
crops. The breeds of domestic animals have m. ; pop. in I860, 6,666, of whom 3,366 were
lately been much improved by stock imported slaves. It has a hilly surface and sandy soil,
from Ei^and, and wild animals have become The productions in 1860 were 161,348 bnahels
scarce. Seals are found In the bays and on the of Indian oom, 57,738 of wheat, 07,717 of oats,
coasts, and vast numbers of them sometimes 3,809 tons of hay, 36,978 Itts. t^ wool, and
arrive on the ioe iVom the Polar sea. Prince 79,079 of butter. There ware 19 grist mUls,
Edward Island Is one of the best fishing sta- 8 saw mills, a woollen and a cotton factory,
tions on the gulf of St. lAwrenoe, and the bar- 18 ohnrohes, and SIQ pupils attending pabUo .
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
6M PRINOESB ANNS FBOrCBTOir
■ehools. Value of real «atate in 18H, |S,SW,- hia fimwa at Friiioetoii,adTaiioad (Jan. 3,1797)
6B8, showing an increase of 69 per cenL ajnoe with nearly the whole fbrce to Trenton, them
1660. It ii iiitereeot«d by the Orspge and oooapled by Washington and the American
Alexandria railroad, a branch of whii^ the armj. It was nightfall before the British bad
UouABaas Gap railroad, traverses the northern established tbemBelvea on the W. bank of the
portion. Oapitol, Brentsville. Assonpink, a small atream fordable in many
PBINO£BS AifKK, a oo. forming the a E. phwea, and oroaaed by a bridge commanded b;
extremity of Va., bordered N. by Oheeapeake tha revolutionary troopa^ and OomwaUia d»-
bay, £. by the Atlantic, aodS. by North Oaro- dded to postpone UtedecuJre attack niitU next
Una; area, about 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, day. VaBhington, finding himself opposed by
7,714, of whom 8,186 were alavea. It has a an anny snpenor in discipline and amnbers to
level mr&oe fmd sandy boU, and oontuna Urge hia own brave bnt inezperieiiced troops, and
foreata of pine and <7preis, afit^ding an impor- cnt off from retreat by the Delaware, filled
tant Imnber trade. The productions in 1860 witli ice, and unpassable witliin the time avvl-
were 847,141 boahela of Indian com, fl0,024of able for escwe, projected a dirersion toward
oats, 2,629 of wheat, 1,698 tons of hay, and Princeton, where, by attadcing and defeating
12,1161tM. of wooL There were 4 grist milla, the remuning troops, he could seize apon the
8 saw miUa, 17 chordhes, and 819 popila at- rappUes and mnnitiouB stored there asd thence
tending public achoola. Value of real estate proceed to Brunswick. Gen. Leslie with the
in 1866, §1,499,146, showing an increase of 22 rear guard of the British anny was at Uaiden-
per cent since 1860. C^iital, Princess Anne head, abont half wa^ betwem the two placea,
Oonrt House. and 8 raiments of in&ntry and S troops
PBINGETON, a township and village of of dragoons were still at Princeton. Aware
Heroer cc, N. J., within a mUa of the New of Leslie's postion, Wadtingtm detcimiaed to
Jersey railroad and the Delaware and Baritan make a detonr bj the Qnaker road, which de-
canal, 40 m. N. E. from FMladelphia, and 11 scribed a dr«uit nntilwitliin 2 m. of Princetoo,
m. N. K from Trenton ; pop. of the township where it jtuned the main road; but it was not
in 1860, 8,772 ; of the village, 8,160. The in good condition, and the march was impeded
village is neatly built and pleasantly sittiated, so that it was eucrise before he reac^ted the
and contains a llieological seminary of the Free- bridge at Stony Brook, about 3 m- from Prince-
byterian church, founded in 1612, a bank, a ton. Here he took a Bliort«r and more concealed
newspaper office, and aeveral chorchea. It is road, and ordered Gen. Uercer to proceed by
the seat of the collie of New Jersey, founded the brook and take poraesdon of a bridge at
at Elizabethtown in 1746 by the Presbyterian the main road. Thus far the enemy were nna-
aynod of New Yorlc, then separated from the ware of his movements. At the Assonpink a
synod of Phifadalpnia, under a charter ob- detachment was left to dig trenches in mder
tained from the «<donial government. Jona- that the noise might be heard in the British
than Dickinson was its first president, bnt died camp, to keep and relieve guard, and to feed
in the following year. In 1748 a new charter the camp flree. They were ordered to hasten
was obtained through Govenior Belcher, and the after the main army at daybreak. The baggage
Rev. Aaron Bnrr was chosen preddent. The had been quietly removed ttt Bnrlington. The
colleee was removed to Princeton in 1767, in British remaining atPrinoeton had commenced
vhitm year Praiident Barr died, and in 1767 their movement toward Trenton, and CoL
Jonathan Edwards, his father-in-law, assumed Ifawhood having passed the bridge on the main
the office, bnt lived scarcely long enough ^lere- road over Stony Brook, while marching through
o^r to even anter npon hia duties. The next a wood discovered Mercer's advance, and, sup-
inonmtient, the Bev. Samuel Davies, accepted posing them a portion of the defeated American
the presidency in 1760 after A aeoond appoint- army, put back to intercept their flight. Aahe
meat, having declined the first, but died in emergedfromthewoodandrecroasedthebridge
1761, Iws than two years after his installation, he came upon Mercer's brigade. At once both
The Rev. John Maclean, the present incum- made fur a piece of rising ground to obtain the
bent, inaugurated in 1864, isthe 10th president advantage of its poeidon. It was gauied by
of Uta collie. Nassau heJl, erected in 1766 for the Americans, who opened a sharp fire on the
the use of the college, was at that time oon- enemy, which they vigorously returned. At
ddered iJie largest and one of the finest build- their first fire the horse of Mercer was killed,
ings in the colonies. In 1777 it was occupied and a colonel mortally wounded. The British,
fay Bridah troftpa, in 1802 nearly destroyed by availing themselves of the resulting confosian,
fire, and on Marah V, 1866, entirely consumed, cha^^ with the bayonet, a weapon of whidi
In 1860 the college had 10 tnatmctors, 814 stu- the Americans werodeslittite, and after a abort
dents, S,7II6 alumni, and a librae of 24,000 strugglo, during which Gen. Mercer received
volomaa, several desperate wounds which in a few days
PRINCETON, Bi.TTut ov. After the defeat proved fatal, they gained the position and drove
andoaptoreof the Hessians at Trenton, Dec. 26, the Americans before them. After a short
1776i, Oomwallia, who was about embarking pursuit tlie British were brought to a stand
for England, resumed his oomjnand of the Brit- Dy a detachment of Pennsylvania troops dee-
iah in Ihe Jaraey^ And, having concentrated patched by Washington, on hearing the firing,
U.g.iizOQbyGOO^Ie*
pBiHoiFAiro crnu. PRmriNa &8fi
to th« laditmce of Ihceer. U&whood halted, thA Aptenlnee. The soil, especially in Uie ral-
and opNung his artillery on the re^nforoemeDt lejs, is fertile and well oiiltivated.
stopped their advaaoe. At this critical mo- PRINQLE, Thomab, a Bcottiah poet and
ment WaBhington appeared on the field. Be- Jonrnalist, bom at Blaiklaw, Teviotdole, in
t«ctingat onoe thedea{»erateetat«ofafiaira,he 1789, died in 1S34. After passing through
gaDopad forward among hia broken troopa, the unirerBity of Edinburgh, be obtained the
who, inspired by his gaJ&ntry, rallied and re- position of clerk to the oommiKsioners on the
SQmed tb« battle, vhUe a regiment of Virgin- pablio recorda of Scotland, nltioh be held
ians came np, and an Americm batt«ry which nntil 1817, when he commenced the " Edio-
hadjnat armed opened its fire npon the enemy, bnrgh Monthly Uagazine," which was the germ
The action waafleroely oontettod; Ool. Maw- of "Blackwood's Magazine." At the same time
hood fongbt with the most denierate bravery, he was editor of the " Edinburgh Star" news-
■ad BTentnally forcing his way by the bayonet paper, and Joint editor of " Couatable's Mago-
to the main road, retreated toward Trenton, zine." He soon anarrellod with Blackwood,
Dnring this struggle Washington diatingniahed and, hia other pnblieations being nnprofitable,
himaelf by bis personal daring, rosbing into the went oat to the Oape of Good Hope in 1830,
tUokest of the fight, and animating his men and became government librarian at Capetown,
by the example of his own courage. The BGth Here he also established a private academy,
British re^ment bad in the mean time been founded the " Sontb African Journal," and
enoonnt«rnd by the advance guuil under Gen. edited at the same time the " South AiHcan
8L Clair, had given way, and was in fall re- Commercial Advertiser," both of which peri-
treat toward Brunswick. The remuning regi- odiosla were diacontinned in conaeqnenoe of
ment, not hariug been able to get up in time the censorship exercised over them by the
to partiaipate in the engagement, divided, a colonial governor. Pringle returned to Great
poition retreating toward Bmnswick, and the Britain in 1826, and became secretary to th«
rest taking reAige in Naassn hall, belonging to anti-alavery society, which sitoation he held
the odlege of New Jersey, but for some time nntil the abolition of slavery in the colonies,
ooenpied by the British as barracks. These when the society was disaolved. During thii
sorrendered after receiving a few shots from an period he publi^ed hia " Narrative of a Bed-
American battery. In this action, ao gallantly dence in Sonth Africa," upon which and upon
oondneted by uie wearied, poorly fed, and his poems his repnteCion ohiefiy rests. A col-
poorly clad Americans, their loss was not mora lection of his poetical works has been published,
than 80 men, beside Gsn. Meroer, Ools. Haslet with a sketch of his life by Leitch Ritchie.
and Potter, M^or Morris, and 3 oapt^ns. The PRINTING (Let. imprimo, to stamp or im-
British left abont 100 dead on the field, and print, from tn, npon, and premo, to press), the
neariy SCO, inolndi^ li officers, yielded them- taking impressions from types or engraved
aetvea prisoners. Washington now moved on plates, for the purpose of multiply ing at a cheap
to Jlorristown, destroying the bridges on his rate reversed copies of the designs they pre*
mardi, and confined himself for some time sent; iacluding also in a general sense the pre-
afterword to a system of pernatent annoyance, liminnry processes of composing and preparing
wUeh had the result of driving the enemy ont typw for impression or for casting plates. In
of nearly the whole of Kew Jersey. its eimpleat forms the art has been practised
PRINCIPATO CITRA ' central province by different nations from remote antiquity.
of Kaples, bounded N. "W. and N. by tlie prov- The bricks from the ruins of Egypt and of
inoes of Terra di Iavoto and Principato Ultra, AssTria ore Impressed with characters stamped
E. and a. E. by Baulioota, and 8. and W. by in the day. Seels and signets were used by
the Mediterranean ; area, 3,371 sq. m. ; pop. in the Israelites, and in later periods the Romans
165S, 683,979. Capitol, Salerno. The surface used stamps for prodnoing inscriptions, as the
is mnoh broken by o^ets from the Apennines, name of the maker or vender, upon various ar-
bnt there are considerable tracts of level ground tides of merchandise, and brands for marking
along the shore of the bay of Salerno. The cattle with the letters of tlie owner's name,
c^ast line is irregnlar, and nearly half of it con- Some of the Boman inscriptions still in exist-
*\st» of a bold oorve which forma the bay of enoe appear like rude printing. It has been
Salerno. A great part of the province Is watered supposed that a passage in Cicero Be Natara
by the Sde and its affluents. The prinoinal i^fM-umgivingdirectionBrespectingtypeamade
minerals are copper, marble, and gypsam. The of metal, and called by him fOrmm Uteraram
anchovy and tonuy flahery Is very prodnctivc. (the very name afterward applied to types by
PBINOIPATO ULTRA, a province of Naples, their invdntors), may hare su;:);estcd the idea
bounded N. by die province of Moliae, N. E. of them. And it is not a little remarkable,
and E. by O^itanata, 8. E. by Basilicata, 8. by considering the immense importance of tho
Prindpato Citra, and W, by Terra di I^ivoro ; art of printing, and the labor and e^tpense in-
area.l,409sq.m.; pop. in 1866, 876,313. Capi- curred by the ancients in copying boots by
tal, Avellino. TheformecpapalterritoryofBen- pen, that theyshould have approached so near
evento is entirely surrounded by this province, the invention of movable types without these
The chief rivers are the Calore and Carapdlo. being finally brought into use until the 16th
The provinea is almost entirely eovered witii oentnry. Among eastern nations, as the CM-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
686 TKOniSQ
neee, Japanese, and TsTtars, tli0 printine of tinniDg to ase the sune pimchM fbr prodacing
books &om engraved blocks had indeed oeen aa manj matriceB as mi^t b« required. These
practised fVom the most remote periods ; a ioTentora Bncceeded in printing a condderable
process which Is not yet abandoned hj the nmnber of books, the first of whidt known to
Tacei named for movable tjpe printing. Their have been printed with movable types irere 8
method is to paste the page, prepared bj the editions of BoDatns. The first work with ft
pen on traoing paper, &oe down npon a block ia.t6(lViB)-wa6theI.itttralBdulfentialfi:olfti
of hard wood. The engraver then cnts away V. Pont. Max., which was complete In a single
the portjona of the wood and paper not oov' page. In the year 1462, by reason of the cap-
ered with the characters, leaving these in re- tore of the city of Mentz by Count Adolphna
Uef. The printer, with two fine soft brashes of Kassan, the printing operations carried on
In the right hand, blackens the whole snr&oe there were checked, and the printers were dis-
of the block with the ink In one, and laying persed into other states. The tame of their wwfc
on the paper smooths it gently down with the nad preceded them, and new enterprises were
other, wmch is dry, and thus obtdns an im- rapidly nndertaken in other dties. Frintjng
pression from the rused parts alone. Each presses were in operation at Bnbiaoo near Some
impresnon consists of two pages, divided by a mlMfi, and the types employed were more like
line down the middle ; on this line they are those now called Roman tlun like the Gothic
folded back to back and fastened together, so forms of the Qerman^ which with Uie eharao-
as to Inclnde the sinsle edges in the binding ters imitjiring handwntjng had np to this time
and leave the folded edge in ftvnt As no- alone been used. Iti 1449 printmg was intro-
ticed in the article Emokaviho, this block dnced into Ulan and Venioe ; and the prodno-
Srinting was practised in Germany for pro- tionsof the presses of John deSpirm and Ohris-
acing playing cards and inostrationa for man- topher Valdar&r of the latter city attained
Dscript works early in the ICth centnry, before great &me for their perfection and beaoty. The
movable types were invented. Id their use it devices with which these early pnblleationa
is not nnreasonable to snppose that the idea were adorned were often artistic prodnctiona
was snggested of dividing uiem into parts and of themselves giving an interest and valne to
employing these in Bnch combinations aa might the works. At copies of the early editkitis
be convenient; and that the division might beoamescaroe,they weremoreandmorepriied,
tbns be extended to single types. The time and in some instances have been sold fbr extra-
and place of the invention of these are not ordinary snma. The highest price ever paid
known with certainty. The city of Haarlem fbr any printed work was for the only perfect
tn Holland claims that Lanrens Jonszoon Cos- copy Imown to exist of Yaldarfar's 1st edition
ter there invented the art of printing in 1423, of Boccaccio's Deeamerone of 1471. It was
making nse of movable types of wood and sold at auction in London, Jnne, 1811, and bid
afterward of lead and tin ; hot no printed off by the marqnis of Blandford for £2,260,
works of his can be identified. The claims Lord Spencer competing for the prize np to
of Johannes Gntenberg to this invention are £3,SS0. Printing was introdacod into Paria
more generally recognized. He withont ones- in 14T0, and into London in 1474. (See Cax-
tion was occnpied in various experimentsl re- Toir, Williau.) Before the year IBOO, it it
searches of a secret natare in Strasbourg, and stated, printing presses had been set np in 3!0
possessed in 14S8 printing materials, a press, places in Europe, and a mnltitnde of editions
and as it appears movable types. No book, of the cInGsicu writers in their appropriate
however, waa bronght ont by their nse nn- Greek and Latin characters were given to the
til after Gutenberg had returned (which was world. A Greek grammar wholly in Greek
about 14fi0) to his native city of Mentz. Hero types was printed in Uilan in 1476, and the
he associated himself with a wealthy citizen, flnt work wholly in Roman type was Cicero's
Johann FauHt, who, on learning the secrets of EpUtolm FamiliarM, printed at Rome in 1467.
the art, entered into partnership with Gnten- A Hebrew Bible was printed at Soncino in the
berg, and agreed to famish fnnds for dcveU dachy of Uilan in 1488, Italic type was in"
oping the process. They employed to assist vent^ about the year 1600 by Aldna Hanntios
uiem Peter SchOffer, a scribe whose previous of Venice. In the TJnited States the first prii '
occupation had been the copying of books, and ing press was introduced at Cambridge, Mas
who appears to have been a man of taste and in 1686. {Bee Cambbidgb, vol. iv. p. 293.) Of
genius, and well fitted to bring a new process the apparatus employed by the earliest prmters
of this sort favorably before Qie public. He the devices on the title pages of the woiks of
has the credit of snbstitnting metallic types Badins Ascenmns of Lyons (1495-1680) serve
cast in plaster moulds in the place of those to convey some idea. The presseswere dmple
which Gutenberg had previonsly made by contrivances capable of printing only 4 pages
carving pieces of wood and metal, and of still at a time, and tnat at two ^ulls ; bnt snch as
further perfecting the art by the inyention of they were, they continned m nse with littie
punches in hard metal, by the use of which improvement into the 17tb centni;. The ink
sharpness of outline conld be given to the mat- at first employed was apporentiy brown nmber
rices in which the types were cast, and per- well gronnd and thin. The earliest copies of
feet nniformity be retained in the type by con- tiie ^eevlvm tmABibtiaPmcperam were print-
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie,
«d with it ; and ths eflbet b said to lutTe b«en for tb« B^en^ edldon at Volttire^s wotb
better thaa tbst of blsok ink in its hanno- published b; BMnmarchuc The art ixintiiia«d
'" ■' ' - ■■ . . -., - be iMtaioed in the same perfection by Bul-
r, whoee Shakeapeare and Itilton are among
nnsarpaBBed bj those nowin uae. The black themostsplendidBpeeimeiuoftTpographjeTer
was of a deep rich oolor, and so continnee in exeonted. — Daring the present centnrj a great
the old books till the present time, and the varietj of ornamental tjpe has been introdno-
paper near it is not in the slightest degree tar- ed, the styles differing ffom each other in the
ni^ed by it It waa applied to the types by sbqies of the letters, in the heavinees or light-
balla of skin atnfied with wool, a method not ness of the lines, and in the ■l>«ling Great
entirely oat of ose in the 19th oentnry. The ingenaity has been exercised In mnltJplying
inks were grannd upon a stone slab with a these varieties in so limited a field. The
mnller, and from thu slab were token np by latest size of type for books is called great
the balls, which were dabbed down upon tnem primer, and ia seen in the largest old Bibles}
for the purpose. Oases for the type were siml- it is now seldom used. English, which is the
lar to those now naed. The typography in nert lower size, is seen in ohnrch Bibles, in
most reqieots was rudely eiecnted, and some- folios, and some qoartos. I^ca, small pica, long
wh»t obscure from the words running Into one P|nitiB'', and bonrgeois are the sizes most in use.
another, from defeotiTe nnnotuation, and nn- The ust named is the type employed in this
merons abbreviations. Blank spaces were left cydoptedia. The snocee^ng varieties are bre-
for initial letters, whioh were afterward filled vier, minion, nonpareil, agate or rahy, pearl,
in by those whose employment had been to diamond, and brilbant, the last being vetr rare,
iQaminote the old manuscripts, a style of work and the smallest type ased in books. In the
which conld not bo imitated by types, Nu- -"'"■■■•—
merons other ornaments in brilliant colors were
iotrodoced bytheinmninator8,andthemargiQs /~1_„„„J. Tl—I..-^--, -ri t i. tw
of the pagea were often covered with figures iTreat X Ilmerj rillgllSO, IrlCa,
KrnSi?,r»y'"'E?.'?.£i.ij'i'S ^^ ««•■ ^^ ^^«- ^"^^'^
treated in the text. The types were of nnifbrm Brevier, Uinlon, Honpmll, AfUa, phh, n— t huh
character throuf^out, usually Gothic letters. For handbills or posters special types are em-
The date and name of the printer were com- ployed of extra large nzes. A complete as-
moniy omittod, but sometimes appeared at the sortment of one rize is called a font or fonnt,
end of the book. Editions were small, 800 or and the "sorts" that make npan ordinary font
800 being considered a large impression. The of Roman type are as fbllows : 8 complete al-
mannfoctare of type, properly a distinct branch phabets in capitals, small capitals, and small or
from printing, was not so regarded at first, "lower case" letters, making 78 oharaoters;
and the printers commonly prepared their own the double letters ff, fi, fl, ffi, ffi (each cast in a
type. BtiU the types used in different conntries ungle piece on acoouct of the kem or bend at
sometimes betray a common origin; for ex- the f not permitting it to stand separately
ample, those used by Oaxton at one time in ag^nst another f, an i, or an I), 6; the diph-
England were evidently of the same character thongs M, <E, ^ <b, n, <s, 6; figures, 10;
with the types of John Brito of Bruges and of marks of punctuation, 6; the apostrophe, hy-
John Valdener of Utrecht. Uany were far- phen, parenthesis, and bracket, 4; 4 sizes of
nished to printers by Ulrich Zell, the father of daehes,andbracesin6 pieces, B; the characters
the Col<^ne press, and by Wynkin de Worde, &,*,$,£, ^"i 6 ; and the references •, +,
Caitoa's BQOcessor. Type foanding was ex- {, ^ |, T, fl ; total characters, 120. Beside
pressly declared to be a distinct art from that these, there are repaired for filling the blanks
of theprinterbyadecreeof thestarchamberin between words, at the ends of lines, &o., 4
1S3T, and 1 founders were appointed to supply sizes of spaces and 4 of quadrats (the former
all tb6 printers in Great Britain with type. At and tbesmslleat of the latter being auhdivisions
this time the mechanical execution of printed of the em [ml or aoaare of the size of the type,
Morta had greatly deteriorated. The artistic one equal to it, ana the other two multiples of
' ngna and ornaments of the old illuminf ' "~ '" '' '' "'" '"" ""'" *"" ~
d gone out of use, and the typography w
Mcceeded was of very inferior character. Snch accented and long and short vowels, with the
oontumed to be the case during the ITth oen- sedilla o (c), Bpanigh n (d), Ac, which are only
tnry. One of the first who devoted himself to fbmished by the founders when separately
its improvementwas JohnBaskerviIIe,aJapan- .ordered, making 40 to 100 additional sorts.
ner of Birmingham. About the year 1750 he There are many other characters only re-
(Dgaged in cutting punches fbr type, and pro- quired for special occauons, as agronomical
daoed these of andk eiraUent proportions, that and mathematical signs. An ordinary font of
sabaeqtientimprovementB have done little more Italics comprises 60 characters, vii. : 2 alpha-
than to increase tjte delicacy of the lines, and beta in oi^dtals and small letters, capital and
add to the variety of (be forma. After his death omall diphthongs, colon, semicolon, interroga-
in 1775 his types and punches were purchased tion and exclamation points ; to wMob are to
U,9,-„Z0QbyGOO^[t
688 paiNTING
be added &ooents, ice. Italio small capitals are in rize from an en to 4 enu), &« axglM, groi^
also sometimes made. The proportioDS of the iogs, rests, bars, &c. ; and the npper case con-
principal pieces in a Roman font of 800 lbs. tains the characters less frequently nsed. A
of pioa (comprising altogether about 150,000 portion of the upper case is also occupied with
pieces) are as follows: Oapitals, from 800 to miniatnre notes, grouping &c., c(n-reBp(»idiDg
600 of each, excepting Q and X, 190 each, and to the large characters. — In setting tjpo the
Z, 80. Bmall capitals range one lialf as many compoaitor, having the copj or mannaeript
of each letter as the oapiUOs. lud before him, on the npper case, and hold-
a 8jm t IBlTlB 1,TO0 y a.MO in« in bia left hand the composing stick («
e liooo f 1,700 q MD 1 too little iron trar capable of holding 10 or mor«
I;:::;: S h-.'C ::::::tZ ;::::::'!$ ii»?._^rdiagt» ih.,iz. of the tjp, „d
s B,40i) i etn t >,ooo : MO adjusted oj a ahde to the exact length of
J |.J« L; JWJ i--iSS *•"" tl'e line), seta the flrtt type in the left hand
d'."'.'.'. *Imo b.'.'.','.'. Smo I.'.'.'.'.', iwo corner of the stick against aflat thin Btrip of
Thir^aiKcci is,ooo ThiD tpuu 8,000 braas or steel, called the composiniF or aettinc
«""""P™ !»■«« H^iP«- >.0M rule. Belooksonlytoaeethltthotrpecomei
To place all these pieces within coUTenient from the right box, and seizes it in gudh
reocn of Che type setter or compositor, they a way aa to bring the nick or notch, which is
are distribnted in the " boxes" or cells of two made on the udo of every type corresiwnding
opeti cases, which are arranged sloping for- to the bottom of the letter, from him as he
ward, one behind and above the other, and places it in the stick, the reverse of the ar-
formingwithit an obtuse angle, on a frame the rangement of the letter when printed. The
top of which they cover at a convenient height succeeding letters rapidly follow, and at the
for the workman, who stands in front In the end of each word he sets a space. On reach-
upper case, with boxes all of one size, and like ing the end of the line he rearranges the
the lower case in two equal divisions, are the apacea, so aa to make it exac^y fhll, and ae-
capitals,thelarge ones outhelettandtbeamall cure a uniform separation of the words ; thia
ones on the right (an arrangement which is process is called justification, and to do it ac-
Bometimes advantageously reveraed), with ref- curately and rapidly without repeated tri^ !■
ereucea, braces, daahea, &c., in the top rows, an important qualification of a good composi-
The lower case contains boxes of a variety of tor. The line being finished, the composing
sizes severally adapted to the quantities of type rule is taken out and slipped in front, and the
required of each letter, the central boxes most new line is commenced. The lines arc thns
convenient to the printer's band being the larg- brought close together, and the printing is
est and containing the letters most need. The designated solid. If it is desired to have tfaem
apocea, qnadrats, points, and figures also have open, a slip of type metal, Jnst the length of
boxes in this case. The Italics are in other the line and the height of the apacea, termed
cases, sometimes set as drawers in the lower alead, is introduced between each, and fbr very
part of the frame. An Improved form of ease open printing thicker leads or two or more of
has been patented by Mr. Thomas IT. Booker, ot them ore nsed. The printing is then designated
New York, designed to lessen the movements leaded or thick-leaded. When the composing
of the hand of the compositor by bringing the stick is nearly filled, the role is bronght in
boxes into a more limited space. A ^gle case front of the last line, and the whole is slipped
ia employed instead of two, andtheamall-boxea off upon a laiver tray called a galley. In doing
for the capitals sre placed immediately adjoin- this some skill b required to prevent the types
ing those of the corresponding small letters, falling apart, or, as it b called, being thrown
Another form patented by him occnpies little Into pi. On the galleys the types are made tip
more than half the space of the ordinary case, into pages. At the bottom of the first page u
saving the compositor long reaches for the va- set a type indicating by the figure 1 or letter A
rioua sorts, and greatly increasing tbe amount the first sheet or " signature," and upon the 9th
of work he can do. The boxes are made with page for a qnarto, or 17th for on octavo, com-
movable bottoms, readily raised and lowered mencing another sheet, is set the figure 3 or
by a screw ; thus, though aniall, they can be letter B, and so on ; thus demgnating, for con-
made to hold type enough for a week'a work, venience in gathering, folding, and binding,
and are in effect olwaya flill until exhansted, the order of the aheeta i this figure or letter al-
The case for music typo is similar in form to ways appearing on the outside of the sheet
the ordinary case. The difierence consists when it is folded in pages. The pages as they
wmply in the subdivision of the larger boxes, are removed from the galleys, secured by
required bj* the greater number of music signs, twine bound around the types, are imposed,
The various fonts of mnsio type, named from* *. «., set in the order for printing, upon a mor-
the size of the letter, are minion, minlonette, ble or iron slab colled the imposing stone — 1
nonpareil, agate, pearl, diamond, sM exceMor, pages together for a folio, 8 for a qnarto, 16
These differ slightly in the number of charoo- for an octavo, E4 for a duodecimo, &c. (before
ters in a font, bnt uanally contjun over 200 the introduction of the steam press, half these
separate signs. The lower case is occupied with numbers, aa indicated by the designations).
the white and black notes, the lines (varying The impressions of these pages are to be taken
u,9,-„zoQ by Google
PRINTING 689
tf^ather upon ons Bide of the sheet of paper, inolading the heading oTer the top and the
A strong iron frtune called a chase (Ft. eh^Mt, lioe of quadrats at the bottom, and these are
a case, or ehAttii, a frame), with oroas bare di- multiplied by the nomher of ema in a line ;
Tiding it into qnutera, is uien placed down so then, the number of pages beii^ ^ven, the
as to enclose uie pages, which are seonred in whole amount is readilj determined. Blank
their proper positions bj what is termed fomi- spaces in the page are paid for as fUl. Tables
tnre, ooiuisting of stripH of wood or metal and extra work occasioned by words in foreign
lower than the tjpea. One tapering strip is languages and other unnanal styles of printing
placed along the onter side and one along the involve extra pay. In newspaper and job work
bottom of each quarter, called side and foot tiie amonnt of oomposltiou ia fbond by multi-
■ticka, and by amall blocks called quoins (Fr. plying the whole number of lines set, meaanred
coin, a wedge) driven with a mallet and "shoot- by a gauge on the type or a proof, by the num-
ing stick" (a tapering pieoe of rery hard wood ber of ems in a line. In English printing of-
or iron) between these and the chase the pages floes the reckoning la by letters or ens (n),
Are firmly held In their place. This is called making the thousand one half thatof American
locking, and the whole ia a " form." For news- print«rs. The time of the compositor ia dl-
papers and other publications on large single vided between the oomposinp or setting, which
sheets the forms are used in pairs, one for each takes abont two thirds of it, and making up
side of the sheet, that having the first page and imposing (which however in Americaa
being called the outer, and the other the inner ; offices are now nsnally made a separate branch
but in nearly all book work each form is now of work), correcting, and distributing. The
made complete in itself called a half aheet tmpo- types after the copies required have been struck
sition, and the sheeU of paper, when the whole offare washed in the forms with lye and rinsed
edition has been printed on one side, are tamed with water till the latter runs off clear. They
end for end and printed on the other from the are then as required returned to their boxes,
same type, and afterward cat in two. The ar- for which porposo the compositor wets them
rangement of the pages for a quarto may he with a sponge so that they shall adhere togeth-
•eea by spreading out one of the doable news- er, then places a quantity in hb left hand sup-
pliers of the day of 8 pages. One side, it will ported by his composing mle, with the nictts
be observed, comprises the let, Sth, 4th, and upward and the face toward him, takes a few
6th pages, belonginf^ to the onter form, and the letters between the fingers and thumb of hia
other side the remaioing pages. As the nam- right hand, and, seeing by a glance what they
ber of pages to a form increases in ootavos, are, drops them with great rapidity into theu"
daodeoimos, &c. (sometimes, for miniatnre vol- proper boxes. If this is not done with accu-
nmea, as many as 1S8), the arrangement be- racy, hesufOirs toss by the time spent in oorrect-
oomM more complicated. A flr«t proof is ing the errors that will consequently appear
taken from the types commonly before they in the next matter set np. In a day's work
are made into pages ; for which purpose they of 10 hours a good eompofdtor will set, cor-
are temporarily secured on the galley, and being rect, and ^atribnte 6,000 ems or 12,000 letters,
inked, a sheet of paper is Idd on and pressed — 1)fpe Setting ani DwtHhuting Maehiatt. A
down by a hand roller. Thin proof is examined variety of machines have been contrived for
by the proof reader, and the errors being setting type and others for distributing; and a
marked after the plan indicated in the article few among them have been put in saocessM
CoKBZonox OF TOE Pbess, the compositor picks practice. Those best known are the invention
out the types that are to be removed and in- of T£r, William H. lOtchel, of New York. Of his
serta others as required. After being made up type setting or composing machines 10 have for
into pages other proo& are taken to he read some time been kept in operation in the print-
by the author or other readers, and the correc- ing house employed upon this oydoptadia, and
tions are iutrodnced by unlocking, t. 0., loos< also a number of the distrlbulang machines. The
ening the quoins, HO that some types may be former were the first invented, and the latter
taken out and others set in. It ia obvious that were especially designed to meet their require-
the work of the oompontor may be greatly in- ment in supplying tiie types regularly ranged
creased by inattention on the part of the cor- in ranks, eacn letter by itself. 'Die type setter
rector tosnbetitating the same quantity of mat- is a machine m ^pe like a harpsichord piano,
ter for that removed. To take out or add a It ia foruished with 84 keys, each one of which
portion of a line may involve the respacing of is marked with a small letter, pointjOr space.
many lines, and a more considerable change in One capital, I, has also its key. The other
the qnantity may reqaire a new adjustment of cwitals and special types are arran^d in the
all the succoedlog pages that are made np. The cells of a small case hack of the keys; and
ba^ on which compositors in American print- as one of them is wanted it is taken by the
ing offices are paid for their work ia the esti- <nierator and dropped into the month of a
mated number of " ems" or squares (compris- slido by which it is carried on till it takes its
ing aboat % letters each) he has set, the price plaoe among the others. The types which
being so much per thousand. In this estimate, oonoeot with the keys are piled np on their
in book work, so many lines are allowed ibr a ddee in regular lines on brass shdes of which
page as the types would make in solid printing, me edge is turned op, and these elides are
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
590 FRonriNa
nnged ataoaa the mMhino flta&dlng neflrlf pollej of ihe thtiOng, and ther are tended hy
Terticsll J. Aa & ke; is strack with tbt flngor D07B or girls who hare had no experience as
the type at the bottom of the pile is pushed ODt ootDpoaitore. — Stereotype Jointing. The l^pes
edgewise, and falls lengthwiae npon a narrow being distributed aflbr the required number of
endless tape, which instantl j euries it onward itnpreseions have been taken, if at any time more
back from the operator. There are S4 of these oopiea are called for, the whole must be again
tapes parallel to each other oonstantlrrerolring set upjproofs corrected, &c. In the case of mat-
at the same rate; tboee on the right hand aide tor difficnlt of correction, and in which slight
of the operator are rery abort, bnt toward the errors might aeriondj' affect tiie ralnc of the
left there is a constant inia«aM in their length work, aa in mathematical tablea, and also in
up to S feet of cariTing anrfMe. As each of boolcs like Bibles and paeim books for which
than pa§aea round the little brass roller and the demand was conitaDt, it was long ago found
'nnder the table, the tjpe it carries is tipped expedient to retain the forms for lepeated nse.
off upon a receiving tape, the revolntion of Bnt this involved a lai^ ontlay for type, and
which ia obtiqneW aoross the line of all the the forms were not secure fma accidents that
others and toward &e left. The movement is might involve reeetting portions of the matter,
•o arranged, and the distances travelled by the Early in the 18th oaitnir Van der Hey, in Ley-
different types are so proi>orti(»ied, that these den, invented a method of forming the types
mast lie along the receiving tape In jnst the into solid plates by solderin'g their lower esda
order the keys were struck. The receiving together, and wim these he printed eeveral
tape at the end of its circuit discharges them thonsand Dutch Bibles. Thb method, how-
one by one upon the periphery of a narrotr ever, did not release the types for other ubcs.
wheel, which as it revolves leaves them in a The merit of inventing the unproved process of
standing pofdtton and correctly set npon a long stereotyping, by whi<£ the types are lib^tcd,
brass slide. With each type added the row is is claimed by the En^ish for William Ged of
pushed along by the wheel the tMokness of the Edinbnrgh, who is saM to have snggeeted it in
type; and wh«i the slide b Ml, it is placed 17S6, and afterward introdnced it to some ei-
upon a receiving stand eontaining 10 ceils, and tent. Be biled, howev^, in establishing ita
drawn ftom beneath the type. The slide is nse against the opposititai of the type fonnders,
then replaoed upon the machine. From the and its tme nature was not made public. H.
receiving stands the types are removed as may Firmin Didot adopted or rdnvented the process
be convenient, and made up Into lines and of Van der Mey, and by means of it m 179S
pages. By the use of these tnachines a consid- preserved free fr^ error the valuable logarlth-
wable economy is experienced in the expense mio and other tables of Catlet. Bat, not setis-
of setting. — The distiionting machines are need fied with the method, he invented another, to
in connection with the c<miporing machines, which he ^ave the name of stereotyping (Gr.
The types employed are specially prepared by anptot, solid, and tvwos, type), which hasdnce
means of nicks differently placed on each let- been applied to various other methods of ef-
ter, bnt always on the upper or opposite side fecting the same object He made short types
to that nicked in all types for de^gnating the of harder composition than usual by adding
foot of the letter. The types to be distribnted copper to the alloy, and the page composed of
are ranged in a single Ihie in a long channel these was so arranged in a machine that it
npon the top of the machine, and by a weight could be suddenly struck upon a perfectly
suspended over a pulley they are pushed along smooth sheet of soft lead, and impart to It &
this channel as required. At the end one at a correct impression. Beveral matrices in lead
time is pnshed to one side, and drops into an might thus be obtained, and from earh of them
opeif slot on the onter sor&oe of a revolving a rererse impression could be restored in type
cylinder. In tills slot it hangs suspended Just metal. This was done by striking the lead
ao low as the nicks admit, and the lower end sheet a|>on the surface of type metal as a plate
prqjeote below the edge of tiie cylinder a cor- of this in a mould was in the act of becoming
responding distance, whieh isdifferent fbr each solid in cooling after fusion. These served to
letter. As the cylinder moves round the types print from, and could be retained for use st any
are carried on, and each in its torn, when op- time, while the original types were free for
eisite the oompartment to which it belongs, ia other uses. This plan was not altogether ^al-
t upon its lower end by a littie projection upon isfactory, special types being required, and the
the fixed part of the machine, which throws it impressions often being defective, and Kmited
out of ita place, and causes it to fall down and be to small forms. A better method was perfect-
received m a standing position upon one of the ed through the exertions of Earl Stanhcqie, and
slides diverging horizontally like radii from the has been very generally employed. A plaster
revolving cylinder in the centre. The rows of cast is obtained, with very particular care, of
type as fast as they accumulate, one row in each the page set up with ordinary type, except that
slide, are pushed along by little levers kept in the quadrats and spaccsare of the same height
constant action under the cylinder ; and when- with the body of the letter types. The cast
ever a slide is full it is ready to be transftrred being reoioved is exposed for two hours in an
to the composing machine. Each of these ma- oven heated to full 400° F. It is then placed
chines Is kept in operation by a belt from a fsce down in an iron box or casting pot, the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FBIHTIHfi Ml
ooTOT of wMoh is fiimlf seonied, and the wbol« other aheets and eoatioga of the eompodtion,
EradaaUy immened in the mdted tdloj, the until a monldiog elteet g^ of an inch thick is
box having been preTiooBlf brought to the obtaiaed. The form of type, bmelted clean oa
temperature of the floid metal. The bUot both sides, being laid upon an iron table and
flowing in works nnder the plaster monlu, sligbtlj oiled on the &ae, the moulding sheet
raisiog it and a floating plate upon whioh it is applied to it and beaten with a stifi* compact
rosts against the cover. When taken out the brush nntU it is well set around the shoulders
pot 13 set with the bottom in water to cool be- of the type and assumes an embossed appear-
fore the up^ snrface of the alloy, while more anee. Woollen cloths are then laid over the
or the liquid alloy is ponred into the top to matrix and form, and the whole placed on a
keep np snfficicnt presanra agunst the plaster, steam table nnder a platen, which is tightlf
The cooling oompleted, the plaster mould ia screwed down in order to impart to the ma-
tsken ont and broken np, and the plate is prop- trix a perfect impress from the face of the
erly dressed by planing the back and edges, ijpe, and at the same time to expel the moist-
Its thickness ia oa\j aboot i of an ioob, and it ore from the matrix into the blankets bf
has therefore in printing to be hacked with a the heat of steam let hito the hollow table,
wooden block to make its surface level with a This process occupies but a few minutes, whea
page of ordinitrjtjpe. But it is of convenient the matrix, now as pliable as Bristol board, is
shape for storing away, or for transporting to removed and placed in the mould. This is of
disUtnt places to be there osed for multiplying iron, made concave with a curve conforming
copies. It is in this form that, without reoom- to that of the cylinder upon which the plate ia
po^ng and without risk of alterations^ the to be printed, with a corresponding convex
same work mn* be reproduced almost suunl- cover, and nnder ttiis an iron frame going
taneoQsIy in New York, London, Paris, &c. round the margin of the matrix to secure it in
Wood onts mav be cheaply multiplied by this proper shape in its place. When it is made
as well as by the electrotype process of stereo- ready the mould is set on one end and the
typing, an account of which, as ^t^lied to the liquid metal ponred from a ladle through an
stereotyping of this work, is given m Ei^xctbo- onflce in the other end. As soon as possible
Uetali-uhqy, vol. vii. p. 10. An improvement the plate is taken out, cooled and hardened in
introduced in this since that account was pre- a tank of water, and its sprne end cut oS' by a
paredis worthy of mention. A first coating of circnlarsawdriven by steam. It ia then placed
copper ia precipitated upon the powdered plum- in a planing machine, ihce down, protected by
biigo with whioh the surface of the tjvea is a sheet of pasteboard, and the ritw which are
«>vered,bytbeapplicatioQofawashofanlphate cast on the back planed noooth and even.
of copper, and the immediate sprinkling over With these ribs the plate is exactly equal ia
this of^ fine iron fllinge or iron dust. A film thiolcness to the height of type, and weighs
of copper is thus at once produced, and the aiwut 66 lbs. The " New Tork Herald " uses
plate being then placed in tike battery the de- a much thinner plate, wiUiont ribs. It Is now
posit of the required thioknesa b much more taken to a t«ble, where it is finished by trim-
quickly obtained. — Though the electrotype pro- mjng the edges with a hand plane, and cut*
eesa ia the most beautiful and perfect meUtod ting out with a chisel any portions of metal in
of stereotyping, it is not found so oonvenient the open spaces which are so high as to be
la practice for the rapid production of large likely to black the paper in printing. The
works, such as newspapers; aud the use of average time consomed in stereotyping the
plaster of Paris has proved too troublesome for forms of the "Tribune" is from 80 to 85 min-
this new application of the art Stereotyping ntes; and its forms have been ready for the
of large daily papers, though the plates are press in 20 minutes from the time the lastpsge
used bat one day, and are then oonsigned to the was ^ven to the stereotyper. A set of lAe
melting pot, is found to be of great economy by plates secured to the printing cylinders an-
saving the types from wear in the press, and svers perfectly well for an edition of more
returning them to the cases as soon as a single than 200,000 copies. The same method of
cast is obtained from the forms, Avery la- stereotyping is also in use to some extent in
geniona and nest method of quickly obtain- New York for small articles of press work.—
ing this cast (devised in France), called the Some of the suhjects connected with printing
paper process, has l>een of late applied to have ahready been treated under other heads,
printing the London "Times," and has also Thus the composition of printers' ink is given
been introduced into New York, where it was under Ikk; printiug from engraved plates ia
first employed in 18S1 for the " Tribune" news- noticed in tiie articles Ekobaviko and IjtHoe-
paper. The forms are prepared in ordinary baphy ; and the processes of calico print-
type, each containing one page of the p^wr. ing and auaatatio printing under their own
While they are ]>eing made up the stereotyper heads. The nature of the printing employed
pre[>area the material for the matrices. For for the blind is noticed under Buhd. — Nalvrt
this purpose a sheet of paper of the proper size Printing. Tboartof reproducing upon paper,
is laui upon a table, and with a brush covered by the process so called, the exact figures
with an adhesive compoution, on which tissue of portions of plapts and other objects, has
paper is laid ; to this are added succesuvely wiuiin a few years been brought to great
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
son PEmTora
perfection in Europe, espeoially in the imperial freed from the fr'Bgnienta of the more delicate
printiDg establiBhrneot at Vienna. That troe ol^eotg. An dectrotype wbb then token in
pictorial Tepresent»tioDa of flowera, learea, copper, which, exceptm^ the colors, was a
Ac, might De obtained by irapressions upon perfect facsimile of Uie orinnal- To present
paper for botanical studies, was snggeBted ia the colora, these were sppliM to the plate and
the " Book of Art" of Alexia Pedemonta- printed off all at one impressioii, care being
nns OS for back as I6TS; and in the next ceu' taken in laying them on to go firet over all the
tary copies representing the stroctnre of parts that abonld receive the darkest shade,
leaves, &c., were made bj pressing dried plants and then to apply the next lighter color, and
coated with lamp smoke between two pieces so on. The plate is then placed npon a cop-
of paper. The botanist Hessel, as atatad by perplate press, the npper roller of which is
IJnnnaa in bis JPhilotophia Botaniea, obtained covered with S or 6 layers of finely woven
in America fignres of plants by impression ill blanket etnff. These operations were aaccess-
1707 ; and at a inter period (ITaS-'fiT) a print- fnlly prosecuted by Andreas Womng in the
Ing establishment at ErAuii was employed in imperial printing office, and in 1SG8 the resnlts
bringing out the great work of Prof, Kniphof, were presented to the public in S large folio
Berharivm Vivutn, in 13 folio Tolomes, with Tolnmes, eontmninK 600 plates, with a quarto
1,2CK) illustrations produced by this process, volume of text and more plates, entitled fXy-
printer'a ink being substituted for lampblack, tiotypia Flantarvm Avttriaearum. Beside
The impressions were then first colored, also prints of plants are others of agates, fossils,
In imitation of nature. Other works of simi- lace, wood, and other objects. Copies of the
lar character were occasionally produced after work were presented by the Austrian govem-
ihis in Germany and Trance. In 1888 Peter ment to various public institutions, and among
Syhl, a goldsmith and engraver at Copenhagen, others to several librariea in the United Btatee.
made known a curious method be bad em- A work of similar character was printed in
ployed of ornamenting silver plate with copies London in 185S, entitled " The Feme of Great
of natural objects, obtaining tne forms by im- Britain and Ireland," by Thomas Moore, edited
pressing these objects upon the metal bymeans by Dr. Lindley, and the mechanical executioa
of two steel rollers ; and at the exhibition of by Ifr. Henry Bradbury. The art has been
industry held at Charlottenbnrg in May, 1888, perfected by the increased skill in coloring the
he produced a number of beautiAiI specimens plates and by the deposition of nickel on the
of this work. He prepared an account of the surface of the electrotype plate, the effect of
process, and illustratea it with printed copies which is to increase its hardncN and durability.
of leaves, feathers, lace, and other fabrics, the The impressions now obtrfned are so perfect,
scales of fishes, and aenient akins. He eiperi< that except by close inspection it is not readily
mented with plates of copper, zinc, tin, and perceived by the eye, even when aided by the
lead. With the last the impressions were ad' toacb, that the objects are not real instead of
mirable, but tlie metal was not suitable to copies. — Printing Prt»a, The only machine
print from, as it soon became obscured by the absolutely necessary for printers is the hand
printers' ink. In 18S1 Dr. Branson of Shef- press, invented about 1460. A specimen of
field, in a pa^er read before the society of arts, these mde, unwieldy machines, is the press
announced bia having experimented with the nsed by B^amin Franklin, now in the patent
electrotype process for producing plates of a office at "Waahington. The (tame is a table or
harder surface. He alao had obtained in gntta bench some S feet wide and 6 feet long. On
percha impressions of parts of plants, and, each sideof this table, at adistanceofabontlS
using the gutta percha as a mould, had repro- inches, there is avertical post strongly fastened.
duc^ the flgnres in brass. Prof. Leydolt, of The two posts are united at the top by a cross
the imperial polytechnic institnte at Vienna, beam, and throogh thb beam plays a heav;
as early as 1849 had directed his attention to wooden screw, llie screw moves a platen at-
the production by similar means of correct tached to its lower end and free to slide np
copies of the polished surfaces of agates and and down between the posts. The under anr-
various fossil remains. The agates, he found, lace of this platen, being intended to press the
when etched with fluoric acid, were acted upon paper against the types, ie carefully planed.
by the acid unequally upon the different lines, The pitch of the screw is auch that a quarter
and tlie surface being then inked, a futhful im- ' of a turn raises the platen snfficiently. The
presaion of the lines could be taken. Bat he screw is turned by meons of a long bar enter-
perfected the process by taking the impresaion ing the head of the screw, or by means of a
in a plastic composition and eleotrotypmg this, hand lever having its fulcrum on one of the
thus obtaining Buitable plates for printmg from, posta, and bo arranged as to multiply the pres-
as in the electrotype applied to stereolrn>ing. sure which is applied to it by the pressman
In the same institution impressions were taken when the platen ia brought down. On each
in 1863 of lace on plalea of metal, and by the side of the table fh>m one end to the other are
Buggesiions of Haidiuger and Abbate portions rails, and on these rails is a carriage called the
of [Hants, polished sections of wood, &c., were bed. The bed is intended to receive the form of
copied by pressure upon plates of lead, which, type on its upper surface, and is in consequence
being afterward moderately heated, were earily inade of hard wood or of stone, and eifectly
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
^ased. Thtt bed ts nored fllternatoly from the soreir an obtrue-anf^ed Jointed leror, wo-
one end of the table, where it stands under dacinsaprogressiveljiucreafiingpreaanra. Tbo
tbe platen, to the other end, bj mecuia of a seoonS kaproTement was made about the same
■null azie placed oroeswiae nnder the benoh, tune b; O. Oljmer of Philadelphia, vho also
aad provided with a orank on tbe side where used iron and a oombination of levers ; his press
the pressman stands. Oq the end of Qiebed vasoalledtheOoliunbian. The third improve-
fnrtheet from the platonis hinged a qoaidranga- ment ia doe to V. Oaonal, a sine mennfaotorer
lai' frame of wooa or iron oafled the tTmpsn, of Paris, who, being applied to by a printer
and on the end of the tympan b hinged an- named Chegaray for a sabetitnte for the putrid
other frajne called the frisket The outer edge dog ekin balls, devised the gelatine rollers,
of the tympan ia solid; the inside is of cloth made of a mixture of molasses and (^ne, which
or parolunont doubled, with a woollen blanket are now universally used. With these im-
between. The frisket is a similar bnt more proTements, and the minor devioee which have
•tender frame, filled in with a piece of thick been tntrodooed since that time, it is now poa-
pwer, and ita otgeot is to hold the sheet to be lible to print by hand at the rate of S50 im-
printed against uie tympan. Tbeobjeot of the pressions an honr. — Toward the end of the
tympan is to oarry the sheet and to form a 18th oentnry it was already felt that the hand
■oft snrface between the paper and the platen, press wonld soon be mni^ too slow for tbe
■0 as to eqnalize the presaore. It also serves wants of the craft, and inventors began to
to re^ster ; that is, it carries marks or pins by devise presses to be moved by power. The
means of which it is easy to place the sheets first published invention in this department
always in the same poRtion, and thus have tbe ia that of William Nicholson, patented ia
margins all equal and the printing correspond England in 1190. The types were plaoed
oo both udes. The press is also provided with around a revolving horizontal cylinder, and
two oonnter weights, the one to ruse tbe plat- were inked by rolHng agunst another ^1-
en tbe moment &e pressman lets go tbe lever, inder rerolving In contact with the first llie
the other to turn back the aile and bring tbe ink waa distributed on the inking cylinder by
bed nnder the pre« to the end of the benoh means of several inkuig rollers, the last of
which is free. There ia aa inking table oon- which revolved near the ink fonnt^n. A third
listing of a fiat sariace, with two elaatio balls, large cylinder covered with felt, and revolving
one for each hand, about 8 inches in diameter, in contact with the first, produced the impres-
provided with a short handle and oovered with sion, which was thus made by rolling the sheets
dog slda, whioh was most effective when partly of paper between two cylmdera. Nicholson
rotten. A small quantity of ink was placed on f^ed in attaching tbe typee to the cylinder,
the inking table and spread in a thin layer, and gave up his plan ; but had he succeeded In
wbence it waa taken up evenly on the baUa by this particiuar he would have fonnd his inking
beating and rocking them on the table and arrangement entirely impracticable, the gela-
■gainst each other, and then applied to the tine rollers as yet not having been invented.
type in a similar manner, each lime an impres- Priedrich E6nig, a printer of fiuony, began to
■ton was to be taken. The manner of owng devise improvements in printing presses is
a hand press is as follows. The form is made 1604. Finding no help friun os|dta]!st8 on the
bat on the bed in the proper position, and the European contment, be went to London, where
^fpea are inked. The frisket is folded on the he succeeded in interesting Uessrs. T. Bentley
^inpan, and the tympan b folded on tbe bed, and B. Taylor in bu views. In 1811 he ob-
so that the fMsket is betweui the types and the tuned a potent for working an ordinary hand
tympan. The bed iabroof^t under tbe platen, press by power, bnt this f^ed in practice,
and this last b pressed down by pulling on the Meters. Donbin and Bacon, after ezperiinenting
lever. Then the pressman lets go the orank for several years, unoceedod in 181S in building
and tbe lever, when the counter weights will for Oambridge university a machine on Nichol-
TtXK the plat«n and bring the bed from under son's ' principle, but for the type cylinder waa
it. The pressman unfolds the tympan and tbe aubstitrited a qoadrangnlar sohd, on the 4 flat
frisket, and finds on the last an impression faces of which the types were placed, and
from the types. All the portions of the frisket we^ed tight, as on the table of uie ordinary
which have been printed upon are out away, band press. The inking rollers had a later^
and all is ready for printing, which is effected motion, so as to be always in contact with
aa just described, after placing the sheet to be the types, and the printing cylinder was in-
printed between the tympao and the friaket. dented lon^tudinally in 4 places to receive the
A band press ofthe kind aesoribed was gener- coroora of the type ouner, and was cam-
ally worked by two men, the one attending to shaped so as to press tbe paper against the
the inking, the other placing the paper and types. Thb machine waa found too oompli-
pnlling on the lever to make the imprcraon; cated in general, and tbe inkinj; arrangement
and they were able to produce 200 copies print- was nnsatis&ctory. ICeanwhile Mr. £Cnig,
ad on me side per honr. Tbe first improve- with tbe help of A. F. Baner, likewise a Qm-
meut on the hand press was made in England man, a native of Btatt^rt, and a machinist by
by Earl Stanhope, in 1816. It conssted in tnde, bad discovered that tbe w^ to make a
building the whole of iron, and eiUistitnting for preas with a flat bed work r^idly was to apply
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
tii« -pnatnae -with & TjyUnder imUtd of « flat overfa^ipiiig «aoh otbor. Thii maehina sbrwdc
Borfaoe ; he built a maohinQ Mcretl^, sad oa off 6,200 copies par hoof, attd voiced dail7 for
Nov. 28, 1614, "Tha Times" nevniaper of more than 10 yaan.—Wlule Qim ware pemct-
Londoa informed its readers that utef were iuxcylinder preasSB in England, laeao Adama
reading for the Sret time a sheet printed by of Boaton,Uaa8., took op the problem abandon-
steam. In this machine the form of types was ed bj Kumg of working a hand press bj power,
made to move harizontallj onder a printing andsnooeededin makingthemachinedescnbea
oyiinder; Use inkiiig ^maratos wsa placed in in his patents of 1880 and 1889. The platen Is
iroat of the printinx ojunder; the ink was in stationary; the bed, sitoated directly nuder
« long horizontal oylinder, and by maana of a the plat^ has an Qp and down motion of a
tight piston wasmadetodrop regularly through few mchea. bnt no horizontal motion. In front
small holes on the nnder part of the cylinder of the bed is a large inking roller revolving
between two iron rollers, from which it was constantly. The tympan has a horizontal mo-
diatributed by other rollers, having a rotary and tion, and carries a Bmall inking roller whicdi
alongitndin^ motion, to two larger rollers cot- is bronght at esch stroke in contact with the
«redinth leather, under whJoh Reform moved large inking roller, and rolls back over the
to be inked. Thia first press was farther im- types. The tympan is also provided with iron
proved by plaoiog a printing cylinder on each fingers which take hold of the edge of the
Kdeoftheinkingroller^thnagettingtwocopiea sheet to be printed, and carry it between the
for each change of motion of the form. The bed and the platen. The printed sheet is cor-
nnmberreaohedwaBljSOOimpi'essionBperhonr. ried away by tapes, between which the edge
Ur.EOnig soon after made a machine for print- of thepq>er is blown by means of a blower or
ing both sides, which was nothing more than an mr pump. The printed sheets are taken from
two presses combined in one, the paper being the tapes and pUed up by a fly, a sort of &rk
oarriedfromonetotheotherbyB-shapedtapes. made of light wood, and carried on a rocking
The inking arrangement of Kooig's machmea shaft. The prongs of the fork, which are as
wa8farfromperfect,Bometimeslodngtwohours long as the sheet is wide, enter between the
in getting stsLrted. Ur. Cowperin ISISpeteot- tapes, and, at the proper moment when the
ed a process for curving stereotype plates, and sheet is above them, rise suddenly, describing
fastening them on a cylinder ; but the most a half circle, and depositing the sheet on the
important part of his patent was the invention receiving table on the other side of the rocking
of the inking table. The cylinders were about shaft. Among the secondary devices in Ur.
5 feat in diameter, and only a small portion of Adams's ^ress, the most important is an arrsn^
>the periphery was covered by the stereotype ment for instantly disconnecting the rod which
;tlIateB,uie rest being used for distribating tne connects the bed with the main shaft, bypreM-
ink. F«r this purpose several distributing roll- ing down a pedal which is under the foot of
«n wflr« disposed over the type cylinder in a the feeder. Thus, if the feeder is not ready
frame movable on hinges, in such a manner as with tbe sheet, he presses the pedal, and the
to come snooeasively in contact with the types bed being disconnected remsins stationary, and
and with the part of the'cylioder of a smaller back printing is avoided. These preeses are
diameter used as a distribating table. The ink worked st three different velodties, and avei^
was carried from the fountain to tbe table by age 900 copies an hour. — The object of the in-
another set of inking rollers. A few of these venlors of power presses was speed, and for
maohines were built for and used «t the bank this reason several attempts were made to
of England, The next improvement was made carry the types on a cylinder, and tbos sabsti-
by Oowper, associated with Applegath ; it tute a oontinuona for an alternate motion of
consisted in applying the ^stributiog table to the bed. It was reserved for an American to
K flat bed press ; ipart of the bed supports the make (he first BncceBsftil type-revdving press,
types, and tbe other part aerves as the dis- Kichard M. Hoe of New York, after soma
tribonng table. These machines were perfectly costly nnsDCcessful attempts, succeeded inI84T
gaooasafm, and are nswused -all overthe world, in making a perfect machine, on the cylinder
Some have one cylinder and print one »de,and of which the types are held by friction between
some have two cylinders and print on both bevelled column rules. (See Eon, Richaxd
«des. The momentum of the moving bed is M.) In making this machine the inventor
overcome at each end of the stnAe «ither by availed himself of previous improvements from
metal qirings, or by on sir spring consisting of the time of Nicholson, namely, the gelatine
a piston attached to tbe frame enteriim a cyl- rollers, the distribating table, the fly, and all
inder attached to the moving plate. & 1838 &» improvements in the processes of working
ft &ster pMee wss boilt for the "Times" on metal and building machines in general. The
the same principle by Cowper and Applegath. lO-cyiioder presses, euch as are used in New
By reducing the size of the printing cylinder York and Lcmdonbytbe leading journals, strike
to 6 inclieB diameter, they succeeded in crowd- off 16,000 impressiona pet hour. They are
ing 4 into the same space previously ecoDpied only employed for newspapers of large eircnla*
by 2, thns prodooing twice as m«iy copies with lion. — The hand press most used in tiie United
the Qsn^ velocity. These printing cylinders States is called the 'Washington press; it is
werefedbymeansof t^es&omfeedingboards a Stanhope press very slightly modified hj
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
nOHTDra PRISIC 696
Bsmnel Bnrt of N^ew Yort who obtcdned a Blrahetm sod SamllHea In the opening jesn
patent in 1829. In England they use the im- of the reign of Qaeen Anne, and in ITU was
perisl and the Ooluntbian. In Qermsnj' and sent on a private mimon to Paris with proposals
France they have other appellatiODB for nearly of peace. The neKotiations b^an at Utrecht,
the same thing. Hand presses ne nsed in but proceeded bo elowly that Bolingbroke went
large offloea where very fine and perfect work to Paris as ambaMador to hast«n them ; and
ia wanted, or when very few impressions are Prior, who was in company with him, after
to be stmck ; and they are nsed in amall eatab- Bolin^broke's retom became the ambaasador,
lishments where a power press is not rettaired. bnt did not pnblicly assnma the title until the
The Adams press is nsed for fine printing; departnreof thednl;eof BhrewBbnry,who"re-
whila the cylinder press is employed for com- flued to be associated with a man so meanhr
mon book work, for jobs, and for newspapers bom." When, in Aug. 1714, the whigs had
of small dronlation. This machine is in great regained office, Prior was recalled, and had no
&vor with printers from the fact tlist it gives sooner returned than he was arrested on n
good impressions when worked slow, though it charge of treason. Tor two years he rem^ed
can be worked very &st and still produce a prisoner in his own house, and employed his
I^ble printing. — In the patent records of time in writing " Alma, or the Progress of the
Earopeand America will be fonnd descriptions Hind." Alterhis releasehahadnofixedmeans
of many presses which we have not mentioned, of sobsistence except his feUowdtip at Cam-
Some have been bnilt and used for a tune, and bridge, bnt he was rendered oomfortable for
some inolnde important devices which may be life by publishing his poems by sDhsoription,
of eerrice for fotnre Improvements. The press through which he reamed 4,000 gniness. Ho
nsad for taking impressions from engraved was buried in Westminster abbe^', and a mono-
plates oon^sts of two parallel rollers pressing ment was erected to his memory, fbr which h«'
the plate and the paper between tbem. The left ilCOO in his will. After his death a " Hia-
roUers are tnmed by cranks. Another kind tery of the Transaotions of hia Own limes"
of printing machine was invented in 18G8 by was published (S vols., 1740); bnt althongfa
Dr. S. W. Francis of New York for the nse Prior had been making preparatdon for gndh a
of the blind. It oonMsts of a key board, each work, there was little in it of hia.
key acting on a hammer on whioh a letter is PIUB0IANU6, a Roman grammarian, who
engraved. The letters are printed on two lived abont the latter half of the 6th oentnrj
movable sheets of paper, two copies being pro- A. D. From his surname OBsarienris it is snp-
dnced at once. posed that he was bom or ednoated at Onsa-
PRINTINa, Oiuoo. SeeOALioo. reo. He was a pupil of Theoctistna, and tanght
PRIOR, the snperior of a convent of monks, grammar at OonstanHnople. No other partien-
A claustral prior is one who governs under an lars of his life are known. His work on gram-
abbot, by whom he is removable at pleasure ; roar is entitled Comountariorvm Orammatiah
a oonveatual prior is one who has no officer mmLHriXVIII. It oontdns a large nnmber
over him, and bis convent is called a priory. of quotations from Greek and Latin writers not
PRIOR, Matthew^ an English poet, bom at otherwise known, and a parallel between ths
Wimbome-Minster, BorsetBuire, July 21, 1664, Greek and Latin lanKDSges. He also wrote a
died at Wimpole, a seat of Lord Oxford, Bept "Grammatical Oatechism on 13 Lines of th»
18,1731. He was ednoated at Westminster, un- j£neid;" a "Treatise on Accents;" one on
der Dr. Busby, and at St. John's college, 0am- "The Metres of Terence;" and some short
bridge, where he was graduated in 1686. Here poems, bende several translations from tJia
he formed an intimacy with Oharles Montague, Greek ; and tha aorostiea prefixed to the pl^s
afterward earl of Halifax, with whom be wrote of Plantus are ascribed to him. His name Is
"The Oiw Mouse and Country Mouse," in ridi- familiar in the phrase dtmintun Friteiani
cole of Dryden's "Hind and Panther." b eaput (to break Prisoian's head), oommonlf
lS9t, throagh the influence of the earl of Dor- ^)plied to those who use false Latin,
set, he was appointed secretary of the embassy PBIBM, in geometry, a solid bounded hj
at the Hagae, and so recommended himself to plane fbces, of which two that are opposite are
the favor of William III. that he made him one equal, similar, and parallel, and are called tha
of the gentlemen of his bedchamber. When bases of the prism ; the other sarfaces are
Queen Mary died in 16S5, Prior wrote an ode parallelogranis. The. axis is the line oonneot-
npon the event, and in 1697 was appointed sec- Ing the centres of the bases. The prism is
retary of the commissioners who conoladed tha triangnlar, square, pentagonal, and so on, ao-
treaty of Byswick. In the following year he cordug as the figure of the bases Is triangular,
was employed as secretary of the embassy at square, pentagonal, &c. It la right or oblique
tiie court of France. In 1B99 he was mode accordiag as the side* are perpendicular or ob*
nnder secretary of state, but losing hb place liqne to the bases. A right prism is regnlar
shortly after, received In 1700 the appointment when its bases have the figure of a regular
of commissioner of trade. In 1701 he was a polygon. The prism correroonds among bodies
member of parliament from East Qrinstead, with plane snrflaces to the cylinder among
and soon after ohanged his politics, becoming a bodies with onrve surfaces. — In ontica, a prism
violent tory. He celebrated the victories of is a portion of a refraotiiig meuum bounded
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Vr two plane Borfiuses Inclined to one another.' atrij OhrMbnf Tlrit«d the tnmatea t^ th«
"Ae line in wUoh these two Bnr&ces meet, or priaona, whoM oondition was often wratdted
would meet if prodaood, ia the edge of the enough, mJniateiln^ to th«T wants, and often
prism i their inclination ia called its refracting paring for the pnvilego of admission. At a
angle. The f<mn commonly used is a trian- later period tho/ratret miterieordia, a b^tevo-
gnUr prism of glaaa. A good contriTsnce for leot order of monka, made this one of their
Selioato exparimenta mar be made with two duties. — The loss of caste in its three degree^
reotangnlar pieoea of pliUe glaaa finnlj aet to namelr, of family poeitton and aothwity, of
fbnn two ridea of a triai^pilar box which is to oitizeiA^ip, and of liberty, either of which
be filled with water or spirits of turpentine, might be inflicted as a pTmidiment for crime,
The prism is an essential part of all apparatna obviated to a ^reat. extent &e necewi^ for
for deeomposLng light. fanprisonment, either temporary or permanm^
PRISOfT, a building nsed as a plaee of penal in the Roman empire. No sach subsdtate,
confinement and safe keeping. From the ear- however, wonld answer the pnrpoM of the
nest periods we find referenoca to the prison, feudal barons, who, on the dissolution of the
not as a place t^poniahment, but as a plaoe of western empire, became mlers over small dia-
onstod; and detention. Itia first mentioned in tricts of territory. They required strong casties
Oen, xzxix. 20, where Joseph's master is said to proteot their territory from thdr enwries,
to have " put him iato the prison, a place where and in the prindpal tower of tbeee, called the
the Ung's prisoners were bound." The Philis- dojgon (whence onr word dnngetm), they gen-
tines pnt Samson in prison, "and bound bim erfOl^ bnflt rooms for Utt eon&iemrait of Oiar
witii fetters of braes, and ha did grind in the captive foes or refractory retainers. Tbey did
prison honse." There is no evidenoe that the not attach the Idea of mmishmeot to this dnr-
Jews bad any prisons till the times of Ahab anoe; tliatwasinflictedoytoTtnrein-atarvation.
and Asa, and even then thor priaona were, These prisons were sotnrtimes cut ont of t^e
like those in most of the oriental countries solid rook, fitr below the snr&ce of the earth ;
firom that time to the present, strong rooms or and being dark, often damp, and with littia or
dungeons in the reaidenoes of high officers of no means of ventilation, it is astonishing that
state. The Greeks had a great repngnance to life could have been so long protraoted in them
prisons, and debtors to the state were the only as we know it sometimea waa. There waa one
peraons detained in them, except those await- class of Iheee dnngeons intended to destroy
ing trial. After the Bomana conqoered Greeoe life by the combined influence of starvation and
and the connbies a^aoent, the prison seems to sofibcation. They were small and bottle-shaped,
have beui sometimes used as a house of deten- with narrow months at top, and the prisoner
tion and temporary oonflnem«it, something was let down into them. They were called
like OUT police priaona ; >nch was probably the ouiliettei, or vade m pae« (go in peaoe^ The
case with the pristm at Philimd, whence Paul proridoia of Ibona Ckarta, proteetmg the
and Silas were rdeaaed by a nuraole. In Borne, aniseed; from impriaonment ouierwise than by
the most diligent antiquarian research baa been dne ooorse of law, were intended to prevent
able to discover but one inison, that now known arbitrary detenldon and cmelty ; and the prin-
ts the Hamertine caves, and snpposed to be dple^ onoe acknowledged, waa insisted npon
the same mentioned by eeverd olaodc writers in numerons subsequent eonceooons wrong
as the Tullian priaon. It ooaaists of two rooms from the earlier kings of England, and in Ao-
or vanlta, one 88 feet by ^ the other a semi- beat eorpv* acts passed by pariioment at a later
csrcie of 29 fbet radins. They were close and date. The object of these acts was to protect
not ventilabed, and life could have been pre- the accused tfom long detention before trial,
served in them but a short time. They were and the convict from neglect and cmdty while
mainly used for prisoners awaiting speedy eze- awiuting his sentence or eieontion. These
eution. Tradition asaerts that St Paul was objects, the latter especially, were not wholly
gaitttla, very numerona in Rome, which were tie dungeons, and the nnmerous abuses which
osed for the aafe keeping of slaves. The nsoal had arisen, the most atrodous cmelties were
mode of detaining a prisoner ibr trial was by practised, especially upon imprisoned debtors,
chaining him b^ the hand to one or two sol- as lata as the reign of George L, and had not
diers; and oonviots were banished to an island, wholly ceased till the reign of George IV. — The
or condenmed to the qoarriea or the mines, idea of anbstituting confinMnent in prison for
The Justinian code nukes bnt slight alhuion to corporal viol«ice dawned Tei7 slowly on the
prisons; its penal inflictions were tortures, mn- ndnds of legislators. Even Kr Edward Coke, in
tilation, or death. Oioero had said 6 centuries his " Oommentaries," declared that the prison
before; Gare«rit<m ad puituadoi, ttd ad eonti- was a place of safe custody, not a place of pno-
Ttendoi fuming habiii iUb«t ; and the J crista of iahment. The poor debtor, however, bad long
Che later Roman empire agreed with him. It found that to him it was a place often of most
was forbidden to imprison women or soldiers ; cruel ponishment, accompanied, when the mal-
Knd the prison was regarded as only of occa- ice or avarice of the keeper prompted, by tor-
siohal serrice, for temporary onatodj. The tnres so horrible as almost to surpasa beUaC
FBISON sn
_____„.. . - . eodetr, whkh, though In idvanoo of his tiiiiOi
Inqniry wu institntod Into uew sbosaa, ar« of generu appUoation, and well worth
wbioh led to the indiotment of two of th.9 qnoting. A prisoner, even if convicted of
Eiudpsl gwd keepers of London fbr mnrder. lerioiu crimes, ba oonoeived to be entitled to
th« latter part irf the ISth euttarj John pore air, wiiolesome aod sufficient food, pro-
Howard oommeDoed hla inveadgadoos into the tection &om cold, opportuniUes of ezercise,
oonditionoftheEngUahpriaoiis, the first leanita the privilege of labor, and the devotion of a
of which appeared in two acta at pariiameDt part of the proceeds of that labor to the eap-
pasaedinl778,oneabolisUngpris(mfeei(whiQh port of hisfamilr, if he has one. Societ7 haa
up to that ttme had been flzaided from tulpris- a right to demuid that the prisoner shall beee-
ODers), and the protracted oonflnouent of the aorelj confined, and that he fthall not be made
priaoner nntil these were paid; the other pro- worse either in body or character bj his in^
Tiding fbr an hnprovement ot the aanitarr oon- priaonment ; that ius btemperanoe or other
dition of gaols. In 1777 KHieared the first work evil habits shall be restruned; and thstedn-
of Howard on prisoEu^ " loo Btate of the Fris- calion and religious instmction shall be pro-
ODs in England and Wales." The woAs of Beo- vided for him. Ur. Boston's remonstranoea
caria on erlme and pnnidimant an>eared about were more immediately emotive than those
thesametimeonthecontlnentiiaid in England of Howard and hia coadjntora. The great
Sir William BladksCone, Ur. Bentham, and Mr. praitentuvy at Millhank, which holds 600 male
Eden entered npon the work of prison reform prisoners, waa commenced in 1819 ; and a oom-
'n earnest. It was fonnd that the moat hard- mittee waa ^tpointed in 1823 to revise the
eaed oriminsla, and those oonqiaratively inno- statntes oonoeming gaols and prisons in Eng-
eent, and indeed often witaenea and pCMona land and Wales. In 1836 an act wss pas *
fidsely aocQsed, were placed together without providing for inspectora of prisons to be
employment in a common room; that in some p<Hnted by the government; a law wht^
cases the two sexes were coined in the same has been of great benefit in opening the war
cells, and nanally the most depraved prosti- for improvements in prison managemeot ana
totes were permitted to assocute with girls ^sdpUne. The Parkhnrat prison for javenOe
hitherto ottMte; that the gaol keepers were o&nders was erected in 18S8. In 1843, aflw
permitted to sdl hqnors to the prisoners, and examination of prison ^fstems !a other conn-
<Aen for money pennitted the oommiaiion of tries, the Pentonville prison waa built as a
groaa crimes within the prison walls; that in model prison on the separate plsji. Qovem-
eonseqnenoe the prisonera oonfined ibr petty ment prisons have rinceheenureded at Fort
ofitaoea left the prison thoronghly educated land, Fortemonth, Dartmonth, Ohatham, and
In crime; that the prisoaa were badly venti- Brixton. The hnlka of men-of-war, laid np In
lated and verr filthy, and that gaol fever, a ordinary, were for a lime Tiied as prisons^ but
disease of terrible malignancy, ofban prevailed, have now been abandoned as every way ob-
caoaii^ at one session of the eonrt, known as jectionable. ScoUand, onoe nmch worse than
the "black assize," the death of 600 persona^ £n|^d in the abuses of her priaons and the
among them the Jndge, Jury, several of the laxity of their diedpUnck has smoe 1830 been
lawyera, and other officers of the oonrt: and thoroughly reformed. In Ireland there has
that dobtors often fell viottma to this fover, been much improvement in the prisons nnoe
and qiread it through the visits of their fsmi- 182S, though now there is more liberty al-
lies to other nwghborhoods. Attrntrnts were lowed to the priaoners than would be deemed
nude to T«nedy these evils, Ij bnildmg bet- oonaistent or desiraUe in other ooontriea. —
ter arranged gaols, whicli, by iadation of the Transportation, which is reoUy a species of
prisoners, ventilabon, and tborongh puriflcar imprisonment, is so intimately oonneoted with
tlon, shonld prevent anch disastrons results ; Uie history of prlaona and priatm diadpline in
bat the government was ooonj^ed with traaa- Great Brit^ that some aoooont of it is neoas-
portation schemes, and these projects fbQ sary to a fbll underMianding itf the snlgec^
throng Eariy in the present oM^ory Un, The first Instance of transportation of eonviota
Elizaheth Fry commeoeed her misaioa to tlte btaa Oreat Brit^ ooonired in 1619, when 100
femsle prisonera in Newgate; and in 1818 were ordered to be sent to Virginia, and after-
Mr. (afterward Bir T. F.) Buxton pnbliahed ward small numbers were oooasionally sent oat
an " Inoniry whether Orime and Misery are and sold to the planters for t or 14 years, a
prodaoed or prevented by the present System practioe oftaa alloded to by Defoe and other
<tf DlawpHne." From this work it appears writers ; bnt the bnsineaa was not conducted
tha^ notwithstanding Howard's eiposnres, system^ioallytill after die year 1718, when for
Mm. Fry's reveladons, and the developments a number of years as many as S,000 eonviota
made by the eommittes of aldermen of Lon- were annually transported thither. These
^n in 1815, the abuses of Howard's time still were sold to the settlers for a term of years,
eontinoed, and had in many particnlars in- and at the expiration of their time often be-
ereased, and that a radioed and tborongh came landed proprietors, and purchased the
change was needed. In the conclusion of his services of other eonviota. The war of the
" Inquiry," Mr. Bnxton Isid down OBrt«n prin- revolntion put an end to this trsffio, and thft
e^lea as to the rights of the prisoner and of Britdah govammoit was ocanpellsd to find «
tM
newoatletforftooonTlotpopnlatioB. Inins hooMS of vMst for tbow ftwaitins trul or
H WM ddtamined to Mt(d>Iuli a p«uJ vAaaj aeaUgtaa, sod Cor those impriaoBed for lem
In Australia, and the first oarKp, of 8fi0 oon- than a vear ; 8, Jndii^ priMma, for eaaca of
^ot«,wae sent oot in Hiroh, 1787, to Port Jack- aroaal from Hk lower oonrta, for thoee fan-
•m. near Bjdner. For some 7<nn Uiere iraa prisoned at the ^easnre of the oonrt, and other
nothing bat boaster eaoneoted vitb tbia trans- caaea airalting the Judgment of the ooart of
portatioo. The eonTiota, stowed in largenmn- assises; 4, honses of correction for javeitile
Wb on bwi^MTt shipe, died by hnn£eds of odtodera. and ehUdnn whoee ^arenta are con*
f^r on the pa«age oat ; or if thej arrired victed of orhne ; 6, ««itral pnaons, or honsea
thef were nnaUe to earn a enbsistence, and of detention and hard labor, answering to our
periihed of fiunfaie, or, to preserre life, adopted stato or convict prisons. There are SS of thew
the sa*ase liabtta of the native baeh rangers, last In all of them the contractor or polilio
At length the inflox of tno setters, the exten- agent ia allowed to keep a shop on the proo-
■ive sheep caltnre, and tlie building tip of iseo, and supply the prisoners with wliatew
large toirna, made their condition tolerable ; the^ wish ; and in the central priaons the pria-
while the grants of lands to the emanciplat^ oner has half bis eaminge to spend in tbiaidiop,
aa those who had served their time were while the other half is reeerved as a fimd to be
called, and tlie plan of allowing tickets of paidhimathiadischar^ ThepriaonorsiuAiiD-
leave, which in some cases shortened their frequently form aasooiationa in piiscm to carry
term of poniahment almost one hal^ soon on extensire robberies after thor release, and
gave to Hie convict settlers a powerful and for the money they reoeira at t^cdr disduirgA giTee
a tjme predominating inflnence in the colony, facilities for this. In 1848 labor waa aboUshed
which was exorted for evil. Thia led to the in all the prisons, on tho groond that it intei^
organization among the free aettlera of a party fared with the indos^ of honest oiUEOua ; it
opposed to transportation, wbiob eventnaily b»- waa reestablished in 1853, but the prodncts of
came so powerM that the home government the labor are pnrehaaed by tlio state for its
was oompelled to yield to their demands, and pnblio InstitationB. In 1868 trani^ortaliwL to
in 1840 tranaportarion to Soath Anatralia Goiana and I^mbeasa in Algeria iras ^tro-
oeased. It waa mmntalned on Yan Biemen'a dnoed, and Is stdll the princ^al pnoiahmeiA
Land till 1348, and in North and West Ana- of politjoal o&ndera. — In Qennany gcmmdly
tralta some time longer ; bnt, with the excep- the prisons are said to be well managed. Is
tion of 20O or 800 sent to western Aaatralla, FiWeda the management of all the prisona of
it has now been entirely abolished. Ita di»> the oomitry has been confided, unoe 1864^ to
oontinnanoe involved considerable lUffionlty at Dr. Wiohem, the fonnder of tho imw miaoioD,
home. The government was nuder tlie ne- and the rongh boose reformatory at Horn, who,
oesaity of materially shortening the sentenoea aa inapeotor-seneral, with fiill powcn, has im-
of those who were committed to piistm at proved the disdpUue, and placed over each a
home, instead of belni^ sent to Anstnlia; and warden or director, and subordinate officers
the introdnotion of a uoket of license s^tem, trained for the pnipoee, and selected with great
intended to wab^ over their oondnot dnring oantitHi and discnmination, in the belief that
tbe period which would have elapsed if they more depends npon the personal character and
hadbeen traniq»orted, produced a puilo in the adaptation to tbeirwork of thekeepera^prie-
English commnnity in 18ES and 1868. Of the ona than npon systems of discipline, forma of
oonviota, of whom there are somewhat more bnildings, and all other arrangements together,
than 6,000 In all, 8,800 or 8,400 are employed The resalta which have followed these <£angea
on the pnblio works at Fortamonth and Port- are sud to be in the highest degree aatiafiao-
land, and in the dockyards of Dartmouth and tory. — In the United States, the prison kaa
Chatham. The remainder are in the Fenton- been considered a place of punishment al-
viUe, Brixton, and other prisona. — ^In France, most from the first settlement ; and thongli
prisons were not rec<%nized as places of ^mUsb- mntJlation, branding, and oorporid pnniahmenta
ment until after the revolution. Previons to prevailed in the early history of the country as
that time, the galleys, the wheel, uid the chain pmalties for some Crimea, and still find a place
gang had been the principal modes of punish- on the atatnte book of some atatos, tbey ore
ment. The prisona were aa badly managed now aeldom inflicted. The convict prisona
and aa obje^onable in their oonstraction as were in a horrible cosditioa prior to the revo-
those of &ieland until after the restoration. Intdon; bntsinoelTStfreformshavebeea gmng
Before thia ibey had been of three kinds, the on in the larger Mates, and most of the etate
royal prisons, the prisons of the nobles, and prisons wonU compare fiivorably, probaUy,
the ofncial prisons ; and the greater port of with those of most other countries, ioon^ in
tbera were castle dungeons. Within the last some of them cruel ponishmeota are yet re-
£5 years many new prisons have been built, sorted to, and too little diacriminaticm ia used
and improvements have been made, bnt there in the appointment of wardena and keeper*,
ia atill freedom of interconrae between prison- The larger tuties have nsoally penitentiaries for
era in moat of them, and no labor except for the pnidahment of ofiendera aentenoed by Uie
oonviota. The prisons of the country are now mnnioipal ooorts, as well as honses of detention,
divided into A olassee, via.: 1, police prisons ; 9, or polioe prisons, to which those awaiting trial
U.gmzoQbyGOO^Ie
«r Mntraee tm Mmndtted. tham are mn- mont, was tii*MKtai7sriK»,tnt tried in th»
cndlf well oonatnotod. The gaota er«ctM bj prison oonnMted with Uie hoqdtal: of San )B-
the ooondes are In many instaaceB badly con* ohele at Rome in 1708, bvt little known priw
stnuted, li^Jodioioadj iitnated, and in charge to the exp«rioient in the Wahmt street prison
of onfit keetwra. The efforts of the New York at Philadelphia in 178S. The pecoliarities of
prison assodataon, the late Boston prison ^s- thia sTstem wer« the oomplet» isolation of tb»
dpHne societj, uid the Philadelphia aooietj prisoner from ^ human society, and hiaoonfiufr-
for aUeviating the miseries of pnblio prisona, ment in a cell of oonmderable rise, bo arranged
and their reports of the condition of toe pria- that he had no direet interoonrse with or mght
one and gaols thronghont the atatea, havo been of any homan being, and no employroent or
prodaotive of much good in the diffludon of Instraotion. The qniet and order whidt were
eorrect notJons on the cosatmotiiai and man- sabstitnted for the disorder of the preTiona
agement of these institnttons ; and where new want of system, eonuuended it at first to the
priamu are ereotad, &ey are generally eon- pnblio mind ; and other prisons on the same
stmoted en better models. — When, in the latter plan, but less liberal in Uie size of their oella
part of the last eentnry, impriaonment came to and the perfootion of their appliances, wera
Be r^gardeA as in ttsMf a pnnishment, and as erected in Maaaadrasetts, New Jersey, Mary-
anch entitled to take the place of the crneltiea land, and some of the other states ; and in
and indignities which had previoDslT been in- aome instaucea, where it was not adopted tow
fiieted upon the person, the qaestion of the all the prisoners, cells on this plan were eon-
best plan of organization and disciplioe for snoh atmoted for the worat criminals. Bnt «xp»n-
institiitiona at once became one of great impor- ence soon demonstrated that there were wtj
tanee. Hen like Beooaria, Howard, Bkck- serioasottjeolionstoil; Acontfderablennmber
stone, Bentham, and Eden, at onoe pereeired of the prisoners fell, after even a short oonflne-
that the oongregation of a nmnber of prisoners ment, into a eemi-&taons condition, from which
in the same room, by day and by night, with it wasnezttoimpoanbletoronsethem; otheia
no restraint apon their interoonrse with each became Titdently insane ; others stUl oommit-
otiier, and no employment, took away tcom ted snfadde ; wlule those who stood the ord«Mli
thevicionsmnchcf the terrorof imprisonment, better were not generally reformed, and in
eomtpted the Inexperienced and oomparatiTcly most oases did not recover safflcuent mental
innocent, affiirded opportnnity for edncalioa activity to be of any snbeeqnent lerrioe to th»
and oomlnnation in crime, and, instead of re- oonunnnity. The great cost ot jndsons ooib-
forming the offender, tnmed him loose npon atmoted on diis principle was ano&erolijeotion
aoeiety at the expiration of his sentence a ten- to It ; ai^ the prisoners bdng entirely nnenb-
fold grester villain than when he entered the ployed, th« whole charge of their maintenanoe
prison. While these evils were acknowledged, oame npon the state. It became evident that
the most effeotnal remedy for them was not so some cnanges must be made in the system,
easily devised. Varions plans for the conatrao- The " separate" system was ori^nated by th«
tion and management of prisons were proposed, Philadelphia sodety for amelioratiiig the mis-
hot all, though containing many excellent fba- eries of pnblio prisons, fonnded in 17S7. R«-
tnrea, were liable to serions objactiona. Ur. taining tne plan of oontinnona oellolar conflne-
Beatbam published in 1790 a plan of what he ment, it pennits the prisoner to work in hia
called a pam^tlc prison, in wnich every pris- cell, in some instances even enoonraging him,
oner was to be oonflned ia a separate cell, and by reward for overwork ; fiuniahea aim witb
eaeh cell waa so arranged as to be nnder the books, both for reading and stndy, and pennitai
ooastant inspection, night and day, of gaards in him to reodve instmction in his cell, orj as in
a central tower. Thb in ita practical working PentonviUe, England, in a general school' room,,
was fband to be a fUlnre, uid its ingenious an- where however he is not pennitted to see,,
thor himself^ we believe, admitted it to be so. thoogh he may hear, his olassmates ; provideo,.
Howard snggested some improvements in con- nnder dmilar reatriotiDn', for his attendance-
stmt^on, which, thoiwh a material adTsnoe npon a prison ob^el, or at least allows the
npon the prisons of lus day, have proved defeo- ch^lain to preach m the corridor, so that all
tive in some partionlars. One of the worst can hear at the same time ; in some instances-
errors in his plans was the provision for lodg- gives him a little garden to cultivate, andtims-
lag three prisoners in one cell. To devise the snpply himself with some Inxnries;; permits,
bnt plan fbr accomplishing the objects desired the vidtsi of the officers, chapidn, &o^ to his.
in imprisonment, safb keei^ng^ moderal« ex- oell,aiidtosomeextentof otherpeople^^allowa.
pease, determent ftom crime, nudnt«nanoe of him to correspond nnder snpervidon with his
nealth,andthereformationandmoralandintd- friends; and, at PentonviUe and some other
lectoal Improvement of the prisoners, has been prisona of the class, provides snoh comforts and
a nutter of earnest stndy and investigation on appliances in hia cell as make it in itself more
the part of many philantltropie and tatelligent comfort^Ia even than the deeping rooms ot
men, both In Europe and America, for the persons at the middle classes generally. The
last 40 years. The first plan adoi^ed, when advantages of this mtem are represented to
public attention was called to the evila of ccn< be, that it indiridnalues the con^ct, and pre-
gregating prisoners in mawes without employ- nwdBiilB recognition. bfqtherpriaoQerswbfi>a«)'
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
ooafiiiedvlthUm,aiidwboaft«rUadiMlMrg« w9hMntamayiMetQttA,tovi«tmtOuiia^
iiiigbtatUaipttoooiaiwlfaimtoTioioucDtirMt terooona between prisoMn whioh expMienfl*
t^th«irknovle^of&isproTioiisdisgnM)e;tliat hu shown to be bo nradnottr* of erlL It at-
U rendav a large force of goardf nnnai^nmry, tempts to oooomididt this b; M^tary ooi>fin»-
•uioeoombiuatioiuandoonniira«eeBreimpo»- meat in celle at night, and b7 Btiiodj tafoveed
nble ; that it alto prereots bis degradatioa by aileiioe during the iaj ia toe woA^iofw ot in
those severe peracmal liuiignltlM whioh are re- the ohapel. Ihej are pennitted, bowovm-, to
garded as indiapensable in MHigrcigated prisons; address necessa^ inqniries to their instoneton
and that It gives him more opportonit^ for in- in the abopa, and to the wardens and ktifm,
strnotion and refbrmatiou, to which end the to OMiTeree with the eh^tlain, and to partia-
good infloenoes to which he is suluected are pate in the cMroisee of the Sabbath sehool, and
snpposed to coDtribote. Under this srstem, In sioging in poblio worship^ The adnntages
the general bealth of the prisoaera is very good, of thispUn ver&smnchleK wstof ooostra^
and the mortality ig less than in most con- tion, as the oeUs. haying erateddofHa, and bsing
gregated prisons. Insanitj is not, according onlj' nsed aa lodging and Simday rooms, conU
to tbe Btatistioa of the past few yean, any be mni^ smaller; greatw efficiency sod pn>-
more prevalent among those confined in these dnctivenese in labOT, the reanlt (tf working to>
prisons than among tuosain ooogregated pria- gether, in msig oases rendwing the priaonsdfr
OQB, and perhaps not quite asmaohso in this sappoHJng, or even profltabletotlie state; an^
oonntzy. The first cost of constructim, how- it is stated in soDW imson^ a better physkal
ever, is even higher than in the solitary sya- and mental eondition of the men on their dia-
tom, and the labor, tboogb serving to oocapy charge. It b also nrged, tfaoo^ hardly do-
themindof the prisoner, and defr^ing part of monstratod, that nnder this system mor^and
the cost of his subsistence, is still nnproGtable, religious instraction can be mere efibotoally
nowhere covering expenses. In Pentonville, conveyed. Ibisoltiectedtoit,tliatthepiiBraMra
in 1840, the average cost of supporting prisoners know each <rtlier, and find mens of cmnmn-
(indoding all expenses) is stated by Mr. Dizim nioating with each other ; that tbereare cata^-
at tSSO, while the earnings were lesethan $18. onently frequent oatl»«^a, whidi ar» inqws-
The Pennsylvania prisons do much I>etter thsn ttUe under the other systems; that tbe priaoner
Uiis, bat are still o<»idacted at a heavy loss, is more at the meray and caprice of lus keeper
'While the prisoners are obedientsnd docile^ Hianin Uieotbernrstraaa; aadthattbareBalt^
qniet and well beluTed, they lose to some ex- so &r as esctqtea, deaths, and cases ot insanity
tent their mental activity, and on their dis- show, are lesssatis&ctory thsn in the sqiarate
charge a considerable nnmber of than sink system. It is obvions uiat mui^ more must
down into a semi-fataons state, even when depend npon the character and alMlily of the
their confinement has been only of 16 months' wardenandkeepeisintfaiBBystemthan in those
or two years' dnratjon. This occurred to saoh' whioh we have preriotuly described. TheAi^
a degree at Pentonville, decidedly the healthi- bom system, with some vsrialiona in matters
est and best managed of these prisons, that of detwl, and more w le«a strictness in the an^
when the men, after IS months' imprisonment forcemeat of aUenoe. is now adopted in the stata
were removed on shipbofffd far transportation, prisons ofmostofthe United States, and in the
'--' —-'->-' "- -•.-.-^-- --Mipal penitentiaries ordistriiapriswis. tt
ilso adopted in a consideratile nnmber of the
light-headed, low-spirited, silly, and soma of county prisons, especially the larger and more
them sulfject to sodden fsintiiigs ; and it was recently erected. In En^and it is the system
fimnd necessary, for some weeks before ship- generally pref^red in the oomi^ prisons and
ping the sabeeqtunt compuiies, to bring them penitentiaries. Itiaalaoadi^tedintfae99coa-
mto association with each other, and encourage viot prisons (maitotu cmtraltt) of Franca. In
them to talk and be merry. Kor has it been Ireland, Betgiom, Hdland, Domkark, Svedcm,
found that, in oases of discharge, the reforma- and Korwaj, on thecontamry, tbe s^anto v»-
tions were BO nomeroos as was to be hoped. If tem has the preferenoe; while in Qemuaj
they retained eufflcient vitality and intellect to both are in use. In Italy there is very littlft
be active, their activity has very often been for system or order in tbe prisons, except in Sai^
evil 1 if tiiey were stupid and idiotic, they re> dinia, where some years since the B^>arat« piaa
mslned so. — The "silent" or Auburn system was received with the most favor. — In Eng-
did not originate at Anbnm, for in 1773 land the relinqnishment of transportation hiM
Howard saw U in practice at Ghent, and spoke beenfoUowed by some roodiflcatiopsof the tij9'
vt U q)provingly, Not long alter, however, terns we have described. These are doe mainly
this plan was abolished there by the emperor to the inflnence of Usjor-General ^ Joshua
Josephn.,andtheoldrJ7wn«reinstat«d. There Jebb, vbo has since 1887 devoted much attsn-
Is, however, little reason to soppose that CapL tiontotbeoiMwtraclJonandmanagMnentofooM-
EJam Lynds had any knowledge of the prison viot prisons, and is now chainnan of tlie board
at Ghent, vbeninl62Shemadehisexperiment of convict prison direotMS. Hu syston reeos-
at Auburn, which np to that time had been nixes 8 penods of probation for piuonen. 1.
managed on the solitary ^fstem. Itisthepnr- Imprisonment in a aqvarate prison for Omontha.
poae of the Auburn plan, equally with those Prisoners are san^ wlten anvkted, to V«kfr
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Md, Ijiaartng, wlBIIUnt", and Aaaoe'dn^M cptaai a home for dboharged female prisoD-
to FeotoDvilla, where the oqiantioa is Uee se- «re. In Boeton a Bunilar organlztitioii eiiata
vera than formerlr, tbe tuiMHiera aeemg eaoli and aperiodioal called " The Prisoner's Friend''
other in the yards sod coapeL 3. AHOciated ia published by the Rev. Mr. Spear. In Loo-
labor, at peoal servitode on the pnblio works, don an asaooiation called the discharged pris-
at Ohathara, Portamonth, or Portland. The oner's aid looiety has been formed for the ao-
priaooan work in gaagi bA the qoarries, dooke, oompliahment of the same pnrpoae. — See Jolm
or CKtifioatioDS by dsj, bat are oonflned ia Howard, " The State of the Prisons in Englwd
■marata eeUa at night 8. Atloketof leave in and Wales" (ITVT), " Aoconnt of the Prisona
W. Australia, or iMior OB free groond and in and Hospitals in Busaia, Sweden, and Den-
ordinary olodtes, and lodging in barraoka, an- mark" (1784), andotherworks;Bentham, "The
dersBrT^laBoe,athoiiM. In all these petioda, Panopticon, a Plan for a New Prison" (17B9);
gratidtiee in food and money, the latter p^able " State of the Prisons in England, Scotland, and
partly at their disoharge, and partly, if their Wales," &o. (1810); " Oonsiderations on Pris-
deportmant is oorrect, 8 or 8 months after, ons, with Plans for their better Besnlation"
aro attainable by good oondnot and industry. (1812) ; the Bev. J. Pield, " Prison Discipline,
Markx of good oondnot also diorten by some with Argontents in favor of the Separate Sys-
weeka or months the term of pmiMunent. tern" (London, 1848) ; J. Eepworth Dixon,
!nia ayatsm is well administered, bat its reenlts "TheIiondonPriao]i3''Q^ndon, 18G0); Schier-
are onaatii&otory. The oost per head for the mans, Trieitd^ droit eriminel(BTnta6is, 1863);
inpport of eonviota is over (100, while thek " Reports of the Prison Discipline Society"
earnings do not exceed half thatsnm; thereare Boston, 1826 et ttg.) ■ " Reports of the New
fr«qn«nt vitdent outbreaks at the government York Prison Association" |]1844--'59) ; " Qnar-
worka, 7 occurring the past year, and the re- terly Journal of Prison Disdpline," vols. i. to
eoiHnDtment«,anioant3ngtoneaiiyeGperoent, zv. (Philadelphia, 184&-'60); J. L. Tellkampf|
thon^ dae in part to the better Atra, &o., in LL.1>., "EMoys on hayr Reform, Peoitenti-
the ocmvict prisons than in the gaola, do not aries, Ac., in Great Britain and the United
ipeak well for the refi>rniatory infloenee ex- States of America" (London, 1869) ; Holtzen-
ertsd. The whole umnber of OMiviota in the dorf, " The Irish Oonvict System" (London,
10 Ewlish prisons In May, 1661, was IfiK. 1860) ; W. Parker Fonlke, " On Cellular Sep-
Tbe l^sac&naetta state prison has adopted a aratjon" (Philadelphia, 1861) ; De Beaamont
plan somewhat anolt^ons to this, hot a little and De Tooqneville, i>u tytUme pinitaitiaira
mora fitvcnoble to the pristmer. By oontinned ava &tat* Unit, et da ton a^lUation «n Franog,
good oondnot. a prisoner may bo oredited with translated by Dr. F. Lieber (New York, 1833) ;
from 8 to S days on eaoh month, aooording to M. Berenger, £«preuion pinale (Paris, 1860).
the length of his sentMtoe, and the term for PBIVATEGR, an armed private vessel n hiob
widdihe Is inyrisoned lamatwially diminished bearetheoommissionof astateto cmise^ainat
in this way if his oondnot is nniformly good, the commerce of its enemy. When one aov-
Ihis plan is liable to some seriona otitjeotiMU. ereign has duly declared war against another,
A better one is that of Intermediate prisons, all uie snbjeots of the former are enemies of all
now adopted in Ireland. A regolar scale haa tile aabjeots of the latter. From thia principle
been adopted, and the prismer who is sen- of the law of nations follows the anqnestionable
tenoad for 10 years may, after serving 6 yeara oorollsry, that no dtizen of one of the belligerent
In a "separate" prison, if his oondnot has beoi states can complain of the hostile acts of any
good, be then tronifwrad to an intermediate dtisen of the other. Therefore, as far as abso-
pioon, where he in employed with others who Inteinternationalrightaare concerned, it makes
have behaved weU; and if his deportment is no difference whether a depredation or oaptore
ocanqdary, at the end of a year and a half he by a snl^eot of the enemy has or has not been
raeeives a ticket of lioense, which permits him ezpresaly aanotioned by his sovereign. The
tftbeatlargOibntnnderthesnrTeillaneeirftha nmrerau practice of nations, however, con-
oonsfadinla^, at whose offloea he is registered ; demns all nnanthorised hostilities ; and a oaip-
U he behaves well he is nnmideetod, bat if he ture or other hostile act without the sanction
falls intovioiooB habits he ii remanded to the of a oompetent sovereign power, althongh,
-^t prison, to serro out the remainder of strictly speaking, it would not be piracy, yet
_ .in.t-_i__ 1. — '--""t been tested in wonld besomooh like it, or so irregular and
rain that conn- odiona, that it wonld nngnestJonably provoke
This idan haa already been tested in wonld be so mooh like it, or so irregular and
3t nearly 8,000 prtooners In that conn- odiona, that it wonld nngnestJonably ]
tiT, and, it is asserted, with more satisfiKitory re- the severest treatment at die hands of ai
siuts,ao&rastharefi>rmataonoftheprisoaersis agunst those who engaged in it. Yet, tbongh
oonoeraed, than any other. — ^Within nfbw years nnanthorized captnre of enemy property is
pwt eonsidarable attention haa been bestowed no oSenoe nnder the law of nations, it is an In-
mca the oondition ot discharged prisoners, fraction of the public law of the captor's own
Through the eflbrta <tf the late Isaac T. Bop- stale. For the universal role is that, exoept in
> small income has aooompUsbed a lang* stmctively anthoriied by their sovereign,
notfont of good. A aepaiate aasoaiaU<» has him alone reridea the power of making war.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
60S FRIVATEEB
Iiitlieezerc^ofitliemaTemplorwIiatineana talnlf bare no pitrlotifl notirs la aooepting
b« pleosea. He inaj' limit himself to his own snoh a oommiBHoo. Bnoh a motiv« is ran
ibips, or he maj reeort to thoBO of other Btat«B. probably even when the prirateer saila viidcv
Of the former ha may employ only hit pabllo the flag of his own oonnby; but then the
T6B8e!s, or he may avul himself of the private oonntry does really derive some benefit froa
vBsseb of his sabjecta by oommianoning them the Mrvioe. In the case snppoeed, the nentnl
to Heixe the merchant ships of the enemy. These is a sort of legaliaed pirate, and so iudead be is
commissioned private ships or privateers are in regarded by tboae oaaraa&xtB sad treatica
naval warfare mnch the same as the volnnteer which, in ooadenmalion of thia abnsa ot the
corps are in the land service. In both oases international iawe of wu; almost all natJnna
the oommissioDs proceeding from the sovereign have entered into. The Irraeb ordennaMet i»
makethosewhobearthemtheinstnmientaand la marint expressly dedared sneb practice to
aervants of'the 8tat«. On the sea it is the let- be piracy. The treaties between naooa aad
tera of marque which give that interest in the EoUand in 166S, b^ween tlie United Sttfea
prize which is the inducement to engage in the and France in 1780, of the United 8tates wi^
Mfvioe. For, primarily, all prizes vest in the Eo^and In 17M, with tba NcdJia-lands ia
state, and it is the commission alone which, 1769, with Pmma in 178S and 17S9, and with
under the mnnloipsl regulations of each state, Spain in 1766, with Sweden in 1788 and 1611,
defines the proportion of the captored property all declared that if any dtisen of eiUier coih
and the other rewards which shall fall to the tractfng power ehonld take letters of marqoetn
priyateeramau. (See Fbize.) To gnard against carry on privateering axainat the otJier from
the excesses and abnsee which are inoident to any pover with whom tne other waa at wai^
privateering, it has been snbjected to varions he snoold be treated ae a pirate. The later
restrictions. Some st^es have regulated the practice of nattona alao aoetwda with the qririt
composition of the orevrs, and have forbidden of these express oonmaota. In the war with
all omising in the rivers or along thecoasta Uexico, England and Fnmce forbade tbdr anb-
vtthin the sea line of the enemy. Oenerally jeots to aooM4: the privateering o«»niaitriona
oommissions are granted on conation that the which were <dkred by that power. So in the
rights of neutrals shsll be respected, and that late Buarian war, the neutral Enropeaa atataa
belligerent rights shall in all cases be enforced prohibited thrar aDbJeota frmn takbw part in
according to the roles of war ; that pri/es shall the war, either by aeomtioK letters m marqaa
be bronght for adjudication before the proper or otbenrlse aiding the Ixdliseienta. Anatri^
tribonat ; and that the whole condnot of the DenmaA, and Sweden and Norway exolndea
croise shall be confined to the instmctioos of privateers from th^ port*. Thefor^gnenlist-
goveroment. Bonds are taken for the dne per- mentaotaofGreatBntainandtheUiutedStatea
ibrmsnce of these engagements, and owners and are permanent atatntea, wblob tanpoae aevcn
officers are anbjected to penalties for the riota- praalties on dtteeoa or rendenta who rectdve
tionof them.— Privateermg may be regarded in eomniisdons,eqnipprivateata, or enlist men (or
two aspects, or rather it may be said that there service in any fonagn war. TUa spedea cX
are two kinds of privateering, one of which is nrivatewing aeems to be well nigh reprcased.
far more legitimate and defensible than the Kot so the other. Fornaaily a centary the ex-
other. The former of these kinds is that in pediency of ita snpprearion had been at inter-
which the citizens of one of the states at war vals daborately disoosaed ; yat in all that pe-
aail nnder their own tUi^ against the enemy, riod bat little advance bad been made toward
They find employment m this way for the the settlement of the craeetiiui "*■" *c' <->—
ahips which during war mnst almost of neces- Bntgeot was revived at the oong
sity be withdrawn from trade ; and they con- vened at Paria after tiie Boanan war, and tba
tribute very materially to the maritime strength statea there r^reaented mademntnal engage-
of their state. In snch a oonntry as the United ments to aoirendar the prac^eettf privateering.
Statea, which from varions motives muntains Hie United Btatea atill t"b™*¥'"« ita old pon-
an inconaiderable navy oompared with those of tion. As early as 178S (to review laiefly the
the great maritime powers of Europe, the a»- doctrine and practice of onr government iqkmi
sistance of the mercantile marine woold be in thia matter) tike Uidted States made aa effiHt
case of war almost indispensable. In ftct, to aboliab privateering. In that year, and
making war vessels of merchantmen would be wlule he waa n^olismig with Froana tba
nothing else than the creation of an adequate treaty whioh was aftvward ooncladed, Dr.
navallleet. This sort of privateering the Unit- Franklin wrote : " The United Btatea <tfAmer>
ed States has always defended and enooaraged, ica, thongh Itetter dtnated than any Enn^wn
thongb, as will he presently seen, it has pro- nation to make profit by privateering, are, ao
fessed itself willing to sarrender on fiur oondi- &r as in them liea, endeavoring to aboliab tha
tions even this manifest and Just advantage, practice, by ofiering in all tb^ treatica with
The other and more odions form of privateer- oth^ powers an article eoga^ngatdemnly that
ing is that in which a nentral accepts a com- . in case of future war nonnvi^r shall beoom-
mission from one of two belligeruits. Here missioned on either aioa, and tttat nnanned
the Intimacy of the practice is not so clear, at merchant ahips on both ndee shall pnmM thwr
least BO &r as afibcts the neatraL He can oer> voyages nnmoleated." Br, Franklin proonred
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PBIVATEEB _ FRIV2T 601
the inMrtion of boHi thew pnmoattlons fat flift Jaettitn vhloh ft has slwi^ urged. The an-
tnatj witti Fniaiia. In the sabseqnent tre«^ fwer of onr government to the deol&ratioii waa,
of I7W with that poirer, however, all proTt- throngh Mr. Maroj, that the United Statea
•taniofthiaduTaotei were omitted. In 1 799, voold accept the vhole of it "in ease ttie
it taaj be mentioiied in paadng, the legialaliTa olanse aboliahliis privateering were amended
BinmblrcrfFhuieapropcmedthatnationsahonld by adding that t£e private property of the snb-
agree by mntoal oonventioiii to abolish pri- jeot or dtizen of a Delligerent on the high seaa
TBt«ering and the mznre of private properi,7 on ehould be exempted from Mizore b; pnblio
the ocean. The proposal met bnt little &vor, armed veaaela of the other belligerent, excei^
and these praotioea were perhaps never more it be contraband of war."
extensirelj earried on than daring the wan PRIVET (ligvttrvm milffar», IJnn.), the or-
which followed the French revolution. Again dinars name of a half evergreen shrab used for
ht 13fl4 the Bal^}eot waa revived, when, on onr live hedges. The common privet belongs to the
part ag^, it waa urged upon the attention of natural iiunilj oUaeea, trees or bnshea having
the ^ngijijii government. The plenipotentia- aimpla, mostlj entire leaves, perfect or pol;r-
ries, l^srs. HnskiaBon and Stratford Oauniug, Mmons flowers with oaljx and corolla, and the
declined however to entertam the propositiona fruit either a berry or a drupe. (See Ouv«.)
of onr minister, Mr. Rnsh, and be reported to The genua Ugui^v/m is distinguished by its
govenmient that in bis opinion Great Brittdn short, tubular, 4-toothed obIts, and ftinnd-
waa univilling, under any oiromnstanoea, to oo- shaped, 4r-lol>ed corolla, the tube exceeding the
cede to the abolition of private war upon the oalyz ; the stamens are 3, inserted into the tube ;
ooean. Bnt a radical change in the seatimenbi the style very short, stigma obtose, bifid ; berry
of Eoxlish pnblidsta npon thia question is in- globose, a^oelled and l~«eeded ; all>mnen Bome>
dieatM, it would seem, by the language of Lord what hard; embryo inverted. The common
OUrendon in 1864. In submittii« to onr am- privet, also called prim, oooors in pastures and
liiiiiiiiiiliii, Mr. Bu(dianan, the deoaration re- nelda in eastern ITew England and in New
meeting neutrals which EVanoe and England York. It is a hardy shrub with numerona
lAerward iaaned, the British minister advooat- branches, growing in clumps from strong, mat-
ed the abandonment of privateering, and ex- ted, yellow roots, and rising to the height of 6
prened his condemnation of tiie practice as one to 8 feet. The leaves aresmall with very short
which waa " inoonsistent with modem dviliia- petioles, opposite or crowded in tnfts, lanceo-
tion." Mr, Bnohauan replied, that ouder exi^ Iste-aoute at both ends, entire, pale green, and
ing drennutanoea It did not seem possible f6r smooth on both sides. The flowers are borne
the United Stataa to agree to a surrender of the upon short terminal panidee, the calyx short
pnotioe, unless the naval powers of the world with 4 very blunt teeth, the corolla a short
would go one step further and consent to the tube with 4 oblong, expanded pointed seg-
aboUtion of all war against private property menta ; the tube enolosea 9 vary snort stamens
upon the ocean, aa was already agreed upon a* with la^e sulphnr-colored antliers, whose pol-
to private propertv npon the land. In anawer len is fragrant ; the berry is of a polished buck
to Mr. Buchanan s desiwtchee, Mr. Secretary color and very oonspiouona in winter. The £>
Haroy reminded the British government that liage turns rusty and shrivels, &lling off aa
tiie United Statea laws go as far as and even the cold becomes severe ; but when in fall leaf
fbrtfaer than those of any other nation in pro* and flower the shrub is pleasng to the eye.—
Mhiting itsBulyeota from enterinsinto foreign Theprivct is raised from the seeds. Themeth-
privateer service ; bnt he added Uiat the conn- od generallj conridered the best is to gather
try would not enter into any convention where- the berries as soon as mature and place them
by it would preolnde itself from reaorting to ita in a heap to rot, aaving the seed in the spring ;
merchantmen in case of war. Finally the sub- others advise that the berries themselves be
miseion to our government of the deolaniition town at onoe. The usual mode of propagation
whiohwaarignedat Farisin 18S6, bytheplen- in Enrope ia by outtjogs, which root eanly,
^»(entiariea of the chief states of Bnrope, The plants fionruh especially in a strong, loamy,
eaUad for a new consideration of the question, moist soil, but they will grow in almost snj
Beaide providona aflbotin^ the righta of neu- Mnd, and even under tlie shade and drip of d»-
tr^ die eonventlon contaued an article which ddnoua trees. If intended for low trees, the
declared that privateering was abolished. The dde shoote should be rubbed off; otherwise th^
foor poimla of the deolantion were to be re- require very little pruning. When set out for
garded aa an entire^ ; they were to be binding live hedges in a good soil and sheltered sitaa-
mly between thoee powers which assented to tion, the foliage aomettmes survives the winter.
tMu ; and the statea that signed the conven- Searoely any otAer ahrub forma so beautiful
tion nndertook to invite the aceesBton of those a low hedge, and few are so exempt from dia-
powera whioh were not represented at the con- eaaes or from the rsragea of insects. The wood
greaa. Uoet of the aeeondary itatee of Europe of the privet ia hard and doee-gralned, and
and Amorloa cave prompt adhesion to the ar- when of suffldent riie Is flt for turning in the
- ■■ B decli -- — "■■''■■■■- " > * • • --
a whioh were not represented at the con- eaaes or from the rsragea of insects. Ibewooa
Uoet of the aeeondary itatee of Europe of the privet ia hard and doee-gralned, and
morloa cave prompt adhesion to the ar- when of suffldent riie Is flt for turning in the
tielea of the declaration. The United Statea lathe ; it also makea a auperior charcoal tta
declined to do so. It oUeoted to the privateer- the manufaoture of gunpowder. The leavei
inc ilif", and alleged tnc same gronnda of ob- and bark are bitter, ■ml the smaller twigs d^
D,o,.^oob,GOOglc
804 FBIVT OOUNOn. rSBSt
ped in Jane, dried Md pslrerised, •» niqd wnsMOt of a ocmntrr* <nk the dedantion ti
in Roma parts of Enn^ for tanning leather, war, to eatabHali tribunals of prize ; and it is
The yoong slmder branobea and ahoota are em- then re^oodble to all foreifn nationa for the
ployed li£e oiien for basket making and for oorreotneas of the dedaiotts tferein mada. So
tying pBokagea. The berries afford a rose color far as the property is question is concerned,
wU& is Dsed in tinting tnap8 and prints ; ther the aentenoe of the prize court la oonclnsiTC
tra also eaten by several kinds of birds- A npon all the world. If the e«nt«ace is one of
greenish oil fit for lamps or to make soap is condemnation^ the title of the former owner of
extracted tnm them by pressure. — There are the property is divested, and all nations are
several varieties of the common privet, snoh as bonnd to respect the naw title acquired under
the white-berried, yellow-berried, green-bw- it. To give uie decision of the court this effect,
ried, the narrow-leaved, and the variegated however, it must appear conclnalTely that the
leaved; batthe most deeirshIeofall,eapeaally conrt haii Jurisdiction over the property ia
for live hedgee, is the Italiui or evergreen. The onestloD. The court must be eBtabliahol in
■pike-flowered privet (_L. tpieaUim, Eanulton) uie eonntry of the captor, or in thsli of his ally
is a native of the mounUung of Neiutnl, ashrab in the war, but it la not necessary that the
6 or 8 feet high, with elliptieal aotite leaves, priie shonld be brought within a port of one
which are ha&y on their lower snr&cee ; the of these oountriea. It is the praotiae of Greet
flowers crowded, almost seedle, disposed in a Britain and of the United States to adjudicate
thyT8e,white,appearinglnJaneandJnly, The upon cultures which have been carrii^ into a
was tree (L. Jveidum, Alton), so called from nentrel port. — The next qoestloa to be eoudd-
exoretiDg a waxy matter, is a small tree 10 to ered is: Who are enemies, and what property
SO ftet high, with broad, ovato-oblong, acomi- is liable to oi^tore ? For uiis purpoae not only
nala leavea, shinbig «l their upper sur&oes, the native-born citixens of the belligerent are
the flowMs in iJiyraoid panldee, white. It is a considered ss enemies, but all peraons who
handsome objectwhentruned to a ainglefrtem, have their domidle in the hoHtile oonntiy ; and
and may be propagated by layers, cnttinsa, or the citizens of a country whioh is ond^ the
by graning upon the oommon privet. It b a permanent or temporary dominion of the ene-
native of China. Other spedes are known in- mies of another eonntry, are oonadered as tbt
digenous to Japan, China, and the East Indies, citizens of the latter, and sll trade with them
FBIV7 COUNCIL. See Oodhoo. 1b illegal, unless the gOTernment chooses to reo-
FRIZE, any property oaptnred at aea in vir- ognize the country as nentral, in which case
tue of the rights of war. A di£Eerence exists in courts of justice are boond by suoh reoogni-
practice between war on land and on the sea In tion. It ia very doubtM whether a citizen of
reapeot to private property. On land private one country can expatriate himself on the
Vrapertj, with some exeeptions, is respected bresUng oat <^ war, in order to acquire nea-
by all civilized nations; but at sea all ttie prop- tral rights and privileges ; bnt it is cert^ that
erty of every <dlizen (rf a beUimrent oonntiy is if he removes hi order to mask his mm-cantile
liable to captnre.— -The general rights of a bel- pn^ects under a neutral flag, such an act b
ligerent are to make Matures by his pnblio frandnlent and of no avdL But if he has re-
anned vessels of war, to grant eommiaaions to moved during peace, and acquired a domi-
privata peraonp for the Bsme ohjeot, and to oile in a foreign oountry, he may engage in
aatablisb tribonsls of prize for the purpose of trade with a eonntry which is at peace with his
examining into all marithne ca^nret^ and of adopted country, although at war with that of
Jaduually deciding upon their validity. By the bis nativity. The question of the domicile of a
deolara^n of war dl the dtizeoa of the bdB- person is raierally to be determined by his io-
gerent oountriea reepeotively become enemies, tention. Thos if he goes to a fordgn country
and the citizens of one country may seize any for a temporary purpose, with the intention of
property of the other that they may meet with returning after accompliBhing his oluect, be
at sea. Property however so seized belongs would not acquire a domicile there. li^ how-
to the Bovenngn of the oomitry, and not to the ever, ho should remain there a long tima, this
captors, except it is given to them as ui act of wonld be evideocck though not condnrive, of
grace on the part of their sovereign. For this his intention to make that country his domidle.
reason, and also that the government of the If it sufGciently appear that the intention in
eonntry may bave the power to limit and con- removing was to make a pennanent settle-
trol the operationa of the wsr, oommissions are menl, or for an indefliut« time, the rightof d<Hn-
nsnally granted by the government to private idle is acquired by a residence even of a few
persons anthorizingthem to make such c^ttnre^ days; and a neutral or sulyect found reaiding
and after ai^ndication by a oompetent tribunal within a foreign country is presumed to be
they are entitled to the proceeds of the prixes there aiiimo maaeadi, and if a state of war
thustaken. (See Fbivusxb.) Itisobvionalyne- shonld bring hisnational character into qnea-
oeasoi? that when ac^tnrehasbeenmade^ere tion, it lies npon him to explain the circmn-
shonld be some tribunal with authority to pass stances of his residence. If a person becomes
upon the validity of the capture, and to pro- a dtizen of another eonntry by naturalization
noonce a decree of condemnation or aoqnitUl or residence, his native nationality eaaily ra-
it is therefhre the right and duty of th« gov- vwts; but a mere visit to hia origmal countij
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
voidd not reintegrate him u k mltfeoe of thai nre either the eafo aninl of the renel or th«
coimtrj', if such Tudt was intendeid to be of lives of the hostages. If the vessel deriatea
abort duradon only. Aoitixen of one cooDtry and is afterward captnred and condemned, it
residing and doing boaineaa in another, resumes has been qnestionea whether the debtors ot
his native character if, on war breaking out, he the ransom are disobarged from their oontraoL
patshimself iniet»«ra toretnnitothooonntrj Aooording to VaUn it is the constant practico
of hia birth or adoption ; bnt the mere inten- in France to consider the debtors as dis^^aived,
don witboat some overt act is not sufficient, and the prioe of the ransom ia deducted from
A man may have a neutral reaideaoe, and jet the prooeeds of the prize and i^ven to the first
his property may acquire a hoetUe obuacter. captor, and the residue given to the second.
So, he m^ be a miraohant in more oountries If the captor himself sboald aiter ^e seizure
than one, and may tiina aoijnire at last a qtiari ha taken hy an enemy's cmiser, tc^ther with
domicile beside that of his birth and parentage ; the ransom bill, the ransom becomes part t^
and this wonld be respeoted by the law, pro- the law^l conquest of the enemy, and tha
Tided there was no indioatioa of fraodnlent in- debtors of the ransom are conseqnently dis-
tentiMi, that is, of giving himself two natjonal charged from the contract onder the ransom
characters, between whioh be oonld choose bilL — Theright wbioh aeaptor aoqoiresbytha
from time to time, as soited the esgenciea of sMxnre is an inchoate right merely, and is But>-
tbe moment. The property of a houae of jeot to be divested before condemnation. If
bade Lit an enemy's country is liable to con- there ia a reoaptore, eac^>e, or voluntary dis-
dem&atioD, whatever be the domicile of the charge of the property, a court of prize cannot
mrtnerewbo oonatitate the house. If some of proceed to a^ndioatton. By the Roman law
the partners have a neutral residence, their sep- of jru pottHmutiiy persons or things taken hy
trate property will not be affected bythefuit the enemy were restored to their former itats
of tiieir being connected with a house of trade upon coidng ag^n into possession of the nation
W a hostile country. And when a shipment ia to which thej had belonged. Formerly, as
made by the houM to a partner in a neutral between the belligerents, iae title to propertr
conntry, or by a partner in a hostile conntry to captured passed after it had been in the posses-
a honoe in a neutral country, it depends upon siim of the captors 24 hours ; and if after that
the question to whose aoconnt and risk the time it was recaptured by tldrd persons, they
goods are shipped, whether they ara liable to became the ahsolnte owners of it Now, faow-
be condemned as prize. Oommerdal factories ever, the property of the original owners Is not
in a foreign country, which are free from tba diveeted until condemnation, and the reoap-
ccutrol of the gOTOmment of ttiat country, are tors are merely entitled to salvage the amomit
considered as belonging to the country by of which is in the United States fixed by stat-
which they are eetabOslMd, and the nationality ute for most oases, and when not so ^ed Is
of persons engaged therein is determined ao- determined by the geieral prino^ee of law.
oordinglr. Bnt this esoeption does not apply Salvage has been allowed where, although the
where the government of the oountry has the original c^tnre was illegal, the acts of the
control, altboagb peonliar privil^es are grant- government showed that the law of nationa
ad to the aubjeots of a partionkr nation. A would have been violated and the vessel eon-
foreign minister doea not lose his domicile In demoed if it had been taken in. There Is aoma
his own conntry by rending In the foreign one conflict of authority whether the crew of a
to which heis accredited ; but if he engages in vessel who recaptore it before oondKnnation
trade there, he is, in respect to snoh trade, con* are entitled to salvage. It wonld aeem that
■idered as a citjzen of the oonntry where it ia in the United States tbey are not, because it li
carried on. The domidle of a mariner is the considered to be the duty of tlie orew to do all
country of his birth ; batlf heeDgagesin aslup that they can to save tLe vessel nntil she ii
or trade which is hostile to a particnur conntry, ocndemned. If a treaty of peace makea no
be is in respect to that conntry conddered as particular provisions relative to oantored prop-
an memy. — It sometimea oocora that cironm- erty, it remains in the same oondilaon in which
Aanoeswillnotpermitpropertyoaptmwlataes the Ueaty finda it In England, as between
tobesent into port. Ihe oai^in sndiftcase EngUah snl^ecta, the right of postUmii^ snb*
may destroy it, or allow the master or owner sists to the end of the war, and forogn nationa
to ransom it Such a contract ia valid by the are treated with tlie aame liberality which th^
law of nations, bnt is prohibited in England by aoomd in similar dromnstanoes to England,
statute. By the ransom bill the vessel ia pro- The property of a anljeot or an ally engaged fai
teoted from subsequent o^ture until she reaches eommeroe mth the enemy ia liable to capture ;
her own counter, or the conntry q>eeified in and It makea no difference whether the trade
the bill, provided there be no deviation from be direct or indirect l^e law of nations per-
the oonraa of Oie voyage. Generally some of mits veasels to sail and ohase under ftlse colore,
the officers uid orew are retained as hoetage& but not to fire a gun or capture nnderthem.^
and if they die, or the vessel Is lost by a peril It has become an established principle of the
of the sen before her arrival in port, unless it law ot nation^ that a nation which takes no
is otherwise stipulated in the bill, the ranaoni part In a war shall have the same ri^tswhldi
ia nflTerthelesa dne ; for the et^toTs do not In- Uhaaintimeof peM)a,exa^tao&r as theex*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
eroiM of theao rig^U would materlnllr inter- irUcIi dnrfng pMM OWifisea tii« trade of Hi
fera with the permanent rights of the beUlger- ooloniea b) Us own sal^eotB, tan during war
enta. Witlkin her own temtor;, which for tiiiB open euch trade to t, nenteal, has been mndi
and other pDrposea extends a mariae league discnssed. In England it has been held that
from the Bhore, a nentral nation ia mpruiie, it cannot; but thia rale haa been repudiated
No belligerent haa a right to mtko a osptore in bj the government of the United Btat^ Neii'
W waters, or toarm or eqniphia ahipaof war t^ are not permitted to carry gooda which
in her ports, and if either of these things ia are contraband of war, or to enter a blockaded
done the nentrd ia boond to redress the in- port. (See Blooudb, and Cohtuxakd.}
jmj. A ship has no right to station itself in a Breach of blockade forfUta the Teasel, and fat
neutral port and send out boata to make bos- soma cases ttte cargo; hvt according to the
tile seizores. It has been thought b^ some modem practice, the oanTing of eontaibind
jurists that if a Teasel Is pnrsned and goes into goods ontT for^ts the eoods, and the owner
a nentral port, it maj be pnrsned dvm fervtt of the Tessel loaee merelj bla fre^bt and ex>
0ptu, and captured ; bat the better opinloa i* peneee, nnlesa the same person owna both i^
that this is a dear Tiolatlon of the nentral ter- and cu^ or aome frand appeaia in tihe traoa-
ritorj. The nentral nation may allow oertun action, in which oasee both ahip and cargo an
privilegea to one of the belligerents, bnt only forfeited. If an enemy's cai^ is captiued is
anoh aa ahe is willing to allow to tbe other, a nentral veaselj the vessel has a ckun on Um
Bhe cannot lend money to one belligerent, bnt captora for freight Bnt this rule is limited
if she is under a previons atipnlation, made in by Hie reason of it, and if the cargo be eon-
time of peace, to Airniah a given nnmber of traband, or the Voyage be jrvori contraband,
ships or troops to one of the belligerents, the then the neutral veeael Iobm it* frei^t. Hie
contract may be complied with. Bnt It b said rule that freight Isnot earned nnlcM the goods
that ahe is not bound to do this if her ally waa are carried to their deattnatiim, afftQea to cap-
the aggreaaor. If a prize is brongbt into a ture. But if the alitor takes tbe Ktoda wbei«
neutral port, the neutral government may exer- they should have been oa^ed, and evm if he
i»se junsdiotiaa bo for as to restore the prop- does tbia anbatantiaUy thot^ not predsely,
erty of ita own snt^ecta which has been illegally as by bringing goods to Bo^on wbi<^ were
captured. And It haa been held in the United destined to New York, fr^bt i> dne. — All
Btatea tbat foreign ships, which offend against aeizures at sea are made at the peril of tbe
the laws of that conntij within itsjnrisdiotian, captors. If| on being sent in, the vessd and
may be pursoed and seiied upon the ocetu, cargo are acquitted, the oaptora are responsible
and brought back for adjadication. In 179S for all damages and coats, nnlesa the captore
the government ofthe United States established was made with probable canae. What iaprob-
rules of nentrality which it reanired fordgn able cause is a question of some dlfficnl^, and
belligerent powers to observe m their inter- depends TOry much npon the fkota of eadi par-
coarse with this conntry. Among others waa ticolar case. In general, if the papen ap-
one which provided that if an armed vessel of peared false or colorable, or w»« anppreeaeo,
one nation should depart from onr jnrisdio- mntilated, or nmliated ; if the voyage were to
tion, no armed vessel being within the same or from a blockaded port ; or if other dreom-
and belonging to an adverse belligerent power stances of a like nal^ire oecuired, tbe captor*
should depart until 84 hears after the former, would be justified in sending the vessel In Ibr
It is now a universally admitted principle of adjudication. After the veosel is captar«d,
tbe law of nations that a belligerent bss a tbe captora are responaibla for any loas whkh
right in time of war to virit and search all may occur \ij the ne«jigenoe, fault, or miacon*
veeaela on tbe ocean, in order to determine duct of the price officers and ciew ; bat thn
whether they or their cargoes are hostile or are not re^KHidble if a loss occurs frxnn ac»-
neatral. This right gives also aa a necessary dent, stress of weatber, recqtture, && — ^Wbile
incident the right to seize and send in the ves- a ship is forftdted by the master disgoU&g bel-
■el for adjudication, whenever its real cbarao- ligerent property on board as uentml, wUbont
ter, or that of its cargo, is justiy open to saa- tbe authority, aasent, or knowledge of the
picion. The neatral most enhmit, and if her owner, thia act does not operate as a breach
crew rise and endeavor to rec^tare the ves- of neutrality as to the goods on board whieb
seL it ia a hostile act, which subjects tbe vessel ore aotnally nentral and proved to be so by
and cargo to condunnation. Keutral goods proper docnments, and belong to another
m^ be carried in a belligerent vessel even if owner than him who has forfeited the Koods.
the latter is armed, according to the law in ibe If nentral interests or pr(n>erty are nndiBtiit-
United States ; and a neutral ship is not anb- guiahaUy i^ed np wiui belligerent Intareais
Ject to seizure if abe has belligerent goods on or propwty, tbey become li^le tbemaelvea to
Doard. Attempts have bera i^e at different all tbe incidents and effeeta <A a belligerent
times to engraft on the law of nations the character. A reristancft to aearch when rigbt-
principle that free ships make free good^ bnt fully demanded, an attempt at rescue, and
the law remuns onchanged, except as it baa seeking b^ligerent protection or reoeiving it,
been modified by treaties between partkular ore all breaches of tbe daty of a neotn) ; bnt
nations. Tbe question whether a country, it is aaid in qualification (^ thia rale, that if
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PBIZE VmZK UOHET flOT
n^oftlMMorriinilarthtiigaaredcmebMMiM from; and where there la the leutdoabt, other
m belligwent renders them neoeusr; b; his evidenoe than that BrimiiE from the oaptored
awiiiltegalooiidi»)t,therarejDsti£able. Bome vessel, or mvoked from other prize csomb, maj
qneetfoQ baa arisen as to what is a rescne. It be resorted to. The principal gronnda for con-
ta the datj of the oq>ton to pnt on board per- demning a ship as prue, woere the qaestion of
KAB Gompeteut to navigate the veesel into port natiouult? is in oiapate, are: 1, the entire
ftir adjndioation, and her own master and orew want of the necessarj pf^iers ; 3, their destrao-
■re not bomid to do this. If the vesael ia pven tion ; 8, theai material alteration or falsifloft-
np to tbem, and they pnraae their ordinal tion ; 4, the time when the papers were mode
eonrae against the wjah of the cq>tora, this is oat, as whether before or after the war, is often
not a reaooe. Bnt if the neutral crew nnder- material ; 6, next in importance is the condnot
take and promise to navigate tbv vewd to the of the master and officers ; 6, their prevarioft-
deeired 'port 6a a^n^oation, azid tiie vessel is tion or evident falsehood in the preliminary'
given np to them for this purpose, and tbe^ proof; 7, their refusal or inahilit^ to give ft
violate w.6k promise and take the vessel Into good accoont of the ship and cargo; 8, the
their own hands for th^ own pnrposee, this is domioile of the master and officers. The spo-
an imlawfbl resooe. OenersUf a oarao is eon- liation «^ P^ers, hj which is meant, not mere'
ndered as liable to condemnation, if an^ act Ij their totu deetrnetiim, bat such mlaifioation
faaa been comnutted bj the master which snh- as makes them useless or worse aa evidence, ii
teets the dilp to condemnattoa. Bnt the cargo a uronmstanee of grave nspioioD, hut is open
unot liable to ccmdemnation if it ia the prop- to explanaUm ; andif thecqitnredintbeflrBt
evtj of a person other than the owner of the instance fairly and satiefootonly ezpluiu it, he
ship, and its owner was not cognii:ant of the is deprived of no right to which be is other*
intended violation. If, however, Qie owner of wiM entitled. Possession by an enemy is pre-
the OArgo gave the master disoretionary power, somptive proof^ thoogh not conolosive, of hoe-
he ia lHable for his acts; or if the cargo was tile character. Ships are preamned to belong
loaded after notification of a blockade, the par- to the conntry nnder whose flag they sail ; ana
ties having foil knowledge of the fact Beaiat- it has been thought that this presumption
■nee to aie right of search, the resene or re- ahottld be oondnsive as again^ the person ns-
eaptnre of the ship by the msster and crew, ing the flag. In Joint captnres all public ships
and the f^adnlent Biip|n«saion or spoliatioD of of war in idght ore prcsnmed to aaist, and
papers, afibot the owner of the oai^ as well as therefore they are entitled to share in the pro-
the owner of the ship.— By a statnte in the oeeds ; and this presomption extends to oil the
United States, it is the doty of the master to ships of a sqnadron muted by anthority for s
carefully preserve all the papers and writings specifio pnrpose, as for a blockade for example,
fonnd on board a prize, and transmit the whole dthoogh not aiAaally in idght ; but it does not
of the originals omnQtilsted to the jndge of the apply to privateers, beoanse they are not ob-
distriot to which the prize ia ordered to pro- l^d to e^tnre all vessels they n:
oeed, and transmit to the navy deportment, sels of war. Bevenne catters, as they ore gen-
and to the agent appointed to pay the prize erally employed to protect the revenue, and
money, complete lists of the officers and men have no special injonction to capture enemy's
■ntitJed to a share of the capture, inserting vessels, come nnder the same rule as privateers
therein the qoallty of every person rating, in this respect. Every ship ia expected to have
The prize master is also required to make an on board the necessaiy papers to establish her
affidavit that the papers are delivered np as nationality; and these ore the papers which
taken, withont fraud, addition, subduotion, or the law of her own conntry require as evidence
embezzIemenL The master of the oaptared of that oharactor. The some rule applies to
veaeel, Uie prindpal officers, and some of the cargoes. The bnrden of proof is on the claim-
crew should be brought in, and these persons ant to prove a neutral proprietary interest,
■re examined on the standing interrogatoriee Property fonnd on tmard an enemy's ship Is
prepared by the court for that pnrpose. At presumed in the absence of proof to the coo-
this examination no eonniel are pennitted to teory to be enemy's property ; and a person
be present. Only the pqwrs and docnments claiming nnder a title by capture must snow s
deUverednptotheemtoraareadmisdble; and valid sentence of ooodenmation. Thesoleofs
if tlw ottptors eoneeal any, they cannot sfter- ship or oa^o under a decree of admiralty,
word be put in. The case is determined on founded on condemnation as prize, is valid and
this evidence and the docnments of the prize ; binding upon all conrts and partieB, unless it ia
bat, if it is necessary, the oonrt will reqnire shown to be vitiated by fraud,
forther proof fr«m either party oione or from PRIZE MONEY. The distribntion of prise
both. Oral testimony is never admitted. Al- money, or of the proceeds of the sole of ships
thon^ the evidence of the captors is not al- or goods adjudged bv conrts of admiralty to be
lowed in the first instance, yet original evi- good priee, is carefolly rf^ulated by atotntes of
demoe talcen on the ■tamling interrogatories in the United States. The provisions are very
otiier prize cansee is admiarible. ui cases of minnte; bat substantially they ore as followa.
Joint or collusive capture, the usual amplidty 1. When the capturea are made bypnl>lio arm-
of Tpixa proceedings is neoeasarily departed ed ships, if t^e captured ship be of eqoal oe
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
608 PSOBATB
Cter force fbsn the ehipmaldiig the oaptore, tionsof tbeEof^ii^ <»4iiiBri«shBTobe(n ezer*
proceeds beloog wholly to ths captors; oisedherebjaimilaroffioerBimderTBrioiistitles,
otherwise the^ are equally divided between *nd generally with larger powers tbaa those
the United States and the captors. The com- ftiDctumaries poaeessed. In New York probate
manding officers of fleets, sqnadrons, or mu^e is granted by the Biurogata ; in South Gsrolinft
ships take 8 twentieths, the whole of which bj the ordinary ; in PeDDsylTaniahy tben^is-
goee to the comniaiider of a mngle ehip aoting ter of wills, who is also a Judge, and his pro-
Wepeadently ; bQtifheisnndertheoonuDaad bate a jodicial act. In some etatea the connty
of an ofBoer of a fleet or sqnadron, that offloer oonrts, and in others the orphans' oonrta, grant
has one twentietli, and the commander of the letters of probate ; and in most probate is
ship the other two. B«a lientenantB, o^ttains granted by a Jodge of probate. These several
of marines, and sailing mastera take S twen- jDdicatnres cono»;n themselTea only with tlie
tjetha ; ohi^lains, lienteoanta of nurinee, snr- Jaetum of a will. They declare whether or
geons, pmvera, boatswains, f^mmers, caipenters, not a Talid will exists, and do eiecotor, or ad-
and master's mates, S twentieths ; midshipmen, ministrgtor with the wiU snnezed, can assert
Burgeon's mates, captain's clerks, schoolmasters, his rights in any oonrt without uiowing hia
boatswain's mates, gunner's mates, carpenter's letteni tcetsmentary; that is to say, the legal
mates, ship's atowt^da, aajlmakers, mastera at eridenoe that the will under which he clainis
arms, armorers, cookswains, and coc^rs, 8^ to act has been approved and eetahliahed in the
twentieths ; gonner'e yeomen, bostswain's yeo- oonrt of probate. The oonstmotion of the will,
men, qnartermast^rs, qoarter gminers, soil- or the operation and effect of its particular no-
maker's mates, sergeants and corporals of ma- visioDSiregtawiththeooortsof law; audwhere
rines, dranmiers, lifera, and extra petty offl- the original oonit of probate takes anyjnria-
oers. H twenUeUis; seamen, ordinary seamen, cBction of tJiese qneations, an t^peal lies from
marines, and all ouier {tereons doing duty on it to the hij^er oonrta of law or equity. In
hoard, 7 twentieths. One or more pnblio ships England themtehasheen that probato was ne-
in wght of a capture share equally m the prize oeasary of such instmments only as were teata-
or prizes. A bonnty is paid by the United mentaiy and r^jarded personal property. If
States of (30 for each person on board of Ihey affected lands alone they needed not to be
any ship of the enemy at the beginning of an proved in the spiritual courts. In this conntry
engagement, which is sunk or destroyed by a the rule is differrat. Id many of the states,
public armed vessel of equal or inferior foroe ; oertwnly in Massachnscttg, Vermont, New
and this bounty is divided as priee money, a. Hampslure, Maryland, Mchigan, and Ohio, it
If the ships or goods are captured by private is expressly provided by statute that no will
armed ships oommissioned by gorermnent, the aludl be effectual to pass dther real or penonal
prize property, within 60 days after oondemna- estate unless it shall have been duty proved
tion, shall he sold by the marBhali»rthedistrJot and allowed in tiie probato court Bo in New
in the manner and on the terms designated by York, all wills in which an executor is named,
the owners of the privateer, and the proceeds whether they relate to real or personal proper-
divided between the owners, the offloera, and ty, must be formally proved. And generally,
orew, acoording to their artioles of agreement; whenever power is conferred in general tenna
Mid if there are no articles of agreement, one oa probate courts to take probate of wills, it is
half goes to the owners, and one half to tibe presumed in thb oountry that their jnrisdio-
offioers and crew. Usna^, if not alwa^ the tion includes wills as well of realty as of per-
^ipping articles of a privateer or letter of sonalty; and their decrees in both these re-
marque determine the proportionB in which n>eotB are regarded as condusive. 6o long
the proceeds are to be divided. laen as the probate remains unreversed tm ap-
FROBATE, In law, the proof, before the peal, the due execution of the will, the sanity
competent antboiity, that an instnunent offei^ or oapacity of the testator, and the atteatalion
ed, purporting to be the last will and testament of the witnesses, cannot be called in question
of a person deceased, is indeed his lawful act in the oonrts of common law. The same role
Until the aot 20 and 31 Victoria, o. 77 (l^^i ^ "< '"'"^ states observed in respect to wills
amended the law relating to probates and let- onoe admitted to probate, though they were
ters of administration in England, the custody made and executed in otiier states aeeot^ng
of the estates of all deceaaed persona vested to fitrms not niffident where they were ao-
there primarily in the ordinaries or bishops of proved. In some states the probate of wiOs
dioceses, suljject only to the exceptional ngbta of buda is prima fane evidence, but not coft-
of the crown or of lords in respect to osrbdn tdnsive, of the doe execution of these instm-
manors. The new act of 18G7 abolished tlie manta; in others the probate becomes concha
ancient eoolesiastioal Jurisdiction, and conferred Mve in these respects after the l^>se of a certain
ftall and ezcluaive authority over all testamwt- nmnber of years — S in Ohio, 5 in MisaisBqipi,
ary osuses upon the queen, to he exercised in add 7 in Virginia. Id New York it has been
her name in a court to be called the Oonrt ot held Hiat the seotence of the surrogate, afflrm-
probate. Ecclesiastical courts never existed Ing a testator's competency to m«ke a will cS
mdeed in the United States ; but from the very personal property, is not condnsive as to » de-
settlement of the oonntiy the office and fimo- vise of real estate contained in the same wiU
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PBOBATE 000
upon the ptifim to a snbwaaent aolt It is witness th« ereontlon of a wOL These sttaat-
matter of common law that tne competent an- isg witnesaeB are then moat essential parties
thoritf may, either «i o;gicio or at the inatanoe in a question of probate. Qenerallj ^ of
of a partj in interest, order the ezeontor, or them most be sommoned if they are living
anr other who bss the oostody of an alleged within the prooeaa of the court ; bnt if from
will, to exhibit it for probate. This power is death, or abseooe from the oonntr;, or from
iaoident to the general Jnrisdiotion of probata inoompetencj ariaing eince the attestation, aaj
and of granting administration. In this conn- witness cannot be prodnced, the will maf be
tr; statates in man; states define this aathori- proved bj tlie others and \ij proof of the hand-
tj more precisel;', and prescribe the method of writing of the partf who fuls. If all are
exertuaing it. Refusal to comply with the or- dead, or cat of the court's jurisdiction, the
der of the court in snob a case is punishable hy handwriting of all must be proved ; and prob-
impriaoDment. In New York the production ably in enoh a case the handwriting of the
of the will is commanded by subpcens. Some- testator also. The attestation clause is gener-
tlmee the executor is required to offer the will ally framed with a regard to the reqniremeDts
for probate within a certain period after the which the Htatutes of the state where it is
testator's death, and his default is punished made render essential to the valid execution
with a penalty. In Massachusetts any one may of a will. If the evidence of the witneasea
insist on the proof of a will who has a right to shows plainly that these requirements were
offer it in evidence or to make title under it; not followed, the presumption of a valid ezo-
ind it has been held accordingly that the cred- ontion f^imisbed by the recital of them is
itor of a devisee has this right for the purpose overset ; but if the subscribing witnesses have
of procuring satisfaGtlon of his debt — In most lost all recoUeotion of the particulars of the
of the states the procedure of the court upon transaction, the formal execution will gener-
probate is fixed by the legislature, and the ally be presumed and the will admitted to
ownmon law distinction between probate in probate. Poilore of memory on the part of
Dommon form and in solemn form has in one of the witnesses may often be supplied by
great measnre disappeared. In North Oaro- the evidence of another or of the rest of them,
fins, Geoi^a, Tennessee, and probably else- In affixing his name, an attesting witness ia
wherei, tiis distinction however la still ob- regarded as certifying the capacity of the
served. A will is said to be proved in common testator. His subsequent attempt to impeach
fbrm, when the executor presents it to the the instrument by declaring that the testator
oourt, and, without summoning any of the did not execute the will with an intelligent
parties interested, ealls one or more witnesses and dii^dng mind is Jnstly open to suspidou.
to prove its execution. The objection to this Evidence of this character is not to be en-
mode of proof was, at common law, that at tirely rqeoted, though it avails little without
say time within 80 years the executor might the support of other testimony. When 80
be called upon by any party in interest to years have passed since the death of the teata-
make proof m solemn form. This mode ia not tor, a will is said to prove itself; the subscrib-
in common use in the United States, and even Ing witnesses being presumed dead, the bare
when it is used the time within which probate production of the instrument suffices. The
may be contested Is much redaoed by statute, will must however have come from a custody
Thus, in New Hampshire the revision most be which forbids question of its genuineness, and
made within a year ; In Mississippi the valid- be in other reapeots free from suspicion, or the
ityof the will may be disputed within 5 years; genuineness must in some way be proved,
in Virf^nia 7 years is allowed for the same Though it is a general mle, which applies as
purpose. Proof is made in solemn form, or by well to wills as other writings, that evidence
form of law or jmt U»U», when all persons oi extra is inadmissible to control them, yet
whose interests are to be affected by toe will when any such ambiguity is patent upon the
have been duly notified to be present, and face of Ihe instrument as ten^ to call m qnea-
have had opportunity to be heard m the prem- tion the faetmn of the will, there must be of
ises. This is now the nsnal mode of proof in necessity a resort to eztrin^c evidence. Ex-
tbe United States, and after the will is ap- amples of such smbignity are those cases
proved in this way it b for ever binding. The where it ia doubtful whether the writing was
method of proo^ however, like many other subscribed merely by way of authentioating
pcants of probate practice. Is often regulated what in tsucA were memoranda of a will to be
Dy particnlar statute provisions. The testi- made, or whether it was intended by the testa-
inony which the judge calls for at the hearing tor as indeed a final will ; whether he intended
relates to the^lum of the will, as the phrase to embody a particular clause in his will, or
is. The question being whether the mstru- whether it was introduced without his knowl-
ment is a will or not, it is of the first impor- edge ; whether the residuary clause was or was
laaoeto inquire into the capacity of the testis not intentionally omitted ; and the like ma^
tor, and whether he did m fact execute the ters, which go to the &ot, not to the effect of
allied will as it pniports to have been exe- the instrument. If the testator were blind or
ented. It is to frmiish evidence on both these illiterate, the court will re<]nire proof that the
pointB tbat disinterested persons are invited to will was properly read to hun, and that he ex-
TOL. Xiii.— 89
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
eonted it liitelliKentJy. Interest nnder a will, foreed hii r«tratt;, And put Umto ie»&. He ii
however slight, lacap&citateB one from giving regarded as one of the best oa well as ahlest of
evidence in support of it, where the old rnle the Soman emperon. He was succeeded bj
of the common law remaioa in force ; but this Oaroe.
incapacity may be removed by the witneBS FRO0ESS, in law, a term which, in a lai^ge
renonncinK or releaung his interest — Wills sense, signifies the whole proceedings in any
alleged to nave been lost, destroyed, or mislaid, action, ^vil or oriminsl, real or personal, from
may be admitted to probate on proof of these the beginning to tlie end. In a narrower and
foctB, and on olear and satisfactory evidence of more technical secae, the term is applied to
theb contents. No parol evidence of the con- different stages of the procedure; as la seen in
teats of a will alleged to be lost will be re- the terms original process, which includes
ceived, until it appears condasively that dili- those precepts or writs by which one is called
Sent aearoh baa been mode fur the neoesaarj into court ; final procees, or the forms of pro-
oonment in those places where it would most cednre by which Judgment is carried into ei«-
naturallj be found. cntion ; and mesne prooess, which covera th«
PR0BU8, MuKUS AuBiure, a Koman em- proceedings between the other two, and em-
peror, bora in Sirmium, Fannonia, about A. D. braces all proceedings properly so called, all
882, assaannated there in 262. While still writs for compelling tbe attendance of juion
veiy younghe gained the favor of the emperor or witnesses, and for other collateral porposes.
Tafenan, who raised him to the rank of tribune Hesne and final process are sometimes collect-
long before the n^nlor age. He commanded ively described by the term judicial procea^
■nccessively the 8d and 10th legions, and served because proceedings in these stages of an ao-
in turn in Africa and Fontas, on the Rhine, the tiou were anthemed immediately by the courts,
Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile. Uuder and issued under the hands and seals of their
Anrelian he reconquered Egypt, which had presiding judges. Original process, on the
fallen into the bands of Zenobiai ; and by the other hand, was so caUed because it was found-
emperor Tscitos he was made commauder-in- ed on the original writ, which, issuing out of
chief of the eastern provinces with 5 times the chancery and bearing the Cntoof the soverei^
usual salary, the jvomise of the consulship, conferred Jurisdiction on the conrt to which
and the hope of a triumph. Upon the death it was addressed, and founded its anthority
of the emperor ia 270 the armies of the East over the matter in oontroversy. In the strict
forced him to assume the imperial purple, and technical sense, process is the meana employed
the downfall of his rival Jlorianus soon left for bringing thedefendant into court to answer
him at the head of the Roman world. He first to the action. The first step therefore in the
turned his attention to Gaul, where he re- ancient procedure was to give the defendant
covered 70 flonri^ing towns from the Oer- notice of the issne and pendency of the original
mans, destroyed 400,000 of the invaders, and writ. This notice was given ordinarily by
drove the reminder across the Rhine. He summons, which was a warning to the party
Eenetrated into Germany, exacted from tbe in- to appear at the retnrn of th^ writ, and was
abitanta a heavy tribute of grain, cattle, and served upon him by the sheriff or some of hia
horses, and a restitution of the property car- messengers. If tbe defendant disregarded this
ried away fi«m the Roman provinces, and ob- monition, the neit step was a writ of attach-
Ilged them to supply the Roman army with ment, bidding the sbenfi' to take certain of hia
10,000 recruits. He also built a stone wall goods to be forfeited if he failed to appear, or
stretcbiDg ftom the neighborhood of Neustodt to take the pledges of certain snretira of th9
and Rstisbon on the Danube as far as Wimpfen defendant, who should be amerced in case of
on the N eokar, and thence to the Rhine, a dis- his non-appearance. If tbe sheriff' made retom
tance of nearly -SOO m. He secured the fi'oatier that the defendant had no goods whereby ha
of Rhsatio, crashed the power of the Sarma- could be attached, or if after attachment ha
tians, admitted tbe Gotha to an alliance, and fiiiled to appear, the conrt issued a writ ot
took several castles from tbe Isaurians. The capiat oommandiug the sheriff to lake tbe de-
rebellion of Satnruinas, tbe commander of the fendant's body. This writ and ell othera sub-
eastern army, and the revolt of Bonosus and sequent to it were called judicial, because, as
ProculusintheWeat, were speedily suppressed, we have already seen, they proceed^ imme-
Feoce now prevailed throughout the empire, diatelyfrom the court, and not from chaocerj.
and Probus returned to Borne and celebrated a The proceedings before capiat became in time
trlimiph. In order to maintun the discipline merely formal, and it was usual to sue tbia out
of his troops, be constantly employed them in in the first instance upon a supposed return of
active labor, and the bills of Gaul and Panno- the sheriff. — The oldsystem of process had be-
nla by their toil were enriched with vinerards, come very abstruse, complicated, and iocon-
Elnally an unguarded remark, that by the es- venient. Its erils were first brought fomiAlly
tablishment of universal peace he should render t» the public attention in ^England by tbe oom-
a standing army nnnecessary, proved fatal to mon law commisaionera in 1628. The uni-
bim. While his soldiers were draining tbe formity of process act, which followed aoon
marshes of Sirmium a mutiny broke out, and after, aboUshed all other modes of original pro-
Frobus fled to a high tower ; but tbe ^oope oess, and supplied th^ plaoa with five new
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
vrttL This statute was confined to peraonal heroes and philosophers, and even the spblti of
actiona. Real aetions were provided for hj the whole human race, and celebrated aU im-
Btatnte 8 and 4 'William IV., which deatrojred portantreliffieiisfestiyalB,nomatt«rof whatna-
all the old real writs bat three, namelj, dower, tion. " His life," Ba;B Gibbon, "with that of his
yuara imptdif, and qectment. Prooess was scholar Isidore, composed hjrtwo of theirmtnt
still further simplified by sabse(]nent acts, and learned disciples, einibits a deplorable pictnre
was bronght to Ita present position by the com- of the second childhood of hnman reason." In
mon law procedare act of 18C3. All personal addition to his various religions ezeroisea, he
actions in the superior courts of law mnst now delivered 5 leotnres a day. His extant works
becomraenoed in Englandbf writof sanunons. consist chiefly of commentaries, principally np»
In some cases, indeed, arrest is still possible, on Plato. One of hia original works is entitled
and then capiat mayissne; but this writ can- "Twantj-two Arguments against the Ohris-
not now be^Q the action, as it might formerly tians," in which he endeavored to maintain the
have done. — In some of the United States legis- eternity of the nnivarse. As a writer he is
I^on has been addressed lately to the simpHfl- nsnally regarded as one of the cleareat of hia
catjon of the forme of procedure. The New school, bnt as a phitosO[>her his reputation has
York code abolished all the old forma of sc- never stood high. Cousin, however, ooDsiderB
tions, took away all distinction between legal that all the philosophic rays which ever emanat-
aod equitable remedies, and eHtablished a nni- ed from the ^ot thinkers of Greece, Orpheu^
formoonrsebf proceeding in aU cases and salts. Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Plotinas,
All civil actions in courts of record (and by a and others, were conoentrated fn and reCmttted
civil aotion the code means every action that by Froolos. He wss also distinguished as a
is not a criminal prosecution) are commenced mathemotialan and grammarian. There is no
by a eervioe of summons, which requires the oomplete edition of his extant productions, bnt
defendant to answer the ooniplaint preferred an edition by Oonsin (S vols. 8tO-, Paris, 1820-
against him by the plaintiff. In Massaohaaetts '27) is most nearly so. Translations of seversl
and other states prooegs has been reformed by of his works have been made into Englbh by
improvements of a similar character, varying Thomas Taylor.
however in their details. — In the criminal law FBOOONSUL, a Homsn magistrate who
process applies in an extensive sense to all acted for the consul, with consular power, gen-
thosO'instraments which are issaed by compe- erally in the government of a province. He
tent authority for the purpose of bringing a was almost always one who had previously
party into court, or of executing the Judgment been consnl. The first proconsul was Q. Pnl>-
of the law upon him. The term thus includes Hlins Philo, who in 887 B. 0. was at the head
Eommonaes, warrants, capiases, attachments, of the army in the second Samnite war when
mittimnses, subpcenas, and all other writs which his consnlar year dosed, and was then contis-
sre employed in criminal cases. The state con- ned in the function beyond his time because
stitutions provide that all crimiual process shaU his recall would have d^royed the advantages
be in the name of the sovereign powar, and already g^ed. The proconsular dignity was
this is expressed in different cases by the terms always afterward conferred in similar oases,
the state, the people, or the commonwealth. PKOOOPlUSj a Byzantine historian, bora in
PROOLUS, a Greek philosopher of the Neo- Ofesarea, Palestme, about the beginning of the
natonio school, born in Oonetantinople, Feb. 6th century, died aboat A. D. 646. Bemoving
8, A. D. 413, died in Athens, April IT, 48S, taOonBtButinoplewhenBtillfonng,heobtained
The earlier years of his life were spent at there so much reputation as an sdvooate and
Santhns in Lycia, whence he went W Alexan- professor of eloquence, that in 637 he was
dria for the purpose of oontinning his education, chosen secretary by Belisariue, and accompanied
remained there several years studying under tbat commander in bis wars against the Per-
tiie most eratneut teachers, and before he was sians, against the Vandals in Africa, and against
90 yeara old removed to Athens. At the age the Goths in Italy. During the last men-
of 88 he hod written several treatises, one of tioaed war be had chaige of the oommissariat
whichwa3hisoomnientaryonthe"Timfflus"of department, and was at the head of the fleet.
Plato. Upon the death of Syrianns he snooeed- Returning with Belisarius to Oonstantinople
ed that philosopher in the school at Athens, abont 643, be received from the emjieror
and from this ctrcnmstsnoe he is sometimes Justinian the titie of illvstrii and the poaition
called Diodoehns (t. s., the snooesaor). Once of senator, and in 663 was made pr^ect of
he was obliged to leave that city, perhaps on the city. The most important work of Pro-
aeconnt of having violated the laws of the oopius is his elegant and interesting " History"
Christian amperors ; but after spending a year of hie own timee in 8 books, beMnning with
in the East he returned, snd pawed the remain- the war against the Pernons, relating the wars
der of his life at Athens. He adopted the against the Vandals and Qouis and the history
sacetio system which became common tn the of the Gothic ktngdom in Italy, and ending at
later Keo-Plutonic school, absttdned almost en- the commencement of theyear M8. The wttA
tirely from the use of animal food, refOsed to has been translated into laiglish by ffir Henr7
marry, and observed numerous fasts and vigils. Holcroft (fol., London, 166B). Another work,
He worshipped the sun and moon, the spirits of entitled Antedeta, oonsista of a ooUeotios of
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
61S FB00BU8TES FBOOTOB
aneodotea portrejing the morals of tbe Bjzan- i, prootor is one wbo ia conmusaionod to tnxM-
due court, and reflecting Beverel^ npon tLe act the bnenneaa of his primupal in the eocla-
promiuent men of the time. The &ntborehip uaatical or admiraltj courts. He discbu'geB
of this has been qnestioned, bnt there ia little functions siniiliir to those of Bttomejs and so-
donbt that it wss written by Procopins. An lidtora in other courts. In En^and, the pnx^-
English translation of it wa^nblished anon;- tor can be admitted to practice onlj after »
monalj-iuider the title of "The Secret History clerkship of 7 years with a senior proctor af at
of the Conrt of the Emperor Jostinian" (Lon- least G years' standing, and he must prodnoe a
don, 16T4). The best edition of Prooopine's certiflcats of oonsiderable proficiency in class-
ooUeoted works is by Sindorf (8 vols., Bonn, oal edccation. Before the abolition of the pro-
18SS-'B). bate and matriinoDial courts of doctors' com-
FRO0RU8TE5 (Gr., the etretoher), the ear- mons, the proctore were the only peratHU
name of Folypemon or Damaatea, a legendary allowed to practise in them. (See Boctobs'
robber of Attica, who had an iron bed npon Commohb.) According to the original and
which be plac«d all the traveilers who fell into stricter practice, the proctor's anthority to act
bis hands ; if they were longer than the bed, Ibr his principal mnst be conferred by a proxy ;
he cot enough from their limbs to make them that is, by aa instnunent signed by the princi-
fit; if the}[ were shorter, he stretched them, pal, attested by witnesses, and deposited in th»
He was slain by Theseus on Mt. Cephissns. regulry of the conrt. Proxies are still reqni-
PBOCTER, BbtJlJt Walleb, an English site m the ecclesiastical oonrts; in adminiUj
Soet, better known by his aaagrammatic psen- they were long ago dispensed with, and a ver-
onyme of Barry OomwaU, bom in London hal appointment is now snffioient. Iftheproo-
abont 1700. He was educated at Harrow, tor has been regularly admitted to practice, ha,
where Byron was hia schoolfellow, and, alter like an attorney at law, is presumed in sU
passing some time in the office of a solicitor in caaes to have authority to appear nctil such
Wiltshire, removed to London, and in 1881 right is disputed. Yet, thou^ the conrt will
was called to the bar from Gray's Inn. He has pr^mne either his dne authority, or at least
since that time steadUy practised his profesuon, that he has good reason to believe that those
and for a number of years has held the office of whom he represents have an interest in the
commissioner of lunacy. His literary career cause in issue, it may at any time demand the
commenced in 1619 with the publication of a names of the parties for whom the ^octo»
volume entitled " Dramatic Scenes and other appears. — Proctors are known in the United
Poems," written, he said, " to try the effect of States only as ofBcers of the courts of admi-
a more natural style than that which had for a rally. In some portions of the country thoy
long time prevtuled in oor dramatic literature." attend to the whole management of the causa
Bis remaining works ore: " Uarcion Colonno, from the beginning; in others they conduct
an Italian Tale ; with three Dramatio Boenes, the case out of court, while the exanunatioii
and other Poems" (1820J ; " A Sicilian Story, of witnesses in court, the motions, argumenta,
with Diego de Uantilla and other Poems" and other incidents of the trial, are attended to
(1920) ; " Mirandolf, a Tragedy" (1821) ; " The by an advocate. When once retained, the proo-
ilood of Thessaly and other Poems f ' " Poeti- tor has the whole direction of the cause ; but
col Works" (8 vols., 1S32); "EfGgiesPoeticte" his power msy be revoked by the aoitor at any
(1824) ; " English Songs and other Small time, without cause assigned. This is properly
Poems" (1883) ; and "Essays and Tales in done, under leave of the coor^ aitor notice to
Prose" (1861). He is also the author of a the proctor, because a proctor is an officer of
life of Edmund Keon, and of a memoir of the court. Ashe b invested with isfgediscr^
Shakespeare and an essay on his genius. His tionory power and influence, the proctor is held
" Mirandola" was produced with considerable to the utmost good faith and Int^rity, Unless
success at Covent Garden, and by many hia a case ia in his opinion ^ust, or at least donbb-
dramatio pieces, founded on the style of the fill, he ou^bt not to brmg it before the conrt.
Elizabethan writers, are considered his highest This principle is especially f^iplioable in the case
efforts. Heia however better known by hia of Bmtabyse8men,wheregeneral]ynoavai]able
BongB, some of which are angularly well adapt- responsibility is incurred by the libellants. In-
ed to mnsic, and are equally refined in senti- dee^, for any merely experimeatal or wanttHi
ment and diction. All his publications have litigation, or for any want of good ftith to-
appeared under his assumed name of Barry ward the court, or of fair dealmg toward the
Gomwall. — ^Adslaidb Ankb, daughter of the oppoute party, the proctor may be pnnished
preceding, has published "Legends and Lyrics, by the oourt. For"sharp and hungry prao-
a Book of Terse" (1858; Sth ed., 1860), and tice" Sir William Scott condemned a proctor
" A Second Tolnme of Legends and Lyrics" to pay the costs of his client's suit ; and he
(1861), containing poetry which, " without added that he was peih^ts dealing too tempter-
imitation, has mnoh of the paternal grace and ately in not going farther. The dnty of the
manner." courts of the United States to repress abases
PBOOTOB (Lai proeurat^r, agent), in a gen- of this nature is eqioined by a spcoial statota
eral sense, one who is commissioned to manage proviuon, the act of 1613 enacting that if any
His business of another. In a partionlar sense, prootor or attorney shall qipear to have mnl-
PRODIOUS PBOUETHEUS 618
tiplied the proce«dInga In a case so as to in- brother]ioodofdieIinmBn&ntil7',andB«hiow1-
creaee the oosta nnreaaonably and ¥61811011917, edge the duty of defining and illoBtrftting th^
the court may order him to pay the ezoem of &ith in God, not by assent to any form of the-
anch expense. After a anit la oommenoed, the ological opinion or doctrine, but by lives of
leepondent has not as a general mle the right personal parity and works of beneficence.
to settle the case without the knowledge of They bold that chnrchea are not dlTine bat
the proctor of the libellant ; and if he does BO, hnmon organiEations, possessing no higher
the settlement may be inquired into by the powers than those whicn they derive from the
conrL The proctor may generally be consid- persons of whom they are composed. They
ered so far dominut litU, that he b anthorized nave no orduned ministers or ^ders, and no
to make an affidavit of any feet npon which to prescribed ceremonies or forms of worship, bnt
offer a motion, especially if the feet be peon- aim to preserre the liberty of speech and of
tiarly within hb own knowledge. Bat he can- conscience to the fiiU est extent
not release or compromise a claim wlthont PROJECTILES. See Gdusmit, toI. viu, p.
special authority. He may however receive 677, and HxcHAino& vol. zi. p. 833.
payment, and the amonnt so pud is a dlsohar^ FROUETHEUB, in Grecian mythology, the
pro tanto. After a decree, anless by special aon of the "Ktan lapetna by Oljmene, and broth-
anChority of the court the proctor has no power er of Atlas, Mencetins, and Epimetheas. Ao-
except to ene ont and enforce eiecation. — The cording to Henod, the gods and men were in a
name proctor is also f^ven in England, and in dispate at Mecone in r^ard to dnties and privi-
some American colleges, to nniversity officers leges, and especially as to what portion Vt the
whose bnsiness it is to guard the morals and animal shonld be offered to the fbrmer in saori-
order of the nniversity, flee. Hereupon Prometheus divided a bull into
PRODIOUB, a Grecian sophist, a native of two parts, wrapping np the flesh and intestines
talis in the island of Oeoa, who flonrished in in the akin for one, and the bones covered
the latter part of the Gth century B. 0. Plato with the fat for the other. Jnpiter, having
represents his instraotion as chiefly ethical. He then been aaked which of the two he would
regarded the gods as only the personification choose, decided for the latter, and the choloe
of whatever contributes to the comfort of hn- made could not be revoked. Indignant at the
man life, and it is stated by Saidas that he was deceit practised upon him, he withheld fire
condemned to drink hemlock as a cormpter of from mortals ; bnt Fromettaeus stole fire f^om
the youth of Athens; but this is donbted. heaven in the hollow of a tube. Jnpiter now
PROGRESSIVE FRIENDS, the name first sent Pandora to earth with her boi of evila,
the youth of Athens; but this is donbted. heaven in the hollow of a tube. Jnpiter now
PROGRESSIVE FRIENDS, the name first sent Pandora to earth with her boi of evila,
adopted by a religions society formed by a con- and festened Prometheus to a pillar, where he
Tention held in Balem, Oolumbiana co., Ohio, remained fbrmany generations, an ea^e every
1 Sept. 1853, and composed chiefly, though day feeding apon his liver, which every night
fied with the Hicksite branch of the society of to kilt the eagle and to dree the prisoner. In
Friends. Previous to this time, the Indutna, .fsohylua, Prometheus appears not only as &e
Ohio, and Genesee yearly meetings of Hickate protector of the hnman race against the supe-
Friends had been divided apon questions con- rior might of the gods, bnt as its teacher and
nected with slavery, and the minorities, which benefactor. Through his assistance, JnpiteT
had either seceded or been cnt off, bad formed overcomes the Titans ; but when he fVnstrates
new associations, one at Green PWn, Ohio, the design of destroying mankind, be is chained
and another at Waterloo, N. T., adopting the to a rock in Scythia. There he is visited by the
name of Gongregationai Friends. The forma- Oceanids and by lo, to whom he foretells his
tion of the society of Progressive Frienda at long wandering. Bnt be is in possession of
Balem, Ohio, woe a more complete develop- knowledge which it is essential to the safety
meat of the principles which found expression of Jupiter to gain ; and aware that his help
in the earlier associations, and its name is now is yet to be invoked, he bids defiance to hte
videly accepted as the appropriate designation persecutor, and refhsas to make known the
of all those who avow their sympathy with feet. He is hurled hereupon into Tartama,
those principles. In 18B8 a largo Booiety or and afterward re^pears chained to Mount Can-
yearly meeting of Progressive Friends was casus, and nndergoea fresh torments. From
formed in Chester co., Penn. The Hoctetr at thia oondition he can only be freed when some
ffatcrioo, W. T., adopted the name, and sirni- other god shall volnntarily descend into Tai- •
lar associations were soon afterward formed in tarns for htm, which was flnally the case when
various places, some of them taking the name Chiron, wounded by Hercules, sonsht permis-
of Friends of Hnman Progress, instead of Pro- tion to go into Hades. Still another aoconnt
gres^ve Friends. There are now G or S yearly says that Jupiter himself delivered Prometheos
meetings and many smaller associations, bear- when the latt«r agreed to reveal the prophecy,
iog one or the other of these names, in differ- according to which, if he were mamed to
eal parts of the country, liiese societies have Thetis, Me would give btrth to a son stronger
DO creed, written or unwritten, as a bads than himself. The most celebrated drama
of fellowship. They invite to membership ftunded upon this myth is the trili^ of £»•
ud cooperation all who Teoogniae the eqnal ohylns, of which the JVmMtAwt Ptnetv* and
614 raOUlSSOBT KOTE PfiOPHXOT
« for ft«gmenti of th« PromttAevi BoUiUu are FBOFAaATION OF THE FAITH, Soomr
still eitant. fob thi tta looiiU p«w la prowmatian dt la
PR0MIS80KY NOTE, a promise in writ- >i), a Roman Oatholio niiawoiia«T sode^r
ing to paj monej. When the promiM is to founded at Lyons in 1629. Its plan is to
pay it to the pajee or bis order, tbe note is r^se, throogh a number of committeea and
negotiable, and, as an exceedingly nseftil and snb-oonunitteeB, one cent a week from each
important instrument of buHiness, it is governed BnbBcriber, tbe money being forwarded to
by a system of law wbicli ia quite peonliar. tbe central committee at Lyons, by whom tbe
(See iNiKiBSKifsin', and Nbootiablb Pai^bb.) Amds are ^portioned to lusbopa of the various
Wben not payable to order, or not oegotiable, nisHionary oountries tbrongbont tbe world,
the rules of law applicable to it vary very lit- Tbe society spread rapidly from Lyons over
tie from those winch are in foroe generally in tbe whole of Europe, and has now pajiiw
relation to written contracts. members in almost every country in the worl£
PRONOUN. See LiMQCAOB, vol. x. p. 396. It is sometimes confoBed with tbe Roman prc^
FRONT, Gaspabd Club Fbancocs Makib aganda, with which however it has nothing
KioHB av^ baron, a French engineer, bom at in common except a umilar object. The oen-
Cbsmelet, near Lyons, in 17GB, died Jnly 29, tral committee at Lyons pablishes 6 timcH a
1889. He was educated at tbe school of ponU year a serial called the Anaaia d» ia ptvpaga-
et ehavttieL went on several scientific missioDs, titm de la foi, the numbera of which are speM-
became asdstant to the civil engineer Perronet, ily translated into all the European languages,
and aided him in bnUding the bridge of Oon- and published and distributed among Ue aub-
cord at Paris. On the completion of this scribers to inform them of the nse inade of the
work (1791), he was promoted to the rank of funds and of the progress of the missiiMiaiy
chief engineer. In the same year be was ap- work in different parts of the world.
Eiinted head of the board of suney {eadaatre). PBOPERTIUS, Bbxttta Aubblits, a Roman
e snperintended the forming of new trigone- elegiac poet, bom in Umbria abont the middle
metrical tables, which he collected inl?large of the 1st oentnry R.O. He was rich until an
volumes, now in the library of the observatory agrarian division, in 86 B. 0_ rednced his for-
at Paris. He meanwhile filled the chur of tune. He wrote 4 books of elegies, princiimUy
mechanics at the polytechnic school, and in addressed to bis mistress. He was a great inu-
1798 was intrneted with the direction of the tator of the Greek elegiac poets, chiefly CalH-
school of pontt et thavuUi, which he held until machna and Philetas. The text of Properlins
his death. Bonaparte charged him with ser- has come down tons in an exceedingly conupt
eral important musioDS to Italy, where, beside state. The tdilio prinupt was printed in folio
improvements in tbe ports of Genoa, Ancona, in 1473 ; one of the best later editions is tliat
ana Venice, he undertook works for draining of Hertzberg (3 vols. 8vo., Halle, l&4S-'5).
the Pontine marshes and regulating tbe coarse FROPHEOY (Gr. irpo^nrrfta, from rpa^n^a^
of the Po. In 1827 be improved tbe naviga- to predict), the prediction of future event*,
tion of the Rhone so as to partially prevent The belief that certain men or classes of men
its overflowing. He published many works on bad the fhcnlty of predicting future events, can
mathematics and en^neering. be traced in the history of many nations to the
PROPAGANDA, or properly Oonqiooatio remotest antiouity ; and it was in particular
DK PnopAGAKDA PiDB (congregatiou for prop- tbe priesthood who were regarded as being
agating the faitbj, a board of 2D cardinals endowed with snob a faculty. It is, how-
fonnded at Borne m 16S2 by Gregory XY. for ever, not common to apply the term propho-
the support and direction of foreign missions, sying indiscrtminatel^ to all instances of an
It tias a secretary, who is genertdl^ a bishop ^eged faculty of predicting, hot it is gener-
or archbishop, and a number of priests, advi- ally restricted to the Old Testament theology.
sers, and under secretaries, who bold a consnl- The name prophet in the languages of ue
tation weekly. The cardinal prefect of the prop- Christian nations is derived fr^ the Gre^
aganda is the pope's representative in all mat- nym^Tn;;, by which the Septnagint renders
ters conoeniing the affairs of foreign missions, the Hebrew nahi. But it is now generalfy
including the final appointment of all bishops agreed among the leading Hebrew scholars
In miadonary countries. Pope Urban Vllt. m that the term of the Septnagint does not
1S87 added to the congregation a ooUege for fully correspond to the primary meaning *rf
the education of missjonary priests, where the Hebrew word, which denotes " inq>ired.''
yoong men from every oonntry in the world, A Hebrew " prophet," In the wider sense
with the exception of strictly Catholic conn- of the word, was therefore a man who spoke
tries, are educated, and ordained for the mis- by divine inspiration. Sometimes the (Hd
sionary work among their fellow conntrymen. Testament nsea the word in a bad sense of
A celebrated polyglot printing establishment men who only claim to be prophets without
ia attached to the propaganda, and bedde a fall being so in reality, and of such as were pos-
corps of professors, including teachers of many sessed of an evil spirit. — The prindpal fUnc-
ancient and modem laugnaaea, it possesses ^so tion of tbe prophets of the Old Testament was
a mnsenm of antiquities and cnriodties, a bond- obvlonsly to be the privileged organs throngh
anne church, and a large and select library. which Clod designed to keep op the interoonrse
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PEOPHBOT ei6
€it rvrtHeOAon tretween hlmMlf snd Hla people. introdiiotot7 treatise to h]j work on the wopb-
Tho prophet is the moath through which God eta), and Dr. Williams (in the Oirford "£Ma7t
speaks to the people, and pnbliolr umoanoes, and BeviewB"). Withregard to the prediotiona
BO fiar as neoeeaorj, tiie secrete Into which he of fbtnre events occurring in the hooks of the
hsK been inituted. (Amos iii 7.) Theproph- prophets, this class of writers either ascribe
ets therefore freqnentlr call their prophecies them (as Bonsen did) to a Und of Hpiritoal
words of Jehovah. Ae thej were sent to keep oloirvojance, or they maintain (with Dr. Wil-
(he theooratio people on the right path, and to liams) diatveiyfew paBsages can be olaimed as
lead it fbrward toward the folfilment of ltd dee- etrictlj prophetic ; that these few coses " tend
tinies, their ideas were naturally turned toward to melt, if they are not already melted, in the
the fatnre, and, in oooordanoe with the good or omcihle of free inquiry ;" and that what is left
bad conduct of the people, they promised to it is certain " deep trnths and great ideas." Tliia
reward or pnnishment, salvation or min. Fre- view of the ease is rejected as more or less
qneatly, though for the most psrt obscurely, rationslistio hj the great m^ority of Christian
Ukey pointed to a glorioos oompletion of the theologians, who muntain that it is opposed
theocracy through a great descendant of David, by the plain intent of the Old Testament, by
the Messiah. They also acted as the divinely the connCer testimony of Ohrist and the apostles
appointed interpreters of the law given through In the New, and also by the concessions of nn-
Ibsee, and were especially zesuoDS as gnar- believing interpreters, sndi aa Strauss, wbo
dians of the rights of the poor. Their mis- say that the Boriptnral writers undoubtedly
■on, as a body of extraordinary teachers, be- claim prophetic inspiration, but that the claim
earns especially important in times when the is absurd. Among the ablest works written
ordinaryguardiansof the law, the priests, sided from this standpoint must be mentioned Pro*
with tiie apostates and idolaters. Their indi- fessor Fairboim's treatise on " Prophecy, its
Tidoal labOTS, which frequently embraced al! Natnre and Functions" (Edinburgh, 1868), De-
intenul and external affairs of the Hebrew litzsoh's Prophetitehe JneologU, and especially
state, were however greatly shaped by par- Tholuck, Die Propheten und ihre Weiaagung^
Ueular drcnmstanoes, and hut few of them «n fGotha, I860), who has reviewed the whole
were in a condition to labor so efficiently for sntgect in a philosophical manner, and ^ves as
the prosperity of their people as Isaiah. (See the residt of his studies that the prophecies
HiBBaws.) — The peculiar form of their pro- cannot be interpreted " as the utterance of
?hetic gift is not sufficiently defined in the Old subjective religious sapirfttJons," and that " the
estament to leave no room for permanent very course of history has impressed upon
q>ecntation and controversf. The mode in these declarations the stamp and oonfirma^on
which the prophet obtained his inspiration was of an ol^eative and supernatural inspiration."
obviously difierent from that in which inspira- The reader may also consult various oommen-
lions were conveyed to Uoses and the apos- taries on the books of the prophets, and that
ties. It is intimated as characteristia of a class of works which limit themselves to an
prophet that he obtained divine inspiration In interpretation of the " Ueasianio prophecies"
Tisions and dreams ; the name seer, whioh is thronghout the entire Old Testament, amoiw
osually given to him, points to the same source, whioh Eengstenberg's " Christology of the Old
and tJie language of the prophecies, which is Testament" b the best known. Some inter-
hiffhlj poetiMl, well aooords with it. Every- preters have anerted that all or certain proph-
where a sort of ecstatic transport, in whioh eoies were conditional, and therefore revocable;
ideas were immediately reoeiveo from heaven, while the more common opinion is that when
seems to have been essentially connected with the prophet denounces the divine Jndg^mta,
the prophetic state. This forcible working he proceeds on the assumption that the peo[^e
spon the mind of the prophet by the spirit of will not repent, an assumption whioh he knows
God is someWmss represented as the stronger, from God to be true. — The proper origin of the
the less godly the life of the prophet was, as prophetic office must he fixed in the Mosoio
in the case of Balaam, and of Baal, who when economy ; tor although previously Abraham
the spirit of God came upon him threw himself and the body of patriarchs in general are called
upon the gronnd, tearing his clothes from his prophets, becanse divine oommunioationa were
body. On the basis of these statements of the made to them in the manner above described,
Scriptures, a host of ei^etdoal writers have yet they were not clothed with a prophetlo
disonased with great keenness and learning the office, which frtim the time of the establish-
precise nature of the agency or agencies by ment of the Mosaic law was regularly ooimect-
■ which the prophetic eoatasy and inspiration ed with the prophetic giit, so ss to form part
were produced. Uany writers, especially since of the idea of a prophet. The book of Danl^
the middleof the lastoentury, nave endeavored though he was emmently endowed with pro-
to show that the Scriptures do not assert s phetio gifts, was not plaoed in the collection of
direct and miraonlous Bopernatnral Interfer- prophetic books, because he had not ffiled the
enee, and that all can be explained by a high prophetic ofBce. In the age of the judges,
d^ree of religions enthnsiaam and ecstasy, prophecy, though existing only in scattered in-
Among these writers are Eichhom, Knobel stances, exerted a powerfnl influence. A more
(Dsr PivphaiKmut der fftbithr), £wdd (in qn oonspicnous prophetic agency begins with Bam-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
616 PBOPHETS FSX^ODY
oel, who seams to h&re been thefbanderof the Joshua, Jadgw, Samml, and EinK^
schools of the propheto; for the7 are mantjoned the latter thej anin distmgnuhed b«tweat the
for the first time in his histoiy. Gibes, Rama, "grest"<Issiali, Jeremiali,aiid£zekiel)aiid the
Bethel, Jericho, and Gilgal are etinmerat«>d as 19 "toinor" prophets (Hoeea, Joel, Amoe, Obs-
plaoes where such schools existed. Thej were diah, Jonah, "''■Jt'i Nahnni, Eabskkok, Zepha-
ntstitutlons for truniug prophets; the senior uiah, Eaggai, Zechamh, and Ualachi). lathe
members iustraot«d a unrnber of pQpils, and arrangement of modem biblical criticiam.Joeh-
directed them. Samuel, Elijah, and Misha are na, Jadges, Bamael, and Kings are not connt-
mentioned as principalB of snoh inatitntiana. ed among the books of the prophets, who ai«
The pupils are freaaentlj oalled the " sons of divided into the 4 great (Isaiah, Jereiniah, £ze>
the prophets." Tne prophets were mostlj kiel, and Daniel) and the 13 minor prophets.
talcen from these schools, yet not always ; for For s fuller accotut, see the articleB np<ai the
Amosrelatesof himself that he had been trun- individnal prophets,
ed in no school, bnt was a herdsman, when the FBOPONTIS. Bee Uibvoba, Ska. or.
Lord took him to prophesy unto the people of PROPORTION, in mathematicE, the relatkra
Israel. Sometimes, bat rarely, it occurs that of one quantity to another. This reUtion m»f
women came fbrward as prophetesses. The be expressed either bj the difference of the
golden era of the prophets extends from the qnantities or by their quotient. In the former
timeofSamnel to the Babylonian captivity, and caae it is called arithmetical relation, in the
hardlv any important event happened in which latter geometrical proportion, or simple pro-
they did not appear as performug the leading portion. The measore of this latter relation is
port, Abont loo years after the return from called the ratio ; that is to say, ratio is the
the Babylonian captivity, the prophetic profes- number of times one quantity contains anoUier
■ion ceased, and Eaggai, Zaohariah, and Ualachi taken as a Btandard. The following algebruo
are uniformly mentioned by Jewish tradition expresuon is called a proportion : a •.b:: ei^;
as the last of the prophets. — The manner of life which means that the ratio of a to d is the
qf the prophets was conspicuous for strictness, same as the ratio of cto d. A proporiion may
austerity, and ascetidsm. They shunned the thus be defined to be an identity of ratios. In
oompanyof the cheerful, and frequently were in the above expression a, i, e, and d are called
poverty and want, Ae no provision had been the terms of the proportion ; a and d the ex-
made for their support by law, they had to tremes; i and o the means; a and c, antece-
C their livelihood by other occupations, dents; fi and t^, consequents,
e of them appear to have been in posses- FBOBERFINE, or Pebskpbokk, in Greek and
rion of oonnderable phyuoal and medical Roman mythology, the queen of the infernal
knowledge, aud to have ocoasionaUy made use world. She was the daughter of Jupiter and
ot it. L^r they often wrote down their Geres, and was beloved by Pluto, who fordblj
prophecies, and many others compiled histor. carried her off to Hades. There she was found
leal works. Thus Samuel, Gad, and Nathan byOeres, whoindacedPlutotoconeentthather
wrote the history of David; Nathan also the daughter ahonldpus 8 months of eveir year in
history of Solomon ; Bhemai^ and Iddo the the upper world with her. Through this stoiy
history of Reboboam ; Jehn the history of Je- Proserpine heosme with the ancients a symbol
hoshaphat ; and Isaiah the history of TIzziah of veeetation. The £leusinisn mysteriee be-
and Eezekiah. When the prophetic office longed to her in common with her mother, and
oeased, the Jews, according to the Tslmnd, she had temples at Oorioth, JtCegara, Sparta,
fbnnd some substitute for it in< the Bath-EoL and at Locri in the south of Italy.
(See BiiB-KoL.)— The New Testament men- PROSODY (Or. nprn^iui), that part of
tions the power of propheoj as one of the gifts grammar which treats of quantity, accent, ver-
of the Holy Spirit, we r^ of one prortiet, aification, and the lawa of harmony in metrical
Agahns, who predicted the famine under Olan- oompoMtion. In t^e modem European lan-
dioa and the impristaiment of the apostle Paul ; guages nrosody has to do almost wholly with
bnt generaUy a foreknowledge and foretelling accent, but Greek and Roman verification was
of futurity is not mentioned as characteristic of governed by the quantity of ayllables, that is,
those men who, as Barnabas, Judas, and Silas, the length of the vowels in them. In English
are called prophets in the Pauline epistles. The prosody the Btyectives "long" and "short" ore
olject of the Ohristian "prophecy" was, ao- need respectively to denote accented and un-
oordlng to 1 Cor. ziv. 8, " edifloation and ez- accented syllables, and these are indicated by
faortetion and comfort." Among the books of the signs — and ». A group of syllables taken
the canon of the New Testament only one, the together is called a measure. The different
Revelation, bears a prophetia oharaoter. kinds of measure are the following; lambos,
PROPHETS, Books of ma, a part of the --; trochee,--; spondee, --; pyrrhic, - -j
Old Testament. The rabbis divided the books dactyl, - - - ; amphibrach, - - - ; anapcest,
of the Hebrew canon into three classes : 1, To- - " — . Metre oonsbts essentially in the reonr-
rah Qaw) ; S, MMim (prophets) ; 8, KettvMm rence at certain intervals of syllables similarly
(writings, hagiographa). The second class was accented, or in other words of the arrangement
subdivided'^ them into "former" and "latter" of raessnres aooording to certvn rales; and
prophets. The former oompriaed the books of metres are demominrted from the kind and
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PK0TK8T en
It of tbe Tneamrw of which thej «» FBOTAOORAS, a Qreek phUosopher, bom
composed. The iambus forms tbe itunbio in Abder&probablj about 480 B.C., died abont
inoaometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pea- ill. The common storj in reg^ to big ori^
tameter (heroic measure), hexameter (Alexan- was that be was a porter, and attracted, br Uie
drine), ftnd beptameter, in which the meaiure ekilfnl manner in wbioh be carried his load,
oc«ara respectiTel^ from onc« to seren timea the attention of DemocoitoB, who undertook the
in each vena. There are the same Tarieties task of ednoating him. He travelled throcgb-
of trooh^ meaeore; the dactyl, amphibrach, out Greece, eiving instmotiona in philoao^T
and anaptest hare tbe flrst fonr, and there ia to larce nnnbers of papils. Twice at least he
also a dactylic hexameter so called, the last visited Athens, and aeema to have been on liitl-
measore of which b a spondee. Longfellow's mate terms with Perides. He was tbe firet who
" Evangeline" is written in this metre. Moat assumed tbe title of sophist, as denoting one
of the metres admit of an additional nnacoented who insbuoted- others m the art of beooming
sjUable at the end of the Une, and sometimes wise, and in the arts of eloquence and polities,
8t tbe be^^ing, as in the following amphibrach and woe also the flnt who received pay for his
tetrameter from Goldsmith : lessons. According to Plato, he received more
Th.nta, mr l«4 ftr I roOT nn-«m ; I ftr fln« 1 or MM money doring the 40 years in which be taught
itner nuged in 1 ■ ftnut | or unoked In | > pUtur. than Pbidias and 10 Other Bcnlptors. None of
In the amphibrach and dactylic measures a ^/^fej?* ^^^^ i°>^"=.w?"*l',?'' ^'
final syllabfe is sometimes wanting ; thus : Gods," Protagoras started with the following
' proposition : " Bespeoting the gods, I am unable
Tb ihopWd^ I » oliterftu I UMi gv-. to know whether they exist or do not exist."
FaMk.tlM«,|i£eoftiie|o»u. rortbisstatementhewflsbanishedfrom Athens,
A combination of several lines constituting a where he was then residing, and his books were
regnlar diviuon of a po^ is a stanta, and stan- bnmed. According to some he was drowned
zas may. combine a variety of measures. Tbe on a Toyage to Sicily.
Spenserian stanza consists of 9 iambic lines, PBOl^TrOB, Lokd, in English history, a
the first 8 being heroics and the last an Alex- title conferring extraordinary powers, which
andrine. Gay's stanza contains 8 iambic tri* has been several times conferred by parliament
meters, the lat, Sd, Sth, and 7th lines having during politjoal emergencies. The most cele-
an additional final syllable. Elegiac occtosyl- brated lord proteetors were Bichard, duke of
labics are iambic tretameters witb alternating Gloucester, whose protectorate ended in his
riiymes ; octoajllabio oonpleta, iambic tretame- becoming king as Richard III, ; Edward Sey-
ters with p^a of rhymes, one foot occasionally mour, doJce of Somerset, uncle to Edward VI. ;
being a trochee ; octoajllahic triplets, iambic and Oliver Oromwell and his son Richard,
tetrameters with 8 rhymes regularly in sac- PROTEBILAUS, a TbesBoIian prince, the
ces^on; heroic oonplets and triplete, iambio first Greek slun in the Trojan war. It is said
pentameters with rhymes in pairs or triplets ; in the Iliad that he was the first who leaped
elegiac heroics, the same with alternating from tbe ships upon the Trojan shore, and ao-
rhymea; rhymes royal, 7 heroics, of which the cording to ttie andent tradition reconnted In
la^ 3 rhyme with each other, and the re- Lndan be was killed by Hector. The great
maining 6 mxj be made to rhyme in varioas afiection toward Frotesilaus of bis wifo Laoda-
wftys ■ and oltava rima, 8 heroics, the first 6 mia is celebrated by the poets. Aft«r hie de«th
riiyming alternately, and the last 3 in sue- she prayed to be permitted to converse with
cession. Tena rima, which has been bor- him only for the apace of 8 hours; the prayer
rowed like the last from the Italiaji, consists was granted, Uercnry conducted ProteBiiaas to
of iambic pentameters in which the following the upper world, and when he died a second
verses rhyme with one another ; the Ist and time bis wife died with him.
Sd; the fld, 4th, and Oth; tite SOt, 7tb, and PROTEST (Lat. protettor, to testify or de-
Mh, and so on; the stanza ends abmptly, and clare against), a term used in many ways and
tbe laat rhyme, like the first, is on a couplet for many purposes. One who is called upon
instead of triplet This is the metre of Dante's to pay an import dnty, a tax, a sabscripdon, or
Dwijiae»ttmiedut. Ballad stanzas are of 4 iam- the llJie, whioh he thinks he ought not to be
He lines, the let and Sd being tetrameters and required to pay, but is unwilling to encounter
the 2d and 4th trimeters. Service or common the del^ and expense of a lawsuit at that time,
metre consists of iambic beptameter couplets, pays the sum demanded under protest; that Ibl
which may be divided into ballad staiizas. ne accompanies the payment by a written and
Long metre is a stanza of 4 iambic tetrameters, attested declaration of what be deems the ills-
rhyming either in couplets or alternately ; and gality of the demand, and of his rights of de-
ahort metre 4 iambic lines, of which the 1st fence and denial. This protest preserves all
and &d ate trimeters and the 3d and 4th tetra- those rights ; and in any subseqnent suit or
meters. There are several other kinds of other efiort to get the money back, tbe protest
stanza in more or Iras frequent use, one of the will prevent him from being impeded by his
most cnrions of which is the old "poulterer's payment. — In lepdation, the members of a
measure," coosisting of Alexandrines and iam- aelibwatiTo body who dissent (Wim the viewa
Ino heptameters titaraattly. of a oifjorify, and have no power to prerent
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
ei8 FBOTESIAin PBOTSTO
those viewa from going into «fl^ lomfitimes tutdpUMdaienldtloiiaudifhoWMtateS'wbidi
ftsk leave to pat on the record of the body » had shown thcmflelree &Torable to the redbr-
deolaration of their views, drawn up and si^ed mation abonld prohibit, nnlfl the oonroeatioii
by them. This ie called their protest Sigunst of an cBcnmenioal coond), all flirlher inDora-
the measure; and leave to record it is nsaalfy tjona in religions matters, and in partienlar
^ven,if it be decent sad temperate in its terms, should not allew anj altorstion in the cele-
aad do68 not state what the m^jori^ re^rdaa bration of tlie Lord's sapper or the maaa. To
wilfully false or impertinent. — ^If a renel be thia reeolotion the evangelical estates, consist-
wrecked, or meet with otlker iiynry from any ing of the elector of Baxo^, the manrave
perU of the sea, it is an ancient and nearly nni- of Brandenburg, the duke of Snmswick-Lane-
versal custom for the master, on his arrival at bnrg, the lam^rave of Hease, tie prince of
port after the iqjury, to appear before a notary Anhalt, and 14 imperial dties, refbsed to snb-
pnblio, or some competent magistrate, or in mit. They declared their readiness to obey
their absence some respectable and qnallfied the emperor and the diet in all " dntjfbl and
penon, and enter his protest against the aod- poadble niatten ;" but against any order con-
dent or peril. In this protect ne detula the eidered by them repngnant to " Ood and his
drcamstances with snfficlent folaess to soetaiii holy Word, to their soola' salvation and thdr
his declaration that the injury occurred, not good ecmscienoe," they entered, on April 19, a
through the fault of the Teasel, but by reason Bolemn protest. Henoefbrtfa th^ were called
of the peril stated. In the absence or (Usability the Protestants. Theorifdnofthenameclearly
of the master, the protest is made by the offl- defines its ori^nal signification. The dgnera
oers, or even by the seamen ; and when It is of the first protest did not frilly anee in all
made by the master, he is asnally accompanied their theological views ; bat they did agree in
by one or more of the officers, and by some the protest against the anthori^ of aecnlar or
of the seamen. — A very important ase of pro- eccledastical boards to compel obedience in
test is made in the cose of dishonored bills of matters of faith, and the name Protestant there-
exchange. (See EzoHansi, Bill of.) It is a fore came early into use as the collediTe
nniver^ law that a foreign bill of exchange, name for all the Chnstian denominations in
If not accepted, or if not ptud at matnrity, Switzerland, France, England, Scotland, Hoi-
most be protested in order to hold all the par- land, and other conntries which prodaimed the
ties to it. In this sense, the states of the Union Bible to be the only rule of faith. — The aggre-
are foreign to each other. Inland (or domestic) gate number of the Protestant popniation in
bills and promissory notes are often protested tiiefivegreat divisionsof theworld maybeseen
in the same way ; bnt this Qsage, so far as it from the following flgores, taken from Schem's
exiata, has grown np from the convenience of " Ecclemastical Tesr Book" for 1809 :
It, and not from any requirement of the law L AKmoL— BriOah Amiria, s.ioo,nM: Uiiikd BtitM,
„.rch„l Th. pro...t .hould t. m.d. ly . SSrSiStVSSSkSrifiiSiGirw;
notary pabho; and full faith is given in all aSoo^ total MMiaMD.
._!._._ _„ .!_ _=!_,., _ . .^_j i_i!_ T. ^ .-^artaia, T,0«
(IndadlDg Tarn
I otber Gnnun ■
npra protest takes place when, a bill having I.BSI.DOO; Sweden mud Hontnj-, tt,e«T,ooo: BoJ^
been protested, a third person intervenes, and "^'Tsoi ^^'*''' "*•**! '""" '"'^ "^i "^^
accepts or pays the bill for the honor of the m. jfi"^.i.ticEDMi.,«,«»;Ci.iimCwiaiHi,iipKoBgX
party whose duty it wad to accept or pay it; iftooo: Kut iBdi« (witii CeThm •»! iido-china),
jjd thi. gi™. hto . right i„ a.^t, from B!^>.'i;K,^1a.u"'SiSSl tSrS;
the person for whom he accepts or pays. An im.ooo.
acoeptanoe or payment tupra protest is some- J^- Araioi.-c™ofO(»d HM»,Ma.Mft; ott»i»mtrtji
times caUed an acceptance or payment for E«jpi,s.o(»; Liberii.M.OTO-tnt.ii.Tis.oM: ^ ^
honor. Generally, where one accepts or pays T. AoBT»»i.AiiiuidPoi.T«iMi,i«o,(nia
for honor without designating for whose honor ^"^ *" *" '" ^^*'*™ "^ "* '""• s«.»8W0t
he acta, it wiU be deemed that he actd for all PROTEUS (Laurenti), or hypoehthon (Uerr.),
who were bound by the paper, and he acquires a perennibrsnchiate batrachian reptile, belong-
his right of indemnity ag^nst all whom he ing to the same family as the axoIoU and the
thus protects. But he may deGignate, if he menobranehns. The skin is naked and alimy,
choose to, the party for whose honor he acta, the body elongated and cylindrical, and the
and then he protects only that party, and has tail shoit, broad, and compressed laterally ; the
no claim or rights against any outer. - brsnohial tnfta are 8 pairs, and persistent dar-
PR0TE8TANT, a collective name for a ing life; legs 4, rather weak, tie anterior 8-
large daas of Ohristiaa denominations, em- toed and the posterior 4-toed. The common
bracing in general all except the Boman Oath- proteua (P. anffuitm*, Lanr.) is abont a foot
olio and eastern charohes. The name origi- long and i inch in diameter ; it is pale fieeh-
natedin 1686 in Qennany, at the diet of Spire, colored or white, with the branchial tnfta
The majority of the members of the diet, in bright erimson ; the teeth are small and sharp,
anion with the representatiT'e of the emperor, in both jaws and on the palate ; the head tn-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
RaOTECB PBODDHOK 619
angalar, and the Bnoat obtuse ; the ejea are ob of tiio animal kingdom, Deiliher more nor
VMf email, and without lids. It is found onlf leas, viz., vertebrates, artionlates, mollosks, and
in the aubterraoean waters of some caves of radiates, oonld not admit a Sth, the protozoa,
Enrope, as in Oarinthia, Gamiola, the Tjrol, ood accordiogl;, ia the "Essa^ on Classifica-
and especially in the Adelsberg cavern in Car- tion," distribntes the animals thas named part-
niola. The respiration is easentiallj' aqnatio ly among plants (algce), and partly among em-
by means of the branchial tnfta, though it has bryonio forms of aoephalona moUnska, worms,
rudimentary lungs, rises to the surface to swal- and crustaceans ; it having been ascertained
low air, oud oan hre a short time out of the that the corallines are algte with more or Ims
water, like the menobranchns ; its motions by lime in their strnoture, and that there is hardly
means of the legs are sluggish and awkward, a group among the lower animals and plante
bat it BwlCDS with considerable rspidity and which does not oont^Q simple locomotive in-
ease by the lateral nndulations of the ttdl and diTidnals (tboagh in tha latter the looomotioii
body ; whan the water of its sabterronean re- is not voluntary), as well as free and fized corn-
treat becomes low, it buries itself in the mud, pound communities, he ia inclined to aasooate
like others of the family ; the food consists of the rhizopods with algEe, which have ovoid
aquatic worms and insects, and soft-shelled masBesBomewhatresemblingthegerminslgrait-
mollnskfi. Several local varieties oocnr, gener- nles of the former. This group is called pr^
ally considered ss belonging to the same spe- totoa, as representing the first step in animal
cies; one of these is of apurpiish color with organization, and i»wa by Oanis from their anat
yellow spots, and latger, widely eatended, and ogr to the ova or germs of the higher classes.
coarsely divided ^s; these are described as PBOHDEON, Jbah B^pnera Victob, a
■peoies of hypoehthon. by Fitzinger in the Siti- French jurist, bom at Ohanana, department of
vng^eriekte ol the aoodemy at Vienna for Got. Doubs, m 1758, died in Duon in 18S6. During
1660, pp. 391-303. (For the fish called the the revolution he was Judge at Pontarlier, as-
proteus of the lakes, aee HEKonfiAjfonca.) sistant deputy to the legislative assembly, snd
PEOTEUS, in Greek andRoman mythology, afterward a member of the civil triboual at
a sea god subject to Neptune, whose flooks he Besonpon. In 1802 he delivered free lectnrM
tended- He hod the gift of prophecy. At on law, which attracted considerable attention;
midday he always arose from the flood and in 1806 he was wpointed professor of civil law
dept in the shadow of the rocks on the coast, in the school of D^on, and in 1809 beoama
and those who desired htm to foretell the fnture dean of the faculty. On the return of the
were obliged to seize him at that time. In his Bourbons he was removed from this post ; but
endeavors to escape he would assume various none of his colleagnes having consented to take
shapes to terrify or disgust, and thus drive it, he was reetored. His works, in SI volimiea,
avray his questioner; but when he found this are among the treasures of French juriq>ni-
Bubterfuge of no avail, he would return to hia dence.
proper shape and yield to the demand. PROUDHON, Fibbu Jobbpb, a French po-
PROTOGENES, a Greek p^ter, who flour- litical writer, bom in Besanton, July IS, 1809.
ished toward the close of the 4th century B. He is the son of a cooper, and after studying
0. He was bom at Oannus in Oaria, and for for some time, through the assistance of some
&0 years lived unnoticed and poor at Bhodes, benevolent persons, at the college of his native
until through the intervention of Apelles the city, became apprentice to a printer, and in
Bhodlana became aware of his merit. When 18S7 was taken into partnership by a printing
Demetrius Poliorcetesbesiegedthe citv,hewas firm at Beson^on. Having devoted much ot
careful not to attack the most defenceless part, his leisure to study, and particularly to philol-
because it contained the works of Protogenes. ogy, he published an edition of the Bible with
He spent so much time in the elaboration of his annotations upon the prinoiples of the Hebrew
works, that Apelles said he never knew when language, and reprinted Bergier'a ^UmtnU pri-
to take hia hand off his picture. The lalysua mit\f* det langue* (18ST), with an anonymona
was considered his masterpiece, and this when .£^1 de gTammaire ginkralt, by himself, as an.
Hiny v^ote had been carried from Rhodes to appendix. This essay, afterward reprinted in
Rome, and was there preserved in the temple aeparate form (1850), received from the ooade-
of Peace. Protogenes was also a statuary, and my of that city a prize consisting of a pension of
according to Suldos wrote OS art. 1,600 francs, which enabled him to visit Parii.
PROTOZOjV a difision of invertebrate ani- Here he became a contributor to Parent jBes-
Duls, proposed by Siebold, and since adopted barres' En«yelopidi« OatAoligw, and wrote for
lyLenckart and Vogt, but denied by other nat- theBesanoon academy a prise essay, De laeili-
nralista. As generally defined, it contains the > bratitm du. dmavehe (1S40), and a paper enti-
foraminifera, polyoystina and rhizopods gen- tibiQu'eit-ctqwlapTvpriitit This pamphlet
etolly, the Bpongife, and the true infusoria, which opened with the afterward celebrated
which may be characterized as having a simple dictum, Zaj>riiprt«M,eWbi!oI, was censured by
or structureless organization, reducible to a oell the academy, who at once cut short Proudhon'a
or cell contents, without any distinct separa- allowance, and would perhaps have brought
tion of systems of organs. Prof. Ag'^"'', ad- ^im before a court of justice hod not tha econ*
hering to Oaner's 4 great fundamenUI br^ich- <nniBt Blauqui, who had been {^pointed to ex*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
820 PKOUDHOIT PRODT
amine it, dsolued tltat he found notUng ob- F£lasie,irbereSnl860heiDan-ledai>iero1isnt'§
JectioD^U in it. It was followed In 1841 bj daughter. During hit imprisonment be wrote
anotlier punphkt npon th« Mme qnoBtion, and Ot^eminTu (Tvn ritoluti<mnairB (1849) ; Acta
in 1843 07 an At«rti»»eBi«tU ava pjvpriitairet, da to rieobtUon (1846); OralviU du cridit
lot wltlch ba wa» arraigned b«fore a jmy at (1800) ; and La ritoluticn loeiaU dimontrie
BesanQon, but aoqnitted. . In the same year he par le eovp d'itat (1862), which created a deep
quitted the printing bnHinesa and became dlreo- Benaation and was looked upon as a partial
tor of a company of freight boats on the BaAne apology' for Napoleon's polioj. Liberated Jnne
and Rhone. In the mean time he oontinned to 4, I8fi2, Pronduon remmned for a while in re-
propagate his opinions in his JM la eriation d» tirement : but in 185S he reappeared with a
fordre dant Chumaniti (184S), presenting the Mittmel dei opirationt de la hvurse, a satire on
theory of anew pc^ticalorganUatioa, and i^*- stockjobbers and speculators; and soonaftcr-
tim« da tontradietiotu iemuttaiqva (9 vols. 8to., ward pnbliabed De lajvttiee dan* la rSvolvtion
184S). On the breaking ont of the revolntion of et dam Piglite, novxtavxprine^a dephiUtopkU
Fab. 1848, be was engaged in the publication pratique (8 vols., 18B8), which he Ironically
of bU Solution du problime toeial, a plan of dedicated to the orohbisbop of Bcsaofon. This
aocial refbrm by means of a new orgaidzatipn metachyBical work, a covert attack upon the
of credit and monetary circnladon. On April established order of things, was seized by the
1 ha became the editor of Le npritrntant du police, and ita antbor was sentenoed to 8 yean'
peuplg, a daily jonnnal of radical opinions, imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 fruica. The
through which he gained ooosiderable popnlar- amnesty granted to the press by Kapoleon IIL
ity. On June 4 he was elected depnty to the set him at liberty. His latest work is entitled
coDstitnent assembly, and was accused of ba- Lapaiz et la gverre (3 vois., 1861).
ing impHoatad by sympathy and advice in the PBOUT, ButrntL, an English water-color
bloody contest that took place toward the close painter, bom in Plymonth, BepL 17, 1788, died
of that month, but the accusation was not sns- Feb. 10, 18CS. In early life he was a com-
tained. On Jnly 81 he came forward in the panion of Haydou. Some sketdiea of Cornish
assembly to urge a proposition which he had scenery whi<£ he executed for Britton the an-
previously made for the establishment of a pro- tdqnary first bronght him into notice, and in
grassive mcome tax, the design of which was 1^)5 he removed to London. In 1818 be vis-
tbe abolition of interest on capital, and eventn- ited the continent for the first time, and in the
ally the consolidation of the republican govern- medieval architecture of Bonen and other old
meuL This was almost unanimously voted Norman cities discovered a class of snbjects
down by the assembly, "as an odious attack singularly suited to him. Thenceforth he dc-
npon the prinoiplea of pnblic morality and an voted himself to architectural subjects, vimting
appeal to the worst paadtais.'' He dosed his the oldest cities of France, Switzerland, Ger-
parliamontary career by opposing (Nov. 4) the many, the Netherlands, and Italy, and making
adoption of the constitution, which he looked sketches of qnaint etreeta and market placea,
upon as "dangerous to liberty." Ho now re- and picturesque buildings. His spirited "Fac-
tumed to bis former pursuit and edited in sue- similes of Sketches made in Flanders and Ger-
oesrion 8 short-lived jonmalH: Le pmple, ftom many" (fol.), "Sketches in France, Switzer-
Nov. 28, 1848, to April, 1849; Latoixdupea- land, and Italy" (fol., 1889), with other series
pit, from Oct. 1, 1849, to May 18, 1800; and of litbo^pbic copies of his sketches, hav«
Le peuple de 1850, flrom June 16 to Oct 13, made this class of bis works widely kjiown.
I860. These papers, rash and violent in their He also published a series of studies and draw-
tone, were repeatedly condemned by the oonrts, ing books for pupils ; " Antiquities of Chester"
but the flues imposed upon the editor were im- (imp. 4to.) ; " Hmts on Light and Shade, Com-
mediately paid by enbscriptions from that por- position, &c., as applicable to Landscape Paint-
tlon of the people who admired him as the ing" (fol., 1888); "Uicrocosm,* the Artist's
harbinger of social revolution. His printed Sketch Book of Groups of Figures^ Shipping,
speeches and pamphlets, including his i>ro(< aw and other IHctnreBque Objecls" (foL, 1841);
tracail f 1848), Let MaWiutiene, Daninatratvm " Hints for Beginners," dee. ; beside making
dtt toeialume, and Idiei ritolutionnairet, found drawings for annnals and other works. The
a ready sale among men of all opinions, and " Art Journal" for 1849 contains a memoir of
eIioit«d answers from the ablest pens among him by Buskin, who ranks him among the first
the conservative party. As early as Jan. 1849, of water-color punters.
he bad undertaken to establish to banqve dv PBOUT, Wiixiav, a Scottish phy^cion and
peuple,aii institution of gratoitous credit, by chemistbom in 1788, diedin London, ApriTO,
means of which he hoped to bring his theory 1800. He received his professional education
into operation; but in this he waa mt«rrapted, at tbe university of Edinburgh, bat passed the
March 28, by a sentence of 8 years' impnson greater part of his life in London. His re-
ment for illegal publications, which he at first searches on the application of chemistry to the
avoided by mgbt. After sojourning in Geneva explanation of tbe phenomena of life are con-
fbrafewmontlis,hedelivered himself up (June tained in an important work entitled "On tbe
4), was incarcerated sncoeesively in the Con- Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Renal
dergerie, at Donllena, and in the prison of Ste. Diseases" (fith ed., 1848.) He also pnbKsbed
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
PBOVENQ-Ui PO£TBT «fil
"dwrnntry, Jlvieonlogj, and the JDiiotioii de0oeiidants,lSprinoeaoftheBiii^(DiidiaiiUne,
of Djjgestktii conudered with refereace to Nat- until lllS, when the orcnnt of Fruvence oonte
oral TheologT'," a Bridgewater trestiM ; " An into the posseasion of BftTmond B^oger, the
Inqnirf into the Nataie tmd Treatment of third count of Barcelona. Under the new polit-
Gravel," ^-; Bnd a nnmber of p^wra in the ioal division the Bonthof France was as peac«M
scienti&o magazines and transactiooB of Tariona and as prosperous as nnder the old, and before
societies. He is oonsidered the pioneer in the the end of the 12th centurj the tame and the
moTement whioh haa eo intimately ooonected poetry of the troubadours had penetrated into
ohemiBtrr with Qte treatment of disease. nearly every conntry in Europe. The gai labar
PROVEaiCAL POETRY, the name given to or " gay soienoe," as that literature was called,
the Uteratore whioh prevailed in the sooth of according to the doctrines of whioh love was
France and adjaoeat ooontriea from the end of the principal of all virtae and of all glory, was
the 11th to tLe middle of the 14th oantnry. chiefiy protected and encouraged in the coorts
Altliongh these are the limits within which it of Provence, the conntry in which it sprang
is ordinarU; confined, its existence dates as np, in the dominions of ^e connt of Toniouse,
far back as the 8th oentnry, when the Bomaoce and in the kingdom of Aragon, whioh in 1187
idiom of the south began to take the place of became sul^eot to the counts of Barcelona,
the Latin. In that part of the ooontry traces But it was also popular in m^y other courts,
of the Gneoo-Boman pagamsm, snch as popular especially in that of Oasttle. The langoage it-
aports and danoes, aooompeiiiod with amatory self waBthedominantoneinallFrancesonthof
and lioentiouB songL could be found long af- the Loire, and also prevuled in Catalonia, Va-
ter paganism itself had passed away. After lenola,partofAragoii and of the north of Italy,
strenuous efibrts the clergy found themselves Castilisn writers attribute the origin of their
nnable to put an end to these practices, and poetry to the Provencal, or, as they teim it,
attempted to sanctify them hy adapting them to that of the Limousin ; while in Italy, long
to the ceremonies of the Christian Mth. The after the tronbadonrs themselves had passed
solemnities of public worship were dramatized, away, their works were admired and imitsted.
and a visible representation was ^ven to the The poems upon wbSoh their celebrity chieQj
facts and incidents in the early history of the rests are lyrical. They are divided Into symmet-
obnrch. AooompaDying these ceremonies rical strophes, and the syBt«m of versLQcbtion
qirong up a popular poetry, a rsgue reoolleo- was carried to the highest degree of refineinent
tion of tike hymns of the old religion. The and intricacy. Moreover, in no other literature^
language, the Bonumoe Provencal or langwa except the Arabic, has the taste for rhyme been
S'tm, was based upon the Latin, bat a Latin carried to so great an extent As the poenu
corrupted by popular usage and by oolllsion were written to be sung with a musical ao-
with the 8 anoieut tongues of Gaul. Into this coinpaniment composed bv the poet himself
dialect were moreover adopted Greek, Ten- there early sprung up a olass ceSlei jougUun
tonic, and Arabic words. It became gradually (I^t. jooumIptm), who made it their business
filed and polished, partly by the pious songs to reoite the songs of others and sometimes
of the monks, and as early as the year 1000 their own. Of these some led an independent
poems were written in it, which at that time life, "laUng their way into courts, casues, and
were celebrated, although very little from tiitA all places where bodies of men were assent-
period has come down to us. From the people bled; others were in the personal service of
the poetry of the vulgar tongae ascended to some distinguished troobadour. To the jon-
tbe courts and castles. By the end of the lltfa gleurs, and the manner in whioh they made a
century the language had become fixed, with a trade of their art, the tronbadours themselves
determinate grammar, and with considerable attributed the decay of their poetry, although
power of expression, and it contained poetical the profesraon of jongleur was at one lime ft
compo^tions/ with a system of versmoation kind of poetio apprenticeship, which custom
fbnndod on a combination of rhyme with the required almost invariably to be imposed. — Of
syllabic accent. ' The word ttvbar (Fr. trouwr, the numerous varietdes of lyric composition cul-
to find, to invent) was in use to denote the ere- tivated by the troubadours, the most important
atire act of the imagination, and Arom it the were the following. 1. The canto (chant or
title of troubadours was given to those who chanson) or ohivalric love song, in which they
cultivated poetr?. Under sut^ circumstances celebrated the beauty or virtue of their ladies,
the Provencal htcratore entered at the opening or gave expression to chivalrio passion. la
of llie ISth century on a coarse of rapid devel- numbers and importance poems of this form
rant, in which it was materially favored by &r exceed those of oU others, as the csxiso was
condition of the conntry. The south d conudered superior to all other kinds of ama-
France for several ceutiuies lud been and eon- tory poetry, a. The riremta, or satires, were
tmoed to be coiiq>aratiT«ly undisturbed by the ail poems which either hod not love for their
wars which laid waste other parts of Europe, satgeot or did not treat it seriously, bnt more
The Viagotha and Burgtmdians who settled in particularly those in wMoh the troubadours as-
itwere by &rtbemostoivillzedofallthebar- s^ed the vices of their tge, abuses in the
barian races. In S79 the kingdom of Aries oboroh, or the brutalities of the feudal lords.
was founded by Bozon, and was ruled I^ hia In this form they were very bold, being
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
ff
^3 FROVEH(!AL POETBT
deterred by no eoiuiderationB of tear from not the moBt aiiGient of titetnQb4doiirs,i>tbe
denonncing acts of ii^nstice. 8. Hiatorical first vhose works have come down tons eitii«r
pieces, sometJEaes included also nnder sirven- entire or in fragments, and is therefore nsnal^
tea, usaaUy in reference to the cmftades in the placed at the head of the PrOTen^ poeU.
Eitat or against the Arabs of Spain, or depict- Brave, active, and a libertine in private life,
ing the contests of the emalier feudal powers. " he nnderstood," ss; the biographical tradi-
Under this head was included the praieama or tions of the tronbadonrs, " the art of makiDg
foetical exhortation to enterprises of Ibis kind, verses and of singing to perfection, and went
oeniB of this sort were asaally recited by the abont the world a great wnUe in order t« im-
longleurs. 4. The tentont, or poetic combats, pose upon the ladies." Girand de Borneil wai
_n which two or more interlocntors are repre- the greatest of the Provencal poets, according
eeoted as supporting opposite ndes on some to tbe decimon of his contemporaries, and ca
point in the philosophy of chivalric love. This, those speaking his langnage ; but this opimoD
though ft favorite, waa necessarily the most was disputed by Dante and the Italian poets of
didactic and ih% least poetical form in which the 14tb oentory, who awarded the palm to
their prodnotiona were written. Under it were Amand Daniel Among the names of kinp
included the partimen joex-partits or paHia and nobles prominent as tronbadonrs an those
and the toumcvonMn. fi. The epistles, in which of HichardCkenr deUon and his contemporary
they treat of love, Mendship, and also of moral Bertrand de Bom, who acted so conspicnona a
and religions satfjects. Tlie donaire, laiuU, part in fomenting civil war between the nem-
eOtenAamtn, and eontt were varieties of this bers of the royal family of En^and, and who
form. 6. The planh, a kind of elegy, in which obtained on' nnpleasont immortality from
they celebrate the memory of a fallen knight Dante, by whom be is placed in hell with hia
or the disappointments of love. 7. The balaka, head severed. Beside these, some of the more
the ballad and the round, little poems snug by celebrated were Amand de Uarveil, attached
en indefinite number of persons, and accom- to the court of Roger II., viscount of B^izier^
C'ed with dancing. Compositions of this called Taillefer ; Kambaud de Vaqneiras, dis-
i seem to have beeta abandoned to the tingniebed as a warrior as well as a poet, and
women. 8. -The aerenae, or serenades, and the who was made a knight by Bonifiace III.,
a^a* or avbade*, waking songs, poems of a marqnis of Montferrat; Pierre Vidal of Ton-
remarkably delicate and impassioned character, louse, who accompanied Ittchard of England
very few of which have come dovni to ns. The on the third cmsade ; Pierre Oatdinal of Pay
latter were pnt Into the inouth of one of the in Yelay, the greatest satirical writer of the
parting lovers, or of one of the companions of troubadours; and Girand Biquierof Narbonne,
the knight, or generally of a sentinel giving who belonged to the court of Alfonso X. of
warning of the coming of ttie day. 9. The Castile. Moreover, among the poetical works
pattontai or vaqneyrag, pastorals, which usually of the Provenf^ tronbadonrs which still re-
recited conversations between discreet shop- main, are to be fonsd compositions by women,
herdes^ss, tending a few lambs, and tronba- someofwhomwere ladies of h^hrank. These
dours riding by, in which the latter utter com- were called troutemtet, and most of them
pliroents they do not mean, and to which the flourished within the second half of the I3th
former are carefol not to attach any valae. century. — The decline of Provencal poetry,
The 3 lost forms were of a more popular char- which began abont the middle of the ISlh cen-
aoter than the others, being rarely or never tory, was due partly to defects inherent in
heard in the courts, and oonstitnte a distinct itsd( but chiefly to political causes. The ig-
group in the system of Provencal poetry, norance of the tronbadonrs was amazing.
There were a large number of other terms Scarcely an allusion can be found in their
in use by the tronbadonrs, either synony- works to the mythology or history of the an-
moQs with those mentioned or denoting other oients, and the treasury of I^erre de Corblan,
rarteties of poedo compositions. Beside these evidently regarded by its author as ^splaying
lyrics there were narr^ve poems, the most an- arairacnlona erudition, mentions only the name
cient of which were based upon some incidents of Ovid among the Latin poeta, and him it
connected with the first crusade. But the Pro- calls a liar. The language and poetry of Pro-
vencal was wanting in dramatic compositions, vence rapidly declined in the cmsade against
or if they existed even in a crude form none the Albigenses, and the wan which dnring
have come down to oar time. The decline of the first half of the I3th oentury desolated the
the literature was marked toward the olose of south of France. The sovereign families, the
the 18th century by the compontion of " treas- great patrons of the troubadours, disappeared,
nriee," written in verse, and containing an ac- The family of Provence failed in 1246, and (he
count of human knowledge as it then eiisted, territorypossessedbyit was claimed by Charlea
and also by the production of histories and of Anjou ; in 1349 the bouse of Toulonae also
chronicles, some of which were in prose. The became extinct. From this time the Proven^^
meet remarkable &ct in connection with the poetry rapidly declined, and its fall was hut-
" treasnries," the encyclopsdiaa of their age, ened by the hatred feit for it by the chnrch.
was their narrow range of knowledge. — ^Wil- In the contests .between the clergy and the
liam IX., ooont of Pmton (died 1187), though feudal lorda, the tronbadonrs had rarely &U«d
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PROVENCAL POETET PEOVENCE 9S6
to tako the aide <rf the latter, and in the tt&t SVsiioe, until the present time, a medium of
of eitermination waged against the Albigensee poetio compoeitioii, and aoma of tho»e using it
gamely tuy of them were foond on the side have aoqnired oelebrit;'. Of these the moat
o! the craaaders. Id 1 MS Innocent TV. issued £udoqb ia Jasmin of Agen. (See Jabhin.) — The
ft boll, in wbioh be called the Proven^ the earliest writers oo the Provencal literature were
language of heretios, and forbade Its use bj Cardinal Betnbo and Jean da Nostre Dame, or
stndeDta. The inhabitants of the eonth of Nostradamna, brother of the astrologer. Nos-
France not only foond themselrea forced to tra Dame coUected a large nomber of mann-
nibmit to a yoke whioh thej hated, but beheld scripts, and composed a work on the lives and
their literatore OTershadowed b; that of the writings of the old Provenfal poets. But the
noTth. From 1250 to 1290 onlj a few tronba- language wsa especially indebted to Lacume de
dcmra of any eminence flourished, and in the Sainte-Palaje, who expended a vast amonnt of
Uth centarjr ProTanpal poeHy can hardly be time and labor in ransacking the libraries of
Slid to have esieted in the oonntry of its ori- EVonce and Italy, and collectingmaterials on the
dc The Isngat^, moreover, passed into a subject. Atthetimeof hisdeatb,however,the
oiaieot, which, with various modifications and lexicon nndertaken by him had not been corn-
alterations, still lives among thepeasantry. But pleted, and the mass of matter collected had
in parts of Spain it ocntinned to be cultivated not been digested or published. It is chiefly
»ibh nicceas for many years. During the J8th to It. Baynouard, a native of Provence, that
and ISth centuries, the literature and literary we are indebted for our knowledge of the Pro-
idiom of Oatalonia were the same as the Pro- venial. In his China det poitiei origijuilei de»
TaoQi}^ and the list of troubadours is enriched ^oubadtniTt (S rols., Parle, 1616-'21), he pnb-
vith the names of Oatalan nobles and kings lished vestdgss of their early poetry, and lives
rf Aragon. Long after the genuine race of and extracts from the writings of about 360
Proreotal poets nad passed away, Provencal poets. Previously he had written a grammar
poetry was carried to a high de^ee of perfec- of the language (Paris, 1816), and to this he
tion%the iobabitants of Valencia. When the added a lexicon which appeared after hisdeath
ausade egainat the Albigenses drove the trou- (6 vols., Paris, 1886-'46). In his footsteps fol-
badoDrsfrom thur homes, many sought refbge lowedCharlesClandeFanriel, whoseiTMtcimif
>t the court of Aragon, and gave to Baragossa la poitie Prev«nffala (8 vols. Svo., Paris, 1846),
and Barcelona the attractions cnco belonging delivered in a series of lectures as professor
to Aries and Marseilles. But even there it did in the faculty of letters at Paris, is the most
■ot long survive. At thebeginningof thel4th elaborate work on the sul^ect upon which
MBtiuT it had ceased to exist in Oastile, and it treate. Since the labors of Rsynonard and
tevard the dose of that century was displaced Fauriel, numerous works and essays have been
from Catalonia and Aragon, or rather corrupted written npon the poetry of the troabadoors in
l^the idiom of those oountriee. It did not France, end in Germany and Italy it has also
die, however, without a stru^le. In 1S28 an received considerable attention. No original
*empt was made to revive it by tho magis- treatise npon the .subject has yet appeared in
Incy of Toulouse, who formed a guild in that English. A translation by G. J. Adler <rf a
aty under tho name of the " Very Gay Com- little more than one half of Fauriel's work was
pmj of the Seven Troubadonrs of Toidouse," published at New York in ISSO.
wd in 1S9G established a body of laws under PROYEKGE, an ancient province in the 8.
. Uw title of "Ordinances of the Beven Lords E. of France, bounded S. by Dauphin* and
Oouervators of the Gay Science," which laws Venaisain, E. by the Alps, 8. by the Mediter-
reguUted for centuries afterward the floral ranean, and W. by Languedoc. Oapital, Aix.
Coelebrated in that city on the first of It was divided into Upper and Lower Provence,
At the request of John I. of Aragon two watered by the Rhone, Durance, Solves, Ar-
•^ the ooDsarvators of Toulouse went in 1890 gens. Arc, Verdon, and Var, and celebrated
tc Barcelona, and cBtabllahed there a consistory for its delightful climate and rich fruits, thooKh
of Uie gay science, which was aftei'ward re- the soil is somewhat arid. It now forma ue
nwved to Tortosa. This Institntion attained to departments of Basses-Alpes, Bouches-du-
ccnnderHble renown in the following century, Khftne, and Var, and a part of those of Yau-
]'hsa for a period the ProveuQai poetry, modi- cluse and Drome. — Provence was for a long
™1 by the ntder but more vigorous idiom of time the only territory to which the Romans
Oatalonia, held sway. But the Provencal gave the name of pTwt»«a. It passed into the
anally disappeared as the language of the high- hands of the Visigoths In the Cth centnry, and
^clanes, though it still lives in the rustic dia- of the Ostrogoths in the 6th, and, after being
'Hta of Catalonia and Valencia. In Italy it for a while in the possession of Austrava, fell
■jiKgave way to the Tuscan idiom, enriched by to Lothaire on the division of the empire of
«ie geuins of Dantw, and waa forgotten in the Oharlemagne. In the 10th century it formed
iBTival of the ancient literature which in that part of the kingdom of Aries, which was sub-
"oohtrj ssriy absorbed the attention of all sequently united to the kingdom of Germany;
^ of gaatos. Still, in spite of the overshad- but Provence meanwhile was governed by vir-
jj™ginflueiwe of other tongues, the Provencal toally ipdependent coanis, who about 1063 be-
"•■ continiied to be, at least in the sontb of oame here^tary. The lastoonnt beqoeathed it
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
to Sing Lonb XI. in 1481, and It iraa there- 34,000, and there ia another ocdiection hf Be-
ifter &n integral part of the French monArohf . pulle* in 6 Tolnmes. Florio givea 8,000 Ital-
FBOVEBB, ft short, pithj MTing, which lan proverbs in hia Qiardiao di riertaxiant
embodies some veil known tmth, and is often (1691) ; and there are aimilar works bj Hono-
indeed a troism, bat acqniree ^nificanoe by aini (1604) and Verini (^Scuola dtl wlgo, IMS),
tta application. Eraamna defines it as "a well Oodin pnbliabed accJlection of French proT-
knownsajingremarkableforaonieeleKantitov- erbs under the title of Ourwtitit ^anfoua,
eltj ;" Cervantes aa " a abort sentence drawn and Flenry de Bellingen an ExpVeation dr$
from long experience ;" and Lord John Bnasell j>roverb«t FraofoU. There is a Banish coDec-
aa " the wit of ono and the wisdom of many." tion with s French translation (Copenhagen.
Froverbe are perhaps as old as anj writiug 1757) ; Sailer pablished in German " Thewia-
of which we bare knowledge. Heriod pre- dom of the Streets, or the Heaning and Use
served a good maaj, and EraHians pointed out of German FroTerbs" (Angsbnrg, 1810) ; and
the sources of some in the responsea of ora- John Bay prepared in 1670 a collection of
eles, the verses of poets, and the allegorioal proverbs in TartonsIangoageSiOOniprisiiigEiK-
symbols of Fythagoras. The familiar adage: liah, Boottiah, Webb, Irish, Danish, ori^d,
"Evil commnnioationsoorropt goodmanners," and Hebrew, which has been reprinted ia
wes quoted by 8t. Paol, and is found in a frag- Bohn's " Antiquarian library" nsder the title
ment of the comic poet Menander. Cicero of "A Handbook of Froverbs." There is a
made frequent ose of proverbs from the Qreek. polyglot collection bj Sr, J. Hapletoft, pnb-
Aristotle, strtfck by the condeuaed wisdom of liahed Knonjnouslj in 1707. Amongthe beet
proverbial sayings, supposed them to be the En^iah collectors are Oamden, Herbert (Aevia
wrecks of an ancient philoaopby saved from Pradmimm, 1640), HoweU, Codrington (1664),
the min in which the rest of the ayatam had and Clark ; and Bnrdtfaarat prepared " Arabic
been loat by their elegance and shortnesB. Froverba, or Uie Itannera and CoBtuns ot ^e
The speech of Odin in the " Edda" oontaina Hodern Egyptians," illnatrated frcon their pro-
many which are very characteristic of the life verbial sajings (London, 1880).
of the ancient Scandinavians ; and the Span- PBOYEBBS, a book of ^e Old Testament,
iards attribute to their " sayings of old wives entitled in the Hebrew original as well as the
by the fireside" a greater antiquity than the; Septnagint and the Ynlgato " The ^^jverba of
claim for any written document in their lan- Bolomon." This, however, by no means a»-
gnage. The proverb is eo nearly allied to the ciibes the real or final author^ip of the book
motto, symbol, device, sentence, apolcmie, and to Solomon, for it ia expressly etatod in chqiter
fable, that it ia not always easy to draw the zxv. that the latter pait of the book, beginning
line of distinction. Howell describes the in- with that chapter, was written and added to
OTodienta of a good proverb to be "aense, the previona portion by order of King Hexe-
uiortness, and salt;" and George Herbert kiah. It haa, moreover, always been conmderod
pithily indicated its brevity and deep meaning donbtftal whether Solomon ever made any col-
when he spoke of it as " a dart" (jaoahim). lection of hie proverbs in writing. Bnt it has
Bacon remarks that "the genius, wit, and spirit hardly ever beoi oonteeted that « large diare
of a: nation are discovered in its proverhs." in theoompositionof thebookmaybeasoiibed
Thoae of Spain are in advance of those of any to the wise king, who ia aaid (1 Eings iv. 88)
other country in point of number, originality, to have nttered 8,000 proverbe, and who wis
and elegance. Many of the tritert and seem- so celebrated all over the eastern world Ibr his
ingly most national Scotch and Endish prov wisdom. The ancient writers of the Oreek
erbs have been borrowed from the East; and chnicbes frequently gave to this book the
even the famous old saw, " to carry coals to name Sophia (wisdom^. — As r^arda its con-
Newcastle," has a prototype not only in the tents, the book b divided into eeveral parts,
Peraian saying, "to carry pepper to Hindo- which are distinguished trota each other by
Stan," bat also in the Hebrew, " to wry oil to separate headings. The first 7 veraca of ttw
the city of Olives." — Oolleotioua oi proverbs first chapter may be regarded aa a heading for
have been made from very ancient times, the entire book. Then begins the first pirt,
ZenobiuB and Biogenianns in tbe Sd oentnry closing with the end of the 9th chapter. This
nthered, the former G63, and the latter 77B. part does not contain a collection of proverbe
Polydore Verml published a volume of Adagia proper, bnt rather a series of connected admo-
in 1488, and Erasmus another soon afterward nitions in a aententious form. They inculcate
containing about 6,000. Uichael Apoetolina the love of wisdom, and describe the glorious
of Byzantium left a coUecdon of 3,000 andent reward of wisdom and the pemicionB oonse-
proverbs, which were printed at Leyden in queooea of wickedneas. The Sd part, which
1668. There are Spanish collections by lien- extends trtaa chap. s. to nii. 16, contains the
dosa, marquis of Santillana (IQOB); Pedro mainoollectionofproverbsandthechiefportion
Talles (1649); Hernan Nunez do Gnzraan of the entire book. The proverbs, about 400
(1556) ; Mai Lara (1668), nnder the title of Za in nomber, contain moral preoepta and rules
jilowjui Tiilgar; Oudin (Paris, 1608} ; and Ce- of life for every age and every class of men, in
J ado (lt)96). with corresponding Latin adages, a clear, sententdoaa form. Generally one prov-
oau de Yriarte afterward gathered about erb is ocnupriaed in one ahort verse, of 8 mem-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
ben or oIhuw, Vtd S or Y vords or phrases. 107,TB9. It has an nneTOn tnr&oe and gener-
Ike S members fonn a parallel oppoaitioa to bIIj fertile soil. The manofoctnrmg intereat
each otbu", which is generally carried out even is rer; large, and in ISfiO there vere 98 cotton
totheaiDglaexpretsio&a; aa for example (i. 1): and IB woollen factories, and 8 calico printjng
AiriM ■onnakath ttM ooitr: mi] la, besde & large nnmber and variety of
bat aUraliiltwiB it the iMTlnaii of hij mothat others. The agrionltnral productions were
Th« groaping together of the proTerbs in thia 167,070 boshels of Indian oom, 808,879 of po-
part appears to have been accidental, ezoept tatoea, 10,242 of rj-e, 83,206 tons of ha^, IB,-
that ocoBsionallj 3 or 8 verses follow eaoh 700 lbs. of wool, and 476,843 of batter. There
othetwUoh have a eharaoteristloezpreadoiiin were 13 grist mills, 88 sawing and planing
common, Witb obiter xxiL Terse 17, a tdnd tniUs, 11 newspaper ofBoes, 101 ehnrches, and
of appendix begins, introdnoed by a eQ)arate 18,870 pupils attending pnblio schoola. It is
heading. The provevw of this we&at gene> intersected bj Uie Hartford and Providence
ally oonsist of 2 verses, and eometimes of 8; and-I^vidence and Worcester railroads. O^i-
thaj are oonstnicted with leas regolaritjr, some- tal, Providence.
times oontaining more than 3 m«mb^ and FBOYIDENOE, a city, the principal port
often without any parallelism. 8omet!mea of entry, and semi-oapit^ of Rhode Island, elt-
proverbs of kindred contents are grouped to- nated at tbe head of navigation on an arm of
gether. A second appendix to the first coQeo- Karroganset bay known as Providence river,
Son be^ns at chapter xsiv. verse S8, and is 86 m. from the ocean, 43 m. S. S. W, from
separated from the preceding by the heading : Boston, 178 m. E. Irom New York, and 896 m.
" These also are from wise men" Qa the com- H". "ff. flwm Washington ; lat. 41° 49' 22" N^
mon English version : "These tliiiigs also be- long. 71° 24' 48" W. ; pop. in 1780, 3,913; in
long to the wise").— The second mwnoolloo- 1774, 4,831; in 1790, 6,880; in 1800, 7,614;
tion begins with obiter xxr., which is headed : in 1830, 11,74S; in 1880, 16,886; in 1840, 23,-
" These are also i>roverbB of Solomon, which 172 ; in 1860, 41,618 ; in 1860, 60,666. In
the men of Hezekiah, king of Jndah, oopied population and wedth Providence is the second
oat." The proverbs, as in the first oollectiOD, city in New England. It covers about 9 sq.
consist generally of one versa each, and each m^ and ia built on both sides of Provid«ice
verse of 2 members with parallel opposition, river, which is here crossed by two bridges,
Tet exceptions to this mle ooonr more fre- one of whioh ial4S feetinwidth. Abovethis,
qnently than in the first oolleotion. With re- and within the centre of the city, the river ez-
gard to their contents, the proverbs of the seo- pands into a beantlfbl cove nearly a mile in
oad oolleotion are not so plain and intelligible oironit, along whidi ts bnUt a wall sarmounted
as those of the first, but more artificial and fre- by an iron railing. A park Ranted with elms,
quently even enigmatical. This collection ex- with gravelled walks, BQrrounds the cove,
tends over 6 chapters, and is again followed in Two small streams enter on the N., the Moos-
the 2 last chapters of the book by 8 different haaenok and the Woonaaquatncket rivers, upon
Spendices. — It is impossible to decide whether which are many machine ^ops and mannfao-
e compilation and arrangement of the entire tones. The land on whioh the city stand^ is
book were made at one time by one man, or very irregnlar. On the E. side a hill rises to
whether the addition of the sev^^ ports took the height of S04 teat above tide water. On
{dace at different periods. The advocates of the W. it is level, with little elevation for a
the former opinion addnce in their favor, that quarter of a mile, when the land rises to the
the arrangeniant of rhe whole seems to rest on height of 76 feet The hill sides, even to their
a well conceived and thoroughly executed plan, summit, are covered with dwelling houses, in-
Id either case it is considered probable that the twspersed with (^rdena and ornamented with
bookreceiveditspresentformbetweenthetime trees. The larger portion of the dwelling
of the death of King Heieliish and the end of booses in tbe city are of wood ; the remainder
the 7tb century B. 0. — We have valuable com- ore of brick and stone, among which are many
mentaries on this book by Salazar (1641), mansions of great elegance. — There ore 8 ddly
Scholtens (1746), Hodgson (1738), Lawson newspapers printed in the ci^, fivm whioh are
(1881), Umbreit (1826), Ewsld (in vol. iv. of ijso issned semi-weekly and weekly papers in
his PoetiteA« BUoher dea AlUn Te^<immU), addiljon to 8 others. The first printing press
Wardlaw (8 vok, 1860-'61), and others. Qer- was established here by William Goddard in
man tran^tions are added to the commenta- 1762, from which office the " Providence Oa-
ries of Umbreit and Ewald; a new English zette" was issued. There are 68 chnrohes, vix. :
traaslation, with Ecolesiastes and Oantidee, 14 B^list, 6 Congregational, 6 Episcopal, 7
has been published by the Bev. 0. B. Noyeo, Uethodiat, 1 Moravian, 1 New Jemsalem, 1
DJ). (Boston, 1846). I^byterian, 6 Roman Catholic, 2 Seamen's
PBOVIDENOE, « N. oo. of R. I., bordered Bethels, 1 Second Advent, 1 Bons of Israel, 1
N. and £. by UassaohoBetts and W. by Con- Spiritualist, 4 Unitarian, and S Universallst.
nectiont, end dsuned by the Blackstone river. Several of these, built of stone and brick, ^n-
wbich nms partly along the E. border, and sent fine specimens of arohitectnre. The first
the Pawtoxet, wbiob forma a portion of the B. Baptist churob, which is the oldest In Amerl-
boundur; area, 860 aq. m.; pop. in 1860, oa, was fbuuded here In 1088. Bntler hoeidtal
YOU un. — iO
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
oat PBOTIDENgE
for Qie ituane, tneorporated in 1S44, la BtaaMd pnpila and 43 teachers. There are 18 intern)»-
on the W. bwk of Seekonk river, garroanded diate eohools vith SSte&chere and 1,99S pnpil^
bj azteaaive groniidB, 60 acrea ol which are and 22 primarj' Bohoob with 48 teachers and
under cultivation, with aboat the lame extent 8,200 pnpila. The whole nnmber admitted to
of native woodland. The average nnmber of the variona public schoola during the year
patients ia about 160. The edifice was erected 18 SO waa 7,862. The cost of this eatftblishinent
and tiie lands pnrchased by sabscription, Cyms for the laat year waa (81,SG9.04, of which the
Butler oontribnting $40,000, and Nicholas city ptud $05,812.97 and the state (10,609.83;
Brown $80,000. Ita annual diaborsements are received from registry tax, $4^966.86. The
about $S0,00O, The state of Rhode Island Rhode lelaad historical aociety, foanded in
makes an annual appropriation of $1,600 to en- 1822, occupies c fine brick and granite tnuld-
able the governor to aid poor insane persons ing oppoaite the nniveraity grounds, erected in
there, and it also pays a portion of the expensea 1844. It oontaina, beaida a valuable library, a
of all such poor insane aa the town may ohooae large collection of mannscripts and other me-
tosend. The mininmm price of board for pa- morials relating to the history of the atate. It
tienta is $8 per week. Dexter asylnm for the has published 6 volumes of historical collec-
poor is sitnated on the highest land £. of the tiona. — The arcade, on the W. aide, is the finest
river. It is a fine edifice of brick, 170 feet of the kind in the United States. It extends
long, indnding winga, and 8 stories high. The from Westminster to Weybosset street, 225
grounds, wbion comprise aboat 40 acres, are feet in length by BO in width, a portion in the
enclosed with a stone wall 10 ftet liigh. The centre being about 60 feet wider ; it is 8 atones
land was given by £night Dexter, and the high, has 82 shops, and is devoted chiefly to
buildings erected by the city. The reform the retail trade, dry goods, boots and shoee,
school, established in 16G0, for Juvenile offend- hata, and jewelry being the principal arddefl
era between the ages of 8 and 18, is in the B. sold. The building is of granite, with two im-
"W. part of the city. The number of inmates posing Doric porticos, one on each street ; the
at its last annual report, 1860, was 187, of colnmns of the porticos are of single blocks of
whom 139 were boya end 48 girla. Its ex- granite. The city has 88 banks, with an aggre-
penses for the year were $14,941.77. The state gate capital on Jan. 1, 1861, of $16,6SM,660;
prison is en the K. side of the cove. At the circulation, $2,150,9S9.7S ; deposita, $2,76S,-
dose of the year 1860 it contained 67 convicts. 606.68; loans, $19,901,838. There are 6 in-
The «ouBty gaol is within the prison walls, stitutions for savings, which at the cloee of
The total income of the prison and gaol for 1860 held in deposit $6,011,887, belonging to
1860 was $16,072.29; total expenses, $13,489. 19,892 depositors. There are 18 insurance
The convicts are almost exclnsively employed companies, including stock and mutual compa-
in cabinetwork and shoemaking. Beside these, nies, and 89 agencies of companies, 87 of which
there ore 86 other benevolent and disciplioary are from other slates and foreign countries.
institutions.— 'First in the department of edu- The rulroads terminating at Providence are
cation is Brown university, which in 1860 had the Boston and Frovidencej Btoniugtoa and
3,048 alumni, of whom 1,266 are now living. Providence (lately extended to Qroton) ; Hart*
and '282 students. A subscription is now (1861) ford. Providence, and Piahkill; Providence
in progresa for the erection of a new library and Worcester; Providence, Warren, and Bris-
bnilding and a laboratory. (See Bbowk Uni- tol ; and Newport and Fall River, now in prog-
vsaairi.) The Athentenm, incorporated in ress of constrootion. All the railroads occupy
1886, b a handsome granite building. It has the same passenger depot, a spacious and ele-
a reading room, and a well selected library of gant structure ofbrick nearly 7O0 feet long, sitn-
26,601 volumes (June 1, 1861), to which large ated near the heart of the dtyon the aoothem
additions are annually made. The Friends' udeofthecove,andnearthegreatbridgewhich
yearly meeting boarding school, or " Quaker connects the two portions of the city. Bereral
college," occupies a lot of 48 acres in the east- steamboats ply between Providence and various
«rly part of the city. It oonsista of two spa- places on Karraganset bay, including Bristol,
dona brick buildings, 8 stories high with wings Newport, Fall Biver, and Warwick. — The
of 2 stories. It is liberally endowed and in a manufactures of Providence are very extendve,
prosperous condition. Alegacyof $100,000 was and include cotton, wool, iron, gold, and silver.
oeiiQeatbed to it by the late Obadiah Brown. Thenumber of individuals, companies, and cor-
The average nnmber of pupils is about 180, porationa engaged in manufactures to the ex-
equally divided between, boya and girls. The tent of $600 or over annually Is 696; capital
Roman Oatholics have two flourishhig institu- employed, $6,426,785: value of raw material
tions for educational and charitable purposes, nsed, $7,994,071; v^ne of annual product.
The number of books in the puUio libraries in $17,416,849. There are 6 cotton fnill>i, 8
the city is 84,980; In Sabbath school librariea, woollen mills, 26 iron works, and 7 bleaching
Se,200; in private libraries, 213,726. The and calendering establishments. Among the
schools comprise 4 grades, viz., the high school, manufactories of iron are 8 of screws, alt own-
Krammar, interme£ate, and primary schools, edby the American screw company, which has
The first has an average of 800 pupils with 8 a capital of $1,070,000. They use 6,000 tons
teaohera. The 1 grammar sohoou have 2,060 of inm a year, of whioh 4^600 tons sra for
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PEOVIDENOE PEOVUTOE 62T
BCraws, the remunder for wire. They make $81,969,600 ; tax, $169,880.85, or 53 ets. oa
on an average 16,000 grosa of screws each d&7, $100. In 1864: real $88,608,600; personal,
or ^69S,000groBsa7ear, andatoneofthees- $16,880,100; total, $18,928,700; tax, $274,-
tablishments 1,000 gross in an honr, consnm- 000.73, or S6 eta. on $100. In 18G6 : reai,
ing 8,000 tons of coal a year, and employing $36,188,097; personal, $20,108,200; total, 156,-
from 700 to 1,000 hands. The manufacture of 20S,3B7 ; tax, $380,000, or e7i cts. on $100.
gold and silver ware waa commenoed in Frovi- In 1860 : real, $87,089,800 ; personal, $21,02^-
dance more than a century ago, and now rivals 500; total, $68^18,800; tax, $825,462, or 66
in aztent and magnitade t£iat of any other ota, on $100. The valne of literary, church,
plac« in the country. A large manufactory and city property not taxed In 1860 waa $8,'
waa established in 1806. There are 86 eatab- 876,226. This valuation is only for property
liabmeate in the city for the manofactore of in the city, and does not represent the wealta
jew«lry. Those for silver are few hnt large, of the citizens, which may fairly he estimated
one of them mannfactoring $600,000 worth an- at $80,000,000, in addition to public property,
Dually. The number of peraona employed is and property devoted to religioos and eduoa-
from 1,600 to 2,000, and Hie annual product tional purposes. — During the colonial period
not less than $3,000,000. The city coutdns of the state. Providence aa well aa Newport
968 factory operatives beside those engaged in enjoyed an extensive foreign commerce, which
the works already mentioned, 863 carpenters, has now greatly feilen off, and its commerce is
663 machinists, B64 masons, 308 moulders, 200 chiefly confined to the coasting trade. The
hlack^niths, 202 boot and shoe makers, 83 cigar number of vessels which arrived from foreign
makers, 70 cabinet makers, 246 painters and ports for the year ending Deo. 81, 18S0, was
glaziers, 9S engravers, 84 engineers, 68 harness 138, tonnage 24,467; number cleared. 111,
makers, 102 printers, 183 weavers, and 334 tonnage 20,267; total number of vessels ar-
tulors. The two calico prioting establishments rived coastwise, 5,036. The chief articles im<
produce annually 1,066,000 pieces or 86,244,000 ported were coal, ivory, dates, gum copal, pig
yards, valued at $2,771,600. In the vicinity and bar iron, molasses, raw hides and skins,
of Providence are other print works owned cloves, pepper, tomber, and salt. The chief
Qtere, which prodnce 60,000 pieces of goods a artJclea received coastwise were : coal. 843,411
week. There are 18 furnaces employed in tons; flonr, 277,161 barrels; grain, chiefly com
casting machinery, stoves, ploughs, &o., and 10 and wheat, 3,887,641 bushels; cotton, 110,846
shops for engraving copper rollers for printing bales ; bay, 2,014 tons ; and lumber. The total
calicoes. For the motive power to perform all value of merchandise imported was $876,665.
the work mentioned, there are employed 96 The tonnage of vessels belon^g to the district
steam engines, with borse power ranging from is 19,579.~The city is divided into 7 wards,
S to 400 each. The aggregate borse power of and is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen, and
aQ these engines is 4,697, used by 887 different 28 common conncihnen, elected annually. —
establishments, and employing 8,045 persona. Providence was first settled in 1686, by Roger
Beside these many caloric engines are in use. Williams, who was bamshed &om Uassocho-
— During the 6 years from 1865 to 1861 much setts on account of his relipous opinions, and
attention has been given to vital statistics in who, in his new colony, waa the first to pro-
Providenoe, and the returns of births, mar- pose and eatabUsh the principles of aniversal
riages, and deaths are probably more complete freedom in religions matters. The rock oa
and perfect at the present time than those of the bants of the Seekonk river oa which he
any other city in America. During the same landed, and where he was received by the In-
lime special efforts have been mode for the dians, is about a mile from the centre of the
prevention of disease hy samtary measures. In city. The town received its first patent from
addition to tbis there ore some peculiarities Oharles I.,beaiingdate 1648. It suffered much
of nataral location and internal construction in the famous war of King FhOip, in 1675,
which make the city very bealtby. During when a considerable portion of it was burned,
the year 1860, with a population of 60,666, It again suffered severely in Sept, 1815, when a
there were 1,001 deaths, 633 marriages, and sontn-easterly storm forced an extraordinary
1,648 births ; or one birth in 30.74, one person tide into the harbor, rusing the water 12 feet
married in 40.03, and one death in 60.61 of higher than the usual spring tides, spreading
ttie popalation. The annaal average for 6 devastation and ruin along t£e wharfs and the
years, 1856 to 1860 inclusive, was one birth in lower part of the town, overturning houses and
39.83, one person married in 89.86, and one stores, and doing much damage to the shipping,
death ID 50.22 of the popolotian. The colored One large East Indiaman was driven up beyond
population of Providence shows no increase in the cove, from which she could never be re-
the last 30 years. The present number is about moved. Providenoe received a city charter
1,400. ^The valuation of property and taxation in 1862.
in Providence for a few years past have been as PEOVTNOE (Lat. prownew), mider the an-
follows. In 1846: real,$14,676,90O; personal, dent Roman state, a territory beyond Italy
$10,916,800; total, $25,693,200; amount of which had a regular organization under Ro-
tax, $102,372.80, or 40 ets. on $100. In 1860 ; man officers. After Rome had extended her
real,$17,883,700;personal, $14,136,900; total, conqnests beyond the peninsula, the govern-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
628 PSOVINOETOTK PKODENTIUS
ment yraa divided betweea Ital? and the pror- 1660, 8,800. It has lut eioellent harbor ■•irith
incea. The first province was Bicily{241 B, safficient depth for the largest Teasela. The in-
0.), Bod tJao BOGond Bardinia (235 B. 0.)- In habitanta ore supported ohiefljbj the fisheries.
Cmaar's time Gallia Ulterior was called eimply In 1S60 there were 80 veaada with eOO men
Promncia, whence the more modern Provence, engaged in the whale fishery, and 110 Teasela
which was inolnded in this region. The mode with 1,100 men in the mackerel and cod fisfa-
of settling the government of a conquered eries. There were 4 chnrches (1 Oongrega-
oonntrj was not oiuibrm ; tlie organization tional, 2 Methodist, and 1 VniTenaliBt), and a
was effected by the military commander, either weekly newspaper.
iUone or with the assisUnce of a comiiiigsion FBOVOOST, Saittzl, D.D., bishop of the
of senators. The chief administrative officer Protestant Episcopal chnroh in New York, bom
WM at first a preetor, afterward a proprstor ; in the city of New York, March 11, 1V43, died
and in the later times of the republic a consul, Sept. 6, 181G. He was graduated at Sing's
after completing his term of office at Bome, (now Oolnmbia) college in 17S8, went to 'Elitg-
was appomted to the government of a prov- land in 1761, entered as fellow commoner of
inoe with the title of prooonsnh His term of St. Peter's college, Cambridge, and was or-
offioe was one year, bat it was frequently pro- d^ed deacon in Feb. 1766, by the biahop of
longed. The emperor Angustna made oonaid- London, and priest in March, 1766, by the
erable changes in this ayetem, taking upon bishop of Chester. Having returned to New
himself the diarge of those provinces where a York, he became assistant minister of Trinity
large military force was required, and com- chnrch la Dec. 1768. Two years later, in eon-
mitting the rest to the care of the senate and aequenro partly of religions and partly of po-
people of Bome ; whence originated the die- liticsJ differences, he dissolved his connectdoii
tinotion, preserved nntil the 8d oentnry, be- with Trinity church, and in 1770 retired to «
tween ike provineia propria populi Eoiaani small form in Dutchess co., where he remained
and the prwiiteue propria Cceaarii. Of the till the close of the revolutioii, occupying Urn-
former two were given to the ammlarei, and aelf chiefly in literary and scientific porsnits.
Qie rest to those who had filled the office of Directly after the war the new vestry of
pnetor, and the title of the governor was pro- Trinity church elected him as rector, which
consul or j>r(MM. The governors of the imperial post he held for nearly 17 years. Ho was
prorinces were atyled legati CcetaTit, and held chapMn to the continental congress in 1786,
office at the emperor's pleasure. Justice was and to the senateof the United States in 1789;
odministerad according to the laws of the and he received the degree of D.D. from the
ooontry, to such Boman laws as were specially nniTersity of Pennsylvania in 1786. Having
enaoted for the provinces, and to imperial con- been elected bishop of Now York in June,
atitutioas, particular edicts, and tenatia eon- 1766, he accompanied Dr. William "WTiite to
"'il'^ ezoept when, as sometimea happened, England, and was consecrated with him, Feb.
tba Boman lawa were extended to the prov- 4, 1787, at Lambeth palace, the archbishop of
incea. Apartof the land was oonfiscated, and Canterbury presiding. Bishop Provooet re-
sometimes granted on lease to the original pos- signed on account of his health, in Se^t. 1800,
seesors. Thepnblio revenues were farmed by the rectorship of Trinity church, and in Sept
ptiMieani, The governor received no aalary, 1801, the episcopal office. Tho latter resigna-
Dst his position gave him abundant opportu- Hon, however, was not accepted by the house
niliea for extortion, and he also draw from the of bishopa, and Dr. BenjaminMoore was chosen
Boman treasnry a sum of money for oertun to be his coa^iutor.
neoesBary expenses. He alone, aa a general PROVOST (Lat. prapotUut, placed before ;
rule, enjoyed that high authority denoted by Fr. pritSf), in Scotlaua, the chief mimlcipal
the term jvriadietio, which included the right officer of corporate towns, with the seme fimc'
to pnt persons in possession of property, to tions as the mayor of English cities; and in
nominate guardians for minors, and to appoint England the title of the heads of certain col-
jndges. All inferior officers acted as his dep- leges. — Psovost Massbal is the title of a mili-
nties, and this constituted the chief difierence tary officer who taket co^izonce of offences
between provincial towns and the Italian colo- against discipline, and inflicts sonunary pnn-
ntsa, as the latter possessed free municipHl con- ishment on offenders ; and in the navy, of one
Btitntions, chose their own magistrates, and who has the custody of prisoners at a conrt
mode their own laws. A grant of the ju« Itali- martial, and till the execution of the sentence
cum to a provincial town placed it upon nearly of the court^
the same footing as the colonies of tho penin- PRUDENTIUS, Acbbxiub Cleuess, a Latin
Bola. With the growth of tho imperial power. Christian poet, bom in Spain in 848. He waa a
however, these distinctions were abolished, lawyer, became a civil and criminal judge, and
and the Italian cities lost the most important was apJ>ointed to a high military station at conrt ■
of their peculiar privileges and were gradually Inhislateryearshe devoted himself to religions
rednoed to the condition of the provinces. exercises and stndy. His extant poems sre:
PEOVINOETOWN, a towndiip and village Prafatio, written when he was 67 years old,
of Barnstable co., Mass., on the extremity of and giving a catalogue of his works tip to that
Oape Cod, SO m. S. £. ftrom Boston ; pop. in time, with a brief and indefinite antoMogrsphy,
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PRUD'HON RBUNING 629
from whioli everything known In regard to lib bonne. 'Eia "Zephyr b&lanoing hunself npon
life baa been learned; GathemeriiiBv. Liher, 13 the Water," "Innownce seduoed by Love,"
sacred bjinns, some of whioh have been inserts and" Venus and Adonie" belong to tMs period.
edtnthelitnrgyof theBomanOatholicchnTch; Is 1619 he exhibited a palntiiie of the^^Bomp-
Apoih^otv, mBiot^ning the divinity of Obrifit, tion. Two years later his Mend and pupit Mile.
and the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity; Mayer, for whom he entertained a warm affeo-
Bamartigmia, on the origin of ain, directed tion, pnt an end to her life, and thenceforth he
agunst Qie Maioioniles; J'tyehomaehia, repre- pinea away under the weight of deiipondency
senting the atrnggle between virttie and vice in and sorrow. He nevertheless completed "The
the aoni, and the trinmph of the former; Oonr Indigent Family," the roagh dranght of which
tra ^^fmmiuAma Liber /., on aocoont of the had been left by his imfortnnate pupil, and
coDTeraioQ of Rome, with an ezpoEnre of the " Ohrist dying npon the Oross," which was ez-
foUy of the ancient rel^on; Gmtra Sgmma- hibited after his death. His illnstrations of
ehum Liber II., a refutation of the argument of Dapknis et Okloi and Tasso'B Aminta are hJgUy
SymmachUBinhispetitiontotheemperorValon- valued byartistB.
tinian ; Perittephanim Liber, 14 poems in honor PRUfTE. See pLim.
of martyred aunts ; DiptyeJion or DittochmoTi, PRUNING, the cnttSng off BaperflnonB
18 poems in heroio hexameters, 24 deBcribing branches from trees, vines, &c., in order to in-
remarkable events and characters in the Old crease their ihiitfulneBS. The practicehaa also
Testament, and S4 describing rimilar drcnm' been advantageonaly extended to shortening
stances and events in the New, abont the the roots of frnit trees, the effect being to
snthenticity of which there has been much check the too rapid growth of the leaves and
oontroveray. The only other poem extant is branches, and divert the cntritious matter in
Qve Epilog. Bentley called Fradentiua "the the sap totheprodactionof fruit. In England,
H<Hner aad Virgil of the Ohristians." The on acconnt of the syatem of training fmit trees
earliest dat«d edition of his works ia that of to walls, which the peculiarities of the climate
Deventer (147S); the b^ is that of Paoatas render almost necessary for their ancceasM
Arevalns^ vols. 4to., Kome, 178S-'9). cnitivation, the art of pruning has received
PRUD'HON, FiebbePaui., a Frenclk painter, mnKi more attention, and is carried to far
born ia Olimy, April fl, 1760, died in Paris, greater perfection, than it demands under the
Feb. 16, 18S3. The 18th son of a mason, who clearer aky of the United Btatm, where frt^t
died while he was a child, he was educated by trees are cnltivat^d without difBculty as " stan-
chaiityattLeconventofhiBnativetown, where darda"orin open orchards. StiU, when judi-
his taste for art waa aroused by the paintings oionsly practised here, unthrifty trees in the
in the chapel ; and being recommended to tlie nursery and enfeebled orchard trees, by the
bishop of M4con by his teachers, ho was placed removal of their weak and crowded branches
byhimnnder the tuition of Devoeges, amerito- and of those in the interior of the tree out of
rioos artist of D^on. The young man, having the reach of the sun and air, may often be en-
won a prize awarded by the stat^ of Bnrgondy, tirely regenerated and restored to the condition
went to Rome, where, while studying Raphael, of good bearers. But for healthy trees the
Leonardo da Yinoi, and above all Oorreggio, he practice is often worse than useless. The
entered into the most friendly relations with growth of trees is promoted by the supply of
the sculptor Oanova. In 1789 he returned to sap carried up the inner bark. If this by any
France, where he underwent a long struggle reason becomes incompetent to furnish the
with poverty, and supported himself by ocoa- quantity required for all the branches, and the
oionallypunting miniatures, and making draw- whole tree conseqnently langnishes, the re-
ings for concert tickets, bill heads, tradesmen's moval of part of uiese allows the remaining
o^ds, and confectionery bozea. During the limba to receive all the sap, and to assume a
famine of 1794 be paid a viut to Bigny, near rapid and healthy growth. By this healthy
Qrrtij, and there executed a series of pastel action the bark itself ia invigorated and the
portraits for which he received a handsome whole tree is benefited. The proper time for
price. On his return to Paris he won a prize this pruning is after the fall of the leaf in the
for an allegorical drawing, representing " Truth autmnn, or during mUd days in Ibe winter,
descending from Heaven, led by Wisdom." In provided it be not in a r^on of verysevere
1806 he pwnted on a ceiling in the mnsemn of winters, as to the N. of lat 48° N". There it
the Lonvre, "Diana imploring Jupiter;" and shonld be deferred till the end of February,
soon after received frma Frocbot, then prefect but not till the bads begin to swell and the sap
of the Seine, on order for a great pictnre to to flow. Downing recommends for pruning
adorn the hull of the criminal court: " Juatice fruit trees a fortnight before mldsnmmer as
and Divine Tengeance pursuing Crime." For by far the best season in the norCbem and
thismasterpiece, which was e^ibited in 1808, middle states. Wounds made at that time
he received from Napoleon in person the cross rapidly heal over ; and it ia the best time for
of the l^on of honor. He was appointed Judging of the shape of the tree, and how
teacder to the empress Maria Louisa, punted most easily to improve it. A solution of gum
the portrait of her child, became a member of shellac in alcohol is the best composition to
the tnaUtote, and had apartmeuta in the Bor- iftply to tiie anrfkoes laid bare in removing
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
080 FBUSA PRC88U
lam limbs. The fhiitftalii«M of p«aches, n«o- flni)lfestablIihedhupow«r,M
tannes, and aprioota ia inoreuMT bf the B7»- king of Prasna. Since thentbediB^Ruj^-
tom of pmniog called " Bbortening-in" and iacearoled over bj the Bolieiucdlaii iSi^-;
"epurring-in," which oonaists ia reducing the baTeoometoboconHideredacoiualidjuiL^-
joimg wood by onttiiig off the small branches dom. — The kingdom of FrnsaicoDansiit
and forcing the sap to accomnlate In the re- distinct territoriee, beside s fer aul yrr
mender and thus canse the formation of man]' sionB, w hall j' enclosed withla tha kiniF.
bearing fihoota. This method Downing regards neighboring states. Tb e eastern tonui.v
as especially important for peaoh trees after ering an area of 89,337 gq. dl, liBkt>:
ihey come to bearing, and to the neglect of it Ut.49° SO' and 56° 60' K.,ssdIoiig.9'&.'t.
he ascribes the fact of the rapid deterioration 22° 60' £., and inolnd«9 8 of the 8 pnti.-
of peach tre^ in the United States. It should of the kingdom, viz. : Pnuna profu. !>.
be done toward the end of rebroary or not (wrested from Poland), Bnadenbiujiiiit.-'
innch later, and extend to the removal of half dnal possession in Gennany of tbe h-jn
the growth (equal to 6 to 13 inches^ of the last dynasty), PomeraDia(partljinlieril*duii.i--
year over the whole outside of the nesd of the ]y conquered from Sweden), Wtm ('•.'»
tree, and also npon the inner branches. For from Austria), and Saxony ^)v11} irc't
grapes adiffereat and much more thorough sys- from the kingdom of Saionj). HuiUr--
tem of pruning is advisable, founded on the facta is bounded Hi . by the Baltic sea, Lbrf.^
that the Tine bears well only when it is yoimg S. by Austria, ^e Idncdom of Sutti}. i^
or composed mainly of young wood, and that the Baxoo duchies, and ¥. bj fltari'™
the shortening or spnrring'in method practised EanoTcr, Brunswick, and Mecklenbir^ :>
with foreign grapes IS soon followed by mildew, western territory, consisting rfVelfiilit
The best mode is that known as the long or the Rhenish prOTince, 10,3DG H. m^tci^
renewal mode, which conalata in laying down from lat. 49 10' to 62° iff S., wl ^i
•Tery yeai: long shoots of the previous year's long. 6" GO' to Q° 26' K, and it ti«!^; \
growth, and as these come to besrins removiiw by the Netherlands and Esaorer, L w ;
entirely the old vine. The brancnes whioE E. by the principahties of Bckmlci i:^
Sana in one year are trained for beariof the Uppe, Hanover, Bnmswick. SeKln
nextyear; and after this they are out down to Besse-Darmstadt, 'Waldeck, anlS^ii!.-;
the main branch from which they sprung, the Palatinate, HesBe-Uomboi^, ui J^
others in the mean time having come forward and W. by Lnxembnig, Belgiom, wi fc-''>'
to take their place. By JucUcioua pruning erlanda, A third distinct Fruwiu i>&?'
and training the vines are kept back so as to consisting of the formerly indepodcij''^
produce a moderate amount of &ait the 8d paUties of Hobeniollem (ced«dt«I^'
year, and increasing qnantitiea the 4th and Gth 1S50), is enclosed by the kingdairf'^'^
years. — Boot pruning consists in digging a berg and the grand duchy of B)deLU'<>
trench earlyinNovember aboatlS inchesdeep lire area of the kingdom is soot™ **■
around the tree and cutting off the principiu than that of the New£Dfli>ndEUi«iH-|''
roots with a sharp spade. Uanure b introduced York combined; but whils tbwi'i'''^''';^
into the trench, and the trees may thus be made only 7,000,000 inhabitaots, Pnwi«l*'''^
to flourish almost as well in a naturally poor latest census (1858), lT,W,IXia,orH-->'
as in a good soil. By this method dwarfed sqnara mile, distribattd U folb*-':_ ^
trees may be made plantiiHil bearers, growing
within 0 feet of each other, and the trees, futIbw*
thoagh 15 or 30 years old, may be convenient- l^
a.ai
iSitn
vnuB
places, llie pruning may be renewed every BrmMienbutg....
year, though a cessation for one, two, or three bSSi*!" ."!
seasons may sometimes be advisable, that the Euout
tree may not be too mnch eihauated. Sm^imiTint
FBUSA, or Fbitsias, See Bbodssa. HohenuUen ..
PEDSSIA (Ger. I'reuum), one of the six ''•'^T^L^'ni^t-
great powers of Europe, consisting of a large l,^^ ^ jgj- *"
portion of northern Germany, the former duchy
of Pruseaa, and part of the former kingdom of ''''''*' — Twnw V
Poland. The name was applied until the 18th Of the total population, sbootH.^y^^ |
century only to the former duchy of Pruasia long to the Gennan tsm, ^'^ ,-|i(i
on the Baltio and the Vistula, whose inhabit- Slavic, 80,000 to the Celtic ("ew^M"^
ants, a Lithuanian tribe (PoroEfd, or Borusn, the Lithuanian, and 225,000 to r^M^ji,^
whence the Latin name of the country, Bo- stock (Jews). The SlsTi »™ P^^^Sii'
russia), had been conquered by the Teatonio in the eastern provinces, besdei a"" ,^
lodghtsinthelBthoeutury. The rulers of Prus- of Moravians and Bohemius J" J^, .;
Bia were formerly styled kings in PruBMs, thus Wends in Lusatia. ■^^ "j pi^^''^
expressing that likeir German possessions were the eastern provinces ^^'^'P'rv^^iM
no kingdom; but Frededo the Great, having common language. Tb« ptiieq)''
FB1JB8U. flSl
towns are Berlin, the enrftal of the Idogdom ; ftnd their total »rea 750 m). m., tbe agregate
KOnigsberg, capital of Frossia proper ; Dant- area of all other lakes being TOO eq. m. There
no, Hemel, Foseo, Btettin, Btralsond, Brealan, are lai|re swampe on the lower coarse of the
Uagdebnrg, Erfurt, Ufinster, Cologne, Ooblentz, Eavel, Oder, Warta, and NetEe rivers, which
TrOTea, wd Aiz la OhapeUe. — Bj &r the attompts haTe long nnmoceseMlj been made
largeet portion of the Proedan temtorr be- to dram. All the river ajetata of PmsEia be-
longs to the great plain of northern Europe, long to the baeina of the Baltic and North seas.
The eastern provinoes form a level district of The principal rivers in the eastern section
orer 60,000 aq. m., interaected hj a few inoon- are the Memel, Viatala (with its tribatariea tlie
riderable hiU chauu, the highest elevations of Drewens, Ossa, Brahe, and Hottlau), Oder
which do not exceed 700 feet The 8. W. (with its tribatariea the Oppa, Ohlan, Bartseh,
bonndary of BUeeia is formed bj the Bieeenge- Sober, NdsBe, and Warta), and Elbe (with ita
birge, or Oiant moontains (average elevation tribotaries the Baale and Havel with Spree).
4,100 fbet, highest peak 4,929 fee^ and their Independent of these are a nnmher of coast
continDBtions, tJie uer ridge and tne Lnsatian rivers, viz., the Dange, Pr^el, Elbing, Leba,
monnt^ns. The N. part of the provinoe of Lopow, Btolpe, Wipper, Persante, Bega, Uoker,
Saxony, which extenOB fW>m the nver Elbe to Ihna, Peene, and Beckmtz, nearly all of them
the Werra, is almost a perfeot level, intermpt- navigable for some distanoe. The wedMn see-
ed only by inconsiderable hilla and an isolated Hon la watered by parts of Uie river systems of
elevation of 1,086 feet, the Petenberg, near the Werra, Ems, and Bhine. The Rhine flows
Halle. The B. portion to the B. W, of the throngh Pmssiao t«rritory a distance of 18fi
river Baate is intersected by projecting spnra m., rMeiving on the right bank 8, tributaries,
of the Hartz monntains (highest elevation, viz., the Lahn, Wied, Bieg, Wnpper, Ruhr,
the Brocken or Blocksberg, 8,606 feet), and the Lippe, Berkel, and Yeohte ; and on Ite left
Thnringian forest (hi^eat elevatioa the Dol- bank the Nahe, Moselle, and Ahr. Beside il»
mar, 3,181 feet). The W. provinces contain the rivers Pmssia has a large namber of arldfioial
N. W. group of tbe moantain system of Ger- water courses, the Vistnla and Oder being oon-
many, its nnmerons ridges having as many neoted by the Bromberg canal, the Oder and
distinot names. The more important are : on Spree by the tf Qllroee ouial, and the Havel and
the ri^ht bank of the Bhlne, the Weser hills, Elbe by the Plane oanal. Other canals oonneot
including the piotnresqne gap known nnder smalt adjacent river systems in the western
the name of Porta Weetpbalica, the Teatobnrg provinces. — The climate of Pmssia is whole-
fi»«at (the battle gronnd of the Gennans and some and temperate, though an extent of 17
Romans), tbe Bothhaar hills, the Sanerland degrees of longitude neoesssrily produces con-
hills, the Seven mountains (Siebengebirge), and raderable diversity in the temperature and at~
Westerwald (9,000 feet); on the left bank of moapheric changes. The mean temperature at
the Rhine, the HnndsrQck (8,000 feet), Hohe KOnigsherg is 48.18° P., at Berlin 48.2", atAix
Veen, aad Eifel (1,600 feet). The Hohenzollem la Ohwelle 48,87°, and at Cologne and Treves
principalities are intersected bythe RanheAlp. 50". The soil, though in some monntainona
— The only coast Ime of Prussia is on the Bd- dietricta of the western section extremely des-
tio sea, and has a length of 616 m. The sea olate and^terile, and a poor loamy sand in a
being shallow near the coast, and fiill of shift- large dinBion of the middle provinces, ia on
ing sand banks, there are few good harbors; the whole Ibrtile, and preeminently so in the
the best are Stralsund, Oolbcrg, and Dantric. bottoms of the Elbe, Baale, Unstmt, Oder, War-
Beside the open bays of Bodden, Putziger ta, Netze, and other rivers in Pomerania and
Wyck, Prorer W jck, and Tromper Wyck, there Bileda. Even where it is naturally poor, a well
are several extensive lagoons or ha^ separated developed system of agriculture, asaidnously
from the open sea by narrow strips of land or fostered by the government, renders it b^hly
strings of islands. Of these lagoons the Great prodnctive. Of the total area of the kingdom,
and Little Half, whose head is formed by the 43 per cent, consists of tilled fields, 1.3 gardens,
embouchure of the Oder river, the Frisohes vineyards, and orchards, 7.4 meadows, 7.9
Haff, which receives tbe waters of the Nogat pasture, 18.2 woodland, and 28.G waste land,
river, and the Onrisches Haff, are Che most ex- lakes, &c. All kinds of grain are produced in
tensive. Of lakes Prussia contains an immense abnndance in Prusua proper, Posen, Silesia, and
nnmber, especially in the level N. £. section. Saxony, all of which export breadstn^ to the
but none of them are important either for ^eir other provinces or to foreign countries. A full
extent or as affording facilities for commerce, groin crop is estimated at 80,000,000 busheb of
The largest lake in the province of Prnsria, wheat, 96,000,000 of rye, 28,000,000 of barley,
Spirding, covers an area of only 37 sq. m. The and 96,000,000 of oats. Of potatoes about 420,.-
Krovince of Saxony contains a amall salt lake 000,000 bushels are raised. In 1869 there were
1 the vicinity of Halle, the Bfiblinger Bee. 7,764 breweries and 6,641 distilleries, consum-
In the Rhenish province the Laaoher lake, an ing 6,000,000 bushels of gr^ and 30,000,000
old crater, nearly 8,000 feet square and over of potatoes. Spelt, peas, rape seed, dye stnfib,
800 feet deep, fed by 40 springs, is renowned herbs, flax, hemp, chicory, hops, and beets are
in legendary lore. The total namber of lakes coltivatedinlargequontitieBinallpartsofPrns-
Govering not less than 800 acres each is 880, sia. Doring the year enduig Aug. 81', l&AO, 231
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^[t
b«et ngat maaa&otoriM prodoead orer 900,-
000,000 Iba. of augax tnm 29,604,342 owt. of
beeta. Tobaooo ent«M larg«lj into the agri-
cultural production ot w«M«m and central
Pnusift. The tobaooo fields cover an aggm-
gore area of g0,000 aorea, Tielding about 25,-
000,000 lbs. Of40,000«<ireeof vtaeyardaftill
f are on the Rhine and ita tribotariea. Their
average yield dnring 37 years was 6,8SS,89S
gaUfi., but in one year (1884) it was aa mnoh
as 17,494,040 gaUa. Wine of good quality is
produced only near the Rhine; those brands
which are produced in Saiony (Naumburff)
aad Silesia (Gmneborg) are proverbially bad.
IVoit culture has been greUly improved in
Pmasia vithin the last quarter of a century.
The forests, covering an aggr^ate area of
18,471,888 acres, fbrmgh ui abundance of es-
ceilent timber and lomber. In the raising of
d<Mneatio aoimalB the progrees of Praaaia since
iU reconatniction after the wars of Napwleon
has been more marked than in any other
branch of agricultoral pnrsuits. The nomber
of Bheep nearly donbled from 1816 to 1849, bnt
the improvement in quality has been still
greater than the increase in number. The
breed of horses has been so improved by gov-
ernment studs, that not only are all the horses
wanted for army pnrposea obtained within the
atate, but lai^ nombers are exported to neigh-
boring countries. In 1868 the total number of
horses in Pniaria was l,fiTfi,00O, and of homed
cattle 4,373,000. Hogs are bred to a greater
extent in Westphalia than in oQter picrfineea,
geeee in Pomerania, beea in Braikdenbnrg,
WestpheJiiL, and Losatia, and goate in the
mountainous districts; ponlbr is abnndant
everywhere. The fishenee on the shores of
the Baltic and on the lakes and rivers are im-
portant, and all kinds of game common to cen-
tral Enropa are found in the forests. W<dTeE
are seen only in PrnasiA proper and Ftmesa,
where also a &w bisona and elks are care&Dy
preaerved. The lynz, fox, badger, marten,
beaver, and otter, and wfld fowl are moro or
less commonly met with in different parts of
tile kingdoQL Seals are sometimies caught en
the Baltic — Uining industry advanced witk
astonishing rapidity within the second qnarter
of the present century, bnt its farther prc^reee
received a check in 1858, trom which it has
not yet recovered. In 185S the total number
of mines in Pmssla was 8,088, viz. : 608 coal
mines, 440 brown coal, 1,616 iron, 163 lead, 88
zinc, 60 copper, 0 vitriol, 5 ars^c, 5 alum, 8
antimony, S manganese, 2 cobalt, 1 flnor spar,
and 2 graphite, employing 114,832 men and
195,930 women and children; of liiniaoes^
rolling mills, Ac, 1,I8S, employing G9,filO men
and 124,141 women and ohildren; of saltworks
28, employing 2,275 men and 6,818 women
and ohildren. The total value of mimng prod-
ucts in 1866 was t21,B8S,100; in 1867, $28,-
725,000; in 1868, $26,126,000; in 1869, $21,-
628,740. The production of the prindpal mio'
erala has bem aa follows:
r„
Oi^l— .•
B™ni«I,
Inm,
Zioox,
an-".-.
"ItT'
8K
4a^i»
IS
1
as
Uas.«c
18M
The total value of the products of fdruaces,
fonnderiea, puddling works, &c., in 18GS. was
$66,650,000 ; in ;a57, $66.825.000 ;
$68,000,000 ; in 1869, $46,888,123. The quan-
tities produced dnring the 10 years from J849
to 1869 were;
T«n.
•'zxr
nUs<:.>.
a«,=wi.
— „-
■TT'
=J,
Mi
M
MhSSi
1.M0J11
lll^TlS
80*,gl7
i
8M«T
1B»
ISM
ISM
gs
Gold Is obt^cd only in very small qnontitiea,
averaging abont 80 lbs. a year. Of arsenic the
product in 1857 was 4,131 cwt; of smalt, 1,626
owt. ; of antimony, 227 cwt, ; of nickel, 816
owL Of salt there was produced, in 1866,
a«,186,000ibs.; inl866, 264,862,000; in 1857,
803,298,000, Other mineral products of Prus-
sia are agate, amethyst, chrrsopraso, alabaster,
marble, tophus, mDlstone, limestone, gypsum,
date, porcel^ clay, pipe clay, and marl. Am-
ber, which is fished from the sea or dug from
the beach of the Baltic in large quantities, is
properly a vegetable product, though some-
times classed with minerals. Among the min-
eral springs of Pmastft (108) the following en-
joy the widest reputation ; Warmbmnji, Sali-
bmnn, Eeinerz, and Landeck in Silesia; Frei-
enwalde in Brandenburg ■ Lanchstfidt in Sax-
ony ; Mbnrg in WeatphMia ; and the sulphur
springs of Aix laObapdle. — The manufiwtoring
industry of Prussia is comparatively of recent
growth. Tip to the beginning of the presrait
'" mainly an egricultnral and
an the efforts <' " '--'
I puA = (LOUM lb. tro^.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
tika Qmsi to Xv«nbj tba oeonpadon of hta la 184lt the nnmber of spindles was 104^90,
pecqde by intrododng new branches of mmn- which had increased to B89,000 in 1866. Their
iko^iro WW6 in the mam onaQooessM, proving number at the close of 1857 was eetimated hj
that arbitruT deoreea ore nnable to lead an the ministAr of oonuneroe at little lees than
aLgrieoltaral people to Indnstrial pnrsiiits while 400,000. Since then there has bees hot little
the freedom of labor is restricted bj political If anj Increase. The linen mannfactnre has
institodona. It was only after the nltimote enifered more than anyother branch of indos-
abolition of serfdom (Oct. 9, 1807), the intro- tr^ from British competition. For some time
doction of mnnioipal self-gOTemment (Sov. 19, the mannfaotnrers endearored to nndersell the
1808), andtheramovalof themedinTdinstitn- British bj reducing wages. The SDfferings pro-
tion of trade gollda (Oct 28, 1810), that maun- dnoed by tMa proceed&g among the weavers
ftotarlDg induatiT began to take root in Pms- of Silema form one of the darkest episodes in
aia imder tLe shelter of the prohibitorj system the history of I^nissia. The most prosperong
introduced by Napoleon. Aiter the downfall departments of mechanical indnstry are the
t>t Napoleon the PniBdan government at first mannfitctorea of woollen goods, silke, and bard-
sbuidoned his commercial policy, but the nn- ware. While 40 years ago Fmssia exported
exampled distress created in a large portion of the latest portion of its raw wool, its importa
the kingdom by a perfect inundation of cheap of the raw material and woollen yarns now
Englid) goods and the rapid decrease of domes- exceed its exports. The total value of cloths
tie prodaction oompelled the government to mannfactared in the ZoUverein in 1863 was
enaot A moderately protective tariff (1818) and $84,000,000, ofwhioh nearly $16,000,000 worth
to oonsolidate the industrial interests of a large was exported. The domestic consomptioii of
part of Germany. Sinoe then the industry of cloth, which in 1806 averaged only } ell to
Pnusia has steadUy and rapidly advanced un- each inhabitant, inoreased to li ells in 1B43,
6er a commercial policy tbat, while removing and to 8)- in 186S. "^thia a period of 10 years
as &r as possible all internal restrictioos and (1843 to 1B03) the net valne of cotton fabrics
creating new domestic markets by establishing exported by the ZoUverein, exdonve of the
noiprooal f^e trade with a m^ority of the eostof raw material, increased from $8,600,000
Gennon states (^ZoUotrein), afforded protection to (18,000,000. The Rhenish province, West-
ag^nst foreign opposition to those branches phalia, and Saxony are the principal seats ot
of indnstry which, from the want of accmnu- the manufacture of textile fabrics. Hardware
lated capital, would have been crushed if tboy of all kinds is manufactured in all the prov-
had not been so protected. In 1806 the pop- inces except Fmssia proper and Posen. The
□latJon of Prussia was 10,000,000, with an machine shops of Berlin rival the largest e»-
average income of $10 to each inhabitant 1 the tablishmente of the same kind in England.
capital invested in mannfoctariag establish- Bolingen and Suhl are celebrated for cntlery
meats little exceeded (200,000,000, and the and guns; Silesia for castings and sheet iron;
number of free laborers was 480,000. In 1866 We^balia for scytiies and needles. Sapid as
the average income of over 17,000,000 inhab- the increase of the prodaotion of raw iron haa
itantswas$4Seach,thecapitaIinvestodinman- been in Prassia, it has not been able to keep
nfootores (770,000,000, and the number of ftee pace with the increase of consumption. With
laborera 3,771,000. It is true that within this a home prodnotion of 6,868,072 owt. of pig
period the territory of the kingdom has been Iron in 16SS, Prusna imported 3,604,456 cwt.,
considerably increased; still the fact remwna making the total consumption 8,402,687 owt.
that with an increase of population of only 70 The imports in 1867 were 4,161,867 cvrt.,
pec cent, the products of labor have increased which, added to the home production of nearly
in value at least 800 per oent. A large share 7,S00,000 owt, (bows a total consumption in
of Aia increase belongs to the agricultural pro- that year of over 11,600,000 owt., an increase
daction, the progress of which has been stimn- of 8,300,000 owt. or 40 per oent. in 3 yeara.
loted by the increase of domestic oonsumption. The mannfitcture of leather, morocoo, cordo-
The total valne of agricultural products was Tan, &c, flourishee in the province of Saxony,
estimated in 1866, by the agricnltural departs Berlin, and in Prussia proper. In the manil-
ment of the govermneut, at ^83,786,660, more factnre of paper the progress has been more
than double the amount of the total production rapid even than in textile fabrics; it is carried
of Prussia BO years ago. In the same year the on in the Ehenish province, Westphalia, Bran-
net Income of 868,878 merchanta, mannfactn- denbnrg, Saxony, and Silesia. Ohioor; and
rera, shippers, &c., was estimated at $260,000,- starch are manofaotured principally in the
000 ; of 3,770,488 free laborers at $80,000,000 ; province of Saxony, tobacco in all parts of the
of6£8,9S4tradeBmenat$76,000,000: oflI6,S71 kingdom. The most extensive copper and
profenional men at $85,000,000; and of 100,000 brass mannfactnring establishments are fonnd
miners at $6,000,000. Extensive branches of in the province of Saxony and on the Khine.
manafaoturiDK industry have been created in Gloss wore, crockery, stone ware, and china
Pmssio, as it were, IVom nothing. Among ore prodnced in large quantities, principally in
these the mannfaoture of beet sugar stands fore- the central and eastern provinces. The poroe-
most The introduction of the cotton manu- loin of Berlin rivals tbe best French oIun&
fiKtare bos been attended with great hardship, wore. Tassels, fringes, trimmings, &o,, on
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
Buom&otiired at Brealu, Ibgdebn^, Odogne, ta 186S. Of gravelled tmnplke nwds then
and Berlin; fbnutnre aod pUnos at Berlin, were under the charge of uie state gorem-
In moBt of theae departments of indoatr; the ment, Jan. 1, 1868,8,863 m.; of tompibalmilt
prodnotion ia fbllj or nearlf eqnal to the con- and maintuned on acconnt ot diatrieta, oorao-
anmptioD, the imports Into FniBsia of sncbgooda rationa, loiBing companiea, &o., 6,S61 m, Tbe
btang balanoed hj nporta to a mmilar amount, length of river navigation ia 3,631 m., and (^
The emplojmentofateam power has inoreaeed oaiiala44SnL Sincerailroadahave entwedin-
1,200 per cent within 20 years. In 1B87 there to oompetjtion witb river navigation, the nam-
were in Praseia 428 eteam engines, of an ag- bcr of livar craft has been duniniahed, while
gregate of T,618 horse power; in 1862, 2,888, their tonnage has inereaaed and is now nearlf
of 92,462 horse power ; in 1869, 8,878 engines 800,000 tons. Steamboats plj on the Bfaine,
(aggregate horse power not stated, bnt probably Moselle, Weser, Elbe, Hav«i, Spree, Peene,
800,000). Of tbese there were employed in Oder, and Vlstnla. In 1869 there arrired in
cotton mills BT8, ia maohine ahops and metal Cologne, the prindpal port on the Rhine, 1,124
manulactaring establishments 1,6SI, in g^ist sailing veesela, canying 90,690 pasaengera and
and saw mills 806, in mining 1,468, in navig^- 61,680 cwt of f^i^t; while some 80 steam-
tion 117, on railroads 1,264, and for variona boats carried 674,496 passengers. The coast-
other pnrposea 2,624. The total number was ing and foreign oonmierce is carried on from
distribated among the different provinces thus: 20 porta on ue Baltjo, of which Dantao, FQ-
Bbenisb Prossia 2,168, Westphalia 1,666, Sox- Isn, Elbing, Uemel, Str^snnd, and St«ttin are
ony 1,660, SileHia 1,862, Brandenburg 1,190, the most important. The oommercial marine,
Frossia proper 878, Pomerania 298, Fosen inclnding river steamers, increased from 9Bi
SOI.— With the exception of England, no other vessels of 278,260 tons in 1864 to 1,830 vcaads
comitry has anoh excellent postal &cilltieB as of 889,443 tons on Jan. 1, 1861, and the anm-
Frosua. The nnmber of post offices increased ber of steamers from 29 to 86 witbin the aame
from 1,819 inl86S to 1,966 in 1867 ; the aggre- period. Of the total nnmber of vessels, 901
gate number of fmilas over which the niails were seagoing sailing oraft of 816,300 tons,
were carried, from 18,880,000 in the former 840 ooastmg veeseb of 12,978 tons, 24 ocean
year to 20,250,000 in the latter. The number steamers of 4,780 tons, and 61 river ateamers
of letters carried in 1860 was 186,877,083. The of 8,684 tons. The movem«its of aluiqnng in
drop letter delivery in the latge dtiee of Pms- 1869 and 1860 were as fbllows :
sia is the most punctual in the world. In 1867
the number of letters delivered in Berlin was
7,190,698, of which 2,148,410 weredropletters.
The single postage ia 24 cts. for any distance isw ,-,--. — , , .—
under Mmr4ilS.fo "my liiam™ iron, « '" ii.in l ijHm ' Jifji,! WWj
to 92 m., and? eta. for any distance above 92 m. Of the entrances in 1869, 6,121 vessels were
Tliepostaleslabliahmentisnotonlyself-Bnstaiii- Fmsaaa and 8,096 foreign, and of the dear-
iog. Dot pelds a profit to the government. In anoea 6,188 Pmssian and 4,009 foreign; ofthe
1867thetotalreceipt« were {8,623,678, and the entrances in 1800, 6,828 suling vessels and 727
disbnrBemeats $7,148,616. The telegraphs t^ steamers were Pmasian, and 6,306 sailing ves-
belong to the governmeat. Their aggregate aels and 810 steamers foreign, and of the clear-
length was 2,616 m. at the close of 1864, 8,660 ances 6,687 sailing veaeela and 722 steamers
m. at the close of 1867, and 4,460 on Jon. 1, were Pruaaian, and 6,280 sailing vesselsand 809
1869. From 1864 to 1867 the number of mes- steamers foreign. Of the tonn^e inward in
sages increased from 162,830 to 341,646. "The the latter year, 1,617,160 belonged to sailing
limited nnmber of stations renders the tele- veasela and 267,582 to steamers, and of the
graph of much less voloe for commerce than it tonnage oatward, 1,683,674 to sailing vessels
is in England or America. — On Jan. 1, 18S0, and 258,370 to steamers. Among the arrivals
there were 23 nulroad lines and portions of 7 and departures in 1860 there were but 3 vesoels
incomplete lines in operation. The total length from the United States, tonnage 1,682. Di»-
of the former was 8,107 m., of which 776 were tingaishing between vessels with cargoes end
built on government account at a cost of $48,- vessels in ballast, among the former the Pms-
243,840 ; of the latter, 276 m. The a^tregate sian bottoms constituted 66.78 per tsetH. of the
cost of the completed lines waa $306,991,687, orrivab and 49.83 per cent, of the departiuve;
or an average of $66,299 a mile, the average among the latter 89.77 per cent, ofthe arrivals
being mucli lower on the roads built by gov- and 62.62 per cent of the departurea. Of die
ernment. The rolling stock consisted of 1,259 veasela cleared from Prusrian porta, there were
locomotives, 1,976 passenger cars, and 83,794 9,659 loaded and 1,168 only in baliast; of the
fteightoars. The number of poaaengers carried arrivals, 6,468 loaded and 4,176 in ballast,
over the roads in 1869 was 20,161,218 ; total showing that the export trade of Prussia is
freight 241,621,812 cwt. The receipts were much heavier than the import trade. The
$23,586,904, or an average of $7,690 per mile; coasting trade is free to those nations whidi
total expenditure $11,008,468, or an average extend the same privilege to PrDaaian bottoms.
of $3,643 per mile, leaving interest on the o^ As yet the progreas of the ahipjiing interest
itol at the rate of 6.11 per oatt., against 6Ji6 has been ratlier irregular In Pranoa. Tbe ex-
FBUSBIA «t6
port«tion of brMditofb and lumber from the ing the pHnoipal and interest to the holders of
eoatem proTincea to Eaglaud (the average es- the boade. The aggregate amount of Booh
port of the former approached 1,000,000 quar- honda eioeede $100,000,000. The asBooiatdon
tera after the repeal of the British com laws) of capital for commercial and indnatriel pur-
has sofiered b; the competition of the United posea, not including railroads, tnrapikee, or
BtatoB and the Danubian countries ; and the canals, baa greatly increased within the last
iavestment of capital lu the ahipping business decade. From 1852 to 1854 inclusive 46 joiat
has been very slow, if it has not actoaJlj de- atook companies were formed, representing an
ore&sed unce the admission of foreign bottoms aggregate capital of tSQ,900,000 ; from 186S
to the coasting trade. The prinoipal marts of to IB&T indneiTe, 76, with an aggregate capital
the interior oommerce are Berlm, Breskn, of $46,762,600. Of the latter, 38 (capital $26,-
Uagdeborg, Frankfort, Cologne, Elberfeld, and 782,400) were mining companies, 9 (capital
HfinBter. The prinoipal articles of export ore $6,126,000) insurance companies, IS (capital
wool and woollen fabrics, breadstufHa, linseed, $8,887,700) manufaotnring companies, and 7
rape seed and rape seed oil, flax, linen, and cot- (oapittd $4,900,000) banking companies. Sav-
ton goods, wine, lumber, salt, amber, coal, iron, ings banks in Fnusia are municipfd institutions,
zino, lead, hardware, d;e stu^ books, leather, doing onlj local business. Their number in
and dyed 7am. The imports consist of mo- 1869 was 462. The aggregate deposits in them
laases and sugar, coffee, wine, nun, arrack, to- on Jan. 1, 1868, were 1^8,794,130 ; 1869, $81,-
bacoo, cotton, raw silk, tea, spices, hops, dje 296,517 ; 1860, $81,696,761. The depositors
woods, tin, quicksilver, saltpetre, glass, cattle, on Jan. 1, ISSO, were 664,986, of whom fewer
dried and salt fish, train oil, and furs. The im- than one fonrth (125,681) held orer $70 each. —
port duties being apecifio and levied on behalf Public education is better provided for in Pnu-
of the Zollverein, it is difficult to ascertain the sia than in any other European oountr/, or in
value of the foreign commerce of Fmssia, nor fact any other country, some of the New Eng-
do the official triennial reports of the minister land states excepted. Instruotion in the com-
of commerce contain any general statistics mon branches of learning, reading, writing, and
under this head. The last of these reports arithmetic. Is compulsory. In :&ct, it is diffl-
(1355-'7) gives the following account of the cult in Prussia to find adult persons unable to
commerce of Stettin r read. The number of common schools is 24,600,
with 81,000 teachers and over 2,600,000 papib.
The number of " middle schools," academic^
apprentices' schools, Sunday schools, and in-
dustrial sohools is very large, and increasing
from year to year. Of apprenticee' schools
{Sandwerher-.^n'tbildmift-SeKvlea) there were
in 1869 297, with 28,626 pupils. There were
Bat in this table the average value of goods is 21 provincial technical schools {Gewerbe-SchU'
estimated at a higher rote in 1856 and 1857 fon), attended by 1,849 persons. In 1858 thera
than in the two preceding years.— The bank- were 84 higher (common) schools (B&rgm^htt-
ing establishments of Prussia ore hampered by ien) ; 62 collies for instruction in the exact
government monopolies, and are not in pro- sciences (JSeoScAufen) ; 128 classical college*
portion to the wants of commerce. Until 1865 (jjim/umo), with 1,700 teachers and 80,000
the royal bank at Berlin (which had been trans- students; 89 preparatory colleges {proffym-
formed into anoint stookbank in 1846) was the wuia), with 180 teachers and 2,000 studentaj
only bank of issue. Binco then 8 private joint 66 normal schools ; fl universities (at Berlin,
stock bonks hove been established under a sort KQnigaberg, Halle, Breslau, Qreifswalde, and
of free banking act, which however offers few Bonn); and 2 BomanOatholio theological acad-
iodacementa to c^italiste. The note ciroula- emies, with over 5,600 students. Beside these
tion of every private bank is limited to $700, 000. there are numerous educational institutions f<^
The circulation of the royal bank, whiah until specual branches of science, viz. : theological
ISoO hod not exceeded $15,000,000, rose to seminaries oonneated with the universities; a
$50,000,000 in 1857, but bos since decreased, philosophical academy at Paderbom ; 9 Roman
Id all the principal cities there are branch ostab- Ootholio aemmories ; 8 seminaries for the higher
lishments of the royal bank. The number of branches of school teaching; a polyteclmio
banking estoblishmeuts not authorized to issue institution and an academy of architecture at
notes increased from 84 in 1854 to 103 in 1867. Berlin ; mining academies at Berlin, Bonn, and
A peculiar moneyed iustitutlou of Prussia, first Halle ; an academy of veterinary surgery at
introduced by Frederic the Great, but since Berlin ; an academy of forest culture at Neu-
tben imitated in other conntries, is the real stadt-Eberswalde ; agricultural colleges at El-
estate bank, originally intended to save the dena, Froskan, Poppelsdorf, and M5g1in, and
largo landholders from the usurious praotioes 25 agricultural schools ; schools of horticulture
of money lenders. These banks issue transfer- at Potsdam and Schiinebeiv; academies of eur-
able mortgage bonds to the amount of one half gery at Berlin, Breslau, Greifswatde, Magde-
ortwothirdsof thevalueoflondedestates, the burg, and MQnster; 7 military academies; 7
bank or assocbtion of landholders guarantee- nantioal schools ; and a great number of prt-
,„
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isu
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4,SM,ni
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s
11
D,o,.^oob,Google
686 FBTTSSIA
THte oommerdal ooadeniieB. All ednoatlonal in' lUh) proviDces. The mombets of all clrarclies
stitntiooB are oontrolled, more or less directly, reoognized by soTemmeDt eiuoy equal cirQ
hy the govemmeitt. Eren private teachers righta. Other ^nominations (Baptista, Metli-
most Bnbmit to a thorongh examination before odista, Oerman CathoUea, and. Free Oongr^a-
they are permitted to open eohooU. The com- tiooaliste) are barely tolerated, though the con-
mon Bchoola are nistained and administered by atitution gnaraatees foil reli^ons liberty.—
the mvnioipal corporationa, bnt the t«scliera Pmaaia is a hereditary oonadtutionalmoiurahy.
are appointed by government. Of ohoritabte The oonstitntion promulgated Jan. SI, 1650,
inatitations, there are deaf mnte BSyliimB at gnaranteeB to all tntizeuB equality in civil
Berlin, EOnigsberg, Breslan, Mflnster, and Oo- rights, the right of habeas corpna, religion!
logne; aaylmiia for the blind at Berlin and liberty, freedom of the press, fto. The king it
Breslaa ; a nnmber of orphan asylams and tlie chief execntive, clothed vith all preroga-
nnrseries, of which Berlin alone has over 40 ; tires of monarchical power. He Bdmintstera
96 Bible Bodeties, a miatlonary Bodety at Ber- the ^vemmentbytfae advice of 10 responsible
lin, fto. The highest branches of sdentiflo miniatera, vie: the eeoretariee of state, of the
cnttore are fiwtered by the royal aoademr of royal honaehold, of fordgn aAirs, of the inte-
Berlin, and nnmerona UBOci&tions of st^lara, rior, of public vorabip, edncation, uid health, ot
philosophical, get^raphloal, historical, medical, commerce, industry, and pnblio works, of Jns-
legsl, and polytMlmiD societies. There are tice, of the treasury, of war and the navy, and
large pnblio libraries in all the principal cities; of agrionltnre. The legislattire conasta of a
obBervatoriea and botanical gardens are con- honse of lords and a chamber of deputies,
nectad with the aniversities ; a roologioal gar- To the former belong all princes of the roy-
deu is kept near Berlin. The fineartearetaught al blood, all prisoea formerly sovereign hot
by theroyalaosdemyof art at Berlin, the Bi^- now subject to the king of Prosda, hereditary
emy of design at Dnsseldoif, 6 provincial acad- peers, peers for lifb, 90 members elected by
emies of design, and an academy of ohartog- the wealthiest classes, and 80 members elected
raphy. The nnmber of mnsical academies and b^ the mimicipal corporationa of as many prin-
mnsicol societies is enonnons. Thenewspaper cipal cities. The chamber of depatiea consists
press has not yet in PmBtda attuned to the of 869 members, who are elected by indi-
same prosperity, power, and inflnence which it rect universal suffrage for a term of 8 years.
enjoysinEngltmdandAinerica; bntitsprc^^ress The legislature may originate bills, bat ttie
since the revolutionary movements of 1648 has king has on absolnte veto power. Asyettha
been strongly marked. There is no oentraliza- constitution has been of scarcely any practical
tion of the newspaper press, many of tJbe lai^ value. The rights it guarantees have been
provincial d^y Jonmala being inlly eqnal, or overridden by polioe regulations, the resp<«3i.
even superior, in importance and drcnlation to bility of the ministers has remained a dead let-
tlie metropolitanpress.— The dominant religion ter, and the legislature has been powerlefi
InPrusdaistheFrotastant. The two principal either for good or evil on account of the incon-
Proteatantd»ncniiinatioUB(theLntheranandthe gmity of its component elementa. At the head
Reformed or Oalvinistio church) united in IB17, of the political administration of each province
assuming the common dedgnation of Evangeli- stands a chief president The provinces ara
cal chnrch. According to the lost full census divided into odininistratiTe districts (^Regier-
there were in Prussia 10,874,774 Evangelical un^.s&enrit(i), governed by presidents; there are
Ohriatians, 6,882,298 Roman Oatholics, 1,48S 26 beside the city of Berlin and the Bohen-
Oreek Catholics, 16,000 Uoratdans, 20,000 zollem principalities, each of which fbnns a
Hermfauter, and 326,868 Jews. The number separate district. The cUstriota are divided
of Protestant churches and meeting houses is into circles (Knitt, 887), governed by prefects
9,000, of Roman Oatholio churches and chapels {Landr&the). Provincial assemblies exist, bnt
7,260, of Jewish synagogues 900. The people their powers ore only advisory. They cannot-
of Posen, Weetphalia, and the Rhenish prov- originate any measures, and must not even ad-
ince are almost wholly Roman Catholic. The vise the government upon any subject nnlesi
Evangelical is the established church. It Is called upon to do so. Theirprincipal dutyiato
governed by the supreme ecclesiastical oouncil apportion the taxes tobelevied from the prov-
at Berlin (established in 1860) in all spiritnol inces. The police thronghont the kingdom ii
matters, and by the ministry of public worship administered by the government. Tbeatlminis-
iu temporal a^rs. Each provmce has a con- tration of justice has been completely reorgan-
ristory, and is divided into dioceses, at the iied since J848. Publicity of judicial prowed-
bead of which stand snperintendents or bish- Ings, trial by Jury, and a new criminal code have
ops. Of snch dioceses Prussia proper has 61, been introduced, and all eiooptionnl jurisdiction
Posen 18, Brandenbiw 76, Pomerania 66. Bi- has been abolished. In Rhenish Pmsaia the
lesia 62, Saxony 96, Westphalia 19, and Rhe- code Napoleon and the French legal procednre,
nish Prussia 26. The Roman Catholic dinrch which were introduced nnder the rule of Na-
has B archbishoprics (Posen and Cologne) and poleon, have been mdntained. In the other
6 bishoprics (Culm, Ermeland, Breslau, Man- provinces there ore city or district courts, and
tter, Faderboni, and Treves). Of the Jews SS courts of appeal. The chief tribnnal at Ber-
ftilly one half live in the eastern (formerly Po- lin is the court of last resort for all parts of the
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
kdnadom. The Sntnow of Pnuria^wliicli under
Fi^erio the Great were the admir&toon of the
world, have greatl; suffered in oousequence of
the wars of Kapoleoa, and the reTolution of
1848. The armr and hkvj ooiuame j\ of the
eatire income of the nation, and within the last
10 yean the militair expenses have increaaed
team tl7,aOO,000 to f3S, 960,000, or 54 per cent
The folloving table ahovs the state of the
Prnsaian finances nnoe 1848, the sums being
given in thaiera, of TO cents each :
^-
-ts."'-
I>p«UU»,
D.t<il«7.
M
M^£*
ise»
slSii^
toS^
M
M
The goTenunent owns 740,92S acres of culti-
vated laud, ftom which it obtains a rental of
over $2,000,000, and 6,109,769 acres of forests,
beside minoB, salt works, railways, &o. The
aUowance to the king and royal family, $1,791,-
171, is deducted from the income of the state
domun, and the remainder goes into the treos-
orj. The revenue is made apbjaoomplicated
system of direct and indirect taxatioa. Of the
total revenue about $10,000,00018 derived from
direct taxation, $36,000,000 ttom indirect taxa-
tion, $16,000,000 from the post office, the gov-
emmeot monopoly on salt, and state lotteries,
$7,000,000 from lauded eatatesbelon^og to go v-
emmeot, and $37,000,000 from miscellaneous
sources. The exemption of a larae nomber of
landed proprietors (noblemen) f(om taxation
on real estate renders the taxes more oner-
ous ttian they would be under a fair and e^oi-
table apportionment The public debt, which
in 17S7 was only $32^50,000, amounted to
$162,491,600 in 1830. During the subsequent
period of peace it decreased to $98,000,000 in
1847, but within the next 6 years it agaiu in-
■creasad to over $104,000,000, and is now $176,-
700,000, exoln«ve of $17,600,000 debts of the
government railroads. — The Prusaiau miBtarj
organization is based on the principle that
every citizen owes bis services to the country.
Every Pmssian is by law a soldier, though, in
consequence of the limitation of the army to a
certain nnmber of men, all may not be obliged
to enter the ranks. The regular anny oonsists
of men from 20 to 36 jean of age. Formerly
they had to remain in active service for 3 years
only (with the exception of the royal gnards),
■nd were then dismissed to form a reserved reg-
ular force liable to be called out at any time
for 8 years more. But in ISflO King William,
then prince r^ent, without asking t£e oonsent
of the le^latore, increased the regular term
of active service to 8 years, which is equivalent
6S7
to an inorease of the peaoe MtablialuneDt by
nearly one third. The term of active service
for professional men, etuduits, &o., is one year.
Having served his term in the regular army, the
Fmsdau enters the Landieetrr (militia), which
is divided into two levies {AufgeboUi, the first
oomprising all men from 36 to S2 yean of age,
the second all from 83 to G9 years of age. 'Hie
first levy is called out every year a few weelca
for drilling and manwuyring. In war it is em-
ployed the same as the regular army. The
second levy is liable to be called out in time
of war for the purpose of garrisoning the for-
tresses. All men over 89 and under 60 yean
of age form the irregular militia (X^niriunn},
which acta as a home guard in case of a foreign
invaaioa. It is onlv a local force for defeouve
purposes, never csJled ont except in extreme
cases. The regular army is composed as fol*
lows: 1. Infantry — a, royal guards: 4 regiments
of 8 battalions each, 1 reserve re^meut of 2
battalions, 1 battalion of aharp shooters, 1 bat-
talion of nflemen; i, regiments of the line: 88
regiments of 8 battaliona, 8 reserved regiments
of 3 battalions, 8 oombined reserved battalions
8 battalions of riflemen. 3. Oavalry— a, royid
guards : 6 regiments {garde du eorpi, cuiras-
siers, dragoons, hussars, and nlitaua), of 4 com-
panies each ; i, line : S regiments of ouirasders,
4 of dragoons, 13 of hussars, 8 of uhlans, of 4
companies each. 8. Artillerv— ^ royal guards:
Iregiment of 12 batteries; £, line: 8 regiments
of la batteries each. 4. Pioneers—o, roytd
guards: 2 companies; i, line: 8 sections and
1 reserved section, of 3 companies each. The
first levy of the landwehr couaiets of 86 regi-
ments and 8 reserved battalions of infantry (116
battalions), and of 84 regiments and 8 reserved
companies (144 companies) of cavalry. The
second levy oousista of 116 battalions of infan-
try and 104 companies of oavalry. The artil-
lery belonging to the landwehr haa no separate
organization, bnt the men enter the ranks of
the regular army whenever it becomee neces-
sary. The army is divided into a corps of
gnards (head-quarters. Berlin) and 8 amn- corps
(head-quarters, KOnigsberg, Stettin, Berlin,
Mogdebnn, Posen, Breslsu, HOnster, and Oo-
bleutz). :&ch army corps consists of 2 dividons
(a division comtiriaes 3 brigades or 4 regiments
of iuiantry, and 1 brigade or 4 regiments of
cavaliy), 1 regiment of artillery, 1 seoldon of
pioneers, 1 battalion of riflemen, S reserved
re^ments, and 1 or 3 companies of vetenms.
In war, an army oorps nnmbers 25 battalions
of infantry (28,000 men), 83 companies of cav-
alry (4,800), 88 field pieces, 4 reserved battal-
ions, and 6 reserved companies. The total of
the Fmsaiaa army, according to the new or-
ganization of 1861, is, in peaoe, 313,649, in war,
632,866 ; while the total number of those who
have gone through the military drill and are un-
der 40 yean of age is eetimated at 866,000 (cal-
colatdng the decrease by death at 25 per cent,),
leaving nesily 250,000 men as a reserved force
even after the army haa been put upon the war
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
6t8 PRUSSIA
footing. The navy of FniB^ U stEll In Ha in- the desoendants of Frederic, pkred a con-
fuioy. It ooB^tB of 66 TesseU, ourjlng 266 aplenoas part in the history of Germany, e»-
guns. Of this number 43 are gon boats, 4 pedallT' during the reformation. Fred^c I.
Bteamera, 4 corvettes oaiTTing from 10 to 19 fl4I6-'40) iubdned the robber knights, and
gam each, S doope of war carrying 8 guns obt^ed acme additional territoty from Po-
eaich, and two transport sldpa, and one is a merania and HeoUeobnrg, bnt snccnmbed to
JHgate of 46 gang. — The conntry whioh haa the Hussites, who devastated his conntry with
^ven ita name to the kingdom of Pmesia, of fire and aword in 14S3. Frederic 11. (144&-'T0),
which it ia nov only a provinoe, was known as snnamed the Han of Iron, eolargM hia pos-
early as 8S0 B. 0. by the Phcenioians, who pro- eeenons by pnrohases from neighboring states,
enred amber fhim the shores of the Balljo sea. bnt vaa nnforttmste in his atteim)ta to con-
He alyori^nes, a lithnaoian tribe, appear to qper Losatia from Bohemia and Stettin frcm
hare been peaceable and qniet, not nnacqn^t- Fomerania. Albert Achilles (1470-'8<l) and
ed with agrionltore, and living nnder a demo- John Oicero(14S6-'D9) o<Hitended energetically
eratio form of fforormnent. During the first against the nsnrpations of the lords, and pro-
oentnries of the Uhrlstien era, they became de- moted industry, commerce, and science. Jo-
pendent npon the Goths, who overran their achim I. Nestor (1499-16S6) was noted as a
country. In the 10th centnry they are first scholar, and also aa one of the most violent op-
mentioned nnder the name of Poraasi (po, be- ponents of the r^rmstion, and a peraecntor
hind,peopIelivingbehind^eRaBs,aforKofttie of the Jews, of whom he had many bnmed
river Meme!). Their religion was polytheism, at the stake or exiled. Joachim II. Hectm
and human sacrifices were not nncommon (1685~'71) became a Protestsnt, aecnlarized
among them. Bishop Adalbert, who ettempt^ the bishoprics of Brandenborg, Havelberg, and
ed to convert them to Christianity, was slain Lebus, founded many educational or charitable
by them while hewing down their sacred oak institntJona with the proceeds of the church
tree, in A. D. 997. Boleslss I., duke of Poland, property, and concluded a treaty of mntoal in-
invaded their country and compelled them to nentance with the dake of Liegnits in Silesia,
Cfess the Ohriatioa faith in 1010, bnt neither which became two centuries later the fonnda-
iself nor his immediate successors could re- tion of the Prussian claims on Sile^a. John
tfua ahold npon them. Alarge army which Georgol. (1671-'98)erpelledtheJewBwhobad
Boleslss IV. led against the Prussians was to- been readmitted by his predecessor, hot invited
tally annihilated, and the Prussiaiia even sue- the exiled Protestants from the Netherlands
ceeded for some time In holdinn a part of Po- into his eonntry, and by wise economy greatly
land in subjection. In ISIQ they repelled a improved the financial condition of his stale.
crusade sent against them from Germany, and Joachim Frederic (1SQ8-1606) acqcired by
soon became the terror of all neighboring marriage a ol«m on the duchy oi Prussia,
countries. The Teutonic knights finally con- which his son John Sigismund (1608-'ig) per-
qnered Pnissia (1980-'88), foonded cities, in- manently united to the electorate of Branaen-
troduced German colonists and Gennan laws, borg. Under the reign of Geoi^ William
and by their firm but liberal rale msde Prussia (1619-'40) Brandenburg and Proasia soSlsred
one of the most flourishing countries of its time, terribly from the 80 years' war. Having
Bnt abont the middle of the 16th century the adopted a policy of neutrality, the elector wos
demoralization of the knights, their continual looked upon as an enemy by both contending
wars with Poland and Lithnanis, and their parties. Prussia was ravaged by Swedes and
TecklesaezaotioQBOreatedapowerfuloppositios. Poles, Brandenburg by the imperial armies.
The nobility and the municipalities obtained the the league, and during 12 years by the Swedes.
aaaistance of the king of Poland, Oasimir IV., From the lowest depth of misery and deso-
and by a war of 12 years' duration (1464-'66) lation the country was raised by the enet^
compelled the order to cede western PrnaMa and wisdom of Frederic William, the Great '
and Ermeland to Poland. The remainder was Elector (1640-'8^ Byraarking out a vigor-
left to them as a fief of Poland. In IGll the ous and independent policy against France,
margrave Albert of BrandenbnM was elected Sweden, and Poland, and shrewdly taking ad-
grand master of the order. Having vdnly vantage of dissensions among his enemies, he
striven to throw ofiT the Polish rule, he turned enlsi^ed his dominions and obtained a position
Protestant, and in 1626 accepted Pms^a as a bnt httls below that of the great powers of
duchy from Poland. Eig son, Albert Frederic, Europe. Of Prussia he made a sovereign
becoming insane, the duchy wss governed by duchy, severing ita connection with Poland.
Ids relatives, of whom John Sigismund, elector At his death his possessions had increased to
of Brandenburg, inherited it in 1618. He was 42,820 sq. m. with 1,500,000 Inhabitants. His
adesoendant of Frederic of IIohenKollem, bur- son Frederic, the third elector of that name
graveof Nuremberg, who had become possessor (1688-1718), by consent of the Gennan em-
of Brandenburg In 1416 by fbreclosnre of mort^ peror, assumed the tide of king in Pmsaia.
gage. It is the electorate of Brandenbni^, not He acquired a few small territories, the princi-
Prussia proper, which must be considered the polity of Nenfbh&tel in Switzerland among the
nucleus of the present monarchy of that name. rest. His son Frederio William I. (in8-'40)
The electorate, though ft^oently divided by acquired &otn. Sweden a part of Pomerania,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FBU8SU PBDTZ 689
with Stettin, fcareaaittg the ftrea of the cowtrj PRUSSIA PBOPEB, a great ^viston of the
to 46,000 sq. m. Hel^tohiBBonFrederioH., Fmssian tdngdom, compridng East or Dnoal
the Great (1740-'S6), (6,000,000 over and above Pmsda, and West or Royal Pmagia; area,
all debts, and an annj of 70,000 men, the best S4,SS6 m). m. ; pop. in 18G8, 2,741,600. East
diaoipUned in all Enrope. With these means Prussia is bounded N. E. and £. by Russia, S.
Frederio began a war of conqneet, and wrested by Poland, W. by West Pmssia, aud N. W. by
Sileaia from AoBtria. By a wise and prudent the Baltic. Its surface is low and almost nni- '
adminbtration he etrengthened aud oonsoli- formly level, and along the sea coast there are
dated his kingdom, and devated it to the rank numerous lakes formed by the rivers, the fall
of B great power by BuooessfliUy rerastdug dor- being insufficient to canj their waters to the
ing a sanguinary war of 7 jeara' duration ocean. The moat iaportant streams are the
(1766-'63) the oomhined aggreasions of Ana- Memel or Niemen, which forms a vast estuary
tria, France, and Bussia. la 1772 he took or lagoon called the Ourisohea HafT, the Pre-
part in the first partition of Poland. To his gel, tb« Tange, and the Passarge. The greater
Bnooessor he left a treasure of (C0,000,000, an part of the soil is fertile, and the principal crop
army of St80,000 men, and a territory of 77,000 is potatoes. Nearly l of the land is oovared
aq. m. On his oooeseion he had 3,B10,000 snb- with forests. Frait, flax, hemp, tobacco, grun,
jeots, and at his death the number exoeeded live stock, fowls, and game are largely pro-
6,000,000. Frederic William IL (178fl-'97) duced, and amber is found in considerable
tried his beat to undo the work of his great qnantitieB. East Prussia comprises the gor-
predeoessor, but fuled to destroy the prestige ernments of Konigsberg and Gumbinnen. Uoet
of Pruana, and by participating in the second of the inhabitants are Gtermans. West Prassis
and third partitions of Poland added to his is bounded N. by the Baltic, E. by East Pmseia
poesMsions 40,000 sq. m. Frederic William and Poland, B. by Poland, and W. by Branden-
ni. (1797-1840), by a weak and vacillating bura; and Pomerauia The surface, soil, and
polJOT, isolated Prussia and eacoant«red the proaaotions are like those of East Prosaia.
wrath of Napoleon, who, after an ignominiona The principal rivers are the Yistula, whose E.
defeat of the Pruasian armies in 1808, reduced mouth, the Nogat, enters the FrisobesHaff, the
the kingdom to less than i its former area. For Brewenz, Sotge, Mottau, Braa, and Bchwar»-
6 years Pmasia chafed nnder the iron hand of wasaer. There are nnmerous inland lakes, but
Napoleon, who dU his ntmost to reduce the they are not so large as those of East Prussia,
kingdom to its former oondition as an unimpor- This diviuon comprises the govemments of
tant margraviate. But during this period the Dantdo and llarienwerder. The inhabitanta
Btateamen of Prusna Itid the foundation of its are chiefly Poles,
subaeqnent greatness by nnfettering labor and PRUSSIAN BLUE. See PorAseniH.
commerc^ by granting municipal self-govern- PRUSSIO AOID. See Htdbootanio Acid.
ment, and basing the military power of the PRUTH (anc. Porat), a -river of Europe,
state upon the people. After the down< of which rises in the N. E. Carpathians on the
Napoleon meet of its former poBseeaiona were confines of the Hungarian county of M&rmaros
restored to Prusna, and in addition to them it and Galicia, flows in an E. direction through the
acquired parts of the kingdom of Saxony and latter country and Bukovina, and in a S. S. E.
of Pomerania, Berg, jQli^, and several val- direction along the boundary line of Moldavia
uable territories on the Rhine. The prranise and BessarabU, Joining the Danube at Reoi,
of a liberal constjtutdon, given by the king to near the delta of the latter river. The affiuenta
his people, was not kept. The political condi- of the Pruth are numerous but unimportant.
ticm settled down into a sort of patriarchal des- Xolomea, the capital of a circle of the same
potiam. The establishment of the ZoUverein name in Oallda, and Ozemowitz, the capital
was the only wise and statesmanlike measure of Bokovina, are situated on its hanks. The
during 2S years of peace. Frederic William Flruth figurea conspicnonsly in the history of
IV. (1840-'61), a man of great natural talents the Tm^o-Bouian wars since the times ot
and Boholarship, but weak, pusinanimous, and Peter the Great, who was nearly compelled to
vindictive, destroyed almost totally the moral surrender on its banks in 1711.
prestige of Proesia, and threw away the golden PRUTZ, Robbbt Ernst, a German poet and
opportunity, offered to him by the revolution historian, bomtnStettin,MBy80, 181S. Hewas
of 1848, of becoming the head <^ a united Ger- educated at Berlin, Brest&u, and Halle, at which
man nation. For nearly 10 years under his last place he became extraordinary professor
reign the reactionary party of the conntry of literary history in 1849. He has written
wielded a despotic power almost oriental. In poems, dramas, romances, and works in literary
1857 his mental faculties gave way, and his history and criticism. Of the last the most
brother William was intrusted with the re- noteworthy are: D«r Gottinger Diekterhund
geaoy. FredericWilliaradied Jan.2, 1881,Bnd (Leipeic, 1841); GfaeiichU d«i Deattehen Jour-
waa Booceeded by the r^^nt as William I., who TuUirnvtOrol L, Hanover, 184C) : VarUtmtfetv
promised faitbfnily to execute the constitution, libtrdieGeiohiehttdttDeuU^en TAMlen(B«r-
and was generally credited with a desire of lin, 1647) ; Elaint 8ehf\fUn cur PoUtik und
again restoring Prosna to the political leader- Lileralvr (i vols., Heraeburg, 1847) ; and Neue
ship in Gemuoy. S^riftm (8 roll., Halle, 1654). EJa principal
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
640 nCTNHZ FSALUODT
dramatii) works aro XbrtU wn Satihtm and he vas taken into ctietodr JoBt beiote the
Die politUehe Woeh«ruttii» ; and his b«st ro- king's trial for "deiiTiiig the snpremacj of
mances, -Dot EngeJehm (8 vols., Leipdo, 1661), parliameDt," and on Dec. 6, IHS, was ej«ot«d
Ptlia (2 Tols^ 1851), and iW Mvtihtntav- &om the boose. Ha now became a bitter op-
Th'arm (3 vols., 185G). ponent of Cromwell, and published orticiea ot
PRYNNE, WiLUAV, aa English author and so vimlent a character that ho was twioe im-
politlcian, bom at Bwunswiok, near Bath, in prisoned. He waa one of the excluded mem-
1600, died in London, Oct 24, 1669. He wai bers who sat in the honse of oommona «arlj ia
graduated at Oriel college, Oxford, in 1680, 1660, and was so zealons in furtherins the res-
sbidied law, and was admitted a barrister, toration, that Monk sent for him and advised
beachu', and reader of linooln's Inn. Having him to lie quiet After the restoration h« was
embraoed the extreme vlewB of the Pnrituia, he M^pointed keeper of records in the tower.
Cblished several pamphlets sgunst Arminian- Wood, in Ms Athena Oxonientet, ^ves a cat-
1. In 1633 he wrote a Tolome entitled alogue of his writings, which comprises nearlj
" Histriomastix, the Player's Bcourge," In which 200 volumes. Of these Uio most valuable aro
heattaoked theatres, masks at court, danoinff, his " OoUection of Records," "Oolendar of Par-
hunting, May poles, cards, and mnuA. Land, liamentary Writa," and " Observationa on the
who twioe before had endeavored to convict Fourth Part of Coke's Institutes." Hia works
him before the high oommiaslon court, took are deeeribed bj Wood as "displaying great
advantage of some passages which appeared to industry, but little judgment." Hia " Beccvds"
reflect upon the kmg and queen to bring him he intended to bring down as late ae the rdgn
befbre the star chamber, ana by that court he of Elioiboth, but he lived only long enou^ to
was excluded from Lincoln's Iim, and oondeom- complete the work as far as that of Henry IlL
ed to pay a fine of £C,000, to have his ears cut PSALUANAZAR, Georoe, the aasnmed
off, to stand in the pillory at Westminster and name of a French impostor, liorn about 1679,
Oheapaide, and to be imprisoned doting the died about 1758. His real name ia unknown,
king's pleasure. His work waa also ordered as also his early history. ^Vben first noticed,
to be homed tiefore his eyes by the common he had wandered through a great paH of
hangman. This severe sentence, which was Enrope, and the better to preserve hia in-
rigorously carried out, did not anbdue his spirit, cognito gave himself out first as a Japanese,
and fKim his prison he continued to issue tracts and afterward as a native of the island of
Bgainst the prelates, calling them, according to Formosa. He travelled over various parts of
Wood, "Lociferian lord bishops, execrable France, Germany, and the Netherlands; was
trayton, devonring woolves, with many other a soldier, a b^gar, a servant; and at length
odions names not fit to be oaed by a Christian." vent to England with one Innes, a chaplain in
The publication oi one of tJiese, in 1SS7, en- a Bcott^ regiment. He now pretended to be
titled "News from Ipswich," stiired np anew a convert to Ohristianity, and Innes obtained
the anger of I^nd, and Prynne was again sum- promotion as the person influential in his con-
moned before the star chamber, and fined version. In 1704 he published at London a
£B,000. His ears, which hod been aewed on, pretended "History and Description of the
were also uain cut o^ and the letters 8. L. Island of Formosa, off the Coast of China."
(seditious libeller) were branded on both The desoription of the island was given with
cheeks. At the execution of this sentence in such apparent fid^l?, the manners and customs
the palace yard a great crowd waa present, were illostratedwith so many engravings, sncb
widen manuested its sympathy with the snf- copioas specimens were given of a new lan-
fbrw; and when he set ontfbr us prison, Caw- gnage and character which bore critical exami-
narvon castle, theroad waslinedwiththonsandB nation, that the beUef in the story was general,
of spectatore, who were anxions for the honor and the learned were divided in opimcxi until
of addressing him. Such numbers also visited the author repented of his evil courses and re-
the castle, that after a residence of 10 weeks vealed the imposition. He nowappUedlumself
hewasremovedbyan illegal order to thecastle seriously to study, and engaged in literary pnr-
of Uont Omieil in the isWd of Jersey. There suits. He wrote a large portion of the "Uni-
he remaned till Nov. 7, 1640, when he waa re- versal History," a true account as far as known
leased by an order of the house of oommons, of Formosa for the " Complete System of
hissentence being reversed, and damages to the Geography," and an "Essay on Uiracles," and
amount of £6,000 being awarded him against made a version of the Psalms. Be left behind
his judges. Hia entrance intoLondonhM the him in manuscript hia own memoirs, which
Xirance of a trinmfdial prooeanon. Boon were published in London in 1765.
he became a member of parliament for PSALMODY (Or. ^aKfueiui), a general term
Newport in Cornwall, and in tMs pontion waa comprehending the art of writing or compos-
employed to prepare tiie evidence against Land, ing divine hymns or songs, but commonly re-
He took a promioent part in the proceedings stricted to metrical versions of the psalms of
of the long parliament, zealously eq>ouaing the Bavid, to which simple and appropriate airs
cause of Uie Freebyter^ns, and oppodng the are adapted. The practice of psalm sinnng by
Independents; and so little sympauiy h^ he ChristlanB may be said to dirie from tne last
with the extreme measures then adopted, that supper of Ohrut and Ms disciples, at the con-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PSALICS MI
dnrion of irUoh Qie^ B&ng "an hjwn or and tli« Poshito, agree ia tiiia reapeot Bedda
psalm" together; and dDTing the apostohoal Moaea and Bavid, sev^al other authors of
age and for eeyeral ceotnriee afterward it was psalms are named in the headings; thus, 2
a regular and important part of divine service, psalms are ascribed to Bolomon, 12 to Ag^h,
the performaaoe being b7thechoirortbewhole 11 to the sonsof Korah, a Levitic family, and
bodj of the church antiphooallj. GrodQallr one each to Heman and Ethan, The Alesan-
the part taken by the congregation became re- drine and the Syiiao veraioits mention also the
strioted, and finely, as a more scientific mode prophets Haggai and Zaohariah as the authora
of singing came into vogne, truned performers of some psalms. — The collection of psalms, in
condncted the whole of the mosical service of the form in which it at present appears in the
the church. At the period of the reformation Old Testament, cannot have been completed
the old practdce iras restored hj Luther and until after the captivity, as some of the psalms
Galvin, the former of whom maybe considered areobvionslj of snbseqaent origin. Bntparticn-
one of the chief foonders of modem psalmodr, lar ooUeotiona, which were afterward embodied
and metrical verdona of the pealma were made in the book of Psalms, seem to have existed
in TariooB langnages. That in French of the as early as the time of Bavid. The book of
first 50 psalms, by Clement Uarot, proved ez- Faalms is, according to the analogy of the Pen*
oeedingly popular, and psalm tdnging became a tatench, divided into 6 books, each of which
fashionable amnaement at the eoort of Francis closes with s doxology. The second book haa
I. This verdon was snbseqaently completed by moreover a postscript, which seems to have
Theodore Beia. The melodies were chiefly been the oonolosioQ of an old particular ool-
by Olande GondJmei and Olaade de Jeane, na- lection. The Septnafpnt and the Vulgate,
tive composers; but according to some author- which follows it, diSer somewhat from the
itiea they were of Qerman ori{^ Luther Eebrev in numbering the i»alins, the differ-
himself composed and adapted many psalm ence banning with uie lOth and extending to
tnnes, inclnding the well known Bin' fetU the UTtii ; the entire number in all these is
Burg m£ voter Gott, vernfled from the 46th ISO. — The contents of the book of Paalma are
psalm ; and his followers favored harmonized manifold. With regard to their otyect, tbey
part ainpng, while the more severe Oalvinists may be divided into 6 classes : 1, hymns to
practised cmly a simple nnaccompanied mel- God, in which he is praised as the creator,
ody. Abont the time of Marot's pnblioadon preserver, and governor of the world, and in
appeared the English version of Sternhold and particular as the protector of bis chosen peo-
U.>pkina, with music, original and selected from pie ; 2, national psalms, In which the people
the Oalvinistic school, and which, qnaint and are reminded of the ancient history cf Israel
nuconth as it was, continued for many years to since the time of the patriarchs, especially of
be that chiefly in use in England. Snbse- the history ofMosee, of the many favors reoeived
qoently Thomas Bavensoroit, John Plajford from God, of the occupation of the promised
(called hySir John Hawkins "the father of land, of the signal assistance of God, and of the
modem psalmody"), Br. Oroft, Handel, Br. gratitude therefore due to him ; 8, the king's
Millar, and others made valuable additions to pealma, in which the theocratic lung is praised
EiuEJish psalmody; and in 1S96 the version as the representative of Jehovah, and the as-
of Tate and Brady took the place of that of sistance of the Lord is invoked for him; 4,
Sternhold and Hopkins. WtUiin the present moral hymns, inwhioh thefateof thepiooaain
oentnry the number of psalm tunee has lu~ the wicked is described ; 6, the psalms of la-
oreased almost beyond calculation. mentation, in which, sometimes by individual
PSALMS, Book ov, one of the canonical Israelites, sometimes by the entire people, mia-
books of tbe Old Testament, containing a copi- ery and oalamity, especially oppression ez-
ODs collection of religious songs. Beligioua perienoed &om foreign or domestic foes, are
poetry among the Hebrews, as among the ori- lamented, with aprayer to God for deliverance:
ental nations in general, can be traced to high a subdivision of this class are the penitential
antiquity. Even the Pentateuch contains sev- psalms, describing the sufibrings of the psaha'
__.,t ,. .__,. ^,_.^. Istasdeft- ' ■' '" -=-..--
and pray „ . . , . . .
ascribed to Moses. In the time of the Judges aianio psalms, which have reference to the
eral nymns and fragments of hymns, and In the 1st as deserved, reoOEnizing the committed sin,
book ot Psalms we find one psalm which is and praying fbr pardon ; 0, prophetic or Mee-
" ' ' " ' - . . . . . . . . ^ rereren
meet with the beautiful song of Deborah Meesiah and to the eztenuon of his kingdom.
(1 Judges vO, and the brief but equally beautl- There prevails among eiegetical writers a
ibl song of Hannah (1 8am. ii. 1-10). But the great difference of opinion as to the nnmber t^
religions poetry of the Hebrews attained the psalms belonging to this last class, and theo-
htghest degree of development through King logians of the rationalistio school have even
David, who is recorded in the Scriptures to maintained that a directiy predictive nharacter
have practised it from early youth until his cannot be claimed for a single paaaage in the
death, and in particular to have introdnoed the psalms. — The collection of psahna seems to
ringing of hymns into the service in the taber- nave come at once into pnbuo use at divine
nacle. In the Hebrew original 78 psalms are serrioe both as prayers and hymns. The sing-
aacribed to David, but none of the old eoclesia»- ers who were appointed by Bavid for the ser-
tie tranalations, as the Septuagint, the Yulgate, Tioe of the samAnary sang psalms, which were
vol.. XIII. — II
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
«42 P8ALTERT FSEOT
without doubt mostly pssTma of David. In are freqnentlr removed and replaced or otber-
tira time of Ueieti^, pa&lnu of David and wise altered, and present new oombinatioiw
AsBph were rang at religiom tolemnities (3 withont anj acoonip&n;n^g ohonge in the ori-
Chron. xiix. 80), and the eame is reoorded to ginal form. Tbia oocnre in varioDS wbtb, aa by
bave taien place in the eeoond templa after the the displacement of a soluble salt and tbe sob-
captivity (Ezra iii. 10). Id the Ohristiau ohnroh leqnent filling of the Taoant monld by the in-
the book of Psalms had likewise from the be- trodnction of another mlnwal sabstance, as in
ginning a ' great iniportanoe. Obrist himself, tbe case of a cnbic orratal of common salt in
after tbe odebration of the last snpper, sang claj, removed bj vater, and the place after-
psalms with his disdples ; and soon t^r, when ward filled hj gypsom ; and again by inorusta-
<Hi the cross, he nsed the words of a psialm to tion of some foreign mineralsabstanceoverthe
express his being abandoned bjthe Father, original crystal, which may be aabseqoeDlJy
After his reaarrection he expressly declared dissolved away, leaving the hollow shell emp^,
that the psalms contained prophecues pointing or this may be again filled by infiltration of
to him. Panl and Bilas praised Ood in psalms some mineral sabetance. Bach changes are
In the dungeon at FhiUppi, and Paul exhorts chiefly mechanical ; bnt others are reoognized
the Epheeians and Fhilippiana to pruse the of more decidedly chemical nature, as when the
Lord with psalms and spiritnal son^. The interchange of elements goes on pari jnmtf, <»
early Christians used the psalms both m pnblio when new componnda are prodnoed by the re-
Mrvioe and ioth^ private devotions, and the moval or addition of one or more elementa,
<diurch soon nude tiiem a prominent part of The range in which these changes may oocnr is
the litnrgiesl books, in partienlar of the brevi- so extensive, that there resolt a multitude of
Wy. In tbe Protestant ohnrobea the paalms minerals in shapes entirely strange to their
have always been extensively nsed for congre- oomposition, and often on this account per-
ntional singing, and some denominations, as pleiing to recognize. In gen«nl ench crya-
uie Refbrmed Presbyterian chnrch, do notal- tals may be suspected by their lack of Uie
low in divine service the use of any other re- lustre.andsbarp well defined angleeof the gen-
linons hymns. — On aoconnt of the signifioanoe nine crystsL Their stmctnre also is often
"which has always been attached to tbe book of ^nular; and if they have any cleavsge, this is
Psalros, It has in modem times called forth a u quite a different direction from tbat belong-
larger number of csmmentariea than any other ing to the original mineral. Among the great
bibHcalbook. Ijeijiiag,Uihh Bibliotheea Sacra variety of psendomorpbs the following are of
(Paris, ITiS), -etiinnerates, more thnn fiOO oom- freqaent occurrence : pyroxene minerals and
tneotuies, exclusive of these which form parts other silicates converts into steatite; iron py-
of larger works, as well as of the commentaries rites and various other species into h«natita ;
on apart of the book of Psalms. Among the finer spar and many otbers into quartz, ito.
Eagli^ commentaries the 'work of Bishop In geology the common examples of metamor-
'Home has not yet been superseded for popular phism may be regarded bnt ae cases of paeudo-
nse, though itsoriticdvalueissmall. Therecent morphism carried oat upon a Itu^ scale, and
literature sf England contadns no original work the altered crystals wherever met with poaseas
of prominence, and a thoroughly good com- a new signification as types and evidencea of
mentary is still felt to be a great desideratum, vaat changea and processes of the decay and
The recent exegetical liKratnre of Germany is reformation in inorganic natnre. The sutgect
rich in excellent commentaries, smong which was first systematically treated by Haidinger in
those by De Wette, SitKig, Hinel, Ewald, Brewster's " Edinbur^ Jonmal," vols. ix. and
Hengstenberg, DelitzBch(87olB.,Leipsic, 1860), s., and afterward in the work specially de-
and Hupftld (4 vols., Ootha, 18Cg-'61) are beet voted to the subject by Dr. J. R. £lum, en-
known. Among recent Boman OathoUo oom- titled Du Fieadomorphotmi da Jf jn«r(iIrfi«At
mentsries, that by Schegg is particularly val- (Stuttgart, 1848). It is also discussed by Bi-
ned. In America new tnuisldiioas have been aohof and Volger in their works, and elaborata
published by On. 'Q. K. Neyes and Joseph A. papws upon tbe subject by Prof. James D.
Alexander, tbe latter with a oomnMntarybftsed Sana are contuued in the "American Journal
t>n that of Hengstenbet^. of Bcienoe" (Ist series, vol. xlriii., 1845).
PSALTERY, a stringed musical instrument PSKOV, or Fucskov, a W. government of
in use among the ancient Jews, and snppoeed European Russia, bounded N, bj St Petersburg,
to bavo been identical with the n^l mentioned N. E. by Novgorod, K by Tver, S. E. by Smo-
in the Psslms. Bnmey says it resembled part- lenak, 8. and S. W, by Vitebsk, and W. by Livo-
lythelyreand partly the harp, but acoording nia; area, 16,688sq. m.; pop. in 1866, A96,9S7.
to otter authoridesit was in shape a trf^zinm. The most important towns are Pskov and To-
not unHke tbe Instrument known «a the dnlci- ropetz. The V aldai bills traverse the S. E. part,
mer. (See Dttlcimeh.) but the rarfaoe is generally level. There are
P8KUDOHOSPH (Gr. ^mdqf, false, and tteveral lakes, tbe most important of which,
/loptfiTi, form), in niaeralogy, a crystal having a Lake Pskov, or the sonthem part of Lake Pel-
fbrra belonging to some other mineral species, pus, comes within the limits of tbe nrovipoe
In the changea which are ever going on in ontheN.W, frontier; and in the S. El mere are
minerals and rooks, tlia ooiutitiMiitt of cryitala numeroasmarabeK AgreatpartoftheconntiT
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
F8T0HE PTASiaGAK 048
is eorered vlth foresta. The piindpsl en^ beintf iasadj alotii«d yrith fMthera; the fiua-
r^sed are rye, osta, bmrley, and poise. Hemp Oj oharactera have bean given under GROrw.
and flax are ooltivated. The only tnaan&otDre lliere are 6 or 8 spedes described, iababitiiut
of anf importance is leather, and the inhabi- the northern and snow-ooyered regions of both
tsnts ezod Kraatlj^in dressing sldns. The pop- hemispheres, being one of the few genera char-
nlaiiui is chiefly of Bnsrian origin, bat there aotArigtio of the arctic (innna ; thef are as mnoh
are a few of other races, including some Uoham- at home in snow as are the web-fboted birds in
medans. Id 18U the government contained water, and their plumed feet enable them to
SO villaM aohools, attended hj 806 pnpils. — mn over its snr&oe withont sinking in. The;
PSKOVf^e oiqtital, is ritnated on the left bank live in fiuuilies during most of the year, ana
of the Vdikala, about 6 m. from Its mouUi in aremonogaroous; the females inonbate, bat the
Lake Pskov, and 160 m.S.S.W.frmn St, Peters- males awdst in rearing and feeding the jonng;
burg ; pop. 10,843. It is enolosad bj a wall the males have a loud harsh tsrj, and the fe-
S m. in oircnit, and the Kremlin, or citadel, males cackle like a hen. They are rapid fliers
Btands in the centre. There are a cathedral and without a whirring noise, and swift ran-
and about 80 other ohnrchea, scTersl of which ners ; Qiej feed npon berries, buds, mosses and
are in a niinons condition, 8 convents, seTcre] lichees, and even insecte ; their flesh is good,
sobo<^ and some charitable institutions. Pskov and their pnrsnit affords an exmting sport;
is verr connticnons in the eorlvhistorj of Sue- thej are very shy, but when started are easily
ria. Ithasbeen often besieged; in 1614 Que- shot on acconnt of their regnl&r flight The
tavns Adolphoa was obliged to retire &om sommer plnmage is varied with brown, black,
before its wiills. and gray, most of the wing remaning white ;
PSTOHE (Or. 'iroy^, breath, or the soul), a in the nules the mottling is finer and the colors
oliaracterof Greek romance, generally accepted brighter. It is very difficult to ascertain the
•a a personifloadon of the hnman sonl. Her exact nmnber of species, from the rarity of
story IS thus told by Apuleins. A certain king q>ecimeQS ta summer plnmage, and the absence
had 8 danghters, of whom the yoongest. at accurate determination of sez. — There are
named Psyche, was a marvel of beauty, and 8 well ascertained species in America. The
altars were consecrated to her that properly white ptarmigan or willow grouse (£. albut,
belonged toTenns. The anger of that goddess Aud.) isabont 16| inches long and 24} inches
was excited, and she commtmded her son On- in alar extent; the bill is black, very stout and
plA to inspire Psyche with a passion fbr some convex, and broad at tip ; the general plumage
frightM monster; but he himself fell in love in summer is mfous or orange ohestnut on the
wiUi her, and bore her aw^ to a delightfol head and neck; feathers of bat^ black, closely
place, where she was Tisit«d every night by barred with yellowish brown and chestnut ;
the yonng god, who left her at dawn. Her most of wings and lower parts white; tail
Bisters perstuded her that be who came to her brownish black ; in winter white, with black
every night, and whom she had never seen, tail ; no black stripe throng the eye. It oocnra
most be some loathsome creature, aud urged inthonorthernpartsof America, andiscoounon
her to destroy him while he slept ; but when in eastern Labrador, Newfoundland, and the
she brought a lamp and beheld his beanty, her Hodsoa's bay territo^, and in rare instances in
joy deprived her of the power of motion, and the northern United States; it is found in opea
while she stood a drop of hot oil falling from rocky grounds and amOng dwarf willows and
her lamp npon his shoulder awoke him. With birches. In winter they scratch in the snoW
« few wor^ of reproach be fled. Psyche now down to the mosses and lichens on which they
endeavored to destroy herself but nothing in feed, collecting often in considerable flocks; in
nature would iqjare her. At length, through winter the fleidi is dry, but is tender and witii
the contrivance of Venns, she fell under t£e an agreeable aromatic flavor in summer. Thej
influence of a sleep brought especially from breed in Labrador about the beginning of June^
the infernal world. From this sleep she was pladng the neat under the creeping branches
not aroosed nntil Onpid came and touched her of low firs ; the eggs are from 6 to 14, of a
with the point of one of his arrows, when she fawnoolororrafousgroundwithirr^ular spots
arose, and, being now safflciently porifled of reddish broWn ; only one brood is rused in
Ibroi^h sati^ring, was united to her beloved a season. The rock ptarmigan (L. rtmattrit,
by Jove himself. Leach) is 14^ inches long ; tiie bill is slender,
PSTGHOLOGT. See Philosopht. rather compressed at tip; in summer the fea-
FTARHIGAN, the popular name of the gal- thers of the back are black banded with yel-
linaceons birds of the grouse foroily embraced lowishbrownandttppedwith white; inwinter
in the genus tagoptu (Brlss.), which differ from white, with the tail black (the 4 middle feathers
the ordinary grouse in having the 1^ feather- white), and the male with a black bar from the
ed to the claws, giving somewhat the iq>pear- bill through the eyes. ItoconrsiaarotioAmwi-
«icoofaWe'Bfbot(iriiencethegeneriename, oa, rarely coming farther south than lat. 68° N.
Gr. X<i>wf , a hare, and «<»>i, foot), in the tmn- in the interior, but to 53° on Hudson's bay, and
c^ed tall about I as long as the wings and of in the Bockymoontains, according to Kichard-
16 to 18 feathers. In most of the spades t)ecom- son, to 06" ; the same species is sold to occur
ing white in winter, and in the nasal groove inthenort^ernpartsof theeastenihemisphere;
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
S44 PTEBK3UTHYS FCBROSAOTTL
the eggs are pale reddish brovn, with darker proswd, inaerted In aeparate cavities, tod bol-
■potB, and are If bj IJ iochee. The white- lowed at the base; neck of ? stont Tertebna;
tailed ptarmigan (L. Itueurui, Bwaina.) has a doraals 18 to Ifi, and, with the ribs, weak;
dender bill, the plumage in summer blackish Inmbar 2 or 3, sacral 6, anohyloaed toKother,
brown barred with brownish feUow, and in and caudal 10 to 16 ; the sbonlder blade aod
winter entire]; white ; it is 13 inches long and ooracoid bone separate and weak; scapular
Slinalarextent; itiafoondintheN.W. por- arch and pelvis as in lizards, except liiat the
tions of America, and to the soath along the last seems to have had marsopial bones, accord-
Book; moimtains to lat 89°. — The common En- ing to Pictet ; the long bones hollow and with
ropean ptarmigan (2^ ffittfuj, Leaoh) is about IS air openings, as in birds; hnmems short uA
inohea long ; the bill Is Uaok, short, and robust ; stoat, and forearm twice as long ; hind limba
die ■ommer plnmage is aahr brown mottled slender, with fi moderate toes of the same
with darker spots and barred with orange jel- length ; 6 or 6 bonee in the wrist, 6 metacar-
]ow and dark brown on the ridee of the neck pals. S fingers, with respectivelj 1, 2, 3, 4, and
and back, and the taU, with the eioeptloit of IJomts; Uie first 4 short and with hooked
the 2 middle feaUtera, grajiafa white with a naUs, the external veij louf, eqnal to the neck
narrow terminal white buid. It Is fond of loft; and bodj, and naillese; the gape of month
and northern regions, going aa far as Green- ver; large. This singular aniiul was reined
land and oomiug down to tlie highlanda of t« the swimming birda b; Blamenba<^ and to
Bootlaad ; when puretwd, like the ouer q^dea, the bats b; SOmmering, and was det«miined to
it is apt to dive nnder the eatk snow ; it some- be & reptile bj Oarier. The nearly equal and
times aoea t^ for protection from the cold, and oonical teeth, vei? small cranial oavit;, differ-
in damp weather !■ eomel^nea imprisoned and ent nnmber of joints in the fingers, and reptdl-
deetn^edrntdertfaefrozeasorfiioeofthesnow; isn shape of stemnm and soap&lo, show that it
the rnmd gronee has the same habit. A species was not a bat-like mamma] ; tiie very existence
mnoh reaemblinf^ this, if not identical with it, of teeth, the small nnmber of tiie vertebrae in
ooonre iu America, in the neighborhood of theneck,thethinnes8oftheribaandtulaiH]tlie
Baffin's ba;, and haa been described by Aadn- absence of recnrrent processes in the latter, the
bon as L. Amarieanat. — The Bootoh ptarmigan form of the stemmn and nnmber of the fiogeia,
or moorcock (£. Seotiav*, Steph.) seems peon- prove that it was not a bird. These cbaractMS
liar to Ore^ Britain, and is abondant in the place it among reptiles, bnt it bad also a modi-
hillj districts of Scotland; the general color is noation of the anterior extremities in the fbtm
oheetnnt brown, with black spots on the back of wings, which are not posseaaed b; an; ez-
and nndalating black lines below ; the winter isting or any otber fossil members of the class,
plumage is the same. It is mach esteemed as the so called wings of the dragon bdng merel;
mme, being to the fowler what the fox is to membranous expansions from the wdea of the
Uie hnster or the salmon to the angler; where body sopported by the ribs. The form of the
not mnoh pursued it is not very shy, but Its pin- wings is also remarkable and nnlqne ; in birds
mage is so like the sarronnding dark moes and the fingers are very little separated, and serve
heaths, that it is almost impossible to discover as a basis for the nlnmea; in bats the flyine
it without the aid of a pointer ; it feeds upon membrane is stretcned upon the 4 elongated
heath tops and monntrin berries. fingers, the tbomb remaining mdimentary;
PTEBIOHTHYS, a remarkable fossil fish, but in the pterodactyl the external finger alone
BeeGiNoine. b greatly developed and sapporta the flying
PTERODACTYL {fUrodaetylvt, Onv. ; Gr. membrane, the other 4, having the nsnal abort
nrfpof, wing, and SoJmiXor, finger), a remark- dimensions ; the membrane extended probably
able genus of fossil fiying reptilea, pofflessing from the long finger along the stdea of the body
essentially the characters of saorians, with some to the bind limbs end beyond, inclojUng the
only apparent relations to bats and birds. They tail. About SO spet^es are described, varyiog
have been divided into 8 genera according to inalar ezteatIiromafowincheflto4or6yudB,-
1dlenamber of jointsin the wing-bearing finger they probably flew and crept abontinllie man-
■nd the disposition of the teeth ; all are oharao- ner of bats ; the form of ^e teeth and strength
teristlo of the secondary epoch, being tbnnd of the jaws Indicate a carnivorooa animal, bat
principally in the lithographic schists of Bolen- of feeble powers; the amaller species must have
nofto, and in the ooute, lias, wealden, and been insectivorous, and the largest may have
ehalk of Enrope. In the geoos ptarodadyhu seized fish or small reptiles of their own or
s had taetii even to the extremity; the other genera. The great size of the eyes indi-
as elongated, with the intermaxUlaries oatea noctamal habits ; the posterior limbs
re; nassl opening wide and near the middle wereso fardevelopedthattheyconld doubtless
of VM mnizle, partly closed in front by a small assume an erect position like birds, and perch
bone as in the monitors, and witii a surround- on trees : the claws of the jbre and hind feet
ing drcle of small bones and a small opening wonld uso enable them to climb along die
into the orbit as in birds ; the lower jaw, as in rocks; the body was probably more or less
crocodiles, had no coronary process, and was scaly, as in liaaras. From the weakness of the
articulated behind the eyes ; the t«etli, 6 to 17 secular arch some have doabted the power of
oneadbBidB,wereooiuad,stightlyarohed,oom- active flight in the pterodactyl, believing that
Bk^"
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
tie wing membranes wold aofy support it In of FerdieoAS, he lesfroed in 891 with Antigo-
bm sir when leaping from place to place, In a nns, Antipater, and Oratmu. Perdiccaa in-
ttle more perfect msDnerthaninthedragons; vaded E^t, but penetrated no farther than
nt it mast be remembered tbatthe abnoaphere the Nile, where Ftdomj had so stronglf for-
f the secondar7 geolofpoal age eoQt«ined more tified himself that he foiled Ferdicoas in every
arbon and less oxygen than at present, and att«mpt to croae. On hearing of the asHassina-
bat in a dense mediom, tqiproaching more tion of his rival bj his nmtmons soldiers, he
early the physioal properties of water, even a sent wine and pronsione to the invading anny,
old-blooded reptile mi^t rise on the wing, and so won uiem hy his oonrteay that they
nd fly hesTily throogh the thicker air, with nnanimonsly offered him the r^ency, bat he
he necessary ezpe^tnre of much lass mnsoolar declined it The next year he selced upon
nergy than is now requisite for serial locomo- Fhcenicia and Ocele-Syi^ It was probidily
ion.— The moat anciently known species is the daring this expedition tiiat he took posseenMi
°. lonyiroitrU (Oken), abont the size of a of Jerusalem without oppoution by attacking
roodcock, with a length of 10 inches and an it on the sabbath day. To reust Antigonos,
ikr extent of 21 ; the teeth were H on each who had now become the most powerftil of
ide. The P. erattirMtrit (Goldf.;, wiQi a Alexander's anooesson, he (brmed a ooalition
areer head and shorter neck, was a foot long in 816 with Belenons, Osssander, and Lyslma-
md S feet in alsr extent, and the teeth y. The ohns ; and after a vehement straggle of 4 years,
P. Iretiottrit ^Onv.) had a shorter mnzzle, the daring whioh he lost Fhrnnida, a hollow peace
icad reaemblmg more that of a goose Just was concluded (311). The nest year Fti^emy
latclied than of a replile ; the teeth were very renewed hostilities under the pr^ext that An-
moll, I ; the total lengUi was less than 8 inches, tigonna had violated the treaty b;r keeping his
lod tbere were only 4 jioeterior toes. Other garrisonsintheGreekdtiesof AmaUinor and
mecies were less than 9 inches lone, while on the adjscent islands, and in the ootine of the
he contrary the P. omit (Qiebel) of the wealden long war whioh followed he lost Ojpns by his
vss 3 feet in length ; in the chau of Maidstone, defeat in the memorable sea fl^t near Bahmis
England, Mr. Bowerhank detected bones of a in 806. Antigonos, elated by tms great victory,
ipecies wMoh he named P. giganUut,^ to 7 assumed the tiUe taking, and Ftolemy followed
feet in alar extent ; the P. Oatteri (aawerh?^ his example. Denietrias,the sonof An%ODiu
s believed to have spread 16^ feet — The genua and conqueror of Salamia, now invaded £kn)t,
•QmphoThyndMt(^.A»livj%t)oiomitkoe«plia- but, baffled at the banks of the Nile, turned bis
'iM (Somm.) was roparated for a fbw species of arms against Bhodes, which bad refneed to ^iii
:he Jurassic age, having the anterior portion of in the attack. Ptolemy however enabled it to
Jiejairs without teeu, and probably with a hold out by Amiltbing repeated supplies of
lomy beak ; the scapula and coracoid were troops and provisions, and out (A gratitude for
unsolidatedtogether.andthetaillongandsti^ thrir preservation the Bhodiana paid him di-
ffith abont 80 vertebne ; there were 4 joints in vine honors, salntuig him with the title of sa-
:bewing finger; the largest spedes was about vionr (Soter). The death of Anljgoiias at the
ISiaebeslong. In tiie genus omJ(A«pto-ui(H, b^eof IpsosiDSOl terminated ttie war, and
le Meyer) there were only S Jt^nta in the wing added Syria and Palestine to Ptolemy's donUn-
Soger.— It willbeseenfKim theabovedesnlp- ions; and in 200 Oypnu was again and finally
joQ that the pterodactyl was most onlQEe any brought under Egyptian sway. The rest of his
thing now livmg, and presented a union of reign was peaceful. He took wise and vigor-
itrange and seemingly iuoompatlbleeharBcterB, ous meaaores to promote the happiness of his
paralleled only in the uncouth and Impoadble ^E^yptian sabjeots, revived their ancient rdi-
xeations of CHiinese imagination. gions and political constitution, restored to the
PTOLEMATB. See Aohb, St. Jbas d'. priestlT caste some of ite former privileges, and
FTOLEA[TI.(PTOLEKAiTs),Bumamed8oTEB, fixed his capital at Uemphis. To the jews
Kin of Lagos, founder of the Gmco-Egyptian also and the Greeks the same toleration was
dynasty, bom near the conrt of Philip of Mace- shown, and great numbers of them were at-
don in 867 B. 0., died in Alexandria In 3B8. tracted to Alexandria by Ptolenv'senlif^tened
Be was one of the generals of Alexander the and peaoefol policy. He created literary insli-
Great, and rendered Important servioee to that tntions which resohed their greatest splendor
conqtteror in his Asiatic campaigns. In the under his snooessor, Philadelphns. The most
division of the emph« which fdlowed Alex- celebrated of these were a library and a muss-
uidsr'Bdeath,in828, he became mier of ^ypt, nm, a kind of unlverrity whose profaasors and
which remained nomfaially a aatnqty of Mace- teachers were sapported at the public expense.
son nnder the re^^oy of Perdlocas. Hasten- Ptolemy cohiTated liters as well as patr<m-
ing to Alexandria, he put to death Oleomenea, ized them, and wrote a liistory of the wars of
Alexander's satrap, on the pretext of his behig Alexander, which was praised. He wished his
a puiisan of Pei^icoas. This gave him pos- youngest son Philadelphns, the ofipring cS
sessioii of a large smn of money which Cleo- his favorite wife Berenice, to succeed him, to
wenes had extorted from the Egyptians, and the exclusion of his elder son by his former
vith this treasure he equipped an army a^d wife Eurydioe. This exdldng violent oppon-
toDkOyrena To oppose the ambitious aohemes tion at court, he oonsnmmatM his pnipooe by
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
«46 PTOLEHT IL FTOLEKT
ft ToltmtaiT itMioation in favor of FUladel- AnUs, and TJbj^ The eAminaor of hia
phns in ^S. He condnned however to ezer- ootirt inoreaiing with the wealUi of tiie coiin-
dse soverain^ until his deatli. taj, and being unuelf of delicate constitaticMi,
PTOLEMY n., Bnmamed Phii.idxlfhits he cune at length to lead the indolent life of
(lover of bla brother), kinz of Egypt, jonngest a r^ned voInptaBir. Vilitary dietipline wsa
Bon of the preceding bj Berenice, bom in the ne^eoted, though the number of bis men and
idand of Cos in 809 B. 0., died in Alexandria ships was immenM. Repudiating hisflistwif)%
in 247. His father caosed his aoeesrion in 386 he married his sister Arsinoe, which the EgTp-
tobecelebrated with great pomp. Hehad grown tianlaw allowed, bat she brooght him nochil-
ap in a period of pnblia peace and tranqoUlity, dr«i. Another et^ on his memmy is the
had been oarefbllr «d<K«ted In elegant learn- exeontion of two of bis brotbera, la deiisios
ing, and came to the throne thoroa^ilj imbned for which hie mmsme is aaid by aome to have
witltbisfsther'senlightenedpolioT. He clear- been bestowed npon him.
ed upper Egypt of robben, and penetrated PTOLEMTIII.,snmamedEintiraKTBs,ddeat
Ethiopiaon solentUo ezplor^ons and ostrich nn andsnccessorof the preceding, bvArnnaft,
and dephant hunts, estabUshiiig traffic with daaghterof Lynmacbns, died inS22B. O. On
the barbsrmis tritMS. Sonthem AiHea also he coming to the throne ha found in the pubBc
opened to the enterprise of the Alexandrian treasurr an Immense amount of monev, and at
merchants. To commend tbe Red sea he found- his command a vast arm j and navy. His war-
od Arsino6 (n^r Bnez), snd connected it with like ardor was roused bj tbe ill treatment and
Alexandria bj restormg and completing the Bubseqoent murder of his sister Berenice, wift
osnsl begun by Necho. Lower down he con- of Aimocbus Theos, king of 8jria. With a
Btmcted the porta of Myoa-Eormos and Bero- large anny be ravaged Syria and the eastern
nice, snd connected the latter with Ooptos on provinces, advancing as far ss Soao, and, with-
the Nile by an artificial road 2G8 miles long ont establishing bis authority in any new poa-
Bcross the desert This road continued for sessions, brought back immense booty in gold
ages the ronte of merchandise from the east and silver, among which were the Enrptian
and south to Alexandria. FbHadelphns waa idols which Oambysee had oairied off to PeraU.
most celebrated as e. munifloent patron of learn- Iliis conduct the ^yptians esteemed so meri-
ing. TJnder bis care the Institutions his father torions tbnt tbey catlra him Energetes (bea»-
had founded attained tbe highest prosperity, factor). In right of bis wife Berenice, dangfater
(See AuuuNSHUH' Libbasv.) The museom in- of Msgas, Gyrene was united to his hereditaij
eluded botanical and soological gardens, and dominionH, and be made targe acquisitions ti
the study of natural history wai prosecuted territory in Arabia and Abyssinia. He inher-
with great ardor and encoess. This study he ited tbe religions liberality and love of learn-
ftirther fostered by establishing menageries of ing of his progenitors, and was like bis father
wild and rare animals. He sent agents tb rough a proficient in letters. He enlai^ed the mn-
Oreece for tbe collection of works of art, and seam, entertained men of learning at hb court,
made large additions to the literarf treaanrea and fostered bvde, so that under bim .Aleian-
of tbe library. He ^nt vast sums of money dria continued her career of unexampled pro»-
on poblio works, buUt the celebrated light- perity. The wealth of the empire is shown
house on tbe island of Pharos, and erected a by the magnificent presents be bestowed upoo
magnifloent royal mansoleom to wbiob he re- the Bhodians when tbeir city was deetroved
moved the retiudnB of Alexander from their by an earthquake toward the close of his reign,
resting place at Memphis. The most distin- It is commonly reported that he waamnrdered
gnisbMl poets, pbilosophers, mathematidana, by his son and successor Ptolemy Philopator,
and astronomers of that time sdomed his cspi- though Polybius asserts that he £ed a natural
taL For the use of the Alexandrian Jews, Uie death.
Septnogint version of the Hebrew Scriptures is PTOI£MY, GutmnTs, an Egyptian mat^e-
said to have been made by his command. The matician, astronomer, and geographer, said to
qniet of his reign was early disturbed by the have been bom In PelnHimn, flooriehed at Alex-
revott of bis half brother Magas, viceroy of andiia in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus.
Oyrena, who succeeded in msintuning his in- Scarcely any particulars of his life are known,
dependence; and by a contest for the posSes- He handed down to posterity, in the Mryukq
don of Pbcenicia and Ckele-Syria, whicn was ZuKroftr, or " Great Construction" (of the
kept up at intervals to near the close of his life, heavens), the only record we have of the aa-
when these provinces at last remained in his tronomit^ observations and theories of the
possession. He took part at different times in ancients who dwelt around the Uedilerraneon.
the affairs of Greece, maintuning an unMendlr The most important part of this work is a cata-
attitude toward Uacodon, and established re- logue of stars, the oldest extant, which ia donbt-
lations of amity with the ridng republic of less that oongtmcted by Hipparchnsiredneedl^
Borne. He founded a gvnmarinm at Athens, Ptolemy to the first year of the reign of Anto-
and planted numerous c^oniee in various parta ninns Hub (A. D. 188). The work tresta of iho
of his for^gn dominions, which comprised Th<B- relati<His of the earth and heavens ; the effect of
nioia, Oale^yria, Palestine, Gyprus, Lycia, Ga- podtion upon the earth ; the theory of tbe sua
rla, the Oyoud«a, and portions of Ethiopia, and moon, without which Out of the atara oan-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PDBKKTT PUBLIOOLA . (M7
■otlMiiDdartakeii;tbeqilieTeoftliaflx«ditan^ ttMoaaacilidAtionoftliepetvio, Mtcxal; andooo-
■nd die dMermiiulioii <tf the plaiutaiT orbits, (^geal vertebra, eternal pieces, sod epiphyses
Ptolemf edopled Um arstem wbiob J^^oia the <h the ribs, eo^nk, olftTule, and bones of tb»
MrthintheoeDtreofuienniTeTBa. Thletheo- ezCremilJea. In the homan male pnbertj 1ft
rj, known by hie name, was uniTenall^ reoeiv- establiahed between the 14tb and leth years ;
ed till tiie time of Oopemiena. Dnring all that besde the inoreased sexual and muscular devol-
interv^ tlie history of astronomy preaents opment, the beard makes its appearance, the
scarcely anr tiling more than oomments on his larynx enlargea, giving a lower, haraher, and
writingB. Bnt fbr the Arabians the Sgnttum stronger tone to the Toioe, and the tboushta,
would donfatleas have perished. It was trans- desires, and aotdona have a more mani^ gW-
lated by them, and handed down under the aoter. In the fbmale thia period is arrived at
titleofIlftM{F«iC,tn the reign of the ooliphAl- between the ISth and 16th years in temperate
mamonn ^oboot 8S7), son of Haronn al Baehid. oliniat«B, and somewhat eailifr in the tropics
PuAaaj left a very ooinoas aocomit irf the and la the midst of the luxury and eicitemeiit»
manner in which ffippwchns eotablished tJie of city life ; there is a similar development in
main parts of hla theories, and in most of the the reproductive system, usually coincident
branches of the aolaect gave addll4onal exact- with the appearanoe of tha catamauia and
itesa to what tliat astronomer had done. He mammary enlargement, and a deposition of fat
oompoied, notwiUutanding the Amdamental over the whole surface of the body, causing'
arroTS and the inaeonracles of his system, the plnmi»iesB and roondnesa. In the mala there
adipses of the next Solitaries; det«niuuedthe Is at Qae time no special tendency to. disease,
planetary orbits; and diaoov^^ the moon's norinthehealthyfemale; but,aBacoiiseqnenoa
Momd inequality or eveotion. Asageometerhe ofthedefectivephjuoaltrainingof most female
has be«i ranked as oertainlr the fourth among youth, disorders of the menstraal function are
tiM andenta, after Euclid, Apollonins, and Ar- very apt to occur, with nnmaroas funatisna^
dtimedea. In physics he made an important nervons, and even organic complications;, in
advance^ He experimented with a ray of light, persona of nstnrally weak constitutions, of boUt
oansing it to pass throng media of nneqoal sexes, and in those enfeebled by premature ex-
densi^, and thnsdiaooverM refraction, and nas eroise of the mental, phyucal, or generative
aeoor^ngly been remrded aa the founder of an powers, the tuberculous diathesia is freqaently
fanportant branch of the Bcience of optica. He developed in the lunga soon after puberty.
first r«oognized the alteration of the apparent FDBLIGOLA, Fublius Valbbjcs, a Soman
poataonofaheavenlybodywhiehiadnetothia general and lawgiver, who floorished at the
Ptolemr wrote a nniveraal geon^thy, beginning of the repnbllo. His original name
Humboldt desoribea as a " colossal" pro- was Fnblius Valerius. According to the oom-
dnotion; and the same anthority QMaks of his mon story, be was present when Lacretia
iSK!"
iphloal. information aa snrpaasing that of stabbed herself, and bore a prominent part in
. I. Hewaatliefirsttotisetlietermslati- the en>alsioD of the Tarquing, and after the
tade and longitude, by which he laid down the oompnuoryresiiniationofCollatinuawasBlected
podtion of eaoh country and town. He proved oonsul in his ^ace. In the war between thft
the earth to be a globe, and calculated its in- Tarqnins and veientes and the Romans, he
habited porta to extend ttcm the meridian of gained a victory over the fcrmer in 609 B. 0:.
Thixm, long. 119° BO' K of Alexandria, to the Betoming to Kome, he beean bnilding a house
meridian of the Islands of the Blessed, 60° 80* on the VeUan hill overlooking the forum,
W. ; and from the parallel of UeroS, about laL which excited fear in the people that he was
IS" 80' N., to that of Thule (Iceland or the seeking to raise himself to roy^ power. When
Shetland islands), SS° N. Aft«r him no one Valerius disoovered the existence of these sub-
attempted fbr many centuries to reform geog- pidona, he ordered the building to be demtJ-
laphy except in the improvement of details, ided, and his lictora when Uiey appeared be-
ud nU great work oontmoed to be the stand- fore the people to lower their fiuoea ; whence he
aid text book till the 10th century. He was received the surname of Publicola or Poplicola,
diatingoished also as a mnddan, and wrote "the people's friend." He now brought forward
treatises on muno, meohanica, chronology, and laws for the establishment of tbo republic, one
oatrolo^. of which declared that whoever attempted to
FUEtERTT, the period <^ yonth character- make himself king might be killed by any one;
ized by the acquirement of Amational power in another that plebeians condemned by a ma^ps-
tiiereproductdveapparatusof bothaexes; itsao- trate ahould nave the right of appeal to the
tivity, however, cannot be colled into exercise people. He was afterward thrice elected con-
nntU tho growth of the individual is o(»npleted, snl ; and the expedition of Porsena is placed
m penalty of premature and permanent ex- daring his time of ofBce. In 604 he aod his
haastion of the vital powers, and the develop- colleague, T. Lucretius Tricipitinua, routed the
ment of any latent disposition to disease. That Sabines and returned to Rome in triumph.
poberty is not the period of completed growth The annalists usually placed his death in the
U i^own by the increase in stature after its next year, although Niebnhr thinks that In the
attainment, the subseqaent oaaification of the original legend he perished at the battle of the
TBrtebral aptnona and tranaverse prooeasee, and lake BeplTus in 408 or 490 B. 0.
U.g.'zOQbyGOO^Ie
M8 PDBUUS STBnB FDZBU) INDIAKS
PTJBLIUS BYBUS, ft Latin oomlc poet, who wtQpatl,aToli»aioiiwiinUiiii,lT,7iafeetsbo>*«
flourished at Rome aboot 4S B. O. He vaa a the sea, is the hicheBt pcrint in North Am '
native of Byria, and was broo^t to Borne as a The most valnable mineral prodnotiona a
elave ; bot his spri^htlineas and wit ezdtod ver and marble. The general elevatJon en tne
the admiration of his maater, who bad him enr&ce ia aboot S,000 fMt, and a ffreat deal of
Tdl inMraotad and gave him hie freedwn. the soil ia forlal& [wodiuung abimaant en^ of
ProTHMis to PablioB the mime had conriited to diffsMnt kinds of grain, frnU, cotton, >agar,&c
a gteaterertent of grimace and gesture, and was Hie prindpal manniiutarM are glan, soap,
nearer to what ia now known aa pantomime; iron, ateel, and eaitiieinrare ; a^ there is
bat he int«rq>ersed it with proverbial aayings some trade carried on both with tho coast ot
and m<w«l aentenoea. It is laH hj St. Jerome the golf of Mexico and that of the Pa^c^ as
that a ocJleotion of moral lentenoes from the well aa with other parts of Mexico. Mkn; re-
farces of Pnblina was a aohool book at Kome. marlcable remains of ancient IbzioHi civilia-
PTJOHTA. WoLFoAKS HzniBiOH, a German lion are foond in this state. — P[tbbl&, the c^ii-
jniist, bom uMfihrendoif near £rIangen,Aag. tal, is BStnated T,881 feet al>0Te the sea, lim.
8, 1769, died hi the latter citj, March 6, lS4fi. £.S.£.&Dm Meiioo; pop. 76,000. Tbestreeb
He was originaQf an advocate, and, after hav- are well laid ont, with manj fine aqoan^
ing been employed in variona civil offioea, was T^ere are 72 reli^os edifice*. The interior of
in 1811 made director of the general court of thecatbedral, which forms one side of the piia-
jnatioe in Erlangen. He wrote a larse nnm- cipal sqaar& ia rich in gcdd and atlvor oraa-
ber of works on legal eul^ects, and in 1843 ments, p^tiugs, etatnes, &o. Several of tlw
embodied the resolts of hu eroerienoe in a other chnrohes are huidaomebnildiuga, and are
work entitled £Wnfl«run^0naui (Mm Zstmuml a1»o richlj decorBt«d. Tliere are namerons
Wirhn emet atlm SettnUen, — OiOBa Fjoxd- convents, colleges, academiea, charity schools
noH, eon of the preceding, horn in Oadolz- for both I>ovs and girls, hoepitala, and other
bnrg, Francoma, Ang. 81, 1798, died Jan. 8, Iwnevolent inatitntions. The biafaop's palace
1846. He was educated at Erlangen, and from has a library witii a tolerablj' extensive coUeo-
1820 to 1842 was eaccesrivelj teacher in that tion of Spiudah and French bo<^s. Manj' of
citf, Unnich, Marbnrg, and Leipeic. In the the inbabitanta are wealthy, but tiie people
latter year he went to Berlin as Savigny's sac- generally are said to be the most demoraliied
oessor, and was there made member of the in Mexico. The city ia veil snppli«d with
state council, and of the leeialative oommia- water by a amall atream on its E. aide, and
■ion. 'Bia writings are ehieny ezpoddona of the climate is particnlsrly mild and agreeaUe.
the Roman and the canon law. Tho maun&ctares include giasa, earthenware,
PUOELEB-UnSKAU, Ktsauss Lmwra aoap, aword biadea, and coarae wotdlen cloth ;
ExEHBiCB, prince of, a German traveller and some trade is earned on, and the market ia
anthor, bom at Hnskao, Saxony, Oct. 80, well SQppUed with all kinds of provinona ex-
1786. He studied law at Iieipsio from 1800 cept fisn. Paebla is the seeond city in the
tmtil 1B08 ; entered the king of Saxony's body Meiioon confederation.
goard. Joined the RasaiaQ army in 1613, and FD£BLO INDIANS, the name ^>plied to
aerved as aide-de-camp to Prince Augnstos of several tribes of semi-civilized Indiana within
Saze-Weimar; distingnished bimseU in the the limits of New Uexico, so called by the Span-
Netherlands, was made lieotenant-oolonel and iards from their living in pv^loi or villagea.
military governor of Brages, and in 1822 was They hare many characteristics in common,
created a prince by the ting of Fraaeia. He which diatingui^ them boa the nomadio
travelled in France and Ei^land in 1828, in tribes, as wdl aa from that moat dwaded &m-
the north of Ava end in Africa in 1S8S, and ily knownas the Digger Indians, who live npon
sotiseqQeotly in Italy and the other conntries roots, seeds, fish, repdlea, and ntch other food
<^ Eim>pe. Ha has pnbliahed various books as they can secure withonC latwr. The PtwUo
of a lively and entertaining oboraoter; among Indiana cnltivate the soil, raidng generally
them his letters from EnglMid, tranalated nnder maize, wheat, and other oereals, vegMablee,
the title, "The Tonr of aGarman Prince" (3 and fr^ts, and in a few instances cotton. They
vols., London, 18S1), excited maoh attention olao raise conuderable herds of cattle, mules,
from its &miliar piotores and revelations of horses, goats, and sheep. They spin and weave
oristocralio life. cotton and wool, and make heavy blanketa,
PUDDLING. See Isov UumvAorcxa, ToL sometimes of a snperior texture resembling the
ix. p. 604. lerapii at tbe Mexicsns, and oommandinfi; from
FUEBLA, La, or La. Pitebla di ias Air- ISO to $50 each when sold to the Americana.
SELBSj a S. state of the Mexican confederation. They also make a superior kind of pottery, of
twrnided N. and E. by Vera Omi, S. by O^aca variona colors, and generally ornamented with
and Guerrero, and W. by Mexico ; area, 8,E81 geometrical flgnres. They live invariably in
sq. m.; pop. In 1807,655,633. Tbe drainage commnnities and towns. Their housw are
helongs^artlyto the gulf of Mexico and [lartly sometimesbuiltof atone laid in mortar made (^
to the Pacific, hat there are no large rivers, mnd, but more generally of snn-dried brick, oi
The state is intersected from N. W. to S. E. oifois, the common boiiding material of DorOi-
by the OortUUera of Anahnao, of whkh Popo- era Mexico. These buildings are geaeEally
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PUEBLO IKDIAITB 6»
lareOj of MVAral rtorlM, and contain rataj Tie last two are not qstibIIt classed among the
ftmiiiM In eoroe of the pnebloa the whole Paeblo IndituiB, although uiej are r^er allied
eommunitf, amonutiDg to from SOO to 700 to them than to the nomodio Apachea, the war-
' lonls, tn domidled In one of these hnge atmo- Uke NaT^joes, or the nimierouB tribes living on
tores. Tho hooaea are aometunes bnilt in the and near the Oolorado. (Bee Ooco-habioopab,
form of a hollow aqnare; at other timw thejr and Pnioa.) — The langnas^ of the varions
are conatmoted on me brow of a high bluff, or Poeblo IndituiE are not anmcientljr Icnown, and
nuNintain tHraee, difficult of approach. The have not been oompared with the oare neces-
first or lower atorj la inranabl; without sarj to form an opinion aa to the families to
doom or other openings, entrsuoe to the house vluch thef severally belong; it is safe how-
b^nff effected bj laddera. Each npper story ever to say that several of them bear so close
recedes a few feet from that below it, leaving an afflnitf with each other aa to reader it cer-
a terrace or walk around or along the whole twa that they are derived from the aame stock,
extant of the atraotnre, from which ladders lead Living isolated as they do, and having hut
to those above. The upper stories have doors little oommnnicalaon with each other, their lan-
And windows, bnt no stairways. In most in- guages slowly change, and the lapse of a few
Btanoes a single &mi]y ooonpies one apartment, generationa wtthont any intercourse wonid
and aa its nnmber increaaea another apartment make them appear as different tribes. If among
is added when there is anffloient space, or it oiriltzed nations changea are prodnoed frma
is built above and reached by a ladder. In snoh causes, how much greater mnst they be
this way these stmotnres sometimes reach S among rnde and nncnlUvBted people who have
or 0 aforles in height. This mode was prao- no written language. — The civilization which
tiled by theae Indians & centuries exo, when belongs to the Pueblo Indians was not intro-
the etyantrj was first visited by the ^mniarda. duced among them by Enropoana, They prao-
In every village there is at least one laive room, tised agriculture and the arta of spinning and
inffldentlyoapacions to contain several hundred weaving, as well as the manufacture of pottery,
Ersons, in whioh they hold their councils and when first visited bj the Spaniards in the middle
TB thelrdanoes. These dances areof varlons of the 16lh century. 'With their rude imple-
kiods, and are more or lees connected with menta they dug irrigating canals and ditches.
their superstitions. Among those strictly so The earhest accounts of these semi-civilized In-
are the dances of the turtle, of good fortnne, dians were given by Alvar Nuliez, who, in his
and one called eae&iria which is nsnally prac- remarkable jonmey from Florida to the shores
tised in the winter. The second they dance of the Pacific, between the years 1539 and 1SS8,
at their festivals before oertun idols which vi^ted them. He was followed in 1S89 by the
they call the gods of fortune. The snpersti- friar Marco de Niza, and in 1540 by Oorooado,
tiona rites connected with their wars are pecu- both of whom explored the conntry N. and B.
Uar. Whenever an enemy is killed, they cat of the river QUa, and vidted many of the Indian
off his long hair, drink his blood, and bedaub towns. Fernando Alarpon in the same year
their fhces and garmenta with it. They then ancceeded in pushing hia way up the gnu of
wet their hands with it, particularly the right Oalifomia, and thence far up the Oolorado river,
one, until they are thoroughly soaked, in the These early explorers have left us ftill accounts
belief that by tliis practice they wiB increase of what they saw, which admit of no doubt that
their strength and nuse their animal spirits, they visited the very tribes now known as the
To oomplete the ceremony, they place the Pueblo Indians. De Niza describes Oevola as
■calp of the euemy in the hands of the one a " great city, inhabited with great store of
who first took it, whom they call the matador, people, and having many streets and market
or killer. This man is ever afterward regarded places. In some parts of this city," he contio-
wrth great distinction, even though he may not nes, " are certain very great houses of five
have been present when the prisoner's lifewas stories high, wherein the chief of the city as-
taken. — The fbllowing table of the names and semble themselves at certain days of the year.
population of the Pueblo Indians is from the ^c houses are of lime and stone The
retnm of the census of ISGl : people are somewhat white ; tbey wear i^parel,
jjiQ and lie in beda ; their weapons are bows ; they
■ "!!!!!!!!;;!;;! lift l**** emeralds and other jewels, although they
« WI esteem none so much aa turquoises. .... The&
f.'. '.'.'.".'."■"."■■ isi fipp*rel is of cotton and of oxhides, and this la
in*.'.'.','.'.'.'.'.'."!!!! s» their most commendable and honorable aip-
Poladqu
la,":
parel." Ooronado's journey was far n;
tensive than that of De Niza. lie apeaks of
»* CSbola, which he vidted, as cootiuning •' excel-
■j„f^ jagj lent good houses of three or four stories hi^
. T Ttn.g«i rf'tt.'»Ki«u"(i«ii.i^',ii'l.i' T« !itf'5j'"-*'!?*J#P and fair chambers,
B™i!*G^WBn™..7^™..TT7.." wlthladdenmsteadof etJra, and oertahi cellars
tt*MmarbeidiMtb*Plmo*wdOMD.mulgopM under the groond very good and paved, whioh
■rfU.«oQ«.wk»nunbB.n«rl»»mn>iua.l,. «jwo ^„ j,^^ for winter; flie ladders which 1iu)j
Total rfPuHoMd^triMitaniiDdim ii,Bn have ft>r thnr houses Ire all In a manner moT-
660 PUSBTO BEUX) POFEKBOEF
■Ue and porUble, whioh are taken Kwaj '"A ^ot of ft ridge of hSIa vhioh aboovt aonOHd
aet down when they please." This oitj of the harbor, and oonaiata of a princ^ial street
Oibola or Oevola was Tudt«d some SO years extending al(»g the shore, whiek is croaaed hj
later b; Espejo, who states that it was also several others. The popnlaticm is inooa>«da<-
oalled Zofii. This place is etill in exiat^noe, able, and consists ohiefl/ oi n««Toes and mn-
ftnd occopied br one of the most intelligent lattoes with a fbw white funilies. Tlie fine
tribes of Pneblo Indians that remain. Ooronado harbor of Fnerto Bello was disooTered hj Co-
also speaks of sersrsl towns to theN.W., which Inmbnsin IfiOS, and the town was fonnded in
were doubtless what are known aa the f Ho- ICM; but thonch it for a«nne time riralled
qni towns. Other towns, people and looalities Panama, the tu^ealthr natnre ot the climate
are also mentioned which hare been identified has canaed it to be umost deeraled. It was
br recent explorers. Alarcon, in his voj^ np formerlj; strong fbitificd. The Britidi took
the Colorado, fonnd the Indians exceMinglr Pnerto Bello irom the Spaniards in 1789.
Dunerons, having an abnndanoe of maiie, beans, PUERTO CABALLOS, a fine natural liarbor
and gonrds. Their garments, their manners on the N. coast of Honduras, in lat. 16° 4V N.,
and cnstoms, their large and high honses of long. 87° 67' W., and the northern or Atlantic
stone, their agricnltnre, &o., all go to show terminus of the pnn>oaedHondnraainteroeeaDiB
that the civilization and arts wUch now attract railwa;'. The harbor is S m. in eircmnferenoa,
so ttmab attentloa existed SOO fsan ago, and with a depth of from 4 to 13 fMhoma. Ooa-
haddoiibtleasbeenknowntotheiranoestorBfcff neoted with it is a lai^ salt water lagoon,
generstJona before. The tnrqnoisee and nnet- called Alvarado lagoon, 2 m. long by 1 m. brottd,
^ds mentioned bjall the old Spanish travel- andvithanaveragedepthofSfathoma. Pnerto
leraasbeingfoondamoQ^ these Indiansareanp- Oabslios was selected bj Oortee as the prin-
posed to have been a kind of bright bine and oipal port for New ^ain, and he fonnded a
ran stones, nombers of whioh are still fonnd town there called Natividad. For nearljr S
the re^on of the Poeblo^ and particnlarlj centuries it was the principal estahliahmeot on
when digging among the mine of their ear);^ the coast, bnt was fiiullf alwndaned dnring the
sbnotnres. It is probable that some of the irruption of the bnocaneers for the more defen-
settlements of the tribes visited bf Ooronado sible position of Omoa, 0 m. V. The Oarib
and otherearl}' explorers have been abandoned, towns of Tnlian and' Cieuignita are titaiated on
Oertainit is that manyhavechonged their places the 8. shore of the harbor,
of abode or become extinct, as nameroos re- PUERTO DE LA WAR, gee Cobua.
mains exist in varions parts of New Mexico, PUERTO PBINOIFE, Sasti. Uaxu im, an
some of whioh are far more extensive snd ex- inlsnd city of Oubs, capital of the department
hibit a higher state of art than aaj of the exist- of the same name, sitnsted between two snail
ing habitations of this people. !l1ie whole val- rivers near the centre of the island, 836 m. 8.
lejof the Oils for SO milesabove the villages of by E. from Havana, and 46 m. W. S. W. from
tiie Pimo Indians bears traces that it was once Jm Nnevitas, its port, with whioh it is coo-
ooonpied by a people who cultivated the soil nected by railroad ; pin>. S6,M8. It is a place
by means of irrigating canals, who constnicted of considerable trade, the exports being chiefly
lu^ dwellings of adobe, and who made a sn- sugar and tobacco, and the imports different
penor kind of pottery. In thie district is an kinds of manuJactnred goods. It was formerly
edifice of adobe, originally 8 stories high, with the seat of the supreme court for all the Span-
very solid walls, whioh is atiU in good preaer- ish colonies in Amerioa.
Tatioiu This building was abandoned and in PUFENDORF, Buidxl, a Gtrman pnblietoL
a ruinous condition 8 centuries ago, when the bom near Ohemnitx, Saxony, Jan. 8, 168S, died
Bpaniards penetrated the country, while the in Berlin, Oct 36, 16M, B« was the arai of «
plidn for miles around Is strewn vrith frag- Latberan clei^ymau, utd was educated for th«
ments of pottery and stone griuders similar to ministry at Grinuna snd the university of Leip-
those used by the present tribes of Indians, sio. In 1668 he repaired to Jraa, and under
Sound heaps ia all directions show that the the inflnenoe of Erliard Weigel, whose systMS
population was probably large. In the valley of teaching mathemstios and philosophy was
of the Salinas, S. of the Q-ila, are dmilar re- then attracting attention in Germany, he de-
mains, with evidences of an extendve artificial voted himself to those stadies, and also to that
irrigation at a remote period. The same peo- ofthe taw of nature. Uponqnitting Jenahewas
pie seem to have extended themselves south- advised by his brother Isaac, who was in
ward about 300 miles into the state of Ohihna- employment of Oxenstieni, the prime mini.
hua, as the numerous remains known as Casas of Sweden, to enter tlie foreign oiplomatio w
Grandes, near amodem town and on a river of vice, and as the first step toward thisol^fcct be
the same name, sufficiently prove. Bnt except became tutor to the eon of the Swedish ambas-
at this place, there are no remains of the Pue- sador at Oopenhsgen. Being detiuned with
hlo Indians south of the valley of the river Gila, the ambassador's family in Copenhagen In con-
PUERTO BELLO, or Poero Bkllo, a sea- sequence of a war between Denmark and Swe-
port townof New (ilr8nada,Hitaated on the N. den, he employed his leisure in prqiaring a
side of the Isthmns of Panama, 40 m. N. N. W. work on general law, in which the prindples
fr(HnPanam& It etasda on the side and at tike of Grotins, Hobbes, and other jnnsta were
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FUKENIXXBI' PTTFF BIBD 661
ooBtMned with obMmtlotu of hii own. This ooplons nuteiiala placed at his dupoaaL la
WW pnbli8b«d in HoU&nd in 1660 under the 1S88 he aooepted a Bimikr office at the ooort
title of Mmmta JwritpradmOia UnAntnaliM, of Frederic WiUifttn, elector of Brandenburg,
and, DotwithBtvidiDg ita harsh and repiilBive the historj of whose reign he published under
Btjle, attracted great atteutioa from the ori- the title of Commmtarii de S^tvs Qattii Fred-
ginai views which it embodied. It wss dedi- eriei WiUtelmi Moffni, EUetorit Brandtnhur-
oated to the elector palatine, Ohsrlee Loais, gioi, which is even less creditable to him
who, in cooperation of the merit of the work than the last mentioned work. Of his great
*9 well aa of the oompllmeat paid him, ibnnded treatise, first printed in Qennan at Lejden
at tiio nniTeiait; of &idelbwg a pntfeasorship in 1673, and afterward at Frankfort much
of thelawof oatnreandofnaUoiu,aodplaoea angmeoted in 1684, the best edition is that
Pnfeadorf io t^e ehair, and also intniBted him published at Leipsio ewn Notu Variontn
with tiM edaoatlon of hlfl son. His lectures a OotU. Maieooio (3 vols. 4to., 1744). Th«
wera attended hy nnmbers from all parts of Frenoh translation by J. BaTbeyroc (3 vols.
Germany, and the onirersitj, previously in a 4to., Amsterdam, 1712), with original notes, is
langniahing condition, reoovered during his the verrion most esteemed. There is an Eog-
residenoe maeh of its anoient prestige. The lish version by Bssil £ennet, with Barbeyraivi
oonstitntion of the Gennanio empire formed preface and notes translated by Carew (ton*
the next subject of his investigations, and in don, 1749). Fufendorf also wrote a number
his Ssferini a Momambano, De Statu Imperii of other works of a pnblio or oontroverual
Sermaniei, published at Geneva in 1667, he character, most of which are forgotten.
diowed that the Germanic system was. an in- PUFF BIRD, an appropriate name fbr the
eongroons assemblage of discordant parts, and (ueeoninor, an American sub-family of diurnal
the parent of many social and political abuses, fisrirostral birds, placed by Gray ui the klng-
At the same time he point«d ont practical fisher family, but by tiie older and some moo-
mnedies for the evils enumerated. The work em writers in the scansorial family of barbets
was translated into the chief languages of or eapilenina; the generio name iuceo is ap>
Europe, but excited mnch hostile oritdcism in plied by Onvier to t£e latter. — In the typical
Germany, partioalarly In Austria, where it was genns btueo (Linn.)i u reccwnized by Gray, the
plac«d npon the Indn Etpwgatorivi and or- bill is long, strci^, elevated, and very broad at
dered to be burned by the hanpoan. Pofen- the base, where it is famished with tnfts of
dorf defended the work, without acknowl- strong bristles, and suddenly curved at the tip,
' edging the aothonhip, bat found his podtiou which is hooked ; the gape very wide ; nostrils
so uncomfortable, in oonsequence of the acri- oonoealedbytheproJectingplDmesandbTistles;
monioos ccmtroversy in wlUch he became in- wings moderate and rounded, the Ist qnill short
Tolred with German publioists, that in 16T0 and the 4th the longest ; taU long, broad, even,
hegladlyacoeptedfromOharlesXI. of Sweden rounded on the sides; tarsi shorter than the
tike professorship of the law of nations at the middle toe, strong, and covered in front with
university of Lund. Two years later he pnb- transverse scales; toes 2 before and 3 behind,
linhed there the work on which his reputation the outer anterior the longest, and the olawa
now reata, the treatise in B books De Jure ^a- long and acute. There are about a doien ape-
tuna tt Gentivm ?" On the Law of Nature and oies described, in tropical South America ; the
Nations"), of which he subsequently prepared name is derived from their habit of puffing ont
an abridgment with srane variations, entitled the plumage of the head, which gives them a
De Qfioio Bbmmit ao CitU LiM duo ("On the heavy and ill-balanced appearance. They are
Duties of a Han and a OiCizen"). It presenls solitary, ulent, and melsnoholy-looking birds,
a o««fhI digest of the law of nature, and la its living generally In retired woods, pending on
atatement (d'prinolples oorresponda olosely with some low and thickly leaved branch, with the
tho wort otQrotxoMDeJvreBdUetPaeii. In large head drown between the shoolders; fhna
arrangement, however, the two treatises diffw tiiey remdn for hours at a time, oooarionallr
HseotiaJly, Pofendorf conudering first the law darting after beetlea and oth^ iusects, return-
of nature, and afterward that of nations, while ing to the same perch, which they are smd to
GrotiuB inverts this natural order of treatmg frequent for months together; they sometimes
Uie sabject. Recent writers, as Wheaton and climb like woodpeckers, supported by the tail,
Uaokintoah, rate very low Pufendorf's ori- in search of insects in the bsrk; the nest is
ginal contributions to the science of inter- made in the hollows of trees; they are not shy,
national law, praising chiefly his industry and and sometimes select spots near human habita-
research; but his repntstion was greatly en- tione; their colors are sombre, very different
banoed by this treatise, and on the invitation from those of the barbets with which some ao-
<3t the king of Sweden he removed to Stock- thors have classed them. The collared puff
holm, and was app<»nted comicUlor of state bird (fi. eoUarit, Lath.) is 7i inches long; m-
and royal historiographer. In the latter oa- foos above, striated with black; whitish on
parity he published his OomnMAbiriJ d^ Sdiut the chest, terminated by a broad black band ; a
Stueieu at Erpeditiotu ffuitan Adolphi viqu« nmilar band across the shoulders ; abdomeii
ad AbdieattoMm (^riiCina (Utrecht, 1688), a rofons white ; bill li inches and horn-colored,
wotk ot no great value, notwithstanding the The pled pnff bird (£. moertM-Aynabu^ GmeL)
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
W3 FDFFIN FU6ET
liUsek,iritihtblMk«taiu«rUU; , _. ,
color black, with fotebead, tinroAt, abdomen, in Uig« itiiabws.
And tip of tail whit*. The spotted pnff bird ona fortreneB <xi the Dial, the Vt^ and the
(B. tamatia*, GineL))B reddiu broirn, lighter Don, when hiaanuriucreaaed to a most alarm-
below spotted with black ; forehead and throat ing extent, nmneroos Tartar and Pimuah tribei
light mfotui; black stripe from bill to nape, and oIk) taking up anna for him. Henowmarched
white nachal band. Theae roeciea are fb>m npon Moeeow, bat his cooraga fuled at tha
Oajenne and other pavta of Onions. — In the critical mcment, and he waa betn^ad and sold
genni monoM (Vieil].) the bill ia shorter, etronf b; his oomradea for 100,000 tables to Mkhel-
and hooked, with the colmen more oarred son and Sowsroff. The lives of 100,000 men
and the eidea more compressed ; 4th and fith were lost in this insoirection.
qnilla eqaol and longest; tail veiy long, broad, PUOET, Piebsk, a French sculptor, painter,
andronnded. There are aboat half a dozen spa- architect, and ship builder, bora in KarseiQes,
otes in tropical America, with habita similar to Oct. 81, 1623, died Deo. 3, 16B4. He was ap-
the last. The wax-billed paff bird (Jf. atra, prenticed to a ship builder and wood- carror,
Bodd)isll^iuoheBlong;billli,orange;eIlow; travelled on foot to Italjr, and afiei- safferiog
head,neck,andupperpartagre^iiahblaok;8oine great hardships obtained adnussion tothestn-
white on the wing coTerts; breast and bcUj dio of Pietro di Oortona, a pwntw in Boma.
cinereons; ashorthomT^ineatbendof wing. Betuming to Uarseillea in 1S4S, ha aoon foimd
Ihewhit».beardedpoffbird(if. lMiMifM,Iioht.) emplo^rment, and was commissioned bj tin
is general blackish lead color, with the bill dnke de Br6z6 to deeipi a magnifioent ihip^
red and its base snrronnded b j a band of whit- which, in honor of the qaeen, Anne of Attstna,
jsh feathers. The striped poff bird (li./utea, waa called La Beine. This splendid apeaateo
Omel.) is abont 7 inohea long, of a dark brown of naval architeotore, deoOTatad with carvings
color, striped on the hood, udes of neck, and by Paget, waa comfdeted after 8 years of nnre-
baek with light rufous; below rufous white; mitting labor. Paget now retomed to Italy,
Sper breast white, bounded by a narrow semi- and during a d«y of nearly 7 yeara hia taste
ole of black. These species are from Cay- for architecture became paromoant. In 1653
enne. — In the genna eheHdoptera (Gould) tiie bill he was at home again, and painted many church
la shorter than the head, with base broad and pictnres for Marseillea, Aix, Toulon, Cnera, and
elevated, culmen curved aa in the cuckoos, and La Ciotat. A serious illness obliging him to
tip sharp; wings reaching nearly to and of give np painting in 16Mt, he devotM huuaelf to
tul, 8d and 4th qniUs equal and longest; tail sonlpture in marble. The gate and the balcony
very short and even, and tarsi very riiort. of the dty hall at ToqIod, which he built and
Gray desoribea a tangle species, the swallow carved, were his first works. Foocuet conunia-
Kaff bird ((7. tenebrvia, Gould), obont 7 inches sioned him to obtain in Italy a supply of Carrara
ing, of a blackish color, with a black bill; marble for the emballishmenta of his princely
ramp white, and lower part of abdomen light country aeat at Yanz, bat he hod proceeded no
rofona. It is a bird of poworM flight, resort- farther than Genoa when be heard of the fall o£
ing to the topmost branches of trees, whence hia employer. He was then induced to aettle at
It darts in pursuit of insects. — Figores of many Genoa, whera he ezecated the stotnea of Ales'
of these puff birds may be found in Swainson's sandro Saoli and St. Sebastian in the charch of
"Birds of Brazil and Mexico" (Loudon, IMl). Oarignano, that of St. Philip Neri, a groap at
PDTFIN, a web-footed bird. See Acs. the AssampttoB for the hospital, alfadoniia for
PU6AT0HEFF, Vkuxlt^, a CoasatO: chief- the Balhi palace and another for the Correga
tain and pretender to the throne of Knssia, palace, the ^t brosie tabernacle and angels in
bom in Simoveisk on the Don in 1726, execut- the church of Bt. Oyr, the altar of Nostra Dos-
ed in Moscow, Jnne 10, 1776. He first appears na delle Vi^pe, and the groap of the " Elope-
as the leader of a band of disciplined robbers, meat of Helen." He made also a magnificent
Inthe7yearB'warhe served first in thePrussion bass-relief representing the Assumption for the
and then in the Austrian army, and sabseqnent- dnke of Hantaa. He was in the tide of proi-
ly in the Russian war against Turkey. Betnrn- peritv at Genoa, when in 166S, on the recmn-
utg to his native land, he was imprisoned for mendation of Oavaliere Bernini, who on a virit
seditious conduct; but having recovered his to France had greatly admired his works, be
liberty, he went to Taitzkoi, where a resem- was recalled by Ooibort, and oppointod director
blonce noticed between himself and Peter UI. of ship decorodona at tiie dockyards of Toulon,
prompted him to pass himself off oa the mar- On his arrival there he commenced building a
derea monarch, toforge ateleabont hiseecape large ship, Le Kagniflque, adorned with carv-
lh>m death, and to declare that he was now to ings on a scale of unheard of grandeur ; thii
set about the task of regaining hia throne. The ship was soon afterward lost at aeo. Ho b^an
ineurrectJon broke oat in the middle of 1778, an arsenal at Tonlon; but ite pT<^ress being
when a manifesto of Pugatcbeff in the name of hindered by offidal intrigues, he retired in dis-
Fetor 111. was pnblished. At first he bad only onst to his native city. While attending to his
a few hundred men, bat after he had sot pos- daties as naval director, he hod obtained 8
session of the fortress of Taitzkoi, and the re- blocks of Carrara marble, and oat of one of
ligiooB sect of the Baakolnika had embraced them he had partly carved the group npta
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
e onarit
PUGET BOUND PUGIN 668
wfalcli his fimie 011^7 re«te. h\M " W.\o of the works of other poefa sad hj tmulatioiis ;
Orotona devoored bj a lion." LenAtre, hav- and in 1801, a third Welahmfin, Edward Wil-
ing seen the work in its nnfinUTied state, was liams, being associated with them, thej pnb-
so Impressed with ittiiat he bestowed osbonntl- lished the first two volumes of the " MjTjrian
ed praise npon it in the presence of Colbert and Arch^olog^ ;" a third volume appeared in 1607.
Louis XI V. ; in conseqnenoe oT vrbich Fnset Pughe also prepared a Welsh and £n{^iah dio-
received orders to oomplete Hie gronp for &e tionarj (1798-180S), and the " Oambnan Biog-
gardens at Yersaillea. It was Sniahed in 16€B. raphj" (1808) ; pnblished a Welsh magazine
Hia groap of Andromeda and PerseoB was com- entitled Y Chriat; trandated into Welsh the
pleted in 1086, and brought to Versailles bj his "Paradise Lost" and Heber's "Palestine;" and
son ; 8 years later he himself went there with edited " Ancient Laws and Institntes of Wales,"
his bass-relief of Alexander and Diogenes. On printed by the record oomnusrion in 1841,
his retam to Uarseilles, which he lud already PUQIa. 1, Aracvrus, an English architec-
adorned with many edifices and monoments, tnral draoghtsman of French extraction, bom
^ lerintended the boildhig of the chnrch of in the latter part of the ISth oentmy, died
"-*-'■—"*"!, eieonted his last work in Deo. IB, 1888. He was frequently employed
Lw«-> viini, 1. 11c A'lagae of Milan," and spent in the early part of his career in mabing archi-
his later years in comparative retirement. For teotnral drawings for engraving, bat is best
himself and &mily he had built a house in a known by a series of elaborate works on the
*^Ie suited to hu own geniua, the gate of Gothic architeotureof Che middleages. These
wnioh was snrmoontedJttl^ bust of Christ with comprise "Spedmens of GotJiio .£^itecture
this motto : Nvl him tant pein«. In 1807 a selected from various ancient Edifices in Eng-
colnmnsurmonntedhyabnstwaserectedinhis land," &o. (2 vols. fbl. end 4to., with 114
honor by the city of UaraeiUea. plates, 1838), the descriptions of which were
PtTGET SOUND, a collection of inlets, rft- written chiefly by E. J; Wilson ; " Architeo-
nated on the H". W. coast of Washington teni- tnral lUnstrations of the Baildings of London"
tory, forming the S. termination of Admiralty (3 vols. 4to., 1834), and "Specimens of the
inlet, whichisoonnectedwiththePaciflcbythe Architectural Antiqnities of Normandy," fto.
strait of Joan de Fuca. The sound covers an (]8S5-'8), both published in comunctiou with
area of about IS sq. m., and the narrows which John Britton the antiquary. He also made
connect it with the inlet ore about 4^ m. long the drawings for a work entitled " Paris and
and 1 m. broad; all the approaches are oom- its Environs displayed," and prepared, with
pletely commanded by Point Defiance on the E. the asaistsnce of his son, "Qothio Omamenti
The inlets, in the order in which they succeed selected from various Buildings in England
from the entrance, have been named, after the and France." IL Auoosnif Welbt Nobth-
<^cers of the U. S. exploring expedition, Carr's, xobb, son of the preceding, bora in England
Case's, Hammeraley's, Totten's, Eld's, Budd's, in 1811, ^ed at Banu^&K Sept 14, 1868.
and Henderson's, and are united by passages From his father he acquired a taste for medi-
whlch form several islands and peniosulas. leval architecture, and first turned hfs atten-
lliey are all safe, deep, and capacioas harbors, tion to designing ornamental Qothio ftirnitnre
nuTomided by fertile land and well snpplied and metal work. On these sul^ects he pnb-
with water. On many of the islands and pen- lished " Designs for Gothic Famitare in the
insnlas good 8lat« and sandstone are found; Btyle of the IGth Oentnry" (18S6), "Derigns
and the shores are covered with abundance of for Iron and Brass Work in the Style of the
ezoellont timber. A considerable extent of 16th and 16th Centuries" (1885), "Designsfor
ground is cultivated at the S. part of the sound. Gold and Bilver-Smiths' Work" ^1886), and
ind several saw mills have oeen erected on "Ancient Timber Houses" (1886), all of which
ita shores. Timber, grain, batter, and cheese had a material influence in promoting the late
are exported to different parts of the W, coast revival in the taste for Gothic forms. He also
of North and South America and to Australia, published " Oontrasta, or a Parallel between
The sound was named after an officer in Van- the Noble Edifices of the 14th and IGth Oen-
eouver's expedition. turies, and similar Bnildings of the present
PUGHE, William Owxf, a Welsh author, Decay of Taste" (3d ed., 1841), a work which
born at Tyn y Bryn, Merionethshire, in 1769, excited the animadversion of architects, chiefiy
died in 1886. His original name was William on aoaount of the canstio tone in which the
Owen, to which he added that of Pughe late author oonveyed his ideas. Becoming a ood-
In life, upon receiving an inheritance. At the vert to the Soman Galholio teiih, he devoted
age of 17 he was aent to London to earn his himself with (dngolar earnestness to the study
Bring, and there made the acquaintance of of ecclesiastical Gothic architecture, and thenee-
Owen Jones, a tradesman and an enthusiast forth his talents were almost exdnsiTely em-
fiir andent Welsh literatnre, with whose ployed la the erection or embellishment of edi-
mpport and enconruement he entered upon a noes oonnected with the public worship or dis-
course of shidy for t£e elucidation of that sub- dpline of the Oatholio church, the number of
ject. The two published in conjunction in which is Mud to exceed that undertaken by
1789 the poems of Dafydd ap Gwilym, a bard any other Englishman since the reformation,
of the 14th century. This was followed fay AmonghiaearlypatroiuwastheearlofShrews-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
bnrji for whoM Beat of Alton Towers h« dfr <rf Indian oorn, tO,Vji of nr«et potatoea, aod
rigned a church, school house, and roonaaterj. B,S01 btdea of aoUon. Then were 9 saw millt,
8ach was his devotion to hta fidth that he in- 18 chnrohaa, and 137 duihIb (tf^aTwimg pnblk
Tariabl? declined to desicn for Protestant aohoole. Oaidtal, Hai^JnariDe. UL A ceo-
, _. Li_ __i __.*!_ _..^^^^ ^jjjjjj_ tral 00. of Ark., intersected by the Arkan«ai
lildings for river and drained b; it« branches ; area, 1,800
secnlar purposes. The diief exceptions to thia aq. m, ; pop. in I860, 11,700, of whom 8,605
rale were the gstewi^ to liagdalen college, were slaTei. In the S. the sntfaoe is level and
Oxford, and the elaborate medinval omar in the N. tmd W. hilly, and the soil ia moder-
mentation of the new parliament honwe at atelyfertile. Lead, Blat«, and excellent granite
Vestminster. EaTing anuwaed a consider- are found. The productions in 18G4 were 2SS,-
able propertj, he nnrmased an estate at Rama- IBS bnahels of Indian aom, 30,960 of oafa, and
gate, and ereotea thereon a hoose, ohnrch, 3,088 balea of cott<m. In 18C0 there were 4
schools, &o., all of which were dedicated to griet mills, 8 saw mills, 0 chnrchee, and 847
St. Angnatine. Toward the dose of his life pupils attending pnblio echools. Oapiul, lit-
hia religions zeal peroeptiblf increased, uid in tie Book. IV. A B. co. of Sf., bordered S. b;
18S0 he pabUabed a nomber of pvnphlets the Omnberland river, and K by the Rock
testifr'Qg ^ devotion to his fJaim, among Castle ; area, abont C60 aq. m. ; pop. in 1360,
which were " An Address to the Inhabitants 17,308, of whom 1,880 were elaves. It has a
of Eamsgate," "An Eameet Appeal for the diveraiQednrfooe, with several elevated ran)^
Jterival of the ancient Plain Song," " The Prea- and contains iron, lead, and coaL Tlie pro-
ent State of Pnblio Worship among the Bo- dnctions in 1860 were 668,664 boshela of la-
man OstholicH," &c. In the sncceeding year dian oom, 1S,S8C of whetf, 126,003 ot oata,
his intellect yielded to the severe mental ex- 6.888 lbs. of tobacco, and 84,876 of wool,
oitement in which he indulged, and for several There were 86 ohnrchea, and I,SSO pupils aX-
months he was the inmate of a lonadoasylnm, tending public schools. Oapital, &(nneraeL
He recovered enfflciently to be removed to his V. A N. W. co. of Ind,, intersected by Tippe-
own re»dence, but died soon after. In principle canoe river; area, 483 m. m. ; p<qi. in 1800,
he was BO tboronghly wedded to Gkithic arcni- 6,708. It has a nearly level surface, aboDt
tectnre, that he was unwilling, as he expressed equally divided between prairie and oak open-
it, " to deviate one tittle from its spirit. ' His ings, and a generally fertile soil. The proone-
works have had a powerfW influence on con- lions in 1860 were 37,593 bushels of wheat,
temporary and subsequent architecte. Hia S6,916 of Indian com,16,0G0of oata, 3,S76tons
chief publications, in addition to those men- of hay, and 8,889 lbs. of wool. Capital, Winni-
tioned, are : "Examples of Gothic Arohiteo- mac. VI, A 8, co. of UL, separated from Ky.
ture^' (8 vols. 4to., 226 plates, 1838); "True by the Ohio river, and bordered N.W. by Oaeh
Principles of Pointed or Christian Architeo- river ; area, about 176 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860,
ture"{I841)j "An Apology for the Eevivsl of 8,950. It has a level and well wooded eorface
Chiistian Architecture" (1848); and "Glos- and a fertile soU. The productions in 18C0 were
aary of Eocleaisstical Ornament" (1844). 87,146 bnsbels of Indian com, 16,836 of oata,
PULASKI, the name of connties in 7 of the 1,474 lbs. of wool, and 2G,696 of butter. Thoe
United States. I. A 8. W. co. of Ya., bordered were 6 saw mills, 2 tanneries, 3 chnrchea, and
£. partly by Kew river, which, turning to the 149 pupils attending public schools. It is in-
W., intersects it toward the S., Little river, a tersected by the Illmois central railroad. Cap-
branch of New, completing the £. boundary; ital, Caledonia. VII. A S. co. of Ho., inter-
area, ftbcnt 80O sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 6,416, of seeted by the Gasconade river, and drained by
whom 1,689 were slaves. It lies between two several of its branches; area, 1,832 sq, m.;
mountain ranges, Walker mountain on the N. pop. in 1860, 8,834, of whom E6 were slaves.
W, and the Bine ridge on the 6. E. The mr- The surface is hilly and the eoii generally fer-
&ce is broken and the soil generally fertile, tile. The prodactions in I860 were 246,480
The productions in 1660 were 179,610 bushels bushela of Indian com, 11,869 of wheat, 83,-
oflndian corn, 86,2B4of wheat, 68,867 of oats, 886 of oats, 11,894 lbs.- of wool, and 54,83? of
2,689 tons of hay, and 20,602 lbs. of wool butter. There wero 2 grist mills, a tannery,
There were 6 grist milla, 6 sawmiUs, 6 tanner* and 76 pnpila attending pablio schools. Oi^
tes, 9 ohnrches, and 392 pnpils attending pnb- tal. Waynesville.
lie schoola. Valne of real estate hi 1866, |1,- PULASKI, Cunon (PoL EAcmms Pd-
707,626, being an increase since 1860 of 84 per iawski), count, a Polish patriot, who fbnght
cent It is Intersected by the Virginia and iu the warof the American revolution, bom in
Tennessee railroad, which passes through the 1747, died from a wound received in the at-
oapitri, Newbem. H. A central co. of Ga., tack on Savannah, Oct. 11, 1779. He waa the
intersected by the Oomulgee and Little Ocmul- eon of a Polish nobleman, the staroeta of Vft>
geo rivers, and druned by their branches ; reok, who was the chief organizer of the oel»-
area, abont 660 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 8,744, of brated confederation of Bar, which was alio
whom 4,106 were slaves. It has a level eui^ aignedby hisS soqb(I766). Casimir while aiJU
face toward the S. and rolling toward the N. yonng had been in the service of Duke Oharlea
The productions in 1860 were 239,816 boahela of Oouiland, and now entered heartily into the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
var for the libaration of his waatrj firom ttie general, and reMWed from him a compliment
DOwert^BoMia. Forced to cton the Dniester, tu-; letter, in which he said that, "knoiriaa
) took rsftige after tho storming of Bar in Ooont Pnlaski was there, he was snre he would
the nionaater7<rfBeTditoh«v with 800 men, and he the first to Join him." The two armies
after siutainlng a siege of several wedsoapitn- onited on Sept. Ifl, and on OcL S It wasde-
lated on the ocoidition that the garrison ^onld termined to cany the town bj oHsaalt. Fnlas-
be set at liber^. He himself, however, was ki was placed at the head of the French and
kapt prisoner, and vaa not freed nntil he had American cavalrj, and dnriug the engagement
pledged himself to bear proposals fbr a reoon- received a mortal woond. He was taken on
dUaSoD to tiie ehieft of the otmfederates ; bat board the IJ. S. brig Wasp, which lay in the
«■ Bo<UL as he was set at liber^ he rcAued to Savannah river, died after lingering two days,
keep a promise extorted hj violenos and fraud, and was buried in the river. A monument
Joining hu &ther in Uoldavia, he made inonr- to bis meatary voted hj confess has never
■ona across the Dniester, and attacked the been erected, bat one was raised b^ the citi-
BossiaBa and fortifled posts within the Polish sens of Geoi^ in Savannah, of which Lafar-
bordara. He carried on a deenltor^war in va- ette during bis triumphal progress through the
rions ports of the oonntrT-, making np for the tinited States laid the corner stona.
want of discipline and nnmbete in hlsbtKipsbr PDLOI, Luiai, an Italian poet, bominFlor-
the aotivity of his movementck nntil an nnsno- enoe in 1481, died there in 148T. He obtained
oeaafiil attempt to gain possession of the person through the patronage of the Medici fomily an
of the king Stanislas Angnstns, in 1771, caused inferior office under the republic, and was one
a sentence of onUawry utd death to be passed of that brilliant company for whom Lorenzo
ag^jiat lum, oa the groond that it was his in- de' Uedid kept « place at bis table. Urged by
tention to assassinate Ute monarch, ^e ooall- the mother of his patron to employ bis genius
tion of Austria, Bossio, and Prussia for theoon- in some nobler work than the oasoal eSosious
quest and division of Poland, under the pretence that he put forth from time to time, be began
^ protecting the government, was soon after the compotricion of his MorganU Maggiore, a
completed, and resiHtance became hopeless, poem which, while it dassea him as the last of
Pnlaski, who bad lost his father and brothera the old romsnoers, also entitles bim to rank aa
in the war, made his way to Torkey after a the first in point of time of the Italian epio
series of adventures and perils; but, unable poets. The subject is that legend of OborW
to secure any important aid from that coon- magne and his paladins which refers to the
try, he went to France. There he deter- treason of Gan, uano, or Gsnellone, a person-
mined to Join the Americans, then fighting for age very bitterly denounced wherever his
independenoB, and, with hi|rb recommenda- name is mentioned in the ancient romances for
tiona frtmi Franklin to Washington, arrived his oomplidty with the Saracens in bringing
at Philadelphia in the summer of 1777. He about "the mtal day of Boncesvalles." Sor-
st first served in the army as a volunteer; but goate is represented by Pnlci as a giant, and is
4 days after the battle of the Brandywine, in the principal actor in the poem, though the
which he distjngnished hiniseU^ he was ap- real hero is Orlando. The dignity of the epic
pointed by congress commander of the cavalry is preserved wherever Orlando appears ; the
with the rank of brigadier-general. After 6 incidents that relate to him are natural and im-
montbs at the head of this body he rerigned pressive ; but in all other parts the poet ^ves
bis command, and entered the main army at war to what is grotesque in the old legends,
Valley Porge in Uarcb, 1778. There be pro- and relates the absurd and extravagant fables
posed to organize an independent corps, con- in oolloqutal manner and with an fur of banter
asting of cavalry, lancers, and light in&ntry, and burlesque exouidtely bumorons. It was
and this proposal was accepted by congress, first published in Florence in 1481. One canto
who empowered him to ruse end eqnip such a of it was translated into English by Lord Byron,
body of men to the number of 308, and, if the and the poem was his acknowledged model
experiment were snccesafiil, to a still larger with respect to style in " Beppo" and " Don
number. By October SSO men were in this Juan." Pulci was also the author of a number
eorps, whioh was colled Pulaski's legion. With of sonnets and other short pieces.
tins he manihed, in the beginnmg of Feb. 1779, PULEOWA. See OaaaHVATORT.
to South Carolina to put himself under the PULLEY. See MKCHAinaa, vol. si. p. 8S8.
orders of Qen. Unooln, then commanding the PULQUE, a favorite drink of the inhabitants
department of the Sonth. He reached Ofau-les- of Uexico and of Central and South America,
ton Uay 8, and while there vigorously oppcwed prepared from several varieties of the agmt
the project entertained by (he governor and Americana, from the fibres of whoseleaves the
eonndl of sorruiderlng the place to the British Uexioane ^so make their paper. The plant is
srrny tiun before the dty. In Septemb^ the coiled metl by the Mexicans and maguay d»
iVeneh nnder Count d'Srtaing and the Ameri- Goeivta in Caracas. Just before it blossoms
osns prepared to beriege Savannah, and during the sap is collected in pitchers by cutting the
die march to Qeo^(ia Pnlsski's legion did ef buds, and is allowed to ferment sligblly. In
' ■ " ■ ■ "" >y foreigners, but the
L baa passed into its
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
bctnsl servioe in reoonnoitring. When near this state it is relished by foreigners, but the
h he heard of the landing of the Frmioh natives prefer it when it baa passed into its
«66 imSR FUUEET
•Mond feriMntation, st irUdl) ttme it has as portion. Ueattl ezdtement, thv tUgestin
said taste anA & Bmell like that <tf pntrid meat, proowa, aloohoUe drinks, and aleratiMi than
'When allowed to ferment adU ftuthur tt tnrna theaea, aeoelerate the pnlee; ass general rnk,
into Tin^ar, and if boiled dovn becomee i^rnp, tiion^ wiUt nmnerona ezeeptiona, U ia mora
PDlqne brandf ia made of it, and when water frMoent in the morning than in the crrening,
and sugar are mixed with the aap and the and in aangnine than in Ij'mpbatiii t«inperft-
whole allowed to ferment a few boura, the menta. The pnbe ia slower during sleep, and
drlnli is called tepaehe. from the effect of rest, diet, cold, veneseotioD,
FDI3E, the throbbing of the arteries oanaed and the action of manj drags, especially digi-
hj the internutting impnlsea oommimioated to talis, aconite, and hellebore. The pnlse WKf
the blood bj the hearths oontrsotions, pnma- be connted in an7 arterj, and in a manner H-
gatad a^ a ware b^ the elssticit7 of the arteries, miliar to all, bat most ocnvenientlr in the radial
perceptible to the tonch in all bat the mtallest at the wrist, in the carotids, temporals, hn-
TBBseb, and visible when they are soperflcial ohisl, or femoral. The arerage numerical pio-
or exposed, the pulsation being nearly synchro- portion of the arterial polsstions to the reqd-
nous with the contraction of the left Yentriole. ratory morements Tsnes from 4 or S to 1 ;
At each polsation the capacity of the artery is when this proportion is widely departed frran,
angmentad by an Increase of diameter and by then is dther some general diseased condition
a partial eloagatioD, the vessel b^g thereby aooompanied with fever, some obetmction to
lifted from its bedj this increase has bean ea- the proper aeration of the blood, or some dU-
timated for the carotid artery as Apart, bnt order in the nervons qretem ; in inflsnunBtoTy
this can he only an ^proxim^on. The wave or aonte diseases, farera, &e^ the pnlse may
of.the contained blood may be t>ropagated with be raised to 120 and 160 in the adnU, and h>
a different velocity from the wave along &a that it eannot be oonnted in the diiM ; in pneo-
walls of the srtery, ezplalnina; many oases of monla, with the qnickened pnlse 13» nnmber rf
double pnlse, cBpeolally after the snbeidence of resi^ations increases more rapidly, the above
vascular excitement The variation from eyn- proportion beoonung as 8 or even S to I ; in
ohronlsm between the ventricnlar cuntraotion hyBteria similar increase may ooonr in bc^
and the pulse in a state of health is fi^mi ^ to j without sny serious cause. 1^ pulse is con-
4rf a second, depending on the distance of the tinned even into the capillaries; the reeiurato-
part examined from the heart ; this intervsl ry pulse, long ago described by Haller, is the
maybe increased in atonic conditions of the partial emptying of the vdne near the heart t?'
arterial ^stem. The poise is liable to vary, inspiration and th^ partial filling dnrW ax-
within the limits of health, from the sevetitl piration, which may be seen in the aetk of tliin
diverritiee of ag^ sex, ststare, muscnlor eier- persons or those suffering fr ' "-
tion, condition of the mind, state of the dige»- eases; inti ' " "
live process, and period of the day. The fol- stmction t
lowing table is given by Oarpenter as an ap- pnlmonary srtery, the tricuspid valve do<es not
proximation to the averse freqnency of the close completely, and regurgitation t*kea place
pulse per minnte at different ages : into the superior vena oava, canshig a pulsation
Dnrf ng tha uib to In the ju^lar veins synolmuioos wttli l3ut in
nitTHT.....^ Rito ss theoarotddaftomthel^ventricle; tiiereisalso
kS?™;..!,!? to to re * venous pnlse in variooae aneurism, whoe the
inDid iga. !!!.'.'!! TSto BO artery and vein oonunnnicste. Galenflrstdrew
attention to the pulse as a dii«noe(io aigii, and
1 ^' inn iL 1 IF 11. 3 11 enumerated mora than SO di^ent oo^itfoiu
According to Dr. Guy, the piOse of the adult ^ j^^ f„ ^y^ ^ Ohomel'a Atfc*^ (^o^
fon^e nsnally exceeds that of the adult male p^ ig^y ^j,en it is above 90 itia ^ed
of theaame age by 10 to H beats a minute; j^^^ ^ Q ^ ir«gal«r or hdennittont in
according to Volkmann, the pulse « less fre- ^^ (,, ^^ hearTgr^it vessels, and pen-
qaent as the stature is greater, about 4 beats ^^.^ ^^ ^^^ ^i^odio^Ssfions. la
ferahalffootinhe^fht. Itis well known that firfies tte heart beate SOto 80 times in a min-
muacu ar exertion mcrMsesthe frequency of „j,,^ ^^ in some of the lower fonns puh<ations
^^^ ^,^ "r^*' "f I™^*°" ^^ ^^^^ 0^ in accessory lateral heart>i or Sellings,
expressed by Dr. Gay: ,„y^ ^^^^ and arterial; the pnlsati<»s7re
mnoh slower than tliis in reptiles, and in the
actively breathing birds are more than 100 in
the natural state.
PUI£ZKT, Fimaroi; Acskl, a Hnugarian
According to this the diff^ence between stand- patriot and autlior, <tf PtdiBh descent, bom in
ing and lying in the former is | of the whole, Eperiee, Sept IT, 1814. He studied in his n»-
in the latter |; when this change is effected by tive town and atHiskdcz, in 1883 passed Ins
muscular effort the variation is greater, ao- examination as an advocate, in isas traveled
counting for many cases of sadden death in through Germany, Italy, En^and, Scotland,
persons with disease of the heart or in very and iteland, and in the same year became a
we^ conditicms on qniokly """ming an onet member of the aroluKJogioal inMitato <rf S<m>e,
, wuicn may ira seen in uie neoE (w unn
or those suffering from pulmonary dis-
n the latter diseases, when tho^ is ob-
n to the exit ot the blood through the
iBthsfotm 140 to ISO
Stwij bom laflut 180 to 140
DurlBEthelilr'r. 110 to ISO
"^'-^'■^"'" l"-^-*
Blabt.
I-«.
Tl
n
D,o,.^oob,Google
PtTLTKNET PDLTOOK , 657
ftndinlSSfa member of tbo Hungarian acade- toriea obatned oontrol of the gOTemment, Uiej
my. Ohosen to repreeenthia native county of remoTed his tmcle John Pulteney from the
B^ivsia the diet of l&89-'40, he joined the op- boerd of trade. He defended WbI pole in the
podtioD or liberal party, and waa named secre- proBeciiti(»i inatitated against him in lTt3; and
tary of a oommission to frame a oode for Hon' when that minister resigned in 1717, Polteney
gary. He was not reelected to the diet, bat also gave up his office of secretary at irar,
earneetly advocated the liberal oanae in the to nhich lie had been appointed on the occes-
colnmns of the Aaggboi^ AUffememe Ztitung, sion of George I. Bnt not long after a cool-
and was a prominent supporter of the Hnnga- nesa sprang up between the two fri^ids; and
rian nnion (vtdegylef) for the protection of altbongh, when Walpole resumed office in
home mannfactaree. Upon the rerolntion of 1720, Pnlteney was appointed cofferer of the
March, 1B48, he became, under Prince Ester- honsehold, the latter went over to the oppoBi-
hazy at Vienna, under secretary of state for tion in 1720, and after his dismissal became
Hungary. His inflnenoe npon Hnngarian af- one of the most bitter enemies of the minister.
&irB and hia activity in this position were very He allied himself with Bolinsbroke, and pub-
great; and early in Oct. 1B48, when an open lished pamphlets in which no attacked the
oonfliot between Austria and Hnngary was Im- ministry bo vimlentty as to bring about a dud
minent, Pnlszky received an antograph letter in 1781 between himself and Lord Hervey.
from the emijeror, which informed him that Through the brilliancy of his speeches, and
hia " resignation was accepted," though no the patriotic sentimenta with which they were
reaignataon had been tendered. A few days filled, he became the most popnlar man in the
later, however, a revolutionary outbreak drove nation, and in 1742 sncoeedea in driving Wal-
the emperor from hie capital. When Windisch- pole from power. When in opposition he
gr&tzbeoamemasterofVienna,PiilszkyeBcwed seems to have made the declaration that he
to Pesth, and was subsequently sent to London would never take offioe; and now, when all
by Kossuth, to endeavor to obtain from £ng- England was at his feet, he constructed a oabi-
lacd some support for the Hungarian cause, net, leaving himself out, though accepting a
He remained in England until Joined there by peerage. The people now considered them-
Eowath, whom he aooompanied on his visit selves as betrayed, and by the new ministry he
to the United States. In March, 1861, having was treated with indiffwence and abuse. As
removed from London to Turin, he was elected Chesterfield wrote; "He shrunk into insig-
a member of the diet of Pesth by the district niflcance and an earldom." When in 1746 the
of S*6cB6a in the county of N6gr&d, bnt was Felham ministry resigned, Pulteney became
prevented from reentering his native country premier; but go little influence had he, that he
by the Anstrian government, Pulszky bss pub- was imable to obtain the assistance of any men
lished Aui d«m Tag^mehe einea in Gromiyrv- of importance, and in consequence ho held of-
tanniea nuendea Utiffam (Peath, 1887); Di« fice for only two days. Afterthishe was com*
Jakob'mer in Ungam (2 vols., Leipsic, 1861) ; paratively little in public life, but in 1700 he
" Tales and Traditions of Hungary" (London, published " A Letter to Two Great Men" (Pitt
1851); "Ked, White, and Black," an account and the duke of Newcastle), which seems to
of travels in the United States (London, 1852) ; have attracted attention for a time. Aa his
lieen wuT PhUomphit der QtteMekte Ungamt, only son had died before him, tiie peerage in
and several other books of a miscellaneous char- his family became extinct.
acter. — Thekeba Waltheb, wife of the preccd- PULTOCK, Bobkbt, an English author,
ing, born in Vienna in 181S, accompanied her whose only known work, published in London
fanritand (to whom she was married in 164fi) in 17G0, is a romance, entitled " The Life and
to England, and subsequently on his visit to Adventures of Peter Wilkins," which desoribea
the United States, and, in addition to her joint an ima^ary race of flying islanders in the
antboTBhip of the " T^es and Traditions" and Bouth Pacifio. It has gone through many
"Bed, White, and Black," ^^^ written "Me- editions both in England and the United States,
moira of a Hnngarian Laidy" f2 vols., L<wdon, and has became a standard work of fiction.
1860). The name of the author was unknown till
PULTENEY, WiLUAU, earl of Bath, an Eng- 1885, when, at a sale by auction of books and
lish statesman, bom in 1682, died in 1764, manuscripts which had belonged to Dodsley
He was educated at Westminster school and at the publisher, the original agreement for the
Christchuroh, Oxford, travelled on the conti- copyright of the book was found, in which
nent, and became member of parliament for Pulto&k is described as "of Olement's Inn,
the borough of Hedon in Yorksntre. This po- gentleman," from which it is supposed that he
ntion he owed to his guardian, Henry Guy, was a bendier of the inn. From the agree-
who anhsequently left him a legacy of £40,000 ment it appears that he had sold his story for
and landed estate to the amount of £CO0 a £20, with 12 copies of the work, and a set of
year. Having joined the whig party, he oon- the first impressions of the engravings that
tinned to represent Hedon tiiroughout the were to accompany iL Nothing more is
whole reign of Qnees Anne, and oondnoted known of him, "His book," says Bouthey,
himself with so much warmth in the prosecu- " Is a work of great genius, and I know that
tion of Saoheverell, that when in 1710 the both &ir Walter Soott and Ur. Ooleridga
Tou zni. — 42
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
thoDKht as highly of it as I do. Hia winged on rooks or mats to dry; tlw ntide ate
people are the most beantiibl creatures of sold to tlie larger dealers, tiid pi^iit^
latlon that ever were devised." for exportation. The trade it priiqi^t,
PDLTOWA, or Poltava, a government of fined to the districts of Hilo, Hmihi^
Enropean Rnsda, province of Ukraine, bonnded Pnna on Hftwaii; and the lUpmatm:
N. hj Tchemigov and Koorsk, E. bj Kfaarkov, San Frandsco, Anstnlia, Tuconnr'] ^
B. bj Eksterinoslav and Cherton, and W. bj &o. From the cnstom houn rttmns dit
Kter; area,18,eS4 sq.m.; pop.in 18G6, 1,TGV wui, the trade ia teento hiTa faKrtcrih
144. The sorfaoe consists of an almost nn- 3,479 lbs. in 18C1 to 81S,!2011«.iiim i:
broken plain, whioh declines grsdaally to the the introduction of Hie ertiele into Em Ix-
8. W., wnere the Dnieper flows along the fron- cisco in 1S&4, it «old fin' !B eti. [cr lb. ill
tier for npward of 200 m., and receives the now regarded u a st^ile export of ttty-
dnunage of the government bj severs! rivers, wich iglands. By thenMiveBithukii^k
the most important of which are the Sula, lued for pillows, An. When vortn li;^
Yorskla, and Orel. Potters' clay, lime, chalk, daces a fabrio intermediats is danoe *
and saltpetre are the most valaable mtaerals. tw«en silk and wool. The Eut Ma rii
The soil is retnarkably fertile, and only a small has been introdnced into the Dsteli jkch
portion in the B. Z, part is barroi. The prin- copceia, and is employed, like Mtoi, ni
dpal crops raised are barley, oats, wheat, buck- tow, or beavar n^ as a stjptic. I
wneat, and millet. L^e nombers of cattle PUMA. See OoiraAs.
^d sheep are reared, ^e mannfkctnrea con- PUHIOE, a porons fbldmatluc wn fn
(dst of woollen goods, leather, and brandy, volcanoes. The pores are lisev, nd !0 k
Only a small percentage of the inhabitants can as often to be barely visible eu^ by tbiJ
read and write. — Pultowa, the capital, is sitn- of a magnifying glass. Its sptak fnriri
ated near the junction of the rivers Poltavka 2.2 to 2.4, bnt by reason of ili ipai!Jiii>^
and Yorskla, ii6 m. 8. 8. W. from Moscow; pieces of it are often bnOTint anftu to
pop. in I8S1, 20,071. It is snrroonded by a on water. It consists chieflji/^^
wdl and defended by a citadel near the centre sometimes 17 per cent of ahmuulpTie^-
oftbetown. There are a cathedral, II chnrches, of eoda, and 4 of potash. Itiii'BtJ^
a convent, and a school for cadets. The streets shades of color, paaaiiig into ydlcvni t^vn-
are broad and well lud ont, and there is a large The chief source from which il b Mt^ ^
square with a monument in the middle erected commercial purposes is Oampo Sim w i
in memory of Peter the Oreat, who near the the Upari islands, where it Cwb t B ^
town won the great battle (Jnly 8, 1700) in nearly 1,000 feet high. In tlw irt> !»" '
which the Swedee were totally routed and lai^ly employed, mostly ins piJnriBiti'
Charles XII. ob^ged to take reSagt in Turkey, as a polishing material. It ia iho wJ e ^
(8«e OiTASLKs XII.]I A fine obelisk stands Qpon for grinding and smoothingmftMrfi^
the field, and divine service is annually per- plates, leather, Ac
formed in commemoration of the victory, PUMP, a machine fbr rtisDj a h^'
PULU, or Yegbtablk Silx, the long ulky water, operating in generil en tlw pn^
fibres that cover the stipes or stalks of a spe- that the air being e:£anst«d frim i^'^
cies of fern which grows in the Sandwich lower end of whichisinaieiarurrf'^-
islands. A similar product has been known in the water is pushed by the eitRH^T^
Sumatra, obtained from a fern called the pen- of the atmosphere up thia p^ ^"^ ^
ghatear or penawar djamM. The long, spark- various contnvanccfl it is &iiAji^_ ' '
Ung, brown, hury-like fibres which clothe the higher level. Re^teoting tbs i"""*?!'^
Btems, resemble more the covering of unimalti pumps nothing certain tt bicm. '"''^
fhan of plantsj and it is supposed that from states that an instnnnentreeaeUivi)"™^
this plant originated the ancient fable of the pump is often represented in fli* *''!*^
Scythian or vegetable lamb. This was said to the ancient Egyptians ; bot neb ■ "i^
be an animal that sprang from a seed out of does not appear to have been Mrij!"
the earth, to which it oontinaed rooted. It had nationa of witiqnity, nor by tie Gk* "■
a sort of fiesh and blood, and lived by brows- Romans, nor by any mdo Mtkmof 1*=^
ing all within its reach, till finally it died for The cont^-ivances of the ^''"^'f^J^
want of fiirther snatenance. The RasHian name water are wheels fnmished irilh '"'*'*,%
of the animal is haromett, which has been i^i- their periphery, the pole isd bni« J^
plied as a apeoifio name to the plant. The most ancient as well as noden °*r"L
Sandwich island pnln is the produce of a Archimedean screw, SevenidHW"!^
fern of the genns eiboliwn, the specific name are recopniied, as lifting, '*'™'*J°^j<
of which is uncertain; or it may be produced centrifugal, distinguished frem '^ r^^
by several species of this genus. It grows on the difierent contrivances for eiiiw*^
lands elevated ttoai 1,000 to 4,000 feet above air and raising the vat«r. I^b''^^'^
the sea, and frequently reaches the hrfght of the most aimpis form of the "•"JfUa
15 feet. Each plant, when 4 years old, pro- pipe itself b the working (Awiber, «m,
duces 2 or 8 ounces of the fibres. These are it a piston ftimished wift a niw ti>OTFV
gathered by women and children, and ^read wardie madelo mOTeopiiiddim. i»>v
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FXnCP 669
tbis voire the air is forced np hj the doTa are provided vith a long Bolid plunger, which
stroke, and is raised as the piston ascends, works in a tJght staffing box, bnt in tlie barrel
The water at the bottom follows the ^r Into Immediatelf below this looselj. The rods of
the tnbe and through the valve till the weight forcing pmnps are outside of the lifts or pipes
of the column oonnterbalances the pressure entering only the working chamber. In targe
that pushes it. If a pmnp oonld be made with pumps thej act bj their weight, the power
piston and valve working air-tight, the height being exerted to lift them and not the water.
of the oolamn of water thus raised should be In liAlnf pumps the rods nsuall^r' P^^ through
joat sufficient to counterbalance by its weight the whole height of the discharge pipe, which
Uie atmospheric pressure; and this at the level mast be vertical, and the power is exerted to
of the sea is S4 feet ; but 29 feet is commonlf lift them and the column of water together. —
the height which the water reaches. Tonearlv EotiKYPuMPS. Agreatvariety of pumpshavo
tbis heigbt the watermaybodisoharged through been contrived of the rotary class. In these the
a hole in the side of the tube, by merely taking piston is formed of one ormore wings attached
off the atmoniheria pressure as described, or to a horizontal axis which passes through the
bjwhat is called snction, aportionof the water ends of a very short cylinder. Revolving in tbis
being allowed to flow up through the piston, cylinder, the wings first produce a partial vacu-
which works below this opening. To raise it nm, and then propel before them the water that
higher, the piston rod and tube are extended enters by the supply pipe. The varieties of this
upward to any height, and the water, oontlua- class of pump differ irom each other in the con-
any accumulating above the valve in the piston trivancesbj which the water is prevented from
with each stroke, is at last raised to the outlet being carried round the entire cylinder and is
To prevent the water from flowing back as the forced up the discharge pipe. These ai
piston goes down, a second valve also opening ons, and many of them eiMhit mnob ingenuity.
apward baetin the tul^e within a few feet of One, inventedaboutthejear 1618, and knownaa
the bottom. With such pumps water is raised the Massachusetts pump, resembles the blowing
more titan 100 feet sometimes even 20Ofeet, fan. Pour wings or vanes are attached to an axis
at a single lift. (See MiifB, vol. xi. p. caT.) which revolves a Uttie to one side of the centre
The pumps used in houses for raising water of the cylindrical box, so that while the vnnea
to the npper stories are lifting pumps, hmisb- on one side ran close to the inner surface of the
«d with a side discharge pipe, rising above the cylinder, the space that separates these grows
working barrel to ttoe required elevation. — larger round to the other side, till it opens into
Another class of pnmps is the forcing pump, the discharge pipe, which goes off m a line
In this the piston, called the plunder, is with- tangent to the cylinder. The water is drawn
ont a valve, and works in a chamher through in through an opening around the axle on each
which the water does not pass, but, entering side, and being swept round rapidly by the re-
It below as the piston is raised, is forced volving vanes is thrown up the discharge pipe.
ont by the return stroke, pas^g from the The impoaeibility of the vanea passing from the
bottom of the chamber into a side pipe open space to the close space on the other side
through a valve opening outward, and thence of the outlet without beuu followed by a por-
wherever the pipe leads. The valve in the tion of the water^ evidently somewhat dimin-
snpply pipe opening inward, the water is pre- ishes the economical workhig of this machine.
vented from flowing back through it Bouble- The Frendi have long employed a very inge-
acting forcing pumps have been made, the nious rotaiy pump known as the pumpe ro-
■npply pipe and discharge pipe connected tativa dt Diet*. In tbis the entrance and exit
with the working chamber on both sides of pipes enter close together on the same side Of
the piston, so that as this is moved in either the cyliader, but the connection between them
directioQ it draws water on one side and dis- is round the annular space between the inner
charges it on the other. With an air chamber surface of the cylinder and the outer surface (tf
a perfectly uniform flow is thus secured. The a central drum. To this drmn, which is car-
practical objection to this kind of pump is the ried by a belt or otherwise, are set in longitn-
multipticadon of valves in one machine, two of din^ slote 4 vsnes or tongnes as long as the
which are required on each side of the piston, cylinder, and dividing the annular space into4
These in all pnmps are the parts that fail or get equal compartments. The tongues by the action
out of order. It b found better in practice to of a spring within the drum are pressed out
use two distiuct pumps, one at each end of a against the inner surfttoe of the cylinder, ondas
lever beam, the piston of each acting in turn they sweep round eaeh one carries the water
with the descent of the beam. After this man- in the compartment before it forward to the
ner fire engines are commonly oonstmcted of place of discharge. The water can go no fiir-
two forcing pumps, discharging into a common ther round owing to the annnlar space being
airchamber. (SeeFiBaEsGisK.) Fourpumps contracted on this side by a curved iron plate,
ormore have also been made to work together, which reduces the diameter of the cylinder the
flieir strokes following regularly in turn. Foro- whole width of this space. The tongues run-
iog pomps of great power, such as are nsed for uing against this plate are pushed in even with
raising water in raiaes, which are occasionally the anrface of the drum, and as the plate re-
made to raise a column even 600 feet at one lift, cedes ontheothersideof theplaceof discharg*
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
660 FUMT
tliej Bre pnaaai otrt agun, and water from the tixe chela pomp. It has also been in general
enpplj pipe flows in after eeoh tongue, filling nse as a ship pomp, particnlarlj in large Ehips
tba compsTtment. A similar rotaT7 pomp, belonging to tne nary. An endless chain cany-
known OB Cary'a, has proved the most anoceas- ing a senaa of hollow pistons or buckets, which
fal of this clai9s of pomps in the United Btates. are adapted to pass through a pipe, is suspended
In another very old form of rotarj pomp the upon a wheel at the top of the wall, and passes
projections upon the drum are fixed and slope around another under the sarisce of the water
off like a wedge in the direction toward which below. As the upper wheel b tnmcd by a
theymove. Each one in turn nms in under and crank its teeth cat^di in the links of the chain
lifts ft rod which acts as the " hutment " or and r^se the full hnckets on one side, which,
dam to check the flow of the water round the discharged at the top as they turn over, go
annular space, and which immediately on the down empty to be renlled. The recommendi-
pBBBSge of the projection or vane drops back tion of this pump is the convenient method of
agun, acting like a stamper when raised and working it by turning the crank. It is, how-
dropped by a cam. The water in front of ever, on acconnt of the continnal loss of water
the butment is forced up a vertical pipe in in ascending, not economical In Its appUcatJon
which ia a valve that prevents its return. At of power. — Pumps for the use of diips, of
the great eihibition of 1851 comparative trials which many kinds are now employed, are ne-
were made of different rotary pumps, among cessarily constructed with particnliir reference
which those of Mr. Appold ana Mr. Gwynne to the danger of their being obstructed by Qie
were regarded as the most efficient In the loose materials that are likely to be floating in
former tne rotating fiin consisted of 8 circular the bilge water, such as diipa, oaknm, tar.
Elates a foot in diameter, the two outer ones 8 (Tain, or other eilicles derived from the cargo-
icbes apart, and the third midway between The pipes are large and capacions, and Uie
these. Each outer disk was furnished with valves are made to drop freely into their
an opening of about 6 laches diameter around seats. It is moreover important that they
its axis for admitting the water in which it should be accessible for removing any obetmc-
worked. The propelling vanes in the divimon tion with the least possible loss of time. —
on each side the central plate were 8 in num- The most powerful pumps in nse are those
ber, and instead of standing straight ont from employed for draining deep mines, and, aa
the centre they curved back till they terminated stated in the artide Mini, already referred to,
nearly in a tangent with the circle that would they, aa well as the pumping engines, have
circumscribe them. In comparing the work- been brought to their greatest perfection in
ing of this pump with cnrved, with straight Cornwall, where their improvement has been
radial, and slraight inclined arms, the last set long stimulated by the system of periodically
back at an angle of about 46°, the percentage publishing the performance of the prindpal
of efi'ect to the power exerted was found in a machines. They have thus become of interest
lift of about 18 feet to be for the first form not merely as draining machines, but aa meas-
65, for the second 24, and for the third 43. All urers of the work penormed by the steam en-
the tests showed that a ^eat advantage was gines ; and this being in the way of the regnlar
Ced in the use of ourred vanes. The nnm- work of these engines, they are the best practi-
of revolutions of the fan per minute in cal dynamometers. The use of Cornish pumps
these trials was from 620 to 870. Pumps of and engines is not however limited to mines,
this character are adapted only for moderate but they are now applied to supplying water
lifts, rather under than over 80 feet. They for the use of towns, having been introduced
have the advantage of great portability, are first in London in 1839 by Mr. Tbomaa Wick-
easily set np in any place, and are competent to steed, an eminent hydraulic engineer, from
discharge large volumes of water at low eleva- which time they have been generally recog-
tions with great economy. They are not ob- nized as the standard machinery for this pnr-
fftruoted by mud and gravel, which might be pose. On this account a more detailed notice
destructive to a pump with valves. They have of .them and of the work of some American
proved especially serviceable for large drtuning pumping engines may be appropriately intro-
operattons, pumpingout cofTer dams, &c. One daced, The use of the Comi^ lifting pump i&
was constmcted in flngland for draiutug, with mostly limited to taking water from the bottom
a wheel 4^ feet in diameter, and run with an of shafts while these are sinking. When the
average velocity of 90 revolutions per min- shaft has reached a depth of 100 to 160 feet
ute ; it raised in the same time abont 16,000 below the level of discharge of the water, a
gallons of water to the height of 4 to 0 reservoir Is constructed to one side in the rock
feet. For further particulars resptecting rotary at the bottom, and a forcing pump is perms-
pnmps reference may be made to an article nently set to force the water up to the ontlet,
entitled "A Historical Review of the Oentri- and Uie lifting pump is made to commence'
ftigal Pump," in the "Practical Mechanic's anew and follow the shafl as it is snnk 100 or
Journal," Sept. 1651, and the jury report of 160 feet deeper. The superiority of the lifting
the eihibition of 1861. — A pump of entirely pump for use in sinking consists in its being
different character from any of those named, more easily moved and a^l'nsted than the forcing
and used to some extent in domestio wells, La pump, and in ita greater efBolency as a snotjon
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PDUP 6ftl
„ leptliB to the whole Btronglj bolted together. The join-
orking chamber. The forcing inga must be Hkiifiilly made ao that the rod
pump would otherviae be preferred, beoansa shall hang in the centre of the pipes the whole
the weight of ita rods, which must at any rate way down. The diBohaTKo at the top is into
be lifted, is applied in descending to forcing up a wooden box and spoat fitted around the up*
the water, and hecanae it is more easily kept in per pipe nnder the flange. — The forcing pumps
order, the pump rods being external, and not for large operations are of much greater range
concealed in the pipe, and moreover not ob- in their dimensions than the lifting pumps,
etractingtheflowofwaterbypartiaUyfiUingthe the working barrel and mtin diachatve pipe
ascending pipe. The lilting pump is of varioos of aoma of them amonnting to 7S inches* in
dimensions, from 8-inoh to 16-inoh bore of pipe, diameter. The pump itself conaiata of the
This b made in lengths of 9 or 10 feet, which working barrel, a chamber or door piece be-
are added one after another upon the top low this, and the auction piece with its Talva
as the pnm]) goes down. The bottom length, as in the lifling pump on the same vertioal
called the windbore, stands upon the rook in the hne. But the worsing barrel is not continued
bottom ; and to resist the blows and ahaking upward Into the discharge pump. A plunger
from the blasts exploded around it, this ^iece of nearly its fuU diameter enters it at the top
is made of the strongest miztnre of cast iron, through a stuffing box, and moves up and down
and the shell is not less than 8} inches thick, with a stroke of 6 to 12 feet or more, acoording
The lower end is not open, but rounded off and to the size of the pump. From the chamber
perforated with holes for straining the water, the water, forced out by the down stroke, pasa-
The diameter is large enough to admit the es into an adjoining apartment on one ude^
next npper length, and an accurate fit is made and thence up the ascending pipe, which is
by boring and turning these two pieces, so bolted on this aparbneot by the side of the
that the lower one may slide down 9 feet and working barrel, which is bolted on the other,
keep the connection perfect while the upper The ur chamber for giving uniformity to the
remains fixed. The upper connects above with fiow is connected with this pipe. The rod
the " door piece," a oasmber 2 feet or more from the working barrel may pass up directly
square, in tne bottom of which the lower valve to the lever beam of the steam engme, or be
is seated. One side of this chamber is closed secured at any convenient distance up the
with a movable ptate, strongly secured by shaft to a main rod working other pumps on
screw bolts, which being remov^ the interior different levels. Theapplicationof steam pow-
13 exposed and access ishad to the valves. The er to work forcing pomps Is after the same
lower valve is a circular box with tapering plan in mining operations and in water works
ndes made to fit closely in ita seat, and it baa for supplying cities. The steam, admitted to
eiOier a ungle large daok or two small ones but one side of the piston of the steam cylln-
hin^png near the centre. The clacks are me- der, acts directly, or by the lever beam, to
tallio plat«s lined with sole leather. Upon Ihe lift the weight of the pump rods ; or if this
top of tha door pieoe the worUng barrel may is not Bu£Scient to counterbalance the wd^t
be bolted down, or an intervening circular of the column of water and the friction, and
chamber may be introduced, the diameter of move moreover with the required velocity,
whioh gradiully contracts upward to that of more weight is added in the plunger. By this
the working barrel, which is then bolt«d upon arrangement the column of water is not set
iL This barrel b bored perfectly amooth with- suddenly in motion by a rush of ateam, Hia
in, that the piston may move up and down force of which gradually diminiahes toward
irith a uniformly aooorate fit, and ita diameter the end of the stroke ; but starting alowly the
is an inch or more leas than that of the dls- descending weight gtdns velocity, till the ^a-
charge pipes tliat succeed it above. The ton is received at the end of the stroke agamat
bucket, or valve, attached to a strong iron the elastic cushion of steam in the head M th*
rod (the continnation below of the wooden cylinder. — In the United States forcing pompi
rods that go up to the surface), is packed like of very large dimensianB are employed at the
the piston of a steam cylinder, and ia provided water works of many of the cities, and these
with ei:her one or two clacks. It is reached are driven by pumping engines of remark-
for repMr or replacing either by letting it down able efficiency, f See AgmiDcoT.) These were
ioto Uie chamber or rinsing it up through the chiefly made by the most competent engineers '
pipes to the top. The pipes above are carefully in the country, who have vied with oad other
added one upon another in a perfectly vertictJ to produce engines that should exceed the
line, each length being of 9 feet and secured Oornish in rimplicity, oheapnesB, and durabili-
upon the one bdow by bolts through the ty, and equal them in economy of performance.
flanges with which the pipes are furni^ed at Among the largest of these are the Cornish
.''ach end. The thickneaa of the metal in these engines at the Furmount water works, made in
pipes ia usually li inohes. The pamp rods, in Philadelphia, and others at Bellenlla, N. J.,
straight lengths about * inches square, are add- made at Oold Spring, K T.; and of the Amer-
" ' 1 at the top together with the pipes, the • AiiaturlnawltliaTniiniaoflhlailHiniai ~ '^
8 being sDliced by a aort of dovetaiUng ?.«^^."?"_'«"™2"S_*»!' "'"'"■"
and seonred by long wooden strips at the side^ t1 p. Ml
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^I
eea
Ion, Hi* cnnk cam engine at Hartford, tlw
doable direot-aotdng engine at Brooklyn, S. Y.,
both hailt at Haiiford, and the direct-acting
donble cylinder ennnea at Cambridge, Uaaa.,
bnilt by Mr. H. B, Worthiogton of Kew York,
(^titese trials have been roads under the direc-
tion of a board of diatingnisbed engineers epe-
(^ly appointed for the purpose of determining
their comparative capacities. The reanlts of
their ioveatigationa were presented in a " Re-
port on Triala of Duty made in 1857 and 18S9
upon the Brooklyn, Hartford, Belleville, and
Oainbtidge PmDpiDg Enginea," front whioh tha
fbllowing eommaryisobtuned. Sxpreeaed ao-
cording to the formtda of doty tidopted in Oom-
wall, the Brooklyn eni^e raised 60,798,200 lbs.
one foot high with 100 lbs. of ooal ; the Hart-
ford, average of two triala, 68,860,115 lbs.;
the Oambrid^e, 71,278,486 ; the Bellerille, —
Qpl
Cfai
hue \jiiUiurjUKU, (i,sjo,vjq, tuq .uviiqiuioi st-
erage of 8 trials, 71,062,546 Iba. Some allow-
ances warranted bj the circumstanoea having
been made, the engines were finally rated fa the
following order of merit :
tH^H.
i:^k'^JT
D«*^«.
C-*«„l« ..........
ata
taaxa
«ii,«r
BS9,I>M
h
Bdl<ivUI«<Ooralia)
1
<"™"" -■
4S
The last was an independent trial made in 1SC6
by another engineer before these InvesttRations
were propoaed. Though the results fbll short
of the duty of the Oomish engines working
nnder the moat favorable circnmstances at the
mines in that particular service for which they
were specislly designed and adapted (see Mutb),
H is well nnderstood that, if subjected to the
same severe methods adopted in these trials,
no essential superiority would he found in the
working of the Cornish enginea. — Pumps are
employed to feed steam boilers with water,
forcing it in agunst the head of steam. Each
engine is anppliod with anch a pumji, and to
economize foel the water employed is the hot
water from the exhaust pipe. The plunger is
oonnected with the lever beam of the engine,
or wilh a crank npon one of the shafts, and
the sliding valves for admitting the water and
regulating ita exit are also moved by the ma-
chinery of the engine. The need of an indft-
pendant steam pomp for this pnrpose, which
, night he set in operation at any moment,
whether the m^n engine wore vorldng or
not, and which moreover might be eonve-
identlj applied to other purposes, aa a pump
for raising water, as a Are engine, &o., has led
to the invention of some of the most efficient
and useM pumps. The best and most exten-
Edvely used ia the steam pnmp patented by
Messrs. Worthingtoa and Baker or New York
in 1844, now much improved by Ur. Worth-
ingtoD in what is called the duplex pnmping
engine. The original pnmp is of itseli a small
horixosttl high pretunre engine, fed direcUj
from the boiler, and constructed like other en-
ginea of this character, bo fiir sa need be to ob-
tain the alternate movement forward and back-
ward of the piston rod. Tliis rod is prolonged
from the steam cylinder, and within a distance
of one to two feet it enters the forcing pnmp,
which is Bet directly on a line with the cylin-
der and npon the aame support. The rod ter-
minates in the plunger of uie pump, which is
fitted to a bore of amaller diaiaeter than the
Steam cylinder. By this arrangement any prea-
anre of steam applied to the steam piston most
be effective to arive thia forward and carry the
plunger of amaller area agunst the same pres-
sure. Thus with each stroke a small quantity
of water is propelled into the boiler by the ex-
penditure of the larger bulk of steam. The
efficiency of the pmnp is increased by the
e'lmger being made double-acting, and by an
gonious arrangement of the water valves
over the pump, which are exceedingly easy of
access and adjustment. From the valves the
water passes mto an air chamber, whence it is '
delivered in a continuons stream. The contriv-
ance for sliding the valve in its seat npon the
upper nde of Uie steam cylinder is simple and
ingenious. Upon the piston rod, half way be-
tween the two cylinders, is fixed an upright
arm, which b carried each way with the pis-
ton. At its upper end it slides along the valve
rod, and at the end of each stroke it hits a
tappit or nut on this rod with Bofflcient force to
move the valve. To insure this being alwAya
carried far enough, so that it shall not stand
directly over the passagea for the steam, and
ezclnde this from both ends of the cjliikder,
the water pasaages In the pump are so ar-
ranged, that at or near the end of the stroke
the resistance of the water is reduced and the
plunger slips instantly forward till checked
by the action of the steam in the steam cylin-
der. These pumps are employed ia numerons
large manufactories and distilleries for pump-
ing water and other fluids \ and in open quar-
ries they have proved a very convenient and
poweriM means of drunage, the pump being
set in the bottom, while the steam may be
conveyed to it from boilers at the top of the
bank or other point. — The improvement is de-
Kgned to connteract the thnmping action of
the piston, which sometimes takes place when
the pump i« worked too rapidly and under
great presanre — a result of the momentum of
tiie piston, similar to that which occnra with
the weighted plunger of the Comiah pnmp.
To produce an even, Bmooth, reciprocating
motion at any dedred epeed, two donble-acting
pumps are employed together with their two
steam cylinders, all seated firmly together in
an iron casting called a cradle. The two steam
cylinders are supplied with steam Indepen-
dently of each other; and the slide valve of each
of them, which controls the admisBion and exit
of the steam, ts moved not by the action of its
own piston rod, but by that of the other cylin-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PUMPKOT PUSOTUATION 668
d«r, with Thioh it Is oonneeted hj a rook shaft, rired. For ponohlng holes in the platee of
By this arrangement, before the stroke of one eteam boilers a great Tariet?' of powerful ma-
cjUnder is completed its piston rod opens the chLaes have been invented and are in nae, aome
valve of the other cylinder, and a ooatJnuona of which also oombine the Hhearing of the
motion is thos kept np. Each piston reposes plates with the pnnohintf. A very oonvenient
for a perceptible int«rTal at the terminatiou of portable panch for siinilar application is nude
the stroke, during wtiich qdet time the water of a bar of iron an inch thick and 4 or 6 inches
Talres drop to their seats hj gravity, instead wide, which is bent into the form of a horse
of being forced down as is osnallj the case by shoe, and perforated in one of its ends for a
the return motion. The oorrent of water in screw, which at the outer end is square for the
the supply pipe is moreover always nnchecked, fitting on of a lever for taming it, and at the
one chamber of the pmnp being ready to re- other end is pointed to act as a panch. (hi
o^ve it before the other is shot off. The bene- the&ce of the opposite jaw ia set a steel ring or
Scdal effect of this is to render the machine al- bedponch, andaponthisislaidtheedgeof the
most noiseless, removing all concnsmve action, boiler plate whlcn ia to be perforated. With
together with the osnal caoses of rapid wear, this simple machine holes may readily be made
The principle has boon snccessfully applied to of 1 inch diameter is plates f inch thick ; and
Ugh preasora and condensing pamping en^es it can be easily taken into the holds of steam
of all nzes. The water works for sapplying ships or to work upon boilers in any ritaation.
the city of Harrisborg, Peon., are Aimished PUNOTnATlON, is grammar, the art of
with pnmps of this character, the working of dividing a written or printed diseonrse into sen-
wtdoh hae proved very sa^afactory. tenoes and parts of sentences, for the pnrpose
PUHPEIN'. See GtoTrsD. of indicating the mntnalrelations of the words,
PUNOH, or PuHOHrnxLLo, a homorona char- by means of points. The princip^ points ased
aster In aspeoiesof pnppet show eihibited <m In English composition arethaoonuna(,), semi-
the Italian stage and in tne streets of Eoropean colon (;}, colon (:), period (.}, note of isterra-
cities. The name is supposed to be a cormp- gation (!), note of eidamation or admiration
Hoaot PolidntUa or Putemella, which in tarn, Q), dasb( — ), and parenthesis (). Of these, only
according to Qallani in his Vocabalario del the first four are marks of ponctnation as Uie
dtalflto liapoUtmto, was derived A:om Fnccio term is nsnally nnderstooo, or grammatical
d'Aniello, a peasant, whose hnmorous ecoen- points indicating the length and character of the
tridties were in the 17th century transferred paoses to be made in reading. The others are
to the N'eapoliton stage, where he has oon- mainly rhetorical or syntaotjoal uda, regalating
thined to be the mecUom of local and political the modulation of the tone rather than the sos-
sstire, and a favorite oonventional character ja pension of the voice ; bnt the interrogation or
the Italian exhibitions oS/Ontoecini, or puppet exclamation point may take the place of either
shows. The modem pnppet show of " Pnncb of the former, accordmg to the s&nctnre of the
■nd Judy" embodies a domestio tragedy fol- sentence ; and the dash partakes of both char-
lowed by a sapematural retribution, the whole acteristics. The comma marks the smallest
of which is treated in a broadly faroical man- grammatical division in written or printed lan<
ner. Punch himself is represented as a short guage. The semicolon separates such parts of
obese personage, with an enormous homp on a sentence as are somewhat less closely con-
his back, a wide mouth, long chin, and hooked neoted than those separated bya comma. The
nose, and. wearing a three-pointed oe^. His colon denotes a still longer pause than the
wife Jndy, who is in some respects his conn- semicoloa. The period indicates the end of an
terpart, and his dog Toby, are important ohar- assertive seateace which b independent of any
acters in the performance. that follows, and ia also used ^ler every ab-
PUNOH, or PiTHOHiKa Uaohinb, a tool for breviated word, after headings, titles of books,
striking boles in any thin material, oa leather, ^., and generally after Roman namerala. The
iron, dm. In ita umplest form it ia a solid- note of interrogMion ia placed after a question,
pcnt^ed tool of steel, which is held in the hand and in Spanish is also placed inverted at the
and stracfc with a hammer. With this the beginning of a qaestion. The note of exola-
blacksmith makes small holes in iron. For mation indicatea an ardent wish, admiratioii,
larger holes the punch is a ciroolar hollow ohia- or other strong emotion, and ia joined to in-
d, tajwring to a sharp edge all aroond, and terjections, words used as interactions, and
ring above in an annular space on each side clauses containing them ; it is also duplicated
agh which the blanks or cylindrical bits in Spai^sh like the preceding. The dash ia
cat from the material are discharged. Small employed where a sentence breaks off abrapt-
[ranches for making holes in leather are flied ly and the subject is changed ; where the sense
ut one of the jaws at an inatrament Jike pliers, is suspended, and is continued aiter a short in-
and work against a copper disk attached to termption; where there is an anezpected or
the oppodte jaw. In an American improve- epigranmiatio tarn in the sentiment; after a
ment of this tool a set of 4 punches of differ- long member, or series of phrases or clauses,
ent mzea are arranged in the form of a cross, leading to an important oondnsiou ; before a
and set BO as to revolve in one of the jaws, word or phrase repeated In an exclamatory or
either punch bdng brought tnto action as de- emphatic maimer — what elocutionists term an
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
064 puirorr puhjaub
«oho ; vli«re there ii an elltpaia of mtik iror^a life to the stndr end iateipnteticn <a the Y*-
as "name);" and "that is;" where there b an das luid Bheatraa, or all wnttea lawandknowl-
ellipsia of letters or figure^ and tn nnmerDuv edge. This word ooonn hi the Sanacrit, Bin-
other cABee. Sometunea, sa in thia work, it is dostanee, and Peraian langnagea, and is Terr
used instead of paragraphs. The parentheait nearlj eqairaleat to doctor,
encloses a word or pnraae introduced into the PUNJAUBfconntiyof tbefive riTeni),at«r-
bod7 of a sentence vith which it has no gram- ritoiy of British India, occnpTing tlie N. W.
matioal connection. — Other innrkB in frequent eitremit; of HiDdostan, and giving its name to
nse, and generallj treated under the head of a lientenant^^vemorahip latelj formed oat of
punctuation, thoDch not stricMj included in it, thePnivjanbaudtheDelhidiTiaiiHi,inclnditigtbe
are the apostrophe ('), need to indicate the districta of Panipnt, Hnrriapa, Delhi, Bohtnk,
omission of a letter or letters, and also as a Goorgaon, and the t«rritories of Feroz^Ktor,
sign of the possessive case; the hyphen (-), Looduna, Umballa, and Kythnl. The Fnqjanb
placed between'theconstitneDt parts of a com- proper is bonnded N. hjKoondooz, N. E. and
pound word, and at the end of s line when a £. bjr little Thibet, Oa^imere, and Tjji«tb^ a.
word is ^Tided ; quotation marks (" "), plaoed £. and B. bj the North- Western provinces and
at the beginning and end of extracted passages, Suide, and W. and N. V. by Gabool ; it extends
of the speeches in dialogue, &c. ; bracketsor fi-omlot. 2g°toB4° N., and&omlong. 71''toT8*
crotchets [ ], generally enclosing an ezplana- E., and is of triangular shape, the sides being
tory phrase or paasage inserted by one writer respectivelj 6B0 m., 630 m., md SOO m. l<Hig;
in a quotation fi-ora another; u)d references area about 180,000 sq. m. ; pop. 4,101,000. The
(consisting of the characters *, t, ti §> t f^o^ ^i chief tonns are Lahore, the ci^ital, Pesbawer,
called respectively asterisk or star, dagger, Mooltan, Attock, and Dera-Iamael-Ehan. The
double dagger, section, parallel, and paragraph, N. part is mountainona, being traveised by
or of figures or letters Bmaller than those of spurs of the Himalaya; but witli these exoqi-
the text), pointing to notes correspondingly tions the sorface is for the most part an ex-
marked at the foot or margin of the page. — tensive plain, gradually sloping from N. E. to
Theancienle were in the habit of writing with- S. W. in the direction of the fi great rivers by
out distinction of either sentences or words which itiswatered, which, nnilinB inthePnju-
nntil the 101th Olympiad. Afterward it be- nud, flow together to the Indns. These rivera
oame asnal to place a mark of distinction at are the Jhylnm, Chenanb, Bavee, Beaa, and
the end of«very word, as in the following in- 8ut1^; lliey fornish an aggr^atenavigatiwiof
soription fbund near Bath, England: nearly 2,000 m., and divide the country into
ITuvbt vitalist fabbi, *«. fi districts or ifoobf. Gold b found in the sands
Sometimes, as in the subjoined extract ftom "^ '■''» }^'^^ ^^ Ohenanh, and iron, plnmba-
ftninscriptiongivenbTMontfaucon,aletterIaid «"- antimony, alum and snlphnr in the hill
horizontally was used as an interstitial mark; oonntry; nitre is jdentifol in the plama, and
p. FEBKABITS HERMES f ^" «^<»"^ ^^.'"^ the K bai* of the
CAECINIAE H DiGNAB Indus. — The population is composed of t»-
•^^^Ei' 5 KABIBSIMAE rfouB races, including Jate, Rajpoots, and Cft-
HTMEKiAB t yjjgg^ „f Hindoo descent; about 260,000 Mo-
There Is reason to believe, bawev«', that some hammedans,' of Afghan descent; and EbalsM
aystemofpnnctnation wasknowntotheOreeks or Sikhs proper, who, though the dominant
in the time of Aristotle. It probably consisted race, number less than a quarter of Uie inhab-
of ft single mark, which changed its signification itants. The people are generally physical];
according to a change of portion. At the bot- superior to those of oilier parts of Bindoetan,
torn of a letter (A.) it was equivalent to a com- and the Sikh soldiers are noted for bravery,
ma; in the middle (A*), to a colon; and at the Themannfkctnres include silk and cotton gooda,
top (A'}, to a period ; bnt this plan could only and shawls of superior quality, seoond only to
be followed as long as Greek mannaeriptg were those of Oashmere ; brocades, tissues, and oar-
written entirely in capitals. St. Jerome in his pets are also made; and firearms and swords c^
trsn^tionof iLe Scripturesnsedcertun marks excellent temper were made in large quantities
of diatinclien or division, which he called «om- when the Sikbs ruled the country. An ex-
mata and ecla; hot it has been thought that tenaive trade is carried on with Cabool, Bo-
they consisted simply In writing every clause khara, Oandahar, and different parts of central
«n a separate line. The modem points came Asia. Public schools have been established for
into use very gradually after tl>e invention of both sexes by the British, at which some 6 p«r
printing, the comma, parenthesie, note of in- cent of the inhabitants receive instmetion, ex-
terrogation, and period being the earliest intro- elusive of the private education which is gen-
'dnoea, and the note of ei^amation the last, oral among the higher classes. The govem-
The first printed books have only arbitrary ment under the present rulers resembles that
marks here and there, and it was not nntil the established in the Bengal presidency. In lUfl
I6th century that an approadi was made to a the revenue was £1,560,000. Under the Skha
regular system by the Manntii of Venice. the government was originally a sort ot re-
PUNDIT, or Pakdit (Pera. pand, learning), public or confederation of tirdar* or chiefii, all
in Hbidostan, a Bnhmin who ooosecrates Lis hoEding independent sway, and adminiatving
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FONTA ABEKAS FDBCfELL 6S6
th«ir own Uvs In their ovu districts. — Alex- ladonfrom the Arabia; and though be neither
ftoder the Qre&t iDvaifed thePninanb. About ondentood Greek, in which the work was ori^<
A. D. 990 it was conquered by Mahmoad of nall^ written, nor Arabic, his knowledge of
Gbnznee, whose snoceasom made Lahore the ostronomj' enabled him to make his edition
seat of their government. It afterward became mnoh better than previous ones. He left this
anbject to numerous chieftains, principall? Af- work unfinished to his pnpil Regiomontanng.
ghans, who roled it till the Mogul conquerors who completed it The most celebrated of
obtained pOBseeaion of it in 1619. In 1748 it Purbach's own works is his posthumous tW-
W&9 ovemin bj the Afghans, to whom it was ria Nova Planetarwn (1488), which served as
ceded b^ the Great Ut^til in 17SS, In 1768 an introdnction to Ptolemj, and asa textbook.
the Sikhs made themselves masters of the ter- PTJROELL, Sknbt, an English composer,
ritoTj £. of the Jhylnm ; and in 1809 Rui^eet bom in London in 16S8, died Not. 21, 1695.
Singh conquered the greater part of the Fun- He was the son of Hemj Pnrcell, one of the
janb, including the hill statM, and afterward gentlemen of the chapel rojal, and probablj'
extended his authoritj' over the whole of the reoeived his first inBtmctions in music from
coontrj of the five rivers, and added Ladalch or Oapt. Cook, the master of the children of the
IfMdle Thibet and Bultistan or Little Thibet chapel royal. Dr.BIowsabsequentlygare him
to Ma dominions. In 1839 Buj^eet was sue- a few lessons in composition, a circmnstance
oeededbyliissonKhanikSingh, whodiedafew considered of so much importance in the life
months afterward, when a period of anarchy of that musician that an inscription on his tomb
followed, which ended in the Sikhs Invading specially mentions him as " master to the fe-
territory under the protection of the British, mons Mr. Henry Purcell." While a unging
In 1S46 were fboght the battles known as those boy in the choir of the king's chapel, he com-
of the Sutl^, in which the Sikh femes were posed several anthems still oceasioDally per-
defeated with heavy loss, and the English took formed ; and at the age of 18 he was appoint*
poseession of the Pu^janb and constituted ed organist of Westminster abbey, a position
^mselves gnardiana of Dhuleep Bingh, a which he resigned 6 years afterwfu^ to beoomo
minor, and grandson of Rnqjeet. In 1S4S a one of the 8 organiste of the chapel royal. He
cooaplrsoy between several chie& and the Af- had previous to this time composed a niimber
gfaans led to a second war with the English, in of anthems of great popularity ; but notwith-
whioh the Sikh soldiers displayed their usnsl standing his eccleriastlcal training and occupa-
brftrerv, and their opponents eufiered some tions, his attention seems early to have been
heavy losses; but the result was the annexa- directed tosecnlar and particularlytodromatio
tioD of the Papjaub to the East India com- mosio. In 1677 he composed the mnsic for an
pane's territory in March, 1849. In 1869 it operetta by Tate, entitled "Dido and^neas,"
was formed into a new lientenant-govemorship. performed by tho pupils of a female boarding
PUNTA AREtfAS, the sole port of Oosta school. The success of this work encouraged
^oo, on the gulf of Kicoya, established in him to became a regnlar writer for the stage,
1847. As its name implies, it is situated on a and for the play of " Abelazor" (1677), for
sandy point projecting into the gulf There is Shadwell's adaptation of " Timon of Athena"
an outer and an inner harbor, the latter formed (lfl78), and Leo's "Theodosius" (1680),hecom-
posed the overtures and act tunes or pi
^ _._ ._ ._,_„.. bo performed l>etween the acta, and th
fonner is an indifierent anchorage, protected dental songs which it was then customary to
by two islands ft'om the swell of the Pacific, introduce into plays. A number of these in-
Vesaele drawing more than 7 feet of water strumental pieces in 4 parts were published \ij
most anchor in the outer harbor 8 m. from tho his widow in 1697, under the titie of " A On-
shore. The port is regarded as nnhealthy, but lection of Ayres, composed for the Theatre and
not in the same degree as the other portiftis on other ocossions, by the late Mr. Henry Pur>
of the coast The maritime commerce of the cell." Next in order of his compositions was
port for ISfiS was as follows : vessels entered, a series of 13 sonatas for S violins and a base
85; cleared, 67; value of exports and imports, published in 168S, and fbllowed shortly after-
$2,BOO,OO0. A good road leads from Fonts ward by another series of 10. Subsequent to
Arenas to the capital of Oosta Rica, Ban Jos£, this period he produced the greater part of his
a distance of 7B m. dramatic music, and an intimacy contracted
PUPA. See BorraarLY, and OoBYSius. between himself and Dryden led to his being
PURUAOH, or FsuKBAOB, Qeobo, a German employed to set the eonge, dialogues, and cho-
astronomer, bom at Peurtiaeh, Austria, in 14S8, rases in several of the letter's most successful
died in Vienna in I4S1. Having studied astron- plays. In 1690 he composed new music for the
omy onder Gmanden at the university of Yien- "Tempest," asadapted for the stage by Dryden
no, he went to Italy to extend bis knowledge of and Davonant, and within the next two years
the science, and npon his return succeeded his he similarly embellished Dryden's "King Ar-
master in the professorship at Vienna. At the thur," " Indian Queen," and " Tyrannic Love."
timeof his death he was reputed the first astron- The first of these contains the duet, "Two
omer in Europe. He be^n a new edition of daughters of this aged stream srewe," and the
Ptolemy's Ahuagest, baaed upon the Latin trans- ohonning song, "Fwrestiale, sU isles ezcelling."
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
666 FUSOHAB PUSTTAS
Hw iiicanUUon voene tn the " btdias Qaeen," He also vroto "Uaroeoamu, ntlwS
OommeDcing, " Yo twic« ten hnndred deities," Uan" (161ft), a&d "TbeSin^iTmR.^^
is the opinion of Dr. BnrDeT, opens with tbe nmphioitArcb otlAxiim" ^tiS). ii\t\
beat piece of recitative in the ui^ish laiignHge. eaid that Pnrcslua died In piuaBUitir»td
For D'Urfej'a 8 puts of "I>an Quixote," pro- debts ooatrsctedinthepiiUki&niifU-!
duoed in 16&4-'6, he fontisbed perfaws the ^iinage"and "FiIgTinu;"biittlu>udaF:'|
finest of all liis dramatic compontions, the two wood, who Bays ttiat be died in bis en Lb
•ongB, "Xet the dreadfol engines" and " From FUBGATORY, in the beErfof iIkLk
toBj bowers," the Utter of which, >t is eaid, Catholio ohnreh, a state otimtwsjsl^
vaswt in the author's last sickness. Withina in the next world, where the loiik^ji^
few months before his deatli he also flimisbed expiate the offaneet eonnnitted m lli> EL ^
the masiofor"Bondnca,"a tragedy by Bean- cording to Oatholia theok^to^ vnt; z:
mont and Fletcher made into an opera hf Drj- matter how aliaht, deMrrw nj wi ^
den, and which the well known dnet and poniahmait either before or ifttr deai J
ohoms, " BritonB, strike home," will preserre sbaolntion of a priest in the aMiuia>;<x
from oblivion. He also oompoeed vocal pieces ance washes awar the goiltof miisdm
for Beaumont and Fletcher's "Diocletian," the eternal pnniBOment doe foigrnt&t
altered by Eetterton, Drydea'i " Annmgiebe," bnt not the tonporal penalty vIjcIiIh:-
Btiadwell's " Liljertine," «nd other plAjs. In nndNgone as ft satUactioi to Gofijai
the "Fool's Preferment" Dcoors the song, "I'll Baptifm«lon« remorea botbthepDiMi:
sail upon the Dog Star," which Dr. Barnejde- penalty; and as fewornoadaUpmittlii'
olarea has all the fire of Handel's prime. The thie life without having ctBuuinfd bd &
jdeces above cited, leather with the best of baptism, there must be soma oiddlt ea.
bis detached and incidental songs, dialognes, snob as do not deserre tiell iDdiR.'c:>'
and soenes, were published by his widow in pnreenongh to enter heaven. Thckru
16&7 under the title of " Orpheus Britannicua." not teach wtiat is the nstnra ud dnn:
His pnblished anthems number 60, beside a the ponislimeiit of Dnrgatny.Dcilhi.ip
celebrated Te Deutn and Jiibilate, w^ orohes- nated in any partdciuar {ilsM. EbeWbii^
tral accompaniments; and his church mudo the sofferimn of eonla u thenddJielHa;
indndea a complete service and a number of be abridged by indalgeDca^ luaK c: u
hymns and psalms. His odes, glees, catches, prayers of their friends Mk euth; nj(*^
ronnds, &a, were also numerous, and long held in the year (All Souls' day, Od I) ii^'
tbwr popularity. Pnrcell died of conaump- devoted to services and piayaitelw^
tion after an illneaa of gome duration, and was fit The Greek cbaroh,likeimiie(fa*^
buried in Westminster abbey. His dramatio em aecta, preys for the dead, WdieM*
compositions, on which bis fome mainly reata, lieve in purgatory. Bran^tin luao^B™
says Hogarth, "in variety of character, beanty to prove that the notion of Bclisft'*
rf melody, truth and force of expression, and held by the Jews, pagans, andJIti*"^
nice adaptation to the genius of the English PnBGBXALI^ Hamob. SeeBimntr!''
language, are to this hour unparalleled stauu. , ^
Bat the highest quality of his music is its genn- PimiTAN, sn epitbet fint $fM ■> "I
ino English character. In this respect it re- to English noDconformisto, ud i^,"*^
mains wholly Dnrivslled," For many yean ned to designate them dnriiglb'^
Bobseouent to the close of the last century Elizabeth and the two first Etwra f*-^
Purcell's musio was nei^ected or fo^otten ; sons only as deidred a vido' ^'F^^
bnt within the present century a revival both the Boman Catholic chnndi *" " ^j
in the publication and the performance of it tisbed church of EngUnd Mem " ^r
has been attempted with considerable success, them, and professed to fbUov i" ^
PUROHAS, 8A^l[:B^ an English divine and oi*od, in opporition to tMdilioi»""g
anther, barn at Thaited, Essex, in 1G77, died sUtutdons, and other aatboriOB, (^ f,
about 1628. He was educated at 8t. John's caUed puritans; bntanbaeqnai'^;-^^;^
college, Cambridge, and in 16M was instituted ter, " the vidoni mBltitnde « "*, ; ,
to the vicarage of Eaatwood in Essex. Be- called all pnritans tbst wan '''i^'lriij^'
moving to London, he received the rectory of in aholy life, wflretb«ye»w»«''''™V
8t. Martin's Lndgate, and became chaplain to In the latter part of ^^1'™*'''^2SLXp-
Archbisliop Abbot, He compiled from more of £h6nonconfbrinisto1»gaiitow'*j"^_^
than 1,800 anthorities a work ontiUed"Fiirohas vailing opinions concemiagpiw'ra'^r'j
hia Pilgrimage, or Relations of the World, and will, and other doctrinal poiol* «^ ?^;
the Religions observed in all Ages, and Places arbitrary government of J»ii)«L'°" ^
discovered, from the Creation unto this present " all persons opposed to thar """"? ° Jr»
(1 vol. foL, 1818) ; and a eollootion of voyages mant were classed as P''"'*'''iT!f . o,*
under the title, "Purchas bis Pilgrimmes" (4 has applied the name telbwp^f^'j^^
vols, fol., leaC). The 8d and 4th volumes of lideal puritans, who ^""''•""'xLiff
this collection relate to America, and preserve principles of civil Bberty; *'J[''^j»
tlie original narratives of the earliest English cipline, who were avcfM ^^^Agi.
navjgatoraandexplorersof the western world, and government of (*« «*«'''"
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PCBSLASE 667
and the dootrinal pniitans, who rigidly de- dnoed and now extenurelr used In dreliu and
fended tho ipecolatit-e aystam of the first re- calico prinliDg, b aniline, one of the prc^aote
formers. Eepresentatiyes from these three of the destractive distillation of bitominoua
olaases formed the bnlk of the settlers of Kew coal. Other methods of tieatiog the aniline,
England, and ths nnion of them in the English beside that of Mr. Perkins, are now emplo7ed
civil vara afieoted the OTeithrow of royalt; for obtaining a color of thia character. It is
and the establishment of the commonwealth, prodnced hj adding acetic acid and bleaching
At the time of the restoration the name be- powder to a saturated Bolution of aniline in
came one of repToach, as implTing an nnrea- water ; and the shadea are made to vary from
Bonable degree of atutent;^ ^ ti°t'' temporal biae to lilac hj modifying the strength of the
and Bpiritaal matters. Siaoe the relaxation in fluids employed. Aniline, in combination with
1690 of the acts against the nonconformists, it acetio, solphario, or hydrochloric acid, is ox-
has ceased todedgoate aaypartionlar religioos idized and made to prodace the purple of va-
sectr. OfthePnTitans who emigrated to North riona shades by treatment with different re-
America, and whose iaflncDce has been bo agents, as peroxide of manganese, peroxide of
strongly manifested in the oivilizatioa of the lead, cblonde of lime, or the green manganate
continent, Bancroft says : " They were formal of potash. By the last the pnrpie color is pre-
and precise in their manners ; ungular Id the cipitated and the liquid remaiita red. Silks and
forms of their le^slation ; rigid in the observ- woollens absorb these porplea without the use
ance of their principles. Every topic of the of mordants ; bat to dye or print vegetable
day found a place in their extemporaneons fabrics with them mordants are required. In
prayers, and in their long and fteqnent ser- printing, the color is mixed with albumen and
moas But these were only the out- u finally fixed by steaming. Very fine purpira
ward forms which gave to the new sect its of tolerably permanent character are luso ob-
tnarked exterior. If from theootaide pecoli- tained from litmus. The so called "French
arities which so easUy excite the sneer of the purple" ia prodnced by tf eating the lichens
snperfioial observer, we look to the genins of (which afford litmns) with an alkaline base, and
the sect itself, Puritanism was religion strug- predpitating fWim the filtered eolation wiui an
gliog for the people." — The leading authority acid- The precipitate ia moiatened irith sofS-
OQ the subjeot ia deal's " Hiatory of the Pan- cient ammonia to dlasolve it. When boiled
tans" (edited by J. O. Ohonles, D.D., 2 vols, the solution is orange yellow, becoming red
Svo., Kew York). when exposed cold to the air. Heated in very
PUHKINJG, JoHumxB Evakqeubta, a Ger- shallow vessels to 100° to 140° F. it becomea
man physiologist, born in Libochowitz, near violet, and will dye permanently silk or wool
Leitmeritz, Bohemia, Dec 17, 1T87. He was wiUiont mordants. By neutralizing the solu-
atfirstamonkof the order of the pious Bchools, tion with an acid, a purple precipitate falls,
then went to Prague to study medicine, and in which when separated and dried may be used
1819 became assistant professor of anatomy for dyeing or printing. Yarions shades are oh-
and phynology in that city, and in this position tained by combining with the precipitate oar-
remuned until 183S, when he went to Breslau mine of indigo for violets, and carthunoa or
as ordinary professor of phjaiology and pathol- cochineal for rede,
ogy. In 1849 he returned to Prague. He has PUBPLE OF OASSIUS. See OAeajua, Pus-
written numerous physiolo^al works, and has pls of.
also paid much attention to Blavio languages PUB8H, FKBDamo, an American botanist,
and literature. bom in Tobolsk, Biberia, in 1774^ died in Mon-
PUSPLE (6r. mpittvpa ; Lat. purpura), a treal, Canada, Jane 11, 1830. He was edn-
color prodaoea by the anion of red and blue, oated at Dresden, came to America in 1799,
and of various shades as one or the other of and remained until 1811. In that year he
these predominates. The ancients esteemed it viuted England, where he pursued his stud-
more highly than any other color, aometimea les, and in 1814 published at Londonanoctavo
making it a distinctive badge of royalty, and volnnie entitled ^%)ra^)nert«S:£[«^f«»fnmalM.
again appropriating it to religions nses, as the Afterward he returned to America, and was
decorations of the temple and the garments engaged in the collection of materiala for a
of the priests. In the Old Testament it is re- flora of Canada when he died,
ferred to in £xod. xiv.4,x«t. C,xxxi2.29; 2 PtIESLAKE, the name of a succalant, fleshy,
Obron. iiL 14 ; Jer. z. 9 : Ezek. ixvii. 13, An. prostrate annual plant, formerly introdaoed in-
It is however supposed uiat the purple of the to gardens for its use at table, but now seldom
Israelites was a scarlet, or even tiiat the term seen aniess as a troublesome weed. There
was used generally for any color in which red were aeveral varieties, suoh as the golden, the
predomioated. Thesonrceof thetrnepurpleof green, and the white, which were oarefiiUy
the Greeks and Bomans is noticed in the articles sown and onltivated as spinach is now. When
. Bcfx^ixuM and Hobbx ; and in the article Mauvb fully grown, especially in a light rich soil, ita
an acconnt is given of the method of obtaining stems and leaves are very paLitable as boiled
the beaatifkil and fixed parplo dye known by greens, and they have been used for pickling,
that name, as practised by Mr. Perkina of Eng- or to garnish dishes. The oommon purslane
land. The sonroe of this color, recently intro- (portulaea oleraew, Liui.) has an annual root,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
668 FUBSLANE PUBEY
a stem 6 to 18 Indhes long, Sesbr, Bmooth, moist woods, and grows well in the garden.
sprsKding upon the grannd, branching and There are IT other species in North America,
rooting at intervale ; the le&ves thick and geographicaUj distribnted from New En^aod
fleshy, half an inch long, alternate and oppo- t« the pine woods near Fort YanconTer. The
rite ; flowers soUtorj, sessile, ephemeral ; the sea purslane (getwium porbdaeastrum, liim.)
oalTZ has 3 bluntly keeled sepals ; the ooroDa and the 8. ptntandrum of Elliott are prostrate^
has 6 petals of a pale jellow color ; the seeds maritime, snccnlent plants, with aziUarr <a
minute and numerous. — The common purslane terminal apetalons flowers, and are fbvnd frtna
represents the nataral order portulaua, com- the coast of New Jersey southward. The for*
pnsing both succulent herbs and shrabs with mer has been employed for food as asabstitr^
fleshy, entire, simple leaves, which are usually for New Zealand spinach. — The name purslane
alternate, rarely opposite, and oommonly desti- has been likewise applied to the euphorbia^
tate of stipules ; the inflorescence terminal or with which the tme purslanes hare do affin-
aiillary or solitary, and in spikes and panicles; ity; the niotted enphorhiaor spotted spurge is
the flowers regular, united, and nsnaHy short- called milk purslane, and anotlier species Ixttn
lived \ the fVnit a 1-celled capsule, either open- the name of the black pnrelane, bodi comnun
ing longitudinally or transversely, and many- weeds by roadsides and in waste plaooa.
seeded, sometimes indehiscent and 1-seeded by PU8ET, Edwaed Bodtbbik, i5.I>,, bb Eng-
abortioD ; placenta central ; seeds albuminoas, lish clergyman, bom in IBOO. He is the 2d
not wingea, embryo curved. Several species son of the Hon. Philip Bonverie (who aanmted
of portulaca are known, chiefly natives of the name of Pusey), younger brother of the
Ana and South America. The common pars- first earl of Radnor. Having been graduated
lane is supposed to have originated in the East at Christchnrch, Oiford, in 18S2, he obtuned
Lidies, though now extenmvely naturalized In a fellowship in Oriel coQege, took orders, and
Europe and America. Its propurties are mild in 1828 became canon of Christchorch cathe-
and harmless, tboogh its seeds were once re- dral and regios professor of Hebrew in the
puted anthelmintic. The P. rtttua of Br, Eng- university, a pod^on which he still holds. He
elmann closely resembles itjand is found native shares with Dr. Newman the repntatioQ of
west of the Mismasippi. The hury puralane originating the so called Anglo-Catnolic move-
(P. piloia, Linn.) is a sonthem and western ment in the chnrch of Eng^d in 1883, which
species, and native also of Mexico and South flnds its best exponent in the celebrated Oxford
America. It is a low, difihse plant, with Ian- "Tracts for the Times." Uanj of these, in-
ceolate or linear leaves, having long tntts of eluding an elaborate treatise on baptism, were
hairs in their axils ; flowers larger, crowded written by Dr. Pusey, who also published let-
and sessile at the enrnmit of the branches amid ters in defence of his views to tne archbishop
a dense tuft of hairs, with 6 purple petala and of Canterbury and the bishops of Oxford ana
about SO stamens. Several other species with London. The chAracteristic tenetsof the "Pn-
terete leaves, pilose axils, and large showy seyite" (>arty are Judgment by works eqnaUy
flowers, have come into notice within a few as by futh, baptiMnal regeneration, the apo»-
years, and under florioultural care varieties tolio succession of the clergy, the supreme
of exceeding beautj have sprung from them ; authority of the church, the expediency of
snch are the P. 6illittii, grandijlora, Thellu- auricular confes-iion and conventnal estahliih-
tojiii, iplendent, &c., with crimson, purple, ments, and an efficacy in the sacraments of the
scarlet, rosy, white, yellow, striped, or varie- ohurch not inferior to that claimed exdunvely
gated blossoms. They readily sow themaelves by the Roman Catholic church. They aimed
after a year's cultivation, and will grow upon also at certain innovations in the ceremonies
the driest and poorest soil, but flourish in the of pablio worship, and, in the words of the
richer Sower border, and are admirably adapted Rev. R. H. Froude, an ardent disciple of the
for bedding or sowing in large patches. — To party, wished " to nnprotestantiie the ohnrcb."
this order belong the equally charming and and called the reformation "a Bmb badly set,
interesting calandriniai, natives of the N. W. which required to be broken again." The agi-
coast and California, with oonspionims purple tation of these questions caused a violent con-
flowers and thick glancouB foliage. The talina troversy in the chnrch of England, which has
have low leafy sterna, linear, cylindrical leaves, not yet died away. In 1848 Dr. Pusey preach-
and cymes of purple flowers expanding for a ed a sermon before the university, in which he
ringle day. The terete-leaved talinum (T. was nnderstood to confess his belief in the doo-
l«T«tif«livm, Muhlenberg) is a pretty little trine of transubstantiation ; and after an ezam-
plant occurring on rocks from Pennsylvania to ination before a board of Judges he was accord-
the falls of Bt. Oroix ; it is capable of cnltiva- ingiy snspended from the office of preacher
tion, and suited for rockwork where it can within the precincts of the nniversity for S
enjoy the full sunshine. The spring beauty years. He was one of the editors of the "Li-
{Ciaytonia Virginieoy Linn.) is a perenni^ brary of Translations from the Fathers" and of
springing from a small tuber, has linear, clon- the "Anglo-Catholic Library," and has adapted
gated leaves, and rose-colored flowers of con- to the use of the ohurch of England several
nderable size, from 6 to IC in a loose raceme. Roman Catholic devotional works, and pnb-
It is a western and sonthera plant in rich lished sermons, treatisea on the "Royal Ba-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FUBHEnr PUSTULE 669
premaoj in Spiritual Uatters" and "The An- vericle ie OT^narilr mptnrcd soon after its
cient Doctrine of the Real Prownoe, gathered appearance; if otherwiae, it dries up in atx>Dt
from the Fathers," and " Patience and Oon- SO boora, leaving the exposed, derma dry, and
fiili^nce the Strength of the Churoh"(I68T). His generally of a livid color. Itehing now ceases;
most important work, the reaolt of 80 years' and, after a time Tarjin^ from a few honra
btudy, "A OommeutAry on the Wnor Froph- to a day, the centre of this discolored and de-
ct^" is now pabtishing; 9 portions (Hosea — nuded sarface begins to grow bard and becomes
Amos, 4to., Oxford) have appeared (1861). sarroonded by on infiamed areola covered
PUSHKIN, Auzaudkb SKsaxiiviTon, a with nnmeroos small vesicles similar to the
Gossian poet, bom in St. Petersburg, Haj S6, vesicle which first appeared. The middle of
lT9i>, died Feb. 10, 1B87. He was educated at this areola is depressed, and the color varies
the imperial lycenm at Tzarakoe-selo, and on from yellow to black. It is now hard in the
luTing it obtained an office at SL Peters- centre and more punfiil than at any other
bnrg in the department of foreign affairs; but stage. It is however a remarkable feature of
having given offence to the government by his msJjgnant pnstnle that severe pain is generally
"Ode to Liberty" (18S0), he was e^ed from absent; and this character, ao different from
the capital and sent to fill a sabordinate appoint- all other acute inflammations of the skin, is a
ment under the governor-general of Odessa, valuable negative diagnostic of the disease.
The emperor Nicholas recalled him in 182C, Dnriog the next 21 or 48 honrs the sabcnta-
and qipointed him historiographer of Peter L, neons tissue becomes involved ; the tumor
with an annnal salary of 0,000 rabies. His ac- strikes deeper and rapidly eztenda in all direc-
oeptance of this position was r^arded by the tious, yet it is so indurated as to be easily oir-
liberala sa an abandonment of his principles, onmscribed, and its confines determined with-
in 1839 he accompanied Field Marshal Faske- out difSoolty. Meanwhile the central point,
vitch to Erzroom. He died from a wound nowofbrownorlividhue,ezceediuglyhanland
received in a duel. His first poem, "Ruslan insensible, becomes gangrenous. Ifthe disease
and Lyndmila," was written at the age of 21 ; ceases to make ftutlter progress, an Inflamed
it b a story of the half fabulous time of Vladi- circle of vivid redness now snrronnds the gan-
mir, and was from its first publioation very grenons portion; the tamefoction, which liad
successful. His P2«nnijfefatjM«itt)( ("Prisoner before rapidly extended, diminishes; and the
oftheOancasns," 1822) is a vigorous and some- patient eipenences something like an agree-
what fragmentary sketch of the escape of a able warmth accompanied by a pulsatory mo-
yanng Bussian captive from the Circassians, tion of the affected part. The pulse, whi^
For his next poem, the "Fountain of Bakh- had before grown irritable and feeble, revives;
tohissarai," he received 3,0CH) rubles ; it ia a strength increases ; if there has been some de-
riory not unlike "The Oorsair" of Lord Byron, gree of fever, as occasionally happens, it is
Between 182S and 1628 appeared the various now resolved into a gentle perspiration ; sop-
puta of "Eugene Onemn," a novel in verse, Duration sets in between the living and the
which is considered his masterpiece. His dead parts, and the detachment of the gangre-
ether works are: the "History of the losur- nous portion leaves a suppurating snreace of
rection of Pngatcheff " (1837), written in dis- variable extent in different cases. Shonld the
charge of bis duty as historiographer; "The disease on the contrary tend to an unfavorable
Ofpues" (1837) and "Pnltowa" (1839), both issue, generally no suppuration takes place;
■uirative poems; "Boris Oodunoff" (1629) the gangrene spreads rapidlyfrom the centre
ud "The Stone Guest" (1880), dramatic to the oircnniferBiice of thetumor; the pnlae
poems; "The Captive's Daughter," a novel; becomea smaller and more contracted; the
and numerous tales and general miscellanies patient oompl^s of extreme lassitndewith in-
published in the StmremeanA (" Oontemporo- ability to sleep, b attacked with fainting fite,
17")' a qnorterly miscellany, which he estab- and becomes pas«ve as to the result; there is
lisMd in 1886. His "History of Peter the diwnclination to take food or medicine, or have
Great " was never flnished. any thing done, and a total toss of appetite ; the
PUSTULE, Mauosart, a specific disease, tongue ia dry and brown; the features ahmk ;
csseutisLy septic and gangrenons, confined to the skin is parched; the eyes ore glassy; ear-
ths cataneons tissue, and generally to those dialgia and low delirium premoniui the &tal
P*rti of the surface that are habitually nncov- termination. Such ore in general the ordinary
eied. It appears most commonly on the face, phenomena of malignant pnstnle, nsnally ter-
*ad next on the bands, neck, and arms. It minating in a period of time varying f^om S to
°nt iq)pear8 in the form of a p«nfbl swelling, 8 days. Exceptional fatal oases have been re-
"'Dfeh, after a l^se of tLme varying from one corded however, varying from 24 honra to 16
to three days, rarelv more^ devetops upon its days. In the suddenly fatal cases, the forces
centra) part a email reddish or purple spot, of the constitution are ao quickly and entirely
■Wnnpanied with itching. In the course of subverted by the malignancy of the disease,
13 or 15 hours more this spot changes into a that few symptoms are manifested ; the powers
Web or vesicle, not usually larger than the sink under it, aa it were, without resistance. It
''^ of a pin, containing a redduh brown or ia most fatal when attacking the &oe or neok.
f eUowish fluid. Owing to oontinned itching, die — ^Another variet; of malignant pustule, which
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
«T0 FC8TDLE
R regniAT c
r character, in some cases preeent- it turni blaci in ue oentre, and appears m
g an app«aranoe and ranniug a conrae verj bnmed or obarred ; it is inflltnted with a ;d-
■imilar to a circumscribed phlegmon, while lowish colored flnidj and distamded with a fetid
in others it is exceedingly violent and btal in gas. Ttiis disease u «^»Ale of being trans-
a few hoars, and in others still rans on for mitted from one animal to another by inocnlk-
several weeks, and finally proves fatal rather tion, andbjsbaorption tomao, inwhomitrnns
from the effects of the disorder than from the a violent and da^erons oooree. lOL Salmon
disease itself. In the m^joritj of these oases and Manonrf of rrtaoo have vainly attempted
there is intense local piun in ^e aSi»ot«d psrt to limit tho tenn malignant pnstole to tUa
fromthe commencement, with enormous swell- disease onlj. Ualignant CArbnncle aod other
ing and more or less redness. A small vesicle nlcers which ocmir in cattle are th« txwp-
or puatnle forms in the centre, and proeeeda to live symptoina of grave febrile disorders de-
take on a gsngrenooB cbar«ot«r. SometimeBit pending npon a discaaed state of the blood, and
becomes olronmsoribed end limits its aotion to always conseontive to the febrile ^mptmns;
the ekin ; bnt at other timea nnmenma phlyo- and the inocnlaliNi of nan with mattv frum
tins cover the snr&ce, and the desbncbve in- snoh an nicer is only oanallv dannrona with
fiammation burrows into the oellnlor tisane the blood, and poaaibly the mOk, of the
which envelope the muscles, complet«]y anr- same animal in the febrile state before the
rounding and diBintegrating these organs, which nicer speared. Indeed, esees have oocnrred
become soft, black, and gangrenous. The blood where ttie blood of aj^mak not frnnmdj
vessels and nerves atao become involved, and known to have been diaeased, hat canwed ma>
asaneceBBarycoDsequencethedaathofthepart fignant pnatnle in mui by abaorptun. ~ '
eiunes. — The pathology of malignant pastnle the opinion (tf aoma observera that miihi _.
is diBtinguished by a dnid state of the blood, pnstnie maj ooonr qKintaneonsly, withoat any
which is nsnallyverydark-colored ; thetextnre contact wKb poiaonona animal matter. But
of the heart ia softened, and its Bsrface covered from the &ot that diseased animal matt^ is
with eccbymoeed spots; the veins are some- known to cause the great m^ority of Maes,
times softened and ecchymoeod, and nan- many ways will readily anggeat tkeniaelTea by
ally contain black or yellowish white clots of which inocnlntion mi^ht take place without
blood, of getatiuooa oonetatence. The lungs are any knowledge of the oirouaistance <m the part
oovered with superficial ecchymosea, preseot- of the person affected. A &vorite dog or cat
ing over their sur&oe a number of deeply pene- (animals not subject to thediaease)mighitc«aly
trating black spota, produced by local sangni- transport it ; a bntoher'B knife or hook might
neons infiltration. The inner coat of the convey the poison from dieeoaed to otberwiae
stomach and intestinM nraseuta in different healthy meat; or even a fly might eairy on its
plaees, corresponding to the conrse of the ves- tiny feet all tiiat is necessary for a fat&l inocn-
sels, prominent, dark-colored apota, formed by lation. As a general rule, cattle which feed tm
blood effused between the inner coats and the prairie meadows are exempt from malignant
peritoneal covering. The villous coat of the disease; while those which are fed upon
stomach is also occasionally found eoohymosed ; dried clover, lucem, and vetoh, are pecoliariy
the liver and spleen are gorged with dark- liable to carbnnole. The same may be said
oolored blood, and the kidneys surroanded by of cattle that are fed npcm aoni-deccaiqxtaed
emphysema. — Cavteg. It is the general con- grwn, the refase of distuleriea and tffeweriea.
elusion of persons who have inveetigat«il the All anch things are actively jvedi^wsing
nature of malignant pnstule, that the germ of agents to the blood diaeafles of cattle, and li>-
the disease consists in an animal poison, usn- ble to engender malignant pnstnie in man. —
ally contracted by man from cattle or their re- IVeatmtnL Prcnnote eappuration in the poe-
mains. In support of this view, it is found tale as rapidly as possible, and snstain the con-
that as a general rule the disease moat fre- stitction. To this end, la aoon as the nature
qnently occurs among knackers, tanners, vete- of the disease ie ascertained, the vesication
rinarians, persons engaged in the removal of formed on its surface ehookl be <^>ened, the
offal, and stevedoree, particularly those em- fluid contents removed, and the denuded part
ployed in handling hides from certain districta covered with a dosail of lint dipped in a strong
and countries where the diseases of cattle meet solntion of muriate of antimony or other cane'
prevail. In other oasea it has been attributed tic. fiiz hours aflorward this may be ranoved
to eating diseased animal food. Yet, strange and a poultice applied; and 24 hours after this,
as it may appear, in the whole scope of vete- if pain and burning heat have nearly or cpDite
rinaiT medicine no diaeaae has been observed ceased, and no areola baa formed, it m^ be
which accurately resembles the malignant pas- Bafelyctmoluded that the canstie has effeetnaBy
tale of man. Gertun herbivorous animals, permeated thewhot«<rfthediBeBBed tiaBne,and
espedalty beasts of paatare, are subject to a that it will proceed'to a healthy snmnntion
disease called malignant carbnncle, character- by the oontinned ^^^ieation of poulbee. Bnt
ized by the occurrence of a large nncircnm- if, on the emtrary, a hard and deep-aeated
scribed emphysematous tumor, which yields to painful tumor has formed around the primary
pressure and crepitates under the fingers, and seat of the vesicle, we nuj take it frv gnntad
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
gMtttwdhaowJawrtaadJagitaelfc The tumor <U«tiU«riMuidbrawniee,andthe more general
sfaoold btt forthwith divided tiirongli ita vhole ipread of epizootic diseases, pttrtical&rlj in ^e
width and depth bj » enidftl ineidon, the gia- northern part of the United States, malignant
greiK>(upartBr«moredifMif have formed, and ppstnle has become a more common disease.
tba nitntaof i^rerorfOsedpoUssathoron^lr BoUt of the epidemics above referred to were
applied to the freslilx divided mrtMea. Tbia in ooi^nDotion with epizootics. Essaja liave
prooeedmgiseqQallfreqDidtewhentheiloQgh been published in the nnit«d States bjDn.
whiidL focma on the oentre qntoklr beoomes W, H. Oocenter, 0. W. FenncK^ J. H. Bald-
hard and impermeable, like a piece <tf dry ridge, and Wainwr^t; and sporadic caaes have
hide ; this mnst be removed to admit of the been described b? Crs. E. D. Ajres, J. B. Wil-
nnimpeded action of the oanstio. Soarifloalaona IdoBon, Pieraon, A. N. Bell, D. 0. Encs, 0. £.
and eaatarizationB, with the continoed appHca- Isaacs, D. Dana, E. H. Snow, S. B. Welle, J. J.
tton ol ponlUoe, ahonld be repeated daUy nntil Ellis, and 3. F. Noyes.
■nppnratioa is established, or nntil the extent PUTHAM, the name of counties in 9 of the
of th« postnle is dearly defined. IntemaUy, Umted States. I. A S. E. co. of K. Y., border-
the bowels being first oleared by a mild cathat- ed W. bj the Hndson river, E. by Oonnection^
tio, qninia (4 or 8 grains every 8 or 4 boon), and watered by Croton river and Feekaldll
wiHi wine or brandy, and as mnoh food as the ereek ; area, 284 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 14,009.
palient can be induced to take (there bdng Its surface is monutainons, a number of ranges
ganarally disinclination to take food), and opl- crowing the coimty from 6. V. to N. £., and
atss with camphor, as mnch as may be neces- the deep valleys which lie between are fertile.
sarytoallay pain and produce sleep, constitute There are several beautiful mountain lakes,
the basis of treatment. In spite of every the principal of which are Kahopao, Caaopn^
thing, the peonliar contagion of mdj:gnant pus- and Gleneida. Iron, granite, limestone, and
tnle, being in the blood, fret^uently proceeds other minerats are found in the mountains, and
straight on to a fatal termination ; and this is there are many mines and quarries, some in
sometimes the oaae even when the pustule operation and others that have been abandon-
aeema to have been checked in ita progress. On ed. It contains the Weet Point foundery, in
recovery from malignant pustule, the deform- the village of Gold Spring, one of the most
itiea consequent upon its ravages sometimes extensive establishments of the kind in the
reqnira surgical operations for their relief — United States. The works consist of a mould'-
SUtary. Malignant pustule was not unknown tng house with 8 cupola fnmacee, a gun foun>
to the ancients. Oelsus and Paulus jfgineta dery with 8 air fnmaoes, 2 boring mills, and
both described it under the head of oarbunole. several shops connected with them. From
Ambroise ParS, in the 16th century, distin- 400 to 600 men are employed. The produo-
guiehed it from plague. Yet it was not nntil tions in 1B6S were 324,259 bushela of wheats
the latter port of the 18th century that pby- 64,604 of potatoes, 97,168 of apples, and 498,-
aiciana began to appreciate its nature. Tho- 696 Iba. of butter. There were 81 churches,
""■""i Boyer, Foumier, Montfiels, Yeson, San- and 4,976 pupils attending public schools. It
cerotte, Ohambon, and especially Suaui and is traversed by the Hudson river and the New
Ohanasier, oontributed to moke the medical York and Hu'lem railroada. Capital, Oormel.
world acquainted with the nature of malwnant II. AW. co. ofVa., touching the Ohio with
mntole. During the present century, Bayle, its W. comer, intersected by UieGreatKanaw-
Bidault, Yilliers, Reynier, Eayer, Branell,Wag- ha, and drained by its tributaries ; area, about
ner, Boimbert, Hanoury, and Salmon, and re- 8S0 sq. m. ; pop. ia 1860, 6,801, of wbom 660
owitly Bonrgeois and Oaifjot, have given value- were slaves. It has a rough and hilly Bur&oe
hla monographs of cases and epidemics. In and a generally fertile soil, and contains ex-
the United States, it has at least twice pre- tenmve beds of iron ore and bituminona coal,
vailed epideraioally — in the vicinity of Pbila- The productions in 18S0 were 249,010 bushels
MpbiA m 18S4^'6, and in Louisiana in 1837-'g. of Indian com, 60,079 of oata, 14,878 of wheat
It ia also said to have prevailed in Louisiana at ST,122 lbs. of tobacco, 10,468 of wool, and
an earlier period, soon after its settlement by 69,862 of butter. There were 6 grist mills, 8
the French. It is not known to have occurred saw mills, and 18 churches. Yolue of real
in the northern portion of the United Stales estate in 1656,(1,048,982, showing an increase
otherwise than sporadically; nnleas, possibly, nnce 1850 of 46 per cent. Oapital, Winfield.
the '^malignant eryripelas" which prevailed in HI. A central co. of G-a., bordered E. by the
the northern part of the state of New York Oconee, and droned by Little river and several
in 1826 was a variety of malignant pnatnle; creeks; area, about 850 sq. m.; pop. in 1860,
it was immediately preceded by a fatal epi- 10,180, of whom 7,143 were alaves. It has a
zootic of slavers among horses. In the same nearly levd snr&oe, abounding with forests of
region, and just snbeeqnent to an epizootio oak and pine, and a soil naturally fertile. The
among horned cattle in 1842, there were sev- produotiooa in 1860 were 893,881 buahels of
eral cases of genuine malignant pustule, yet no Indian com, 46,806 of oats, 68,689 of sweet po-
ena seems to nave recognised ita source. Since tatoes, and 8,631 boles of cotton. There were
that time, and it may be added since the com- I cotton faotory, 8 grist mills, 6 saw mills, 4
mon practice of foetUng oattie on the reflue of tanneries, 18 ohurohes, and 1S7 pupils attend-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
672 PUTNAM
Ing pn^io sclioolfi. Capital, Eotonton. lY. Ha;- 19, ITW. Be wu the 11th in a ftnulrof
An E, CO, of Fla., bonnded 8. by SL John's 12 children, and in his boyhwd was noted for
river, and drained bf ita tribataries ; area, about hia pbyeical atreagth and bravery ; but his lit-
450 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 687 ; ia 1860, 2,713, erary advantages were not great, nor were the
of whom 1,047 were slaves. Ita surface ia low few be poaaessed very zealoiudy improved. As
and level and aoil fertile. The prodactiona in soon as ne was ont of his minority ne removed
18S0 were4,610basbe1sof Iiid!ancorn,83balea to Fomfret, Conn., where be bonght a farm,
of ootton, 74 hogaheada of a^^r, and 7,030 Here ocoorred the famooe eacoouter with the
gsUona of molaaaes. Oapitftl, Pilatka. Y. A abe wolf, which made tbe name of Putnam at
K. 00. of Tenn.,drainedbyafBaent8of OombeT' once well known throagbont iJie conntry.
land river; area, about 600 aq. m. ; pop. in This animal had for years ravaged the property
1660, 8,S58, of whom S3S were slAves. It has of the fkrmera in that region, and in one night
a hilly eurfaoe, and mncb of it ia covered by had destroyed 70 abeep and goata from ^i-
foreata. It baa been recently formed from nam's flock. A strong party of the reudento
Jaokaon and White coimtiea. Capital, Uonti- oftbe neighborhood at Ia«t resolved to contione
oello. YI. A N. W. co. of Ohio, drained by the pnrsmt of the wolf nntU she bad been kilt
Auglaize river and ita tribatariea, the Ottawa ed. Having followed her tracks over the snow
and Blanchard's fork ; area, about 400 sq. m. ; for 40 milea to tbe banks of the Connccdcut,
pop. in I860, 12,803, It has a level surface, and then back again to Pomfret, they discaver-
IB covered with large tracts of timber, and its ed her den, and spent the whole day in frnit-
Boil is fertile. The prodaotions in 1860 were lasa efforts to suffocate the enemy widi burning
189,165 bnsbela of Indian com, 68,668 of snlphnr, straw, and brushwood. Thedogswer»
wheat, 31,728 of oats, 4,478 tons of bay, and repeatedly sent into the cave, and r«tumed
16,128 lbs. of wool. There were 2 grist mills, wounded and dismayed. Putnam now daclar-
7 aaw mills, 11 churcbea, and 8,068 pnpils at- ed hie purpose of destroying tbe beast at what-
teoding public schools. It is intersected br ever cost. The entrance to tbe careni was
tiie Dayton and Uicbigan railroad. Oapit^ abont 8 feet wide and 2 feet high, and tbe pas-
Kallda. Yn. A W. co. of Ind., drained by a aage continued of about the same dimenaons
branch of £et river and several creeks; area, for SO or 40 feet. Providing bimaclf with a
486 sq. m. ; x**'?- i" I860, 20,729, It baa an torch of birch bark, and stripping off his coat
undulating surface and fertile soil. The pro- and vest, Putuam next fastened a rope about
dnctions in 1650 were 1,818,209 buabela of his legs, in order that he might be drawn oat
Indian com, 82,B66 of wheat, 81,428 of oata, at a f^ven signal, and crept slowly iu ontil be
S,015 tons of hay, and 86,68? lbs. of wooL discovered at the farther extremi^ the faring
There were 10 grist mills, 11 saw mills, 9 news- eyes of tie woU whose growls had been heard
pwers, 62 churches, and 4,811 pupils attending for some time. Having made a thorough aur-
public schools. It is intersected by Uie Indiana vey of the sitnalion, be gave the dgTuI to his
and Biinois canal, and the Indianapolia and friends, who drew him forth with such celerity
Terre Haute and the New Albany and Salem that the few clothes he had on were torn to rags
railroads, both of which pass through the oapi- and bis skin severely lacerated. He then load-
tal, Greenoastle. YIII. A N. co, of III., inter- ed hia musket with 9 buckshot, and with torch
sected by the Dlinois river and drained by ita and gun reentered the den, and adjusted him-
brancbes; area, 20O aq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 6,667. self for tbe onset of tbe animal, which, howl-
It has an undulating sur^ce and fertile eoU. ing, roUing her eyes, and lashing ber t^ low-
The productions in 1860 were 279,260 hnabels ered ber head to spring, At this instant, aim-
of Indian corn, 88,771 of wheat, 29,671 of oata, ing at the eyes of the wolf, be fired, snd was
8,732 tons of hay, 10,774 lbs. of wool, and 48,- instantly drawn out, stunned by tbe shock and
494 of butter, ihere were 6 grist mills, 6 aaw half suffocated by the smoke. After an inter-
mills, 8 churches, and 860 pupils attending pub- val of rest ho loaded again, entered for the third
lie schools. It is intersected by tiio Illinois time, and seeing the wolf prostrate on the floor
central railroad. Capital, Hennepin. IX. A of tbe cave applied tbe torch to her nose. Per-
S. 00. of Mo., bordering on Iowa, bounded E. by oeiving that she wee dead, he seized her by the
the Obariton river and drained by ita branches ; ears, again gave the signal, and the hero and
area, about 800 sa, ro. ; pop. in 1860, 9,208, of tbe victim were drawn forth together. This
whom 81 were slavea. It has an undulating adventure took place when Putnam wsa 2fi
■nrface, diversified by prairies and forests, and years old. The 13 following years were spent
a fertile soil. The productions in 1860, since in tbe pursuit of his calling, and with such eno-
which its population bos very largely increased, cess that when be entered tbe ndlitory service
were 49,940 bushels of Indian com, 660 of be was enabled to leave his family well pro-
wheat, 2,020 of oats, 2,203 lbs. of wool, and vidsd for in case of his death. In 17SS he was
»,848 of butter. There were 200 pupils at- appointed by the legislature a captain in OoL
tending public schools. Capital, Pntnamville. X>ymsn'a re^ment, and formed a strong com-
PUTNAM, IsBAEL, an American general in pany from among bis neigbbor^ who were em-
the revolutionary war, bom in tbe part of Bo- j^oyed chiefly on special service as raagers.
lem now cong^tntinK the town of Danvers, His first expedition was under Sir William
Haet^ Jan. 7, 1716, died in Brooklyn, Conn., Johnson agamst Crown Point In 1756 he
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
^UTSAM. 678
iras reappointed nnder hie old commander Lj- April, 1776, at the alarm oceaaoned bT dte
man, and in 1767 the le^atnre of OoDnectioot battle of Lexington, he left bia plongb in the
gave liim the oommiBsios of m^or. Ferhapa field, tnmed loose the oxen, and mounting his
the most important serrioe rendered bj him horse rode to Boston in one Aaj, a distance of
daring that year Has the saving of the powder 68 nules. Learning that the British had re-
magaiine of Fort Edward at the conflagration treated and were beueged in Boston by the
of the barracks. For an honr and a half he gathering hosta of militia, he went to Hartford
contended with the fire until it was conqnered, to meet with the legislature, of wbioh ha waa
but many weeks of suffering elapsed before he a member. By thatbody he was elected brigft'
reooverM from the iqjnriea he reeeived. In dier-general, and retnming home he promptly
ITSB, to escape from a strong party of Indians, gathered and organixed a regiment, and after
he was obliged with a few men to descend the drilling them for some days marched with his
falls of the Hudson at Fort Uiller in a batean. men to Cambridge. Airiving there, he was
The Bavageg with admiration beheld him un- soon eonght after by the British officers, who
harmed by their balls steering bia boat down offered him a commission as mqor-general in
rapids never before passed, and conceived him the royal serrioe and a large pecuniary corn-
to be an especial favorite of the Great Spirit pensation, both of which he indignantly rtject-
The same year, when retnrning to Fort Ed- ed. In May, 177S, he led a battalion of 800
ward from an expedition to watch the enemy men to Noddle's island, now East Boston, and
in the neighborhood of Ticonderoga, bis corps enoceeded in burning a British schooner, csd-
waa sarpnsed by a party of French and Indians, turing a ^oop, killing and wounding 70 of tba
and he tiimself captnred and bound to a tree, enemy, and bringing off several hundred sheep
"While in this ntuation a battle between his and neat cattle. It was in great measun
own party and the enemy raged aromid him throngh hia wish to bring on a general ensage-
for an hour. The tree against which he was meat, while the spirit of the troops was hi^h,
placed was part of the tune in the hottest fire, that the determination was taken to fortify
A French officer, passing by, struck him in the Banker hill. In the battle known by that
Jaw with the butt of his gaa. An Indian name be acted a conspicnous part. When
amused himself for some liroe hurling hia tomsr Vashington arrived at uie oamp to take corn-
hawk into the trnnk of the tree to satisfy him- mand in Jnly, 1775, he brought with him corn-
self how near he could come to the prisoner's miasiona ftom congress forfour m^or-generols,
body and yet mias it. At length the party of one of whom was Putnam ; and to him alone
French and Indians were forced to retreat, but did he deliver hia oommiasion, the others being
carried with them their captive, whom the withheld on acoount of the general dissatisfac-
aavagea determined to roast aUve. He was tion att«nding theso appointments. In March,
tied to a tree, and the fire was already blazing 1776, Washington being abont to take posses-
fiuionsly, when his life was saved by the inter- sion of Doachester heights, rntuam was ordered
vention of the French commander, Molang, to attack Boston vdth 4,000 men in case the
The next day he was taken to Tioonderoga and enemy should attempt to dislodge the Ameri-
afterward to Montreal, where among odier cans. Soon after the evacuation of that city
prisoners he met Col. Peter Schuyler, Uirough he was ordered to tske command in New York,
whose Intervention he was treated according Hepartitupated in the disastrous battle of Long
to his military rank and suffered to be ex- isWd, Aug, 87, 1779, and afterward weiU to
changed. In 17S9, having meanwhile been Philadelphia to prepare for the defence of that
raised to the po^tiDu of liontenantroolonel, he place against an e^)ected attack. After com-
served under Gen. Amherst. In 1762 he com- pleting the necessary fortifloationa, he was eta-
manded a Conneotiout re^ment in the expedi- tioned at Orosswick and sabseqnently at Prince-
tion agunst Havana, which was sncceasftil in ton, where he remained until May, 1777. In
the object designed, though large numbers of that month he was ordered to take command
troops were destroyed by the climate. In in the highlands of New York. While there
1764 Putnam, who had now received a com- he sent back the following famous reply to Sir
mission as colonel, at the head of 400 Oonnec- Henry Clinton, who clamed a lieutenant of a
tlcDt men accompanied Ool. Bradstreet to Be- tory r^^ent as an officer in the British ser-
troit in the Fontiac war. The Indians however vice: "Edmnnd Palmer, an officer in theena-
retired without a battle, and a treaty was made, my's service, was taken aa a spy lurking within
For some years afterward he kept on inn at onr lines; he has been tried as a apy, oon-
Brooklyn, the capital of Windham connty, and damned as a spy, and shall be executed as a
during the same period frequently represented spy, and the flog u ordered to depart immedi-
the town in the legiaUtm^, In 1773 he was ateir, Israel Putnam. P. S. He has been ao-
engwed in the expedition that went up the cordingly executed." In the sommer of this
HisiMppi to survey a tract above Natchez year the Brit^ troops surprised and took Porta
for lettlement, but Putnam himself never do- Montgomeryand Olmton, and obliged Pntnam
riv^ any advantage of oonscquence from the to reore to flshkill. Subsequently he was re-
andertolung. The revolutionary war was now moved ft'om his command in the highlands, as
opening, and Putnam from the beginning em- Washington says, " on account of the pr^n-
braoed Eealoiuly the cause of the colonists. In dices of th« people," and the disutiafaction ot
YOi~ 3cni. — 13
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
674 PDTHAH FUTBEFAOIIOK
Hamilton and other officera, and alto from th« had bought and remored hia flmulj' to & co&-
bet that a coart of inqoir; hod been ordered to Sscated e«tate of OoL Udtt^ in Rutland, and
Investigal« the causes of tjie loss of ForU Mont- there lived for sonie years, eerring m member
gomery and Clinton. Thia conrt decided anan- of the legislature and engaged in enperintend-
intoiuty that no blame could be attribnted to ing Borveys ordered by t£e state of MaTrarhn-
Fatnam, who not long afterward was stationed setts and by congress. Early in 1786, in con-
in Connecticut. In Uarch, 177B, a corps of jnnctlon with Beqjamin Tapper, he published
1,600 Britjsh troops nnder command of Tryon a notice to the officers and soldiers of the late
made an incuraion into that state, andspproach- war, that from personal inspection be was sit-
ed Horseneck, one of Potnam's outposts. To isfied that the land in the Onio conntty was Of
oppose him were 160 men with two pieces of a mnch better quality than that of New Eog-
artillery, and with these Pntnam took hia pori- land, and that with others be had detemuned
tion on the brow of a steep hUl. After ex- to form a aettlement there, and invited all who
changing shots, as he saw the enetnr's dragoons wished to do the same in the several eonntie*
were about to charge, he ordered his men to of Maaaachasetts to send delegatce to Boston.
retire to a swamp inacceauble to cavalry. Ha A convention accordingly met in that dty on
himself waa hotly pursued, and finding that the Uarch 1, over which Pntnam presided, and the
dragoons were gaining npon him, be rode down Ohio company waa formed. At s snbseqnei^
a steep declivity, recdvmg on his passage a ball meeting 8 directors, of whom be waa one, were
through his hat. Biding on to Stamford, ho appointed to malie application to congrees tot a
called out the militia, and efiecdng a Junction private purchase of lands, and the committee
with his little party he hung npon the rear of procured from that body 1,600,000 acres at the
Tryon in his retreat and took about GO prison- rate of 6SJ eta. an acre, although in the end
era, whom he treated with a humanity custom- they became possessed of somewhat less than
ary on his part, but so unexpected that the 1,000,000. A city was projected in this tract
British general sent him a letter of thanks, at the confluence of the Muskingum and Ohio
During the summer of 1779 Putnam held com- rivers, and Pntnam was intrusted with the an-
mand of the Maryland, PcnuHjlvania, and Yir- perintiendence of the anrvey. On April 7, 1768,
ginia troops in the highlands of New York, and, De landed at the month of the Uoskiogum, tmd
assisted by hia cousin Euibs Putnam and others, laid out the city of Uarietta, the first penna-
completed the fortifications at West PoinL nent settlement made in Ohio. From t)us time
This waa his last oamp^gn. After the army he took an active interest In every thing calcD'
went into winter quarters he returned hom^ lated to strengthen the infant colony and de-
and on setting out agun for camp was attacked velop the resources of the country. On Sept.
on his way by parabsis of his left side. He 9,1788, he presided over the firet court of ^en-
thentookuphisresidenceonhiafarminBrook- eral quarter sessions which aatin tliat region,
lyn, and there remained until his death. He On Uarch 81, 1760, be waa made a Jndge in
was of medium height, of great physical and over the territory of the United States N.
strength, and bis personal daring was of the W. of the Ohio, and in 1796 was appointed
most marked character. " He dared to lead surveyor-general of United Statm lands, and
where any dared to follow," is the inscripUou held the office until removed by Jeffenon in
npon his tombstone. 1808, In May, 1792, he was also created a
PUTNAM, Btrrvs, one of the pioneer settlers brigadier-general in the U. B. army, and was
of the state of Ohio, bom in Button, Mass., commissioned to make a treaty with the Indian
April 9,1788 died inMai'ietta,0.,May 1,1B24. tribes on the Wabash river. The fallowing
At the ago of 18 he waa apprenticed to a mill- year he resigned his commisnon in the army,
Wright, but by bis own uotuded efforts be man- as hia health did not permit him to engage in
agmi to acquire some education. In 1767 he acUre service. In 1808 he was elected a mem-
enlisted aa a private soldier in the war against bar fi-om Washington county of the oonventi<Hi
the French, and with occasional intervals was which on Nov. 29 of that year formed tLe stat«
in BOtive aervice until the close of 1760, In the constitution at Cbillicothe.
beginning of which year be was made ensign. PUTREFACTION (Let.putreo, to be rotten.
The following years he spent In farming and and/acta, to make), the spontaneous decompo-
bnildtng mills, with the exception of about 8 sition of nitrogenous bodies, accompanied wiUi
months in 1773, when he went on an exploring the evolution of fetid gaeaa. The process ia
expedition to the newly created government of sometimes treated as a variety of fermentation,
West Florida. In 1776 he entered the conti- and called the putrefactive fermentation ^ bat
nental army as lieutenant-colonel, was employ- itdifiersfromfermentation, aa ordinarily nnder-
ed ohiefiy in the engineer department, and in stood, in commencing and continuing without
1776 waa appointed by congress engineer with the addition of any other substanoe already in
the rank of colonel. In 1777 he resigned hie a state of decomposition. Pntrefiable aubstan-
position ns en^neer, becoming colonel of a re- ccs, when used to induce in other bodies the
giment in the Maasacbusetts Ime ; in 1778 an- change taking place in themselves, are termed
perintended the construction of the fortifies- ferments. Putrefaction is either limited to
tious at West Point ; and in Jan. 178E received those organic substances which contain nitro-
a oommiasion as brigadlei^geseraL In 1782 he gen, or, if it occurs in others, is nnattended by
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
PUTTY PUT-DE-DOKB 676
thoso noxiong exIialBtioiiB which most etriklne- to eecare panes of ^lus in the aashes, and 1>r
ly characterize the prooeaa. Vegetable enb- carpenters for stopping holea in their work,
stances which contain much nitrogen, as the FUTTT POWDER, a preparation of the ox-
cmciform plants, are subject to this change, but idea of tin and lead nsed for polishing glass,
animal matters of an albominons oharaoter dis- mineral, and metallio snrfaoes. The best kinds
^7 its phenomena in the most marked degree, contain the least oxide of lead ; the poorest cott-
Fleah, blood, milk, cheese, and wheaten flour eist of tim chiefly, and are prepared bj the pro-
in the moist condition of dough and bread, cess described in the article LitH^^oa. The
when exposed to an atmosphere moderately lumps of oxide obtained are groond to powder
warm and damp, soon begin to experience a and siAed. They are of Tsnoas colors. That -
movement in the molecules of their elements, preferred by opticians and marble workers is
and new combinations of great yariety are pro- a heavy white powder ; it is the smoothest and
dnoed, both liqnid and gaseons. "nie active at the same time the most cutting. A pore
flKent in this movement is the oxygen of the oxide of tin, snperior to any other sort of pol-
air. It seizes npon some of the elemeula of ishiog putty, is prepared by dissolving metallio
the unstable oomponnda, and, breaking np the tin in dilated aqua regia, and after filtering
airaogements in which they were loosely held, eaomng the oxide to be predpitated by ammo-
givea rise to a mnllitDde of new mixtures, some nia. It is then collected, washed with water,
of them of extremely evanescent aharaater, and pressed dry in a doth filter. The tnass is
existing only as stages in the progress of the broken up, dried in the air, levigated on a glass
elements back &om their complicated orgonio plate, and then heated in a crucible to a low
oombinatione to the simpler and more perma- white heat. The fine partioles thus ossome
nent inorganic compounds. The most oonsplo- crystalline forms with cutting edges.
noDS among these products are the noisome FUY, Lb (ano. Anieium VMatm-um), a town
gaseons compounds oi sulphar, bydn^n, phos- of France, capital of the department of Haute-
phoms, ammonia, and carbon; carbonic acid Loire, 270 m. S.S. E. from Paris; pop. la 1856,
also is largely produced, and a variety of or- 14,428. It is one of the most picturesque
ganio adds. Beside these are principles not townsof France, being situated at Che junctioQ
recognizable by their chemical reactions, but of theralleys of theLoire,Bome,andDoluson,
whose presence is made known by their terri- and built ia the form of an amphitheatre upon -
biy virulent efiects upon the human system, the steep southern acclivity of Mont AJiis,
Such ore the poisons dereloped in animal bod- which is crowned by a mass of volcanic rock
ies within a few hours after death induced by with a flat top, called Rocher de CorneiUe.
disease, and retained within the tissues and The Borne is crossed by a bridge, near which
floids during the continuance of putrefaction, is the Rocher de Bt. Uichel, a remarkable con-
The effluvia are also often extremely noxious ical rook rising to the height of 2SB feet above
and infectious, but for the most part their etfeots the stream. The Rocher de Oomeille has on
are easily neutralized by chlonne or other dis- its sncmnit a colossal statne of the Vbgin, cast
infbctants. The process of putrefaction may from cannon captnred at Bebastopol inlSfiS,
be checked in various ways, as by perfect ex- and the Rocher de St. IGchel an old chapel
doflioa of oxygen or air. The presence of wa- in the Romanesque style, The principal part
ter or moisture being essential to it, the rapid of the town occupies a series of terraces upon
removal of this either by heat or absorption which the bouses rise one above another, and
prevents its initiation or continuanoe. At a the streets in many places are impraotioable
temperature as low as the ft^edng point the for wheeled conveyances. The cathedral is a
chemical changes cease to take place, the ingre- Oothio structure of the 10th century, standing
dieuts remain nitaltered for any length of time, in a very conspicuons situation, and reached by
and when by the rise of temperature they are a stairway of 118 steps. The manufactures
again sat free, pvtre&otion may ensne. The consist of laoe, woollen gooda, leather, and
temperature of boiling wat«r arrests putrefac- nails; and there are also fidlin^ mills, dye
tion by cosgulating the albumen ; and at still works, and a beQ foundery. It is a ploce of
lower degrees, even to 100° F., it ia doubtful great antiqnity, and during the middle ages
whether the true putrefactive process goes on. several ecclesiastical councils were held in it.
A great variety of antiseptics or antiputrefao- FUY-DE-DOME, a S. £. department of
tivo compound are employed to arrest decay, France, in the old province of Auvewne, bound-
some of which, as salt, sugar, alcohol, &o., de- ed N. by the department of Allier, E. by Loire^
rive their efQcacjr obiefly fh>m their property 8. by Kaute-Loire and Oantal, and W. by Gor-
of absorbing moisture, and others from their rize and Crease; area, 8,0TS sq. m.; pop. in
forming with the organio ingredients oombina- lSfi6, CS0,0S2, It is divided into 6 arrondisse-
ttotts of a more stable ohu'aoter. This branch ments, and Clermont is the oapital. With the
of the subject is further treated in the articles exception of a small part of the 8. W., which
Aktisbptiob and PaxsEByATioN of Food. is druned by tributaries of the Garonne, the
PUTTY, a composition of whiting and Hn- waters of the department flow to the Allier,
seed oil worked by hand into a doughy mass, which traverses it in a N. and S; direction and
and then beaten with a mallet nntil it becomes belongs to the valley of the Loire. The snr-
of uniform consistency. It is used by glaziers face consists of an undulating ba^n, called the
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
676 PTAT PYM
TAller of Unugne, with a general inclbiatioii the repnbUo In 1848 aided with the sodaliita.
toward the 'S. T^e monntains of Forez, an Elected to tho coDBtitnent aasemblj, be be-
ofiset of the Civemies, bound thevallej on tbe came one of ita aeoretariea, and voted with the
E,, and are covered with pine forests inter- party of the mountain. After bia reelection
spersed with some poor pastures, and a few m 1M9, be idgned Ledrn-BoUin's " Appeal to
patches of oats and r;e. The W. limit is form- Arms," Jane 13, aocompanied him to the con-
ed by a portion of the Aavergne moontuns, tenatoire d« arti et vUti^rt, and making bn
bere divided into two principal groups, that to escape first took reAige In Bwitzerlanct, and
ti)e N. being known as the Monta D6mea and tben removed to Bel^mn, where he oocaaitm-
tbat in the oppoaite direction as the Honts all7 wrote politjcal poi^nlets in the form of
Dorea. The most elevated point in tho flnrt of letters to the connt de Obambord, Barbia, the
these gronps is Pn j-de-D6me, from which the prince de Joinville, the president of the French
department takes its name, and of the laat Puj- repnblio, &o. He became connected with the
de-Banoj, tbe hiKbest mountain in the interior " Knropean revolntionary oonunitt«e," and bia
of France, which are respectivdj 4,846 and last pamphlet was an apologj for the attempt
6,22Sfeet above the sea. These monntaina are to assaasmateN^ioleonlU. He is one of thoee
all of volcanic origin, aaS. manj of the extinct who refosed to profit bj the amneatj granted
craters and the course of the lava which flowed bf the emperor in 18G9.
from them are plainlj viaible. IQneral springs PY6MAU0!N', in Greek legeadai? hirtorr,
are nnmerons, and traces of many metala are a king of Oyprng, whom the licentiona conduct
fonnd, bnt the onlj mines worked are lead, en- of his conntiywomen ao diagosted that be con-
timony, and oosL The soil of the Limarne la oeived a hatred asiunBt the whole aez. Ao-
fertile; the hillaidea ore covered with orcharda cording to Ovid, be made an ivory female
and vineyards; there are extensive chestnut statue of such exceeding beauty that be fi^
plantatjona, and the forests oontun pine, oak, desperately in love with it bimadf, and pr»^
and beech. The manu&cturea of the depart- to Venns to endow it with lift. The ^oddeea
ment are not very important Puy-de-Dfime granted hia request. Pygmalion den married
forms the see of the bishop of Olermont, has the object of his aflbctions, and by h<9r had a
nmnerons schools, and retnros 6 members to son called Piqihns, who founded the city of
the leffialative chamber of the empire. that name. Koosseau's musical plaj of x^-
PTATj Fiux, a French Jonmalist, dramatist, maUon la founded upon this legend,
and politician, bom in Vterzon, department of PYLOS, the name of 8 towns of ancient
Ober, Oct 4, 1810. He studied law in Paris, Greece, one of which was utoated in Ms,
and was admitted to the bar in 18S1, but gave another in Triphylia, and the third and moat
np hia profession to devote himself entirely important In Measenia, on the promontory of
to literatore and politioa. He contributed to OoryphasiimL The last was probably the Py-
Figaro, the Oharkari, the £«me de P<rnt, loe spoken of in the poema of Homer aa the
ArtiiU, Litrt da eeat-et-vn, ParU ritalatiOTi- residence of Nestor. The earlier city on the
nairt, and Salmigwdit; ftandabed Julea Ja- promontory was forsaken by the inbabitAnta
nin with one of the moat atriking chapters of after the close of the second Messenian war,
his Samaet; and was connected as /<RiiI&f(>- and the promontory remained deserted nntil
ni»le with the SiieU, and afterward for several iJie Peloponnesian war, when In 424 B. 0. it
years aa poliUoal editor with the NatioTuil, was taken possession of and forti&ed by the
Hia first play, which be composed in coqjnno- Athenian general Demosthenea. It became
Hon with his friend Th6odors Burette, Uns memorable for the detbat of the Bpartans not
ritolution d'a^ttr^oit, was brought out at the lon^ after, but at the dose of the war passed
Odeon, March 1, 163S, bnt was suppressed at agam into the handa of the I^cedsmoniaus.
onoe on account of its bold political allodona. The modem oity of Navarino is sitnated near
Unt conjuration iPautr^ou, printed in 18B8 in tho site of the old town.
the Se^ da dews monda, and Araiella, in PY^Johm, an Engliah patriot and orator,
whiob, under assmned names, he branded the bom at Brymmore, Bomersetshire, in 16S4, died
sppposed accomplices in the death of the dnke in LondoiL Deo. 8, 1948. He was of a good
ofBonrbon, were ofawnilarpolitical character, family, and was edac^ed at Pembroke coUege,
hi ooi^nnction with Lnohet, ho produced in Oxford, but left without taking his degree, and
1834 it brigand et lepMlotophe, and in 1886 applied himself to the study of common law in
Ango. Politics now engaged bia attention for one of the inns of oourL He becsme a clerk
abonte years. BetDmingtothedramainlSlI, in the office of the exchequer, entered par-
bis Dewe temiriart had an extraordinary run ; liament in 1614, and in 16S0 became consi^cn-
and hia Cfdrio U Noretgien nS43), IHogine ons as a leader of the country party. In 1691
(1846), and Le chiffbnnier (1841^, hia last play, he was one of the 13 commlsaoners sent to
were also ancce^bL In 1844, for a violent James I. at Newmarket in behalf of the prir-
pampblet, Marie Joteph Ohhaer et la prince ilegea of parliament, and at the close of that
de* eritiquet, against his former friend Jules year was sentenced with Ooke, Fbilipe, and
Janin, be was sentenced to flmontba' imprison- Uallory to impriaomnent for hia oppocntion
ment He left the Jfational for the more revo- to the measures of the oonrt. In the artA par-
lutionary S^/brme, and on the proclamation of liament of Oharlea L be was indefatigable in
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
FTKAKEB PTEAUID 677
his sapport of the rights of the people, and in PYSAVID, in maibematics, s solid whoM
1626 WS3 one of the managers of tne articles base is a plane flgnre of any number of side^
of impeoohment against the duke of Bucking- and whose otlier faces are plane triooglea aU
iiam. I^ 1630 be held oommaoicotions wiUi terminating in a point above called the vertex.
the ootnmissiouen sent to London ^ the It is trtangnler, qnadrangolar, pentagonal, and
Scotch Oorenanters, and aooompauied Hamp- so on, according as the figure of the haae is
den throngh the oonntrf to incite the people trianyilar, qnadrangolar, pentagon^ An. It
to Bend Id petitions. In the short parhament is called right when, havine for Its base a regti-
of 1640 he was one of the most active mem- lar polygon, a perpendioi^ar from its vertex
bers, and in the long parliament exerted great £ills npon the centre of the polygon. It is
influence not onlj by his eloquence and knowl- called reenlar when it is bonnded by 4 eqaal
edge of common law, but by his zeal in re- equilatei^ triangles, and is then known as a
etricting the royal authority. At the opening regular tetrahedron. The pyramid corresponds
of the session he made a speech npon griev- among plane solids to the oone among curve
anoes, as regarded the privileges of parli^ent, solids. As popnlarly understood, it is a solid
religion, and the liberty of the Butgect. On Nov, whose base is a sqnare and its f^Mes isosceles
11 hemovedtoimpeaiuitheearl of Strafford for triangles, or trianglee having two equal ^des.
high treason, and as one of the managers on PYEAMID, a straotnre in masonry, osaally
the part of tiie honse of commons he bore a of a sqnare base with sides meeting in a point
prominent part in the proceedings which led at the ton, mach nsed among the earliest na-
to the execntion of that minister. In the snb- tions in oifierent parts of the world, either as
seqnent trial of ImiA he also made a violent a sepnlchral monument or for religions pnr-
tpeodb against the prisoner, and was the mover poses. By reason of the dntplicity of the Ague
of the grand remonstrance, whioh enomerated snch edifices were easily r^sed of the largest
the fhnlts of the royal adminisbfation from the dimensions ; and owing to their solidity, as
accession of Oharles. He was one of the 6 well as the durability of the materials emiuoy-
members ofparliament whom the king attempt- ed, they have stood longer than any other
ed in person to seize ; and after the departure works of man. The most famous pyramids in
of Oharles from London, he assisted in carrying the world are those of the ancient Egyptian^
on the executive branch of the government, standing near the Vf. margin of the vaUey of
Yet In 164S he pat forth a vindication of his the Kile, a few miles above Oairo, and fomid
eondnct In answer to the charges brought at short intervals nsnally in groups for some
against him, from whidt it was thought doubt- 60 or 70 m. further up the river, and not &r
ftl with which of the two parties then divid- back from it. As many as 69 have been counts
ing l^e kingdom he would go. In Nov. 1649, ed, the ruins of many more are to be seen, and
be was tqipointed lientenant of the ordnance ; . great numbers have without doubt disappeared
and dying not long aiter, he was buried in in the long period of nearly 40 oenturies sinoa
Westminster abbey " with wonderful pomp they were constructed. In the early Egyptian
and magnificence, " 10 members of the house dynasties the capital, Memphis, stood abont 10
of eommons carrying his bier. Pym was in re- m. above Oairo on the W. boi^ of the river.
ligions sentiment a strong Oalvinist and leal- The bnrial places of the mnltitudea with whioh
ously opposed to Arminiantsm. In consequence the valley was peopled were along the edge of
of his popularity and his inSuencehewasnick' the rocky tract known as the labyan range^
named King Pym, "Hi8parts,"8aysLord01ar- wliich intervenes between the cultivated lands
endoi), " were rather acquired by industry than of the Nile and the great desert, whose drifting
supplied bynatnre or adorned by art; but beside sands now cover the region around the pyra-
his exact knowledge of the forms and orders mids. In the rooks they excavated their tombs
of the house of commons, he had a very comely and built them up of the materials at hand, and
andgravewayofexpresaing himself, withgreat over those designed for the king and probably
volubility of words, natural and proper. He other important personages they raised the
nnderstood likewise the temper and affections pyramids, some of which from their vast Btce
of the kingdom as well as any man, and had nave ranked among the principal wonders of
observed Qie errors and mistakes in govern- the world. From Oairo several groups are In
ment, and knew well how to make &em ap- full view. The nearest group is that of Qbl-
pear greater than they were." zeh, consisting of three pyramids, two of which
PYNAKER, Adam, a Dntch painter, bom exceed all others in their dimensions. Beyond
in Pjnaker, between Delft and Schiedam, in theseareseen thethreepyramidsof AbooSeer,
1631, died in 1673, In bis yonth he resided then the great pyramid of Sakkarah, show-
for several yeare at Rome, where he acquired ing its construction in steps, and aocompaoied
an ideal or pastoral style of landsc^e painting, by several smaller pyran^ds. Some distance
His pictures contain obarming effects of sun- beyond these are discerned the two m^esUo
light, with clear, warm skies, and trees and pyramids of Bashoor, and others still appear
oUier natural ol^ects are painted with a broad, yet further to the S. From the Investigauons
free pencil, and great richness of color. The which have been made to determine the ohar-
best of his works are of cabinet size, and many aoter of these stmotures. It appears that tbey
of these are owned in England. date from the period of the 8a dynasty to tlie
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
678 PTBAHID
ISth, tittx vhieh the EgTptiwu oeotod to bnild edges of tlia mat blooki, tall teadung the bam
them. Eaeh ana was oommenwd over & Mpnl- thej- left ea&b nde of an ereo sarface alopiug
ohral chamber excavated in the rock, and aur^ at an an^le of Gl° 60'. Bj stripping off the
ing the lif^ of t^e kin^ for whom it was intend- outer cssmg the oooneB of stone appear in the
ed tho work of bailding np the atracture over form of stepB, which, thoogli ramed and on-
tJiis ohamber went od, a very narrow and low eqoal, oan be asceaded even bj ladies. Tli«
passage waj being kept open as the coorseB of great pTramid has 208 of these steps, the lower
the stone were added, bj which access from ones being 4 ft. 10 inches high. The horizontal
the onteide was eecared to the central chamber, sarfacee were nicely finished, and the sbmea
At the death of the monarch the work ceased, were Joined together with a cement of lime
and the last layers were then finished off and withoutsand. ThestmotareeareBoneariysolid,
the passage way oltned ap. The piles were that the apaoea occopied hj the chsmben and
oonatmot^ at blocks of red or syemtio granite passages are of little account in cetimating their
from the qnarries of Asswan, and also of others contents. Those of the great pyramid amount
of a hard oalcareons stone from the qnorries to about 82,111,000 oabic feet of maaonry, be-
of Uokattsm and Toarah. They were of ex- ride about 7,000,000 more which have been re-
traordinary dimenaiona, and their transporta- moved, and the total weight of the stone is
tiou to the pyramids and o^nstment In their estimated at 6,816,000 tons. The only entranoe
proper places indicate a aorpriaing degree is on the N. face, 49 ft. above the baae, and
(tf mecliW<»l ^ill. Their thickness varied about 24 ft. K of the central Ime. The maaon-
from more than i to leas than 3 feet, and ry about it is much broken away, and the pOea
when airangjad one upon another forming steps of broken stones reach np from the ground
np the onter slopes, the thickness of the atones nearly to its level. A passage way, only 8 ft
determined the height of these steps. Those 11 in. high and 8 ft. 5^ in. wide, leads from it
near the top are of the thicker atones, but the down a slope at an angle of 36° 41' a distance
blocks are of moderate length compared with of 820 ft. 10 in. to the original sepnlcfaral oham-
those near the base. The foondations for the bar, commonly known as the sabterraneooa
Btmctnras were excavated in the solid rock, apartment, and beyond this 62 ft. 9 in. into tlie
sometunes to the depth of 10 feeL and upon rock, with an area in this ^lortion of only S ft
this the great stones were arranged and baUt T in. in width and 2 ft. 6 m. in hei^t It ia
np layer upon layer, and one shell succeeding auppoaed that it was intended to excavate an-
another, the spaces within being filled in with other chamber at the end of this panage, and
■mailer stones closely packed. To quarry and that it was not done on aoconnt of the monarch
move the immense blocks to the pyramids and continuing to live until it waa found expedient
then r^ae them to their places most have been to dose up the mouth of the passage with the
a work oalling in play no little engineering external casing of masonry. The aepulehral
skill, notwithstanding an unlimited amoont of chamber is 46 ft. long by 27 ft in width, and
bunan labor was at command. Near the sum- its height is 11} ft. The entranoe pssage, 63
mits however the number of men that conld ft. long, connects with a branch paseage, wluch
ud in raiung the huge atones mnst have been rises at an angle of 26° 18', and thns extends
comparatively small for want of room, and it 124 ft., when it becomes level and runs 109 ft.
sewna that some mechanical power tnnst have ftirther. This connects with several chambers
been employed beside any whidi we know they and pasaages, the position and nature of whi^
possessea. The probabOity of this is confirm- cannot be described without the ud of illustrat-
ed by the fact that cavities in the stones have ed plans. One of the former, mtoated nearly
been found, which appear as though they mi^t in the central portion of the pyramid, and 07
have been worn by the foot of derricka tummg ft. above its base, ia known as the qneeQ'a
in them. The 8 pyramids of the Memphis chamber. This measures 17 ft. by 18 ft 9 in.,
group stand upon a plateau about 1S7 feet and 20 ft. 8 in. high, and has a groined roc£
above the level of the highest rise of the Nile, It appears tohavebeea intended for asarcoph-
not far apart from each other, and nearly on a agus ; but the only one foond was in what is
N. £. and S. W. line. Like the other pyramids called tbe grand or king's diainber. This is an
of Egypt, their 4 rides are Erected toward the apartmant lined with red granit« highly pol-
'^"•^"'al points. The largest of them, known ished, single atones reaohing from the floor to
as the great pyramid, covers at present an area tbe ceilbg, and the ceiling is formed of 9 lam
of between 19 and 18 aorea, the side of its slabs of polished granite, extending from wall
square measuriog 746 ft. ; and its height is 4£0 towall. Itis 84 ft.8 in.loDg, 17ft 1 in.wid«k
ft. 9 inches. Its dimensions have been reduced and 19 ft. 1 in. high. Over it are 6 small
from a base of 764 ft and a heigbt of 460 ft. by chambers apparently built to iQielter the larger
the removal of the outer portions to flimish room beneatn from the weight of the masonrr.
stone for the city of Cairo. Thus deepoiled, The room is perfectly plain, and contains only
the walla have lost their smooth finished sur- a saroophagns of red granite, which is 71 ft
&oe,inwhichetste they were left by tbeir build- long, 8 ft. S in. wide, and 8 ft fi in, high, too
era, who, commencing at the top, filled in with large to have been introduced through the en-
small stones the angles formed by the recesrion trance passage, and muat therefore nave been
of each upper layer, and bevellea off the upper placed in the room when this waa built It ia
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PTRAJHD 670
mppoaed that It oont^ned ft wooden ooffin wtth & flgnn of ft rvaomlwnt l!on with the head of a
the mnnaaj of the Ung. and that theae long man faabioned ont of a projecting rookj ledg^
■moe ^sappeared when the prramidB were first 1B3 it. 9 in. long, Some defective portions, aa
opened and plnndwed. In the oonetraotion of also the legs, are made np bj masoar?. In
ue pfnuDMB arrangements wsre made for front are steps leading np to the eanotuar; and
blookiog op the important paasagea with huge tablets ; bnt the driftiiig Bands of the desert
maaaea of granite, and Qie obstaolea thus inter- keep tlieae moatlj ooncaaled. Of the other
posed have greatly Impeded thdr exploration, pjramida Airther 8., the largest are of the Da-
and sometimeB rendered it neoeaaair to open ahoor group, of which there are S, 3 of atone
new passages past the obstmctiona. It la prob- and 8 of rough brick. One of the former ia
able that on acoonnt of these extraordinary pre- now rednced fromTlB^ to 700 ft. square, and
eantiana there are jet tmdiacovered iparbnenta from 842} to 8S6i ft, high, and the other ia
of no little interest in the immenae body of 616i ft. square and 819^ ft- ^igh- — The pjr-
tbeae stmctores. Notwithstanding they have amios were described very pariJcalarly by
fbr centaries been ottjeots of great onrioaity, Herodotns, to whom they were of gr^t inter-
and have been Tiaited, explored, and i^ondered eat for their antiqaity even in hia time, and
by people of different nabone, new apartmenta also as the most wonderfU monmnenta of hn-
were discovered in 1886 by Ool. Howard Vyse, man labor. He atatee that the great pyramid
aa alao hieroglyphlca upon the stones, made by was bnUt by Oheops, who stopped all other
the quarrymen, and whioh when deciphered works oonnected with religions ntea, and com-
E roved to be uie name and tittea of the nil- pelled his people to the nomber of 100,000 at
ig monarch Bhnfti, the Oheops of Herodotns. a time to labor in this undertaking, and at the
The second pyramid stands on a baae 83 ft> end of 8 inoatha their places were supplied by
above that of the great pyramid, and in an ez- the same nomber of ft^h hands. To lacilit^
cavadon made for it in the rock. It measured the tranaportatioa of the atone frmn the Tonrah
or^inally 707 ft> 9 in. si^iisre, and 404 ft. S in. qnarriea, a canseway was bnilt 8,000 ft. long,
hi^ ; bnt those dimenaions are now reduced 90 ft. wide, and 48 ft. high, which required 10
respectively to 690 ft. 9 in. and 447i ft:. The yearg for its completion. The anbterranean
angle ofitaslopeisCS'SO'. The upper portion chamber was in an artidcSal island formed by
of its caung ia still preserved, and persona can a canal brought np from the Kile. This seems
ascend this, thongh not without danger, espe- improbable, conridering the elevation of the
cially if liable to become dizzy by losing sight gronnd, about 140 ft. above the highest rbe of
of the lower portioif of the atracture. 'Diis ttie river. The oonatmction of the pyramid
pyramid has two entrances, one 87 ft. 8 in. required, according to Herodotns, a further
alKive the base, and the other built out In front period of SO years, and hede3<sibe8 the method
of the base, each leading by an inclined paa- of building by atepa and raiaing the atones
aage of about 100 fbet in length to the aame from layer to layer by machines, and finally
eepulobral chamber. This has a roof of tite of fkdng the external portion from the top
shape of the pyramid itself, and meaaures 46 down, Diodoros oalla Uiia monarch Ohembes
A. S in. by 16 ft. 2 in., and is 19 ft, 8 in. high, or Ohabryea, and Manetho and Eratosthenes
It oontaing a granite sarcophaffos 8 ft. 7 in. call the builder of this pyramid Snphis or Sao-
long, 8^ ft wide, and B ft. high. It was phis I, Pliny makes mention of the great
reaohed with great difficulty by Belzoni in pyramid and of persona asoending it in his day,
1818, who fbund a Cofia insniption recording thongh at that time the casing nad not bem
the visit of the oaliph Othman and the open- removed. The buUder of the 2d pyramid is
Ing by him of the pyramid, A. D. 119fl-'7. aaidbyHerodotnaandDiodoriuBiomiiatobave
The only remains met with were those of a been the brother and saooeasor of Ohe<H>B and
bull. The third pyramid is only 8&4^ ft. square named Oephren. The bnUder of the 8d pyra-
■nd 208 ft high. It was explored in 1837 by mid waa King MenkarS, varionaly given by
Ool. Vyse, who disoovered several wartments, different writers, the 8d king of the 4th dy-
In one of which were a highly fimahed aar- nasty. The daU of these structures is thus
oo^aguB, a mummy case, bearing tiie name not for from 2,500 B. 0. 'When they were
of King Menkor^ and the body of a workman, first explored in more recent times is not
The last two are now in the British museum, known ; bnt it is aonested that they were
bat the aarcophagna was lost on the pasaage. rifled by Oambyses, who is spoken of by He-
Thia pyramid, though the smallest, la the beat rodotna (iiL 27) «a having opened ancient sep-
MmatTQoted of the three, and indeed the style nlohres at Uemphis, They were viaited and
<^the work is more coetly than that of any of described by Bdonins, A. D. 1668 ; and more
the other pyramids of Egypt. In the same recently by muneroua travellers, aa Belzoni,
vidnity are 6 smaller pyramida, supposed to Denon, tbe expedition accompanying the ar-
hare been the tomba of aome of the relatives my of KfqKileon, Bait, Oavi^a, and Ool. How-
of the kings who oonstruoted the laiver pyra- ard Vyse, who apent a fortune in tbar eiplora-
mids, and an immense nnmber of tombs, some tion, aided by Perring. Uany of tbe works in
' ■" " " * ' ' ribed are referred to at
le EoTPT, to which may
riy relating to fhia tab-
UigmzoQbyGoOgle
baUt np above the eorfiwe, tome ezoav^«d in whioh they are deaoribed are referred to at
tberookiandaomesubterraneanohannels. Near the dose of the article Eotpt, to which may
Uie great pyramlde la abo the famous sphinx, be added aa partioolarly relating to fhia tab-
PYRAIOD PTBIEHSES
[Mt Vyae's " OperstiouB evried on ^^iIkA of gnat balk, umd «f itone, md mmtwi
1 1887 " (8 Tol& 8to., London, 1887 «t tec,} iritfa gold,
—Pfmniia are breqnontlr met vith in ihe tiiat tbe lM«aat of the Mol «f ths rod wh faol-
Tipper part of tbe ralley of the Nile. There lowed out eo « to omtain a miwiiTn iiaa|i,ii ctf
are man? in Nnbta about lat. 17° and 18° N., tlie planet Is 8<dld goU. Be a^da that tbe
the eepulohree of tbe monarobs of Mero6 and oonqneron Iminediatelj poseawd diemaelrM
of Ethiopia ; a Mngle groop N. of Gebel Bar- of Uie gold, and that tbe tddl waa dMtroTad
kal comprises no fewer than ISO, Others are bj order ot the bishop of Uezioo.
met with in oUier ancient conntries of tbe FYRAHD8avi>THIBB£, a jooth and maid-
East. At BIrs fnnuvnd is the step-Bbi^ed t/a ot BabflMi, whose love and ^e are ecle-
pjramid bnilt by NebodiadnezcBr of bricka of brated br OvM in the JMamerplietea. Tbdr
diflerent colors, known as the temtde of sena Mrents oppoaad tiieir udon, but tbe toven, Ht-
fipheres, for an aooonnt of whkdi see Bilto, tag in a^oining bouua, foond means to con-
Tamx or. This was SSfi ft. high with a peri- Terse wiui each otber throng a hole in the
meterof3,S80ft. The same monarch bdh the wall, and onoe made an agreunent to meet at
i'Tramidal biiok stmctore of Uqj^be el Baby- the tomb tit Ninas. There ThUbe arrived fln^
on, the rains of which adU remain. AtBena- bnt, terrified by a lionees which bad Jmt torn
res in India are also the rnins of i^ramida; and topieoee an os, she hid herself in a os*«, and
others were bnQt in ancient times at Peking In ner flight lost her mantle, wind) was rent
and again at 8uka in Java. At B(»ne one was by the Uoneea and aoUed wiOi blood. Vfaea
conBtrootedSOorSOyearsB. 0.,inlKHiorof 0. PyramoscaBM and foond llie garment torn and
Oertins ; an imltatMn of the £gyptiaa monn- bloody, he Imaf^ned that lUabe bad been
ments, and Airnished with a aepnlchral cbam- killed, and therenpon f^ upon his cwotd.
ber. It fs 120 ft. high on a base of 9S ft. di- When Tfaisbe retomed and foimd tbe body ct
ameter, bnilt of hewn atone and marble-faced, her lover, she dew herself with the aaB>»«wcH.
— In Heiico are similar Btmotures far exceeding This tragedy waa enacted under a mmllMny
in the area they cover the dimensions even or tree, the Anut ot which, before while, baa ever
the great pyramid of Egypt The principal one since been of the color of blood,
of ^ese is described in the article Oholttla. FTR£N££8, the chain of monntuna wbitdi
The two pyramids of Teotihnacao, in tbe same a^Mrstea Franca tmn 6paia, eotmiMidng on
Gomitry, are sitQat«d in the centre of the plain tbe Hedit«rranesn at Oape Creoz and nmning
of Otumba, 7 leagnea N. E. of the dty of Hex- oat to ^n B. £. extremftvof the bayof Bfac^.
ioo, and called reapectjvely tonatiuh iUaqiuU, Under tbe name of the Oantabrian nonntains,
aaimeUli itia^val, or "honsesof the son and the same chain contdnnea near the N.bordtr of
moon." Tbe first named is of 4 stagee, 680 fl Spain and Fortngal to the Atlantis ocean at
eqnare at its base, S21 ft. in vertical height, Oape Finisterre. The distance from the Uedi-
with a level area at its summit, where was terranean to the bay of Kacay is S70 m. Tbe
anciently a great etatne of the son. Tbe breadth of tbe mooi^^n range ia fron SO to
house of the moon is 144 ft. high, with rela- 60 m., the narrowest portion being near the
tively small base, hot with the same nomber Mediterranean, and hen it is crosara by the
of stages. They seem to have been bnilt of carriage road throng Hgnerie. At the W.
ean-dried bricks, faced widi etone, and finally extremity tiie pass is thronght^ town of Iran,
covered with a layer aeveral inches thick of a The moontdjw consist of a few paralkj majn
dose and hard cement. The lesser pyramid ridgM, with nmneroos spina and tnnsvene ele-
oontuns a nomber of ohambei^ reached by an vabonktheohainbeingnnbrofcentitroa^MMitita
adit which enters on the 8. aide between the length bythepaasageManyriveraonMBltaKBe.
8d and Sd terraoes, and descends at an angle of The moontuna attain their greatest ba^ and
80°, almost precisely as in the osse of the great breadth near the eentral portion of the range.
Egyptian pyramid of Gbizeb. The sides of On the B. side the transverse valleys extend
these pyramids coincide with the cardinal downbetweentbetribntarieaofthel^ro, which
points. A great nmnber of smaller pyramidal stream, rising near the W. extremity vi the
stroctnrea or monnda are scattered over the chain, receives nearly all the waters whose
plain aronnd them, some of which are ranged in soorce b <m the 8. side trf' the moootainB and
squares, and others in parallel lines, constitiit- dischargesthemintothaMe^terranean. These
ing what the Mexicans called mieoati or " path valleys, traced toward tb«ir head, sometimea
of the dead." It haa been eoqjeotored from tenmnate in long depreeaiane readiing &r into
Qua name, that this waa a general borial place theaxiaofthemainridge, tbe height of which
of the distingniehed dead anKmg tbe people is thns so rednced that toe g^ta or breaks, oaOed
who bnilt the great i^ranud^ Botorini, how- eaU (ne(^) aoA portm (giitA, serre fbr passea^
ever, coi^ectnres that as the larger stroctarea rarely ho wev«- fitted for carnage roada. Bome-
were dedicated to the eon and mocm, the small- times the valleys terminate ahmpdy in tha
er ones were dedicated to the planets and stars, heart of the moontain-whwetbey are bonnded
Near the base of tbe pyramid of the san ties a by prec^Htona walla that riaa to great heigUs-
' ' ' ■ *' ~« . . , sins thna formed are daaignf---"
The hei^t of the Chun b
rm for long iliatanrrm Ton
great soiilptnred stone, 10 ft 6 in. in length by Tlie ciroalar basins thoa formed are d „
fi ft, broaa, which it ia sapposed onceiwowned etrpie* or otiiti. Tfaehei^tof the chain is ra-
the pyramid. Olavigero aays that two id<dB nuirkably uniform for long iliatanrrm Towwd
PTItaHSES FntOLIONEOUS AOIB 681
tlM sztomddw It iUb away, bnt in the interior nlba! and afterward of Offisar by the Ool do
lamcb of it «xoMda 8,000 or 0,000 feet, within Perttw, and the defeat of Obarlemagne in 7TS
whiioblBtb«Un«ofpeipetiialBiiow. Thehi^- byfheBasi]^ near thepassof Roncesralles,
Mt peak is Nethoo, ll,O08feet above the sea; toward the W. extremitj of the range. Bythe
after&iaMontFerda,10,8aifbet;LeO7lindre, aame pass the Black Prinoe invaded Navarre
10,TM; Ua)adetta,10,T«4;yiffii«iiale,10,'n8; witb an English armr, and Wellington in 1618
Kooteafan, 10,6flS ; Pio da Midi, 9,860 ; and drove the French back into their own conntiy.
Toaaj others abov« «,000 feet The mean ele- PYRBITGES, Babbes. Bee BABSEB-PrRfoiiES.
Tstion of the smnn^ linvis estimated at 7,W0 PTKfiNEES, Hautcs. BeeHATrrEs-FTBtirin.
feet On tite K. aids gladere ore oooarionaUr FTBfiNlXS-OBIENTALES, a S. dopart-
met with aiKm Uie hlf^iMt dOTWa, but thej ment of Franoe, compiiBing the old province
donotfillop tbedeepvuleTBaeoouioMoftlke of RonasilloD, bounded N. ^ Ande,E. ^the
Alpa. The geologiod formatiraie are the met- Vediterranean eea, S. bj Spain, and W. b^
■morphio granites and slatee, graanlar lime- Ari^; area, 1,671 sq. m.; pop. tn 1866, IBS,-
stones,^. Ther give a ra^eo aspeot to the 066. Capital, Perpignan. A wide plain stretcfa-
hi^ar portions, which, sew from the plains es idong the shore of the MediterraDean, and
oa the Wendi aide, appear notobed and eer- the FyrfiiSea, which extend along the B. and
rated, whence tiie t«rm tierra applied to enoh W. bonndar;', have S ofisets that traverse the
fanm. On the Spanish nde the same for- department In a general £. and W. direction,
matiDiiB are expoaed in the deep prectpitons forming vaUejs that are drained bj the Agly,
(VOM Talleys. Among the mineral prodnote of the Tet, and the Tech, all of which flow into tho
tbeaa rook fbnnations are ores <rf eeveral of the Mediterranean, bat none of them are navigable,
nvrtralff. none <rf which however have proved The Aiide rises in the £. part of Pjr^n^es-
ot mnoh importuioe except those of iron. Orientales and flows N. Mines of coal, snl-
Fron remote timea the;^ have been activel}^ phnr, and alabaster are worked. Iron ore h
wOT^ed, and the most eetmomioal motliod of abnndant and is extensivelj smelted. Ko part
Srodnaingwraa^ iron ^rectfl-om the ore was of the soil Is ver; fbrtjle, bat the pl^ boiler-
ret praised in tiiia re^on in the fomaoe still ing the see is eztenslvetr irrigated, and pro-
known as the Ostslaa forge. Beisde these prod- dnoesloniriantcropsof grass, grain, and vege-
nots the mountains liave afforded large sopfi^ieB tables. The vine and olive thnve well In Ae
of timber of excellent qnalities tor snip build- W. part of the department, and nearlj' S,O00,0OO
Ing. The foreste are stUl ertensive, and serve gallons of wine are annoally produced. Tho
as baonts for beuv, wolvea, wild boars, foiea, principal mannfactDTes are broadcloth, hosierj,
irild goats, and other anim^ On the Fr«ioh molestinB, leather, iron, tin, and pottery.
side are nnmerons mineral springs, hot and cold, PTBITES (Gr.irvp, fire), an ancient name of
aome of whiidi are bmoas watering places, oertain stones which gave fire when stmck by
known as bagnitu. On this ride the pastnrage steel ; applied by Pliny to millstones, and hj
is moat exoellent and evteneive, ana mi the others to varions minerals, as flint and the
anaoother lands near the base <tf uie monntalna btsolphoretsof iron and of copper. Dioscoridea
_.e fine oroharda and vineyarda. On the other destmlMS pyrites as a species of stone from
side tiie hardier raees are engaged in other which copper is melted. The term is now ap-
oooopations, among wMdi ami^ling Is almost plied to a variety of native metBllio snlphnreta,
nniversal. Beside the main passee whioh con- ench especially » have a decided metatlio 1ns-
nect Franoe wilji Spain near the ICediterranean tre ; and particnlarly to the yellow bisnlphnret
and the l>ey of Biscay, there are several seoon- of iron and that of copper. ^CB Copper, and
dary peases not so easily aeeessible, particnlarly Isoir.) Iron pyrites b a very common mineral,
with oarriages. TheohiefoftbesearethePuerto of golden appearance, and is fteqaently mis-
deHayaand the Puerto do Konoesvalles In Na- taken by those nnacqnunted with minerals for
varre; those of Oanfrano, Paatioosa, Gsvamie, the preidons metal. Its snlphnrons character
VielM, Brtehe de Roland, and Marcandan in is easily shown by the odor given ont when the
Aragon;andofPlsndeAase,Paigoerda,andOol ndnera! is cmshed and thrown npon a red-hot
de E^rtus in Oatalonla-^The in^bitants of the shovel. Its compomtion is : sulphnr 6S.S, iron
Pjriakee comprise a variety <rf people belong- 46.7. Behig often met with in large veins and
ing tooripnallydistiaotraoes,eevenl of whioh obtained in abundance in working other ores,
-et taainbdn striUng tdkaracteristloa. On the of which it serves as a giagne, it is profitably
W. part of the range are the Basqoea, descend- employed for the prodnction of sulphnr.
ante of the ancient Oaotabrians, still retting PTROLIGNEOUS AOID (Gr. imp, fire, and
dte dreat and manners of antiqatty, and speak- I«t. ligmim. wood), also called pyroligneona
ing a peonHar langoage. (See BAequas.) The and wood vinegar, the oomponnd mixtnre of
AragoaeBeare^>oapecnliaruidbardyrace,re- the volatile products from the destructive dis-
puted for tbrir obstinate of character. But on tillatton of woody matters, and which when
the N. ride the Fr«i<dk posaess the more ardent purified yield acetic acid, wood naphtha, creo-
and voltdUe disporitioa belonging to their na- sote, tar, Ac. The method of producing It is
titm. From early perioda nt faistoir the Pyr6- noticed in the artlele Aomo Acm. voH 1. p.
nies have been the scene of interea^tg military 1 67, as also its nse io the cmde state for ftamish-
eventa. Aa<mg tbeee are the passage of Han- ing compotmds naelU na mordants in calico
9.
D,oi.zoob,GOOglc
print works, u pyroUgnaie of iron, alnmiiia, attaehod to thaextzomitjrf the other long arm
Ac. It hu alio l«eii ai^ed to ranoni other 10 tim«a the ohange in length which the rod
tuKSj as for example, in medidne aa an anti- haa anderg<me. The degrees on the acalo be-
Beptio and atimolant in a wadi for nogreae lag made vith reference to the mercnrial sMle
and nloers ; and ila antiseptic qnalidea have led of the thermometer, the amount of heat to
to its nee in preHerring articles of food, aa her- which the rod has been exposed ma^ he imin»-
ringa and other fish. The prooeas ia an anzil- diatelj expressed in d^^rees of Fahroiheit.
larj one to drying in the shade, which precedes In the constniction of the scale, several inge-
the dipping of the articles in the acid. Her- nions oontriTancee ye introduced to increaae
rings &nt cored by a sprinkling of salt left its delicacy, which cannot he intelligibly ex-
npon them for 6 honra, and then draiDed, being plained withont drawings. This part of the in-
Immersed a few seconds in pyroligneons acid stnuuent not bring exposed to the Sre, ita indl-
and then dried for two monUis, are in an es- cations must be more accnrate thas those <^
oellent condition for preeervatlon and retain a other pyrometers, all portions of irhieh an
smoky flavor. The addition of a qnart of the more or leas heated in the trials. H. Broo^
acid to the common pickle for a barrel of hams niart employed in 1806 a pyrometer of som^
will cause the hams to acquire this Savor aa if what idmilar character to Prot. DanieD's for
they had been smoked in the ordinary way. indicating the oomparaliTe heat of the poiee-
FYROLUSITE. See MutoAHaai. lain ovens, and thus the exact time for arreat-
FYBOlOn^ER (Gr. mp, fire, and fMrpov, Ing this in theprooeas ofvitriffing the warein
mesBore), a thermometer for measuring de- coloring. The heat employed not exoaedingOie
grees of temperatore al>ove the range of ordl- Aiaing point of Bilver, this metal was found for
nary thermometers, appropriate for indicating aeveral reasons to be the best for the pyrcmi-
Ae heat of furnaces, the melting point of met- etar. A bar about 8 inches long waa inserted
aJa and alloys, &c. The principle upon which in a groove of porcelain, and the free end was
most of the various forms of the instrument made to press against a porcelain rod whidh
ore based is the expansion of metals by heat moved a needle upon a graduated arc 100
which, for want of any other standard of times the distance traversed by the rod. The
oompariaon, b assumed to increase proportion- instrument was not recorded by Broiigniart as
ally with the increase of temperature. Kus- a oorreot measnrer of d^reea Of tesaptntai«,
schenbroek, who was the first to constmct but only of the difference between Hie dOata-
a pyrometer, and introduced the name about tion of a bar of silver and that of a bar MF hud
the year ITSO, employed a metallic bar fixed porcelain of the same l«igth. The latter de>
at one end, and connected at the other with ment, though small, still amomits to a certain
wheel work which multiplied the movement unknown quantity. — A pyrometer waa invented
caused by the expansiou of the bar, as this by Wedgwood, uid described in the " FhUo-
was heated. This was improved by other sophicalTransacrtionB"forl762, 1734, and 17B6,
physicists at subsequent times, their attention of which much use was made for determining
Deing especially directed to the meohaoism by the fusing points of metals ; and for a long time
which the motion was oommunicated throng these were regarded as established by its \tarj
wheel work and levers to the index. The erroneous indtcations. On this account it is
principle of this instrument is still retained in worthy of notice, though it ia no longer used,
the most perfect pyrometer now known, which Wedgwood aasumed that day, formed into
is that of Professor Daoiell, first described in cylinders, contracted in ita dimensions fn pro-
the " Philosophical Transactions" fbr 1880, and portion to the degree of heat to which theee
amodificatiooofasimilarinEtramentprevionsly were exposed; and bis pyrometer ocosisled of
used by Onyton-Uorvean. The rod of platinum such ojtinders with a gauge for measonng
or of iron ia dropped into a longitudmal cav- their exact length. The principle was proved
ity bored nearly through a bar of thoroughly to be defective, not only from the variable qnsl-
baked black lew, and rests npon the solid por- ities of the clays, and tiie different methoda (aa
tjon at the bottom. A ^ort cylindrical piece regarda prefflnre especially) of forming ute
of porcelun (called the index) is set on the top oylinders, but moat deosively from the fact
of the plstiniun rod, and projecta a little above that a long continued moderate degree of heat
the top of the black lead bar, to which it ia produced as great an amount of Bhrinkage as a
bound by a strap of platinum, the front half of Higher degree of shorter conttnnanee. — Owing
the rod at the top being cut away, so as to to the uncertain indications of pyrometers in
leave the porcelain rod partially exposed, and Aimace operations, and the ineonveniencea at-
present a shoulder for the adjustment of the tending their use, the condition of frimaoea aa
scale by which the exact position of the porce- to the degree of heat is now oominonly asoer-
laln bar is measured before and after the beat- tained by trial pieces of the material operated
in^ of the apparatus. The index portion of upon, which pieces are ao placed that they may
this scale is constructed somewhat like a pair be conveniently taken ont for examination,
of proportional dividers, and one of the short They have a praotiosl value, not attainable by
arms being brought to the same point on the instraments that merely indicate the d^ree
poroelain rods at the two observations, the long of temperature, in showing Qm eflM alreMy
arm marits by a vernier upon a graduated aro produced npcni the artioles in the fyiniaoe.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FTSOPHOBUB PYEOTEOHNr 688
PTSOPHOBUS (XJr. tnip, &«, utd ^«p«, to tre&t«d by J. Hanzelet ia Ms Traiiit mmtolret
bear), a BQbatanoe wliich talus Are on expoBiiTa (1698). Thu writer reoommeDded the om of
to tfaa air. This propartj- is poaaaaaea by a the rocket io war, thus antioipatlng ConKrev«.
number of subatanoee and of mixtoras epeoially The Chineee, howeyer, had from an nnloiown
prepared. Finelj divided metaU,aa iron when period employed the rocket as an offemdve
reduced from the oxide at the liyweat poanble weapon, affixing to its A'ont end a pointed
temperatare by a onrrent of hydrwen, exhibit barb like that of an arrow. Among tae ear-
it in a remarkable degree. The effect appears Ueat pyrotechnic displays of mncb note in En-
to be prodaoed in all oasep by rapid oombioa- rope were the eibibitionB at Fontaineblean by
tion of the oxidizabla substance with the ozy- Butly in IflOS, and by If orel, conuniasary of ar-
gon of tiie air. An excellent pyrophoros is tillery, in 161S. The rqoioings at the estabtish-
produoed by oaloining in a dose crncible 6 mentofpaaoeinlTSQgaveoccasionfQrsplendid
parts of lampblack mixed with 11 of snlpbate exhibitioDS at the H6tel de Ville and the Pont
of potash ; tbe prodact is a mixture of carbon Nenf in Paris, and at Yersailles. In the middle
«nd solphuret of potasuoin, Eomberg'a pyro- of tlie 18th oentnry the Boggieris, &ther and
pboms is made by stirring a mixture of eqnal son, acqoired great celebrity as artificers of flra-
parts of alom and brown sugar in an iron ladle works, and their exbibitions at Rome and at
over tbe fire till it becomes dry ; tbea heating Paria are considered to have been among the
the aameinared-botveeselneariy dosed as long most brilliant ever witneased. At Rome there
as a Same appears at the aperture. It Is then is at Saster a famous annnal exhibition of
removed from the fire, and carefiilly stopped fireworks on tbe ramparta of the castle of San
until reqaired for the ezperimenL Tartrate of Angelo. — The oompotdtions prepared for fire-
lead heated to dull redness in a glass tobe be. works are too nnmerona to be even named in
oomea a brown powder, which when shaken this article, and reference can be made merelf
ont into the air instantly ignites. It is pre- to the matemla commonly employed, vitb ex-
oared from the solution of acetate or nitrate o! emplifications of the manner in which Uiey are
lead by addingto it tartario add or a tartrate, compounded in a few of tbe prindpal pieoea.
PTROTEOHNT (Or. imp, fire, and rfj^. Gunpowder and its ingredients, nitre, sulphnr,
art), tbe art of making fireworks for public ex- and charcoal, are tbe diief constituents of fire*
hibitions or for military purposes. Until the works. Iron and steel filings and cast inm
invention of gnnpowder, and the propertiea borings, which most be free irom mat, aro
of saltpetre were understood, flreworlu may need to increase the vividneaa of the oombua.
be saia to have been nnknown in Europe, tion, and prodnoe what is known as the Ohinese
Bnt the Chinese from an early period were " brilliant fire." It is tbeee which are thrown
akilfol in true pyroteobnio works. Their exhi- out by rockets as tbey explode, and prodnoe
bitions of fireworks have long been of sim- the bright sparks as they meet tbe oxygen of
ilor cbaraoter to thoae now seen among the the Eur. Oopper filings and the salts of copper
most advanced nations, and in tbeir variety and give a greenuh tint to the fire; zinc fillius,
tbe diversity of brilliant colors imparted to the a fine bine ; solphuret of anUmony, a light
li^ts they are still nnanrpsssed. Borrow in bia greenish blue with much smoke ; amber, rodn,
"Trarela in Ohina" n<moes particnlarlf tbe and common salt protected ag^nst daoipaess,
tirilliant pyroteohnio exhibitiona, and deaoribes are nsed to ^ve a yellow fire ; a red is pro-
piecee nnknown in Europe. One of striking duoed by l^pblack, and a pink by nitre in
effect wa« tbe descent from a box suspended at excess; tbe salts of strontian also ^ve a red
an devotion of SO or 60 feet of stringa of Un- color, and those of barytes a green. Tbe fine
terns, which gradually unfolded themselves to seeds of lyeopodhtm elavaium, one of the olnb
the numtter of full 600, eooh one having a light moMea, bum with a vivid flash of a rose color,
of beontifolly colored fiame bnming within it. and are nsed in tlieatrea to represent lightning.
From other boxea at tbe udes descended at tbe being blown from a tnlie throogh tbe flsme of
same time an immense network of fire divided a lamp. — The most nsefol piece of fireworks is
into regular figures of tbe greatest diversity of the skv rocket, employed as a signal, and under
form and oolora, flashing in great q)lendor and favorable circnmstanoea vidble no leas than 80
constantly changing, "The whole oonoluded leagues. (Bulltli»S'ein»wrag«mMt,Aug.lS21.}
with a voloanp or general explosion and di»- As o warlike missQe It will be treated under
ebarge of suns and stars, squibs, crackers, rook- Rookit. In exhibitions of fireworks the rocket
ets, and granadoes, whidi Involved tbe gardens is o lominons prqjectile, made to dart upward
for above an hour la a doud of intolerable with immense velocity and a loud bisdng
■moke." From these exhibitions withont doubt soond, and explode at Uie top of its Ught. It
nsefol hints have been afibrded for our own is sent up ringiy or in volleys of great nnmbers
fireworks, and some of tbe materials employed, together^ and oa they explode each one com-
as the crackers particularly, have been largely monly discharges colored lights which descend
exported from China to other countries.— In in brilliant showers, or dart forth in every di-
Europe the pyrotechnic art was first cultivated reotion with the irregular motions of the so
by tiie Italians; and it was described by Biiin- called fosees and serpents. Itismadeof varioni
gucci Vonuccio in his work, Se la paroUehnia, oompodtions, which are packed in tnbes fbrmed
publiabod in I&40. In Prauoa the sul^eot was hj rolUng paper hard round o cylindrical core
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
684 PTBOTEOHNT
and strong pasttng. The IbQowing are th« alter tbee^orfon it rare]/ ftlliirttbniSdeit
oompoBilioiis reoommended for tnbee respect- valodtf to do an; harm. Long triangular
ivel; of } (A), f to 1 indi (B), and 1| inohea pieoee of pasteboai^ bave beM eecored hj tht
— edge to th« ridea of the rocket aa a anbstitirta
for the Btiok, and have also aerred to ateady Hi
moremeDt. Among the deooratione or gami-
torea for tbe rodceU are etara, amiaU cjliiMrual
or enbical bodiea vaiionsly eompontided, aa of
1 part of BOlphnret of andmonj, B of qaartz, S
of gnnpowder, IS of nitre, 6 of solphnr, and S
of lino fillDKa. The materials, b^g wparate-
\j pnlTerizeo, are mixed into a atiff paate witk
«—
C«H. »<k«.
Bmu.!!...
Ckl^lx.
A
■
0
A
a
c
A
■
c
it
t
*
8
1*
*
w
'1
I
!
4
B
Chi
At what ia to be the toirer end the tube ia gamvaterorglae.madeiiitotiiedeeiTedahape^
pinched in (w " dioked " to one third its diam- rolled in gnnpoirder, and dried. Other oompo-
eter, and in tJiia end is inserted a long, sligbtij' aitiona, wnioh before nring ahonid be soaked ia
oonioal iron apike.ita upper pointed Mid reach- alcoliol,Bre K'trelS, to 8 orTof sDlpbnr, andS
ing very neu' tiie top of the case. The apike or 4 of gnnpowder ; or for golden ehowerH, to
is merdy a temporary core, aronnd which the the aame proportion of nitre may be added sal-
compoeddMi ia packed, and which being finally phiir 10 or 8, charcoal 4 or 3, gunpowder 16
removed leavee a cavity of its own dimen- or B, lampblack 9. The selection of the latter
aiona in the axis of the rocket Sometiiflea figures, where there is a choice, wiH give ehow-
the case ia filled up solid and &e cavity is ers more yellow. — Soman candles are cylindri-
bored oat in the c<Map08ition. As the com- oal cases charged wiOi stare alternating wiUi a
position mnet be powerftiUy rammed, the case compocntion like that of the rockets^ and with
is supported in a cylindrical mould of wood gunpowder. A small gnantity of the compori-
or copper, which it exactly fits. The ram- Uon b rainnied into uie bottom of the caae,
mer is of gon metal or <rf some material which upon this a little gnnpowder, and a star ia then
will not ttrika fire, and b made hollow to ad- pushed down upon the powder. Theae chuges
mit the spike. It la driven with well reg- are repeated in the same order antil the c-ue
nlated blown upon the ooiapowtion, which is b fiUeil. The end b then dosed with a pieoe
Introduced a tittle at a time. The regularity of match paper pasted round tiie outside and
of movement of the rocket depends on the drawn toapointat tiietop. 'When ttib b fired
charge being uuiformly ocmpact thronghont. the chargea are shot at short bit«rvHls sncoes-
When the point of the spike has been entirely nvely tram the tube into the air. The effect
covered, a disk of doubled paper is laid over is heightened by varying the comjiodtions and
the oho^, and the inner put of the case pro- oolors of the stars. A red fire adapted for thb
lectfatg above b turned down and rammed, or other pieces ma; be made by mixing 4 porta
.has making a close cover. Thb ia, however, of dry nitrate of etrontia with IG of pnlverired
ineroed with a few holes, and in the remiUning gnnpowder; or thb may be varied with 40
reeeptaole are placed, together with some gun- porta of the strontia, 18 of Bulphnr, 6 of chlo-
powder, or wiui the same compodtion already rate of potash, and 4 of Bulphuret of antimony.
employed, ornamental oljecta, aa stars, qiarks, The usual precaations should be obserred m
Ac, or for signal ntketg merely gunpowder pulverizing and mixing the chlorate of potash.
sliffhQy rammed and connected by a single A ^reen fire like that burned in theatree, and
hole with the cbiuge below. The top of the which gives to every thing upon the stage a
case i» then turned in and secnrely pasted down, death-like aspect, is produced by 77 parte of
As this end b to go foremost, a cone of paper nitrate of barytee, IS of solphnr, 6 of cblorate
b attached to it to lesson the resistance of the of potash, S of pclverized otarcoal, and 9 of
air. For rockets carrying more of the " deoo- arsenic. — Bengal lights, also called bine lights,
rations," as serpents, crackers, Ac, a cylindri- and used by ships as night signals, are corn-
eal case of greater diameter than that of the pounded of nitre 7 or 5, snlphur 9, antimonT'
rocket itaelf is fitted npon the npper end, which 1 ; or for the sparkling ouea, 4 each of sulphnr
it encloses, and to which It is tightly secured and nitre, 1 of antimony^ and 2 of Mminating
by twine and paste. The matoh by which the eompoaition (of falminatmg meronry and gun-
rooket b to be fired b introduced into the powder). The proportions of these ingredients
cavity at the bottom, and the whole exposed may be varionsly modified from those riven. —
aor^ce of the compomtion forming the walls Some of the most brilliant pyrotechnic aisplays
of the cavity b instantly ignited. The gaseous an of wheeb affixed to frames by a pin upm
prodncta, being violently^ected fi-om the open which they turn freely, the motion ImSdk caoa-
end, react with equal force, carryhigthe rocket ed by the reaction of discharges from tobea se-
forward in tiie other direotion. The move- cured to the periphery or spokes. By varying
ment however would be extremly wild if not the chaiges and introdopiug different colora,
controlled by some regabtor. This b fttmish- and by combinations of whe^s, the most diver-
ed in a long balance stick flnnly tied to the sified and curious displays are produced. The
rocket and projecting several fbet behind. It Buggierb were exceedingly ingenious in their
b made of Ught wood, and when it b set free devioee of thb charaoter, and among other Im-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
jvovemetits they Inventod the method of oatt»- tiona oror lime or obaUE, sod r^aoting the latter
log one piece to ignite another and thos keep portions in the distillations, it was obtuned of
np a BQccessioa of eihibitioas. — The pnblisbea strength vaiTing fi-om 80 to 90 per cent, of pure
works on prrotechny are mostly of the 17th spirit, and of speciflo gravity from 0.87 to 0.B8.
and 18th centuries. Those of more recent date From ita property of disaolTing the resins it
are: Var% defaire Apeu defrai* Uifeux d'ar- was rauclinsed in the production of varnishes,
tifiet (Paris, 1828) ; Maniiel d« Fart^Mr, by laoqners, &o., and by the hatters for their soln-
A.D. Vergnand CPari9,1828); and " Fyroteoli- tions of shellac The government now per-
Dy," by G. W. Mortimer (Jjondon, 1868). The mitting the miitare of 90 parts of alcohol with
ftallest work in English is an American book, 10 of purified wood naphtha to be employed
"System of Pyroteolmjr, oomprehending the free of duty nader the name of "methylated
Theory and Fraotioe, widi the Application of spirit," the demand tor the naphtha bos greatly
Chemistry," by James Outbnsh (large 6to., fallen off. Hie medical properties of wood
FhiladelpMB, 183S], naphtha are narcotic, sedative, and anti-emetio ;
PYROXENE (Gr. mp, fire, and £iMt, a andithasprovedefflcientinitfrestingorgreatly
stranger), a mineral speotes of Dana's angite mitigating chronic vomiting ; also as a remedy
section of the silicates, oompriung nomerona in durrhcsa and dysentery, m doses of 10 to til
varieties. That to which the name was first drops in water 8 times duly. Though formerly
^plied, though fonitd in the eo called igneous recommended in polmonary consumption, it is
rocks, did not oconr, it was supposed, in mod- foond to have no ftuther effect than to ptdliata
eni lavas ; whenoe the name. The species is the cough and lessen the febrile excitement
an interesting one for its many varieties, which PYRKHA. See Dnroujoir.
differ from each other in phyacal characters PTRBHO, a Greek sceptical philosopher, a
and chemical constitaents, and oonseqaently native of EUa, bom probably in 87S B.O., dud
have been separated by different mineralogists in 285. He was snocesdvely a poor punter,
among several species. They werefirstbrooght a poet, a disciple of the fiegario smool, a
together nnder the head of pyroxene by HaHy, stddant of the writings of Dtanocritua, and a
who recognized the identity of the crystalline companion of the Democritean philosopher
form common to them all ; and thoagh for a Anaxarchna, under whose patronage he jomed
time the relationship among them was not ad- the eastern expedition of iaeiaader the Great,
mitted by ohemista, It was at last found that He addressed a poem to that monarch, which
the differences in their oompoattion resnlted was mnuiflcently rewarded with 10,000 pieces
from the substitution of one isomorphons ele- of gold. Heaooompsniedthe Indian campiugD,
mentfor another, and that one general formula and tJius became acquainted with the doctrines
m^ht be used to express the combination of and practices of the lodiaa gymnosophists, as
nlicio acid with one or more of the following well as those of thePersisn magi. In themoet
bases (one replaced for another in an^ pro- aoUve and important period of Greek philoso-
Cirtions), viz. : lime, magnesia, protoxide of phy he surveyed the results alike of Greek and
on, or manganese, and sometimes soda. Ala- oriental epecnlation only as a preparation for
mina may a£o enter into the composition, re- the establishment of a complete system of
placing it may be a portion of Nlicic acid, with- scepticism. He returned to Greece weary (tf
out essentially changing the cryHtallizotioa. the &ls^ood and vanity of the camp and court,
Among the varieties oomprised in this spedes and cherishing as the highest good the ntmost
are the aogites, coccoUte, diopside, sahljte, repose and peace of mind. He lived in retire-
JefierBonite, and mai^ others. mant, probably in his native city, and appar*
PYSOXYLIO SFIBIT (also known as pyro- enlly In indolence, yet was honored by hu
HgneoDs spirit or ether, wood qilrit or naphtha, countrymen with the o£Qoe of high priest. Tor
methylio alcohol, hydrate of metiiyle, so.), a his sake, also, a law was passed exempting
spirituous liquid, not a product of fermeotatioo, philosophers from the payment of taxes. Hia
bat forming one of the most volatile constitu- disciple Timou, who reported many oonversa-
ents of pyroligneouB acid, fivm which it is cb- tions with hiin, extols with admiration his
tained in the process of porifying this acid by divine repose of soul, his independeooe of
distillation. (See Aomo Acid, and Napstiu.} every thing external, and his lot^ indifference
When puriSed, wood spirit is a colorless liquid to sophistry, and compares him to the imper-
of a penetrating empyreumatic odor, and a dis- torbablesiui god dwelling above the earth. The
agreeable bommg taste. It is very inflamma- only condition which he deemed worthy of a
ble, horning like alcohol with a blue flame. It philosopher was that of snspended judgment,
mixes with water, aloohol, and ether in all pro- He wonld nether assert nor assent to any prop-
portiona. ItboilaatlOO°, and at Q8° its specific oaition. He and his followers were called
gravityia0.7S8; at82%0.8179. Thesubetauce inquirers, who sought the truth; soeplics or
was first recognized by P. Taylor in 1818 ; but examiners who alw^s conwdered and never
its propeitiea were m;et expluned by Domaa discovered ; epheotics, from the state of bus-
and Peligot in 1B8S. In Great Britain wood pense which they cherished; and doubters,
naphtha, not being subject to the excise dnty, from the logical dilemmas oot of which they
has been a valuable substitute for alcohol In could not extricate themselves. Suspense was
variona masabotoree. Sy repeated reotifica- ratltar a praotioal than a speonlative principle
UigmzOQbyGOO^Ie
6U PTBBBUB
witli bim, and h« reftised to underfake tnj IfaoedoDtan Uag in ttB Enropesa dondnioiu.
philoBopbical jastLfication of it Eia m«iit as a Demetrins was forced to flee, asd hfa kingdom
Bcoptical philoBOpher cooiists imij In hia rigor- was divided, a large ahare of Macedonia falllag
0D8 adherenoe to the eoeptioal idea, wtiicti he into the hands of Pyirhna. Boon, bowerer,
developed into no lysteni. No vrritinga are at- the Uacedonians drove him out again, and pnt
tribnted to him, except hla poem addressed to themaelves under Ljfiimachna. In S81 an em-
Alexander. His doctrines were eipoimded bj hassj from the Taren tines implored PTrrfausto
Timon, called bj Sextoa Empiriona nia prophet, come over to Italj and aatist the Greek inhaU-
PTRBHUS, son of Achillea. See Nkoftoli- tants against the Komana. He set ont in 280
ITJB. with an anor of 30,000 foot, 8,000 horse, 9,000
PTKRHU8, king of Epirna, bom abont 818 Brcbers,600Bbngers,andaDnniberof elephants.
B. 0., killed at Argoc in 27S. He was the son Bat a great storm arose and scattered the fleet,
of .£addes and Phthia, and traced hia descent and Pyrrbtu arrived at Tarentom after nearly
from Pyrrhns, the son of Achilles, and waa also losiDg hia own life. There, while waiting for
connected with the rojral fomil; of Uacedon. the dispersed ahips to come in, finding the in-
His father having been dethroned bj the Epi- habitants indisposed to take their proper share
rotes, Pfrrhos was reecned and brought to In the war, be compelled them to enter the
Glauola9,kingof theTaalantianB,whoedacat«d army, closed their theatres, and soon showed
him with his own children. When Oassander'a himself their master as well as ally. Failing to
power in Greece was weakened, his protector negotiate with U.yalerinsLsevinnB, the Roman
waa enabled to restore Pyrrhns to his throne ; general, Pyrrhns met him on the river Siris, and
hnt hedid notions ectjoyhls sovereign^, as he won a victory with the loss of alarse nomber
was again expelled by the EpirotM, and fled to of his best troops. "Another snch victoi7,"he
his brother-in-law Bemetrina Polioroetes, who la reported to have ssld, " and I mnst retom to
was tbcn in Asia. He distingnlsbed hunsdf at Epirna alone." He now seat Oineas to Rome,
the battle of Ipans in 801, and snbseqnently offering peace on condition that the indepen-
went into Egypt as a hostage for Demetrioa. dence of the Italian Greeks shonld be recog-
There he guned the good will of Ptolemy's nized, and that the Sanmites, Lneanians, Apoli-
wife, Berenice, married her daughter Antigone, ana, and Bmtdans shonld regain the posaewdons
and was i^mi^ed by the king with a fleet and they had loet in war. Althongh many of their
troops to recover Epirna. He fonnd Neoptole- allies had deserted them at this time, and their
mus in posaession of the throne, and the two condition seemed cricicat, the Boman senate re-
consented to hold it in common; bnt presently, jected the tenns. Herenpon Pyrrhns marched
to prevent hia own deatrnction, Pyrrhns put to within 24 miles of Rome, plnndering the
Keoptolemns to death (295). He now inter- coontry as he wont; bat the arrival of the Ro-
fered in the qnarrels of Antipater and Alexan- man army from Etrnria planed him nnder the
der, the two sons of Oassanaer, and took the necessity of retiring. Taking np his winter
part of the latter on condition that Acamania, qnarters in Tarentom, he took the field in the
Amphiloohia, and Ambracia ahoold be oeded spring of 270, and guned ahardlywon vicdory
to nimself, with the Macedonian districts of at Asculun. Few of his GrecisQ troops were
IVmpheea and Paraniea. He then placed now left; and, nnahle to obtain reenforoonents
Alexander oa the throne of Macedon, bnt the from home, he was willing to conclnde a truce
latter was soon after dethroned and pnt to in order to drive the Oortha^nians from l^cily.
death by Bemetrina, to whom he had uso ap- Prevlonsly the Boman consols Fabrioins and
plied for ud, and who made himself kii^In lu8 .£miUns had sent backto Pyrrhns a servant
place. Hostilities soon arose between these who had deserted and promised to poison hia
two powerful ndghbors, who had formerly master, and in retom for this Pyrrhns released
been close friends. War broke ont in S91, in all the Roman prisoners. He now passed over
which year Thebes revolted from Bemetrins ; into Sicily, and at first was so snccesHful that
and while the Uacedonian king was engaged the Carthaginians agreed to asrist him with
in the siege of that place Pyrrhns marched into ships and money against the Romans on ecn-
Theeaaly, bnt waa forced to retire. Thebes dition of peace. Bnt rejecting this of^, and
having &Ilen in 290, Bemetrina invaded Epims shortly after failing in an attack npon litybe-
In 289, leaving Fantanchns in ^tolia with a nm, his credit so mnch declined, and with it
large force to keep the jEtoIiana in Bubjection. his fortnne, that he was glad to retnm to Italy
Pyrrhns, advancing to meet Bemetrins, bnt in 270. His fleet was attacked by the Oartha-
twing a difibrent rente, entered jEtolia, en- ginisns, and 70 of hb ships destroyed. He re-
ooontered Pantanchns, and defeated his army, mdned in Italy, carrying on an indedsive war,
Tanqnishing him in single combat The next nntil 276, when he was rooted near Beneren-
year he invaded Uacedonia, and marched as tum by Cnrins Dentatns, and obliged to retnni
far as Edessa, bnt was driven back, and soon to Epims, having become poor both in troops
after concluded a peace with Bemetrina, who and resources. In 278 he invaded Macedonia,
was now anxions to r^un his fiither's domin- and for the second time gained poesesdon of that
Ions in Asia. Herenpon Selencns, Ptolemy, country. At the instanoe of Cleonymna, who
and Lysimachns entered into an alliance which had been exdnded trota the Spartan throne^
they persnaded Pyrrhns to Join, to attack the he marched into Laoonia in S7S with S6,OO0
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
FTTBAGORAS 687
foot, 3,000 hoTM, and 94 6l«)Iuuito. A^nat and haarlna Mm bowl, he bmed the abrlkfir
Bach a foroe re^atanoe Beamed oeeless. fie ar- to degist, adding : " It is the bouI of a fHeDd of
rived before Bparta at the dose of daj, but de* mine, whom I recognized by bia voice." I,ater
fbrrod the attaok until tha followiag morning, antboritiea sacribe to him the diecoveriea that
Dnring the night the Spartana enooeeded in the triangle in a aemioircle is right-angled, and
fortifVing themselves bo atronglj as to be able that the sqaare on the bvpotbenoae of a right*
to hold ine ait; antil relieved D7 the arrival of angled trum^e is eqoal to the sum of the
TVfinforoementa. Taking np hia winter qnartera aqoarea on the other two sidea, and al»o dis-
in Loconia, F^TrhnB was ladooed to interfere ooveriea in the theory of music and in medicine,
in the a&irs of Arsoa, and in a conflict in the Apart from authentdo testimony, it is probable
steeets of that oi^ be received a slight wonnd from ibe oharacter of his followers that he was
&om ajavelin. He was about to cut down tha espeoially ^lled in geometry and aritbmetio,
Argive who had attacked him, when the mother and that the Pythagoreans were taught by bim
of tiie man, seeing the danger of her son, burl- to regard numbers as is some mysterious man-
ed down from the roof of a house a large tile ner the basia and essence of all things. It waa
which struck Pyrrhus on tha back of the neok. however rather as a religions teaoner than a
Stnnned by the blow, he fell from Ms horse philosopher that he made bis profound imprea-
and waa kUled by some of the soldiers of the sion upon his contemporaries ; and while the
enemy, by whom be had been recognized. Pyr- drnids of Oaul, the gymnosopbiats of India, or
rhus wrote commentaries, which were used by the priests of Egypt and PbTygia have been re-
Dionysius and Plutarob, and also composed a yarded as the source of bia religions doctrines,
bvatise on the art of war, which was extant in it Is supposed by Bitter that be derived by tr&-
tbe time of Oioero. dition a secret mystical cnltus which be rather
PYTHAQ0BA5, a Greek philosopher, fbund- developed than modified. He is said to have
er of a pbilosophioal, relJ^ouB, and political aa- returned to Bamoswhen about 40 yearsof s^
somation in aonthem Italy, bom in Samoa about with religions zeal the predominant element in
660 B. 0., died probably in Uetspontum about his character. His native island, under the
604. The abeenoe of any mltings proceedii^ despotism of Polyorates, was un&vorable to
fh>m tilmaalp^ the few contemporary memorials the dissemination of his doctrines, and he emi-
of him, the mysterv which vdled uie constitu- grated to Orotona in Italy, then distingnished
tionandoondnotofhiBbrotherbood,theextraT- for the superiority of its phyucians and the
igant legends which prevailed concerning him excellent pkj/tioM of its citizens. There is do
■nd wore adopted by his ITeo-Flatonio bltwra- evidence to confirm the statements of Porphyry
phera, and the oonaequent oonAiaion of dinbr- and lambliobna that be withdrew because the
ent ages of Pythagoreanism, make him one of public honors conferred on bim by the Samites
the most obscure personsgee in Greek history. Interfered with bis schemes in behalf of reli-
A uniformity, however, prevuls throuKhont gion and philosophy. He immediately acquired
his philosophy, by whomsoever developed, the personal ascendency on reaching Orotona. At
germs ofwnii^ at least, must have been derived his first eloquent discourse no fewer than 2,000
from himself, while bis personal authority ap- persons are awd to ^ave been converted, and
peara also in tbe sway Wnioh bis societies long the aristocratic council of 1,000 persons, in
exercised over the Italian cities. Hewaatheson which the supreme authority waa vested, of-
of Maesarohns, an opulent merchant, was a dis- fered to bim its presidency. From the marvels
dpla of Phereoydes of Syroa, and perhaps also Ions stories of bis biographers there is reason to
of Tlmles and Anajdmanaer,aDd baddtohave believe that he was received as a person fbvor-
q>ent SO years in wide-reaohing travels for the ed by the gods and as a revesler of divine ae-
purpoae of collecting all attainable knowledge, crets ; that he was at once revered by the
especially the esotena doctrines of priests con- mnltitode and honored and obeyed by numer-
ceminft the worship of the gods. Egypt, Ara- ous adherents of the powerfnl and wealth;
, ___ mentioned among the countries bound by a vow to a peculiar diet and by com*
in which he travelled. Grote decidee that he mon religious observances and hopes ; aod that
Cbably visited Egypt, and that be may there this clnb of influential men gradually and suc-
ederivedtromconversalionwitbthepriests, cessfully mineled political with reli^ous and
and from initiation into the various mysteries, scientific motives. That he required a long
his turn for symbolical ceremonials and ascetic novitiate of silence, possessed a remarkable
practices. It is asserted by a few scholars that skill in reading character, instituted a peculiar
nothing either in his doctrine or institutions diet and discipline, rigidly cared for sobriety aa
implies an oriental origin or any foreign iu' conducive to physical vigor, and employed mn-
fluence. Hie contemporary Heraolitus said of sic to soothe the pasdons, are mentioned among
him; "He has made more inquiries than any thesouroesof his power. Tiie whole discipline
other roan ; he has acquired wisdom, knowl- was designed to produce a lofliy serenity uut
edge, and misohievoua refinement." Xeno- self-possession, and to raise its votaries above
phanes, also his contemporary, related that he the level of mankind. It does not appear,
believed in the metempsycbods, or transmi- however, that all were subjected to the same
gration of souls, and that aeeing a dog beaten, training or studies, since Uilo, the most famous
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
VTMtl«rofliiia8(SirM«D0iiathem,aiideoiild of tbo enuring eaet, from vluaiMdff^
not hAve dispensed with uumal (bod. TheP;- thing trustworthy on As ntijea ■«;
thagoreans soon beoama asoendant in the gov- have been deriveid. tt vw tagiaii i
ernment uf Crotona, and exerted tbeir power distorted hj Apcdhtnins of Tjiu id ^
in favor of the aristocrotio party. Prond of Neo-Fythagoreana from the MeofCionu
the relieiona ideas and ethical tone of their were rather thaumatorgitti t^ eMiwjK
master, they were haughtily exolnaiTe, jihyd- and who were p^aaL^ confomidtdnk:^
cally and intellectnally efficient, and politically Neo-Platoniats. The loadameiitil iita
domineering. Kindred clnbi were established are, that the oononcea of all tUugs x:it
at Sybarie, Uetapontum, Tarentum, and other numerical ralatitMis; that amLkrin':
citiea, and the doctrtnea aad influence of Fy- principle of all that ezitfs ; and tim ib r,
tbagoras spread r^idly over Magna Grecio. subsstsby tharhythmical<»deriiiad^
Concerning the internal adnunistraticai of the elemenlo. Everywhere in uiliire >^u
brotherhood little is certainly known, untM two elements of the finite nd tU !ua
every thing that was done and ton^t was kept which give rise to Qiadementtjjo^tKdi:
a profound secret. The members are nsnaUy the nnivarBe, the odd and iYea,i!aSsim-
divided into the eaoterio and the ezoteiio^ the right and left, male and iemdi, bd a
former being, aooording to Bitter, specially moved, atraiahtand enrvedili^tiiidJna
instraoted ia the reUfflons ritea and dootrinoB, sqoare and oblong, good andbad. "Dtm*
iDthemorereooaditflPytbagoreanBpeciilationB. of number is nni^, which iiitoittKia
The daily routine, as given hj lanihlichas, re- even, end contains in itself is |eni ta
Bembiea the diicdpline of spartan citizena. universe. It ia at once the ions od tits
U&ller calls the Pjihagorean ^aoipline the ex- Btonce of all things, and idtutiai nt a
presfdon of Grecian Doriam aa opposed to Ionic Deity. Prooeedingfromilselfitb^iik?
tendencies. Lobeck maintains the identity of and retoming npon itself it Upn 10^
the Pythagorean and the Orphio life, regarding Added to itaelf it prodoeea tbelM;ita
the latter aa only the modification of the former point placed on the othertcogiiB^p
after it was transplanted to Greece. The politi' face ; and a fourth point placed oi iisis
oal prominenc« of the Pythagoreans, and the three gives the pyrunid or lolid. lb ?*
demooratio jealooaf caused by their aristocrat- rata or tetractye wid thedeiiid»in,£hi^
io ejclnsiveness. led to their overthrow. Tlie saered Qumbersaod fiidpitewlK. &b
war which reaolted in the conquest of Sfbaris verse was prodseed by thebmtlui|(<''k^
(510 B.C.) was ondertaken by their advice, priacjplo into the infiDitevMdoi !!•'*•
and the Orotoniau forces were commanded by which thus became both fiml« ni ^^^
their athlete Milo. The victory encooraged and therefore capable of derdtfoiE;::^'
them to resist more actively than before the multiplicity of numbers <
attempt of the popular party to obtain a share actual world every sin^e Taoie > • |^ "
in the government of Orotona, and they gave pable of ftulher development ij fafflp*
signal offence by refusing to divide among the cess of breathing, £v«7 tb<nK i^ .
people the territory of tie reoently conquered nnmber, and material olfleds miplu"
oity. Tbeir enemiea ventured upon determined numbers. There are fi eleoMua, 1m i£3
oppoeition to them, and the result was a revo- fire, air, water, and ether, r^nwiKdn^
Intion by which anew senate was conatitnted, ively by the cube, pyramid, oet^ietaa,"*
taken by lot from all the people. The popular hedroa, and dodecanedron. ^ ^""f '. '
party was now unrestrained, and the Pythago- harmonious whole, coasiitiiigrflUp'*'|^
reans were attacked in their assembly house, revolving in a choral dance uwndt'^'
the building set on fire, and sil. but the youiuer centre, and prodoomg b; their ^*°**i^
and more vigorous members perished, loe movements the muac of the V*^ ■
order was in like manner violently auppreesed centre is the bur, the seat of iit^' '^^
in the other oitiea of Ua^a Grsoio, having ciple of life, and the murt p^'^'T^
endured about 20 years. Yet it continued to nature. The stan also are dinnii"^*^
exist aa a philosopbicsl sect, devoted to reli- and even iuforior animaEi v* i^ ^ '..
gioDs and sdentiflo interests. Pythagoras preme Being. The soak '^ '"^'^'f' "^Z
himself is variously stated to have been borned numbers, light pariklea frooi ^^' -
In the temple with his disciples, to have died a soul, capable of combiaiiig >it^ "^^ia
short time previously, and to have perished destined to pass eoccetfivelj ''^'^/f .
long afterward in exUe otMetapontum after 40 l^ith the theory of '"'^'''9^°'^^'''^
days of voluntary abstdoeDoe from food, Ac- bbed the doctrine of taom **°™^°1- ■
cording to UoUer, " the influence of the Pytha- reason and understaudiog kin tbt'i'-^-
Krean league upon the administration of the the brain; thepasBioniBrepl'(^,^~L^'
ilisn states was of the most beneficial kind, Koral good waa identified "'l °^[|^!y^
wUoh continued for many generations after the multipBcity ; virtue wm tht ''^F'^ j^
dissolution of the league itself," — The first soul and its similitude to God. ^^j*
publication of the Pytbaiforeau philosophy was was to make it represent ''|'J^'Z|i;f
made by Philolaus and Archytaa, contempo- of the universe. The whole pf»*™^^
raries of Plato, and among the last members of Pytliagoreanism waa Meebe, «« ""^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
PTTHEAS PYTHON 889
A rtriot Mlf-contral and an ettraest onhore. Mlvea deoided the disputes and adjndged the
Though it seems to hare been fbnnded on the pmes, but after the Criueean war the man-
mjetioiam of numbers, yet it was regarded as agement came into the hands of the Amphio-
a tcientific doctrine by Aristotle, who called tfona. Once, in 01. 132, the games vera held
tbe Pjthagoreans a school of mathematioiansi in Athens by the advice of Bemetrins Polior-
— Pjthagoreaaism was of little aoooont in tbe cetes. Thej appear to have lasted as long as the
Kholastio philosophy, but its doctrines of unm- Olympic games, or till about A. D. 894. They
bers were recognized in the mysteries of were neld in the Crissfean. plain, which had a
alchemy, and in tbe symbols of mystical ai^ theatre for the muscat contests, a race oonrse,
chitecture. To Albert of Btrssbourg was a stadium 1,000 feet long, andprobably agymr
attribated a complete scientifio, moral, and ar- nadiun,prytanenm,andsinii)arbaildings. Borne
obitectoral system founded on nomerical rela- ancient writers tell us that tliey were first
tions. At the reriral of learning Pythagorean called Pythian games In 01. 4S, when the Am-
tenets lay at the basis of the Bpecnladons of phiotyons assumed tlieir management. Pre-
Nicholas of Oosa, and mingled witli those of vion^ they had been held at the end of every
Qiordano Bmno. In the present century 8 years, but afterward at the end of every 4.
Joseph de ACaistre has developed anew the Tliey were probably solemnized in the spring,
mjsterioas qualities of numbers, and Leronx's and lasted several days. There were other I^-
doctrines of the triad and of the metempsy- thian games of less importance held in various
cho»8 recall the Fn>ecu]ationB of Pythagoras. places in Greece, in Asia Minor, and Italy,
PYTHEA£, a Greek navigator of Karseillea, where the worship of Apollo was established,
who flourishad about the age of Aleunder the PYTHIAB, See Dauos.
6reit He is said to have made two voyages, PYTHON (Dandin), a genua of Urge tr<n>-
in one of wbieh be visited Britain and Tbnle ioal, non-venomoas serpents, repladng in the
(perhaps Iceland), and in the second passed old world the boas of the new. (8m Boa.)
along the western and northern coast of Eft- The pythons differ from the boas in having 4
rope. He also wrote two books, one of whit^ teeth in the intermaxillary bone, and in moat
dHcribing the ocean, was probably an aoconnt of ttie saboandal scales being in pairs. Most
of his flrst voyage, and the other, entitled F^ of the species of these large serpents have been
r^Itu, of his second. In these works he stated exhibited alive in European and Amerioan
thit he had vbited Britain, and that it was aoological gardens and menageries, tliough in
40,000 stadia in ciroamfbrence. Uoreover, he this country they are br less commonly aeen
Mid that in Thole the days and nights were than the South American boas. The python
< mouths long, and that in the summer solstdce of Java {P. retimlatvg. Gray) is one of the
Uie sun never disflppeared from the horizon, handsomest of the genus, Imng laced with
The Tan^ to which PythesB refers ia probably brilliant golden and black ; it attains a length
the Elbe, By many ancient writers, especially of 80 feet, and possesses sufficient strcMth, it
Fot^bius and Strabo,the statements of Pytheas is said, to overcome the buffalo. Tbe Indian
are traated with contempt, the latter in several rock snake (P. molurm. Gray) attains a droUar
places eslling him a great liar; but in modem size; it ia marked above with yellow, blat^
times it has become evident that he was a bold and brown, and is white beneath spotted with
lurigator and sa^ious observer. Hewasthe black; itis the ov2ar «awi of the Malays; It
Srat who determined the latdtade of a place frequents rice fields and marshy places, and
from the shadow oast bythe sun, obtaining the feeds principally on hogs and mun^aos. In
Wsition of Uassilia by means of a gnomon. AiKea belongs ^e Natal python or rook snake
ne was also aware of the inflaenoe of tiaa moon (P. Natalu, Smith), from the vii»nity of Port
npou the tides. The few tngmaOs at Pytheas Natal ; it attains a length of more than Sd feet
now extant were collected by Arvedaon (tTpsal, and the thickness of a man's lx>dy ; the South
^834). Africans have snob a superstitions dread of it
PYTHIA. See Dklfhi, that they will setdtm attack it even when
PYTHIAN GAMES, one of the 4 great na- powerleas from being gorged with food. Seba's
ftiaal festivals of Greece, held at Delphi, which or the two-banded pyQion (_P.hmttatv*,Xohl)
Vu originally called Pytho from the serpent has 2 brownish black bands along tbe sides of
PTthon killed by A[)o]]o near there. The le- the backj it attains a length of more than SO
Eendtiry aoconnt attributed the origin of these feet, and is especially abundant in the Senegal
gameBtoApoUo, although there were traditions re^n. The royal python (P. .fieflM, Gray),
■Ik) referring them to Amphic^on, Diomedes, from the same localities, is a brightly nurkfld
and other heroes. At firat the Delpbians them- species, of a shorter and thicker form.
>y Google
Ql
k the lYth letter and 19th ooneonant of the (lEarch?) and CiimB (Vfaagl), gar* the crtnni
'lEnglish alphabet. It oorresponda with to YamiiDB, who belonged to that tribe, and
the Hebrew end Phtenidan ibpA, and as hia kept it for a long time under their protet^km;
■eldom naed except in oonjunction with u, mott bnt in the reign of Uarcng Aurelina the Qnadi
gramroarianB are diaposed to r^ard it as a an- joined the great German confederacy agaitnt
perfluouB letter whose place conid be snpplied the empire, and in 174 were on the point of
DT i. It does not occur in the Greek, old I«tin, destroTing the imperial l^ons in a great battle
SUtIc, Irish, or Saxon alphabet, thongh it was when a sodden atonn, attribnted to the praTen
introdnced into the Latin at a prettf earlj of the Christian soldiers in the emperor's annj,
period. The words which are now written enabled the Bomana to recover from their coa-
with a 7 were spelt b; the andent Romans with fkision and achieve a complete victory. Tha
e, as antieiu for anlif[vvM, eoUdie for ouottdie; independence of the Qnadi was recognized bj
and some words are itiU spelt Indiacnminately Oommodns in 180. Tliey disappear ftom his-
with either, as loeutu* or bqwOat, Varro and toi? about the eloae of the 4th century.
Bome other grammarians never consented to QITADRANT, the fonrth part; commonly
admit this letter Into the Roman itlphabet. ^jplied to the fonrth part of the circle or an
Others regarded it not as a rimple letter, bat aa are of 90% and also to instmments empk^ed
a contraction of m or cu ; tbne cuit, according for meaanring angles in any plane, llie use of
to them, was originally ent or qa. The Anglo- qnadranta has been for anrreying and for msi-
Baxona for gu wrote etc. Q never ends a word ing astronomical observationa, and e«>ecially in
in English, l>nt it does tn French, as einq, and navigation for determining the meridian alti-
in other modem Enropean langtiages. The tnde of the snn and through this the latitude
letters with which it interchanges are e and i. of the observer. They have been constructed
As a nnroeral it stands for 600, or with a dash of a great variety of forma and dimensions
over it (q) for 600,000. Used aa an abbreria- adapted for their several nses ; ^nt at present
tion, it signifies quantum, food, gna, gy» (and), the interest attached to them is historical only,
Qnintna, &o. as they have been entirely sopereeded either by
QUA BIRD. See Night Hraos. aextanta or the ftill circle. The former, of
QtJAOKENBOS, Qeobgb Patit, an Ameri- more portable form than the qnadrant, by thft
ean educator, born in Kew York in 1826. Ea nae of two reflecting mirrors donble the angle
waagraduatedatODlumbiacoUegeinl64S, and Inclnded between the direct and reflected Hne
soon after oommenced teaching in North Caro< of li^ht, and thus with an arc of 60° or { of
lina. ne has continued in tbte profession with the circle include a range of 120° ; while tbe
fe brief Interval ever dnce, having In 1647 circle, on account of the symmetry of its form
opened a private school in New York city, and and the completeness of its graduated arc all
has beddebeenconnected with various Journals aroimd, serures greater ezsctness in its read-
as contributor, correspondent, and editor. In ings, and is less liable to the introdnction of
1648 he established tbe "Lil«rary American," any unsuspected source of error. Quadrants
which he conducted for two years. He has were employed as fax back as the time (Uf
published a number of popular school books, Ptolemy, who made use of one for determining
Including au " Advanced Oourae of Oomposi- the obliqnity of the ecliptic. Tycho Brphe
tion and Rhetoric" (1864) ; " Illustrated School had a laige mural qnadrant (so called from its
History of the United States" (ISGT) ; "A Nat- being suspended upon an axis aecured inasoUd
oral Philosophy for Bchools and Academies" wall of masonry) with which he obacrved alti-
(isee) ; and " Primary History of the United tndes, and also another on a vertical ails for
states" (18S0); and has prepared an American meaanrinf horizontal anglea. The mural quad-
edition of Spiers and Snrenne'a French and rants of uiat period were large instruments at
English dictionary (18SS). 0 or 8 fset radine, and tor some time coatiuDed
QUADI, an ancient powerM people of S. E. to be employed in the nrincipat observatories.
Germany, of the Buevio race. They inhabited Sir Isaac Newton is saia to have constructed a
tbe country between Monnt Gabreta, the Her- reflecting quadrant as early as the year 1678;
(yfuian forest, the Barmatian mountains, and hnttheflrstinstmmentofthischaracterbronght
the Dannbe, their neighbors being tbe Gothini before the public was that afterword known aa
and Osi on the N., the Jazyges HetansstEe on Hadley's, the invention of which was cJaimed
the E., the Pannoniana on the S., and the Uar- by Godfrey, a mechanician of Philadelphia.
comaim] on the W. With the last named peo- (See Oodpbbt, IkoiUB, and Hadlet, Jom.)
pie they were on terms of alliance. In the Ihia instrument, whidi has been in general
reign of Hberins the Romans erected a king- use in navigation, is a graduated octant of H
dom of the Qnadi between the rivers llama half degreea, reading as 90* With the radial
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
qua:draxubb «9t
ban at each eztreitdtT of the sra Et forms s that the ntSo of the diameter of the cirenm"
biaogtilar frame, vhich is made of coUTeoient ferenee lay betweea 1 : Zi* and 1 : i\}, and
dimenaions for holding in the hands. A moT- he adopted the former, whl(^il Is also expressed
able radial bar or index rerolves in the plane 1 : SS. The Hindoos at some earl; period —
of the sector npon a pin passing throsgh the oertainlf hefore any Improvement was made
centre. At the centre it carries a mirror, the tipoa this result in Korope — obtained the pro-
bes of whioh is perpendicular to this plane portion 1,Z60 : 8,927, or 3.1410, wMoh is mnch
and which in making an obBerration is tamed more exact than that of Archimedes. Ptolemj
tovard the object, as the sun or a star, and at rives 8.141662, which Is not qnite so correct
the other end it carries a vernier for sahdivid- In modem times the first great step in extend-
ing the angles on the gradnated limb. Upon Ing this caloolation was made by Feter Uctius,
the outer edge of the radial bar, back of the a HollsDder, and was published byhisson Adri-
Bovable mirror, is set the sight vane, which is an Metins. By calcnlating from polygons of
directed across to a second mirror fixed upon about 1,S3S sides he fonnd that the proportion
the opposite bar, its plane perpendicular to was less than S^Vo and greater than 8[\V; and
that ol the bar, and Its face so a^oated that a presaming that the mean of these was nearer
ray reflected from the first mirror to the sec- the truth than either limit, he h^ipOj hit thna
end is transmitted from this to the eye at the by chance on a near approzimatjon, and deter-
^^htraae. Onlyhalf of the glasaof the second mined a ratio convenient for practical pnrposea,
mirror, called the fore horizon glass, is silvered, and easy to recollect from its terms being made
and consequently ra^s passing throngh it from up of successive pairs of the first S odd nom-
snyot^ect, as the horizon at sea, meet the eye in bers, viz.: 113: 86S. The error involved in
a direct line ; and if at the same instant, while this expression in a circle of 1,900 miles circnm-
Ihs instrament is held to this poution, the in- ferenee is less than one foot. Ladolph van
dei is moved so as to bring the reSected image Cenlen, another Hollander, in 1690, about the
of the son upon the silvered part of the glass same time that Uetius made his oalcolations, ez-
snd from this to the eye, the reading of the tended the calculation to 86 figures, which are
vernier is the elevation of the aun above the engraved npon his tombstone in Leyden. These
liorizon. Vsrtons other appendages are intro- are S.14I69265358eTe823346Sft4S38327960289.
daced in the quadrant, as & telescope for the The last figure is too large, and S would be too
sight vsac, colored passes for diminiBhing the small. This was obtained by oalcolating the
Intensity of the IJght| and a third mirror uilled chords of succcsuve arcs, each one being half
tha back horizon ^ass, with its sight vane, for of the preceding ; for the above result this was
tstmg a back observation. (For Gunter's carried out so far, that the last arc waa one
(pisdrant, see GnirrBB.)— In gnnnery, the quad- side of spolygon of 8S, 893, 488, 147, 4 19, 103,233
csnt or gimnor's square is a rectangular frame sides. The method of oalculaUon was greatlf
vitli a graduated arc between the two limbs, simplified by Boeli, who carried the oomputa*
One of the limbs b extended beyond the aro, tion to 6$ decimal places by means of a poly-
K> as to be set into the mouth of the piece, the gon of only 6,242,860 sides. By other mathe-
clevation of which it is to measure. A plummet matioions the computation was carried on,
napBudedfrom the pointof meeting otthetwo Teaching successively during the last oentnrr
irms marks by the intersection of its line on 76, 100, 128, and 140 places of decimals ; ana
the RTsdnated arc the degree of elevation. Ifontncla received from Baron Zach 1C4 figure^
QlJAORATUBE, the finding of a eqaare stud to have been obtained from a manusoripi
equal in area to that of any given figure. So in the RadolifTe library at Oxford, of the exii^
niuhematical problem has excited so great in- ence of which there is no other evidence. The
t«reet as the quadrature of the circle, or the figures, however, except the last two, have
^termination of a sqnare of the same area, nnoe been proved correct. (See UontocU,
Mit is proved that the area of a circle is equal SitUnre det ruhereke* tur la quadrature du
to that of a right angled triangle, the altitude of eerde, 1764.) Notwithstanding that ^mbert
*hich is the radius of the circle and the base in 17S1, and still later Legendre in his EUnuntt
Its circomference, and as the side of the sqaare de giomitrie, proved that the ratio of the di-
or squat enrface with the triangle is amean ametertotheoircumferenceoannotbeexpressed
Eroportional between the height and half the by any numbers, the wish to satisfy those who
Bse of the triangle, the problem would be still sought the exact expression of thb ratio
nlved if the cirounifeTence could Ik imme- led other malhemaUciana to oootinue to add to
distelj calculated from the radins which Is these Sgures ; and some must have derived a
''novn. Thus the question of the quadrature singular gratification in the computation itself
efthe circle is reduced to finding the proper- and its never terminating result. In May,
neu bt}tweca the diameter and circumference. 1641, a paper was communloated to the royal
Arebiniedesundertookthesolutionof theprob- society by Dr. RnUierford of Woolwich, pre-
™f> on the principle of calouhitiii^ the periph- sentiog 206 figures of deoimsls, of whioh how-
"iss of two polygons of many sides (as 96), ever 69 were afterward proved to be wrong,
one circurascribed about the circle and the so that the series was not really carried be-
(ither inscribed, between which mnst lie the yond the result obtained from the Oxford US.
ciTDunifereuce of the circle. He thus found In 184S 200 decimals were correctly made ont
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
692 QUADBIO QUADBtlUAKA
by Mr, Da*e ; snd the nert jear 2W hr Dr. Kholar, othen, like the lemnri, seem to form
ClanMn of DorpBt lalSSlMr. WHliamSiiankB the Unks b«tireeii b&ts, c&mivoTa, or insecti-
of Darh&m calcnlated 81B decimals, which I>r, vora, and the monkejs proper; all are traly
Bntherford verified and extended to &G0. Mr. quadrnpeds, for anatoinical reaaona Kiven nn-
Shaoka soon carried theae to SB7 decimals, of oer Amthbopoloqt and Apb. For detula on
which 411 were confirmed hj Dr. Bntherford. the anatomy and phynologj end extenave bib-
FiaaUy In 1888 Mr. Sbanka reached the ntun- liography of the order, aee the article " Qnad-
ber of 607 dcdmala, and gare the reeult in ramana" by Vrolik in vol. iv. of Todd'a " Cy-
Ub " Oontribntions to Uathematica" (London, clopcedia of Acatoniy and Fbysiolo^" (Lou-
1858). — When it waa made evident that the don, 1848). They are abno«t ezcIueivelT con-
arithmeticAl eipreamon was impossible, it waa fined to the tropical regions of the earth, and
attU hoped by many that the ratio might be feed tnostly on vegetable food in a state of na-
determined by geometrical constrnction ; and tnre, even the largest and most ferociona spe-
tbe bare poaaibirityof this, which afewmathe- dea, and are generally arboreal in babit and
maticians have admitted, has given encourage- ^egarions. llie qnadramana have in a fer
ment to some to seek tne solution In this di- mstancee been found fossil, in the tertiary
reetjon. Bnt this, too, ia now generally ad- strata of Earope and Asia, and in the caverns
mltt«d to be Impracticable. — lattfe benefit has of Brad! ; their remuns have been discovered
resnlted from the vast amoant of time and In England and France, in a climate where now
labor that have been expended npon this fa- they conld not exist in a wild state ; it ia voi-
mons problem. Wallis, investigating It at a thy of notice that their foasO distribution is
time when the nature of the snbject was not In one respect the same as the preaent, the
BO well nnderstood, and the investigation waa eatarrkmi, or tbo»e with a thin [Partition he-
oonseqnently a proper one, waa led to the dls- tween the nostrils and 82 teeth, being peculiar
covery of the binomial theorem ; bat most of to the old world, and the platyrrhini, with
those who have shico interested themselves in more widely separated noetrilB and 38 teeth,
the question nnderstood too little of the mathe- to America. In 18S0 two new varieUes, if not
, matic£,l sciences to avail tiiomeelves of any op- species, of 'ai^e anthropoid apes were described
portnnity that might be presented of increas- by Ur. P. B. Dn Chailln, who discovered them
fog the means of mathematical research. The In equatorial Africa. One of these ia a chbn-
academy of sciences at Paris in 177G, and soon panzee-like animal, called looUx^-Tuimba by the
after the royal aociety In London, to dlsconrage natives from ita peculiar cry, and found In the
this and ouier similarly futile reaearchee, de- monntainous region of the interior near the
dined to examine In ftiture any paper pretend- head waters of the Ovenga river, in the almost
Ing to the quadrature of the circle, the triseo- uninhabited Asbankolo range. The height u
tion of an angle, the duplication of the cabe, about 4| feet, and the general color is black ;
or tbs discovery of perpetual motion. — The the features are more hnmon than in the chim-
fbllest and latest re*umi of the history of paUEOe or gorilla, the bead being rounded, the
the quadratare of the circle is to be found frontal ridge not very prominent, the cheeks
tit Wight's "English Cydoptedia" (London, rather hollow with projecting malar bones, the
ISSIV muzzle not very fim, and the chin rounded,
QTTADBIO, Fkasobsco S^tkrio, an Italian resembling very much a black Chinaman ; the
eoholar, bom In the province of Valtdlina In foce ia surrounded by whiskers meeting un-
16H, died inUlIan in 17GS. At (be age of 20 der the chin, addina atill more to Uie human
he entered the sodety of Jesus, tanght philolo- ezpresdon; chest broad; tbe arms reaching
gy at Padua and theology at Bologna, preached below the knee and Indicating great muscular
at Venice and Uodena, and at Padna engaged strength, the hands long and narrow, the
In the work of writing a general history of po- thumb very short, and tbe knuckles callans as
etry in all ages and countries, which was com- in the gorilla ; legs short and vithont calf, and
pleted after many years nnder the title of Storia toes free like the fingers, indicating ita arboreal
« ragxoTU cCognl poetia (7 vols. 4to., Bologna habits. This rare animal its discoverer names
and Milan, 174I-'o3). troghdyUi iooloo-hamha. The other large ape
QUADBUMANA (Lat yaattior, fbur, and Is the bald-headed nahiego, named T. ealtvt
manv*, hand), a divl«on of mammalB indudhig by l£r. Du Obailln ; it is abont M feet high, of
the apea or monkeys and lemnrs, so called trota a general bladdsh color, with tfne lower part
their having a grasping band on each of tbe 4 oi the back grayish, and a tendency to the lat-
extremltiea, as distinguished from tbe Mmana ter color in old age; the most striking pecnliar-
or the human races in which tbe anterior limbs ity Is the baldness of the top of the head, found
only have bands. The characters of the different even in young specimens ; a very scanty bearf
femiliee are given in the articles Apx, Binooir, nnder the chm ; tbe face is blati in tbe adult,
OHDfpaHzzx, OoBOiA, Lxinm, Lo&i, Haoaqux, bat pale in the young. It ia foond in tbe inte-
Masmosxt, Mohebt, and Oraho-Outaso. rior of Africa, south of Cape Lope^ especially
While the dumpaniee and gorilla a^tproach In the Gamma country ; it bmlds a shelter in
the human type in many points of organization, trees 90 to SO feet from tbe ground; it ties
being however more distant from man than ia branches together with wild vines and attaches
the rudest savage from the most cultivated them in an umbrella-like form to the trank at
U,9,-„zOQbyGOOgIe
QUAGGA «9g
1 coDveiucint dietanca Above shortamtalbnuioh tmder tlie cliarge of tbo pnetors, som«timw of
on which it rests asd sleeps; the male lives prefects of the trea^rj, and sometimes again
onderone shelter, and the female under another, of the qnteetors. During the empire the nom-
on a neighboring but not coatiguoos tree ; the ber of qtuestors varied, and among them are
bariionUl branoh is slwa/s high, and the first mentioned those entitled cajididati priTieipU,
Irom the grooud, probably to secure the ani- whose sole dutj was to read to the senate the
mal against the leopard of the conntr;-. Both communicattoos which the emperor made to
of these animala will be found more minnte- that body. From the reign of the emperor
Iv desoribed in Ut. Bn Ohaillu's "Eiplora- Olandius It became the ouetomof qnffistors on
ti0D3 in Eqaatorial Africa" (8vo., New York, assnming their office to pve gladiatorial speo-
1831). taclee to the people, so that none bat wealthy
QrifiSTOR (lAt. ([w9ro, to accnae), Qie name men wore eligible ; and the custom also pre-
given to two classes of ofSoers at Bome, the vailed in Oonstantinople, after it became a cap-
av<rtt«Te» parrieidii and the quatteret eltuiiei. ital of the empire. — Every pretor or proconsul
The former of these, who have sometJmes been waa attended in bis provmce by a qntestor,
confonnded with the perdaettionif duttraviri, who, beside being paymaster of the army, wai
had their origin in the time of the kings, al- charged with the raising of that portion of the
tiiaagh nnder which monarch is imcertain. revenne which was not farmed ont to the ftei-
Th^ dnty was to bring accnsations against lieani, and with the control of tlie latter also.
any person charged with a capital ofilbnce, and When the qneestor died in the province, the
if he were found gailty to execute the sentence, pnetor appointed a proqnsstor in his etead; '
After the eatablisLmeot of the repnblio, qua*- and when the prstor was away, the qaseator
tormjfarricidii, who seem before to have oeen took hie place, in which case he was attended
appointed only at eritioal periods, were elected by lictors. In the provinoea of the Roman
regolariy every year by the enries, on presen- people, the qnssstor had the same inrisdictioa
tation of the consuls. After the decemvirate as the ourole ndilea at Rome, and therefore
they were (^pointed bj[ the centuries, and at the power to promulgate ediota ; bnt in the
the passage of the liciniao laws they ceased to provmces of the emperor there were no quEes-^
eriit, their fbnctiona being transferred to the tors, their places being supplied by procura-'
IHiannri eapitaU* and also to the fediles and tors. Daring the rugn c^ Constantine, the
tribones. From their early disappearance from title of guattor taeri paZattt was pvea to an
history they were freqnently conionnded with officer in the imperial conrt, whose ftmotions
tiie quaitort* elauiei, the officers who had the were somewhat analogons to those of a mod-
charge of the public money. These registered ern chancellor, — Any peraon who had held the
and exacted all fines, provided aocommoda- office of quceetor was entitled to a seat in the
tJoog for foreign ambassadors and fbr persons senate, unless eicludod by the next censors,
connected with the repnblio by the ties of hoa- QUAQGA, a species of zebra, belonging to
pitttlity, took charge of the ft:nerals and mono- the a^nine divi^oo of the horse fiunii v, and
flients of illastrious men who were buried at to the genua atinvt as defined by Gray, cbarao-
the publio expense, and kept the books in terized by a tail ftimished with long hur only
which the coplea of the 8anat« decrees were at the tip, the absence of homy warts on the
ragistered, the original documents being in the hind legs, and a short and upright mane. The
care of tha lediles nntU the time of Augustus, quagga {A. quagga. Gray) is about 4 feet hi^
when they were given Into the hands of tha at the shoolders ; tiie neck and anterior parte
qnsstors. This office is said to have been in- of the body are dark brown, elegantly striped
■titated by Valerias PubliooU, and conld only with broad black bands ; the rest of the body
b« held by patridans nntC 421 B. 0., when the paler brown, belly and legs white ; a dark me-
oumber, which previously had been two, was dian line on the back extending to the taiL
doubled, and the ohoioe was not confined to This beantifal species assodates in large herds
^ther ord^. It was not nntil 10 years later, with the gnu and ostrich, bnt not wiUi other
however, that any plebeians were elected, zebras, on the plains of B. AfHca, and is rarely
Afterward the consuls in their campaigns were found north of the Gariep or Orange river ; it
attended each by one qnsstor, who originally Is the moat horse-like in stmctnre of any of the
took charge only of the sale of the apoUs, but ponp, having the form, light figure, and small
tnbsequently became the paymaster of the head and ears of the horse, with the tail of the
army. Tha two qntestors who remained at asa ; Ita appearance ia so equine Hiat Bnffi:>n
Some were distiogoished by the title urhani, regarded it as a hybrid between a horse and a
In 2fl5 B. 0. the number of qn»Btors was sebra. It is swift, and rather shy In Ita native
■'aised to 8, one of whom reuded at Ostia and state, strong, robnat, and bold when attacked
had the important doty of supplying Rome by hyraaas or dogs; the voice resembles a
*ith com. After this the number varied, barking neigh more than a bray, and has given
By Sylla it was raised to 90, and by Jnliua to the animal the Hottentot name of qna^a.
OiDBar to 40. In 49 B. 0. the latter ^so trans- It ia the most easily domesticated of tiie wbrae^
lerred the adminiatradon of the pnhlio treas- and is docile, generally good-natored, and ob»-
Dry to tha ndilea, no questora bung elected ; dient, disposed to kick, however, at the right
uid thenceforth the treasury was sometimes of a dog; in 16S7 a oorriole drawn by two
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
. .^„ K WW one of tbe mqat iXtnciive eqnl- Coinage, pair, Kod bread ; onlf one brood It
pages in Hjde park, Loadou. A littla care on raued in a season. The^ rest on tbe gronnd
the part of man vould probably render the at nigbL arranged in a oirole with their beada
qnagga a very serviceable i>eaat of burden, and ontward, ao tliat eacb can flj off in a atnight
nnder a climate where horaea euffer both from line, if alanned, without interfering with the
tbe heat and noxions Insects. Its fleeh is eaten others ; the; are easily cauglit in »narea and
b; the natirea and by hunters, and is conwl- traps or drtyen into nets : thej are difficult to
ered very good, thougn the fibre is coarse. ruse from the egg, chienj on aocoont of tha
QUAUj, the oommon name of sereral guiera impoaeibility of obt^ninv the insecta on wbieh
of the partridge diridon of gallinaoeona birds, the jo\mg feed, bnt adalts fatten veil in c^
Tbe Amerioau qnuls oonatitate the snb-funilj tivity, eating grain, aeeda, and beniea ; their
of td«r>i<ipioriaa or orlvginn, which have a flesh toward antomn ia fat, Jnicj, and tender,
abort, hlui, and arohed bill, cgmpressed on the wliite and bigblj esteemed ; maaj perish from
■idea, wiui obtnse t^i, the upper overhan^ng eold and hunger and from being iaprisooed
tbe lower mandible, and the latter with two under the anow during severe winters. There
teeth on eaoh aide concealed when the niondi- b ^eat confnnon about tbe name of tiua lurd;
blea are closed ; the wings moderate, coacave, it is colled quail in tha northern etat«a, but in
and rounded ; tarsi generollf alender, shorter the middle and sontham partridge ; where the
than the middle toe. and covered with divided former name prevails the ruffed grouse la called
scales; toes long, tne inner shorter than the partridge, and where the latter this grouse ii
outer; olaWB alightlf curved and acute. In stjled {feasant: as neither the name quail,
the genua orl}/x (Steph.) the bead ia without partridge, nor pheasant ta properi; given to
oreat, tbe bill brou, the 8d quill nearlj as long anj American bird, Mr. Baird proposea to etjl
as the 4th, 6th, and 6th, which are longeBt ; tbia species Bob White, and tbe other monn-
tail short, broad, and rounded ; toes elender, tain gronae. — The genua lophort^x (Bon^.)
slightly nnit«d at the base by membrane ; bind bos a crest of about half a dojcen lengthened
toe moderate and slightly elevated. There feathers, tbe shaft* in the same vertical plane
are about a dozen apeciea, found in North and the recurved webs overlapping each other;
-and Oentral America and in the West Indies ; the bill weak ; tail lengtbeued and grsdoated,
tbey seek their food on the ground among the of 13 stiff feathers, and nearly as long as tbe
leaves, eating gr^ns, seeds, berries, and inaects, wings. Here belongs the beantifdl GaJifoniia
which they swallow with smallpebbleB or fine quaU (Z. CaliforaicuM, Bonap.X about ft^ indies
sand. The common ^uail, or Bob White {0. long, with baok and wings ouvaceona Ivown,
Yirgmianiu, Bonap.}, is about 10 inches long, tbe secondaries and tertiaries edged with buff;
with an alar esteut of IC ; the general color breeat and neck above plumbeous, tike imbri-
above is browniab red, especially on tbe wing oated feathers on the latter with an edge and
coverts, tinged with gray and mottled with middle stripe of black : topof headbrown,aud
dusky on tbe upper back; chin, throat, fore- crest blaok;tliroat black edged with white. Thia
bead, and line through the eyes and along the takes tbe place of tbe Bob White in California
aides of tbe neck, white ; a black band aeroas and Oregon,— The genus eatUp^la (WagL)
the top of the head, extending backward on resembles the last, bnt has the crest of bnMd,
lides, and from tbe bill helow the evea abort, soft, and depressed feathers. Tbe scaled
ng on the lower part of tbe throat ; he- or blue quail ( C. tguamata. Gray) is 9i inches
low white, tiaged with brown anteriorly, each long ; the genwal color is plumbeona gray,
feather with black bauda ; the female has not whitish below ; the feathers of the neck, uppet
the black marks, and the white on tbe bead is back, and lower parts edged with blat^ fio-
replaced by brownish yellow. It is found ducing tbe effect of imbricated scales; it ia
abundant in the eastern United States to tbe found in Texas. In tbisgeuns Gray places the
high central plains ; the northern birds are plumed quul (G. vieta, Gould), for which Ur.
lai^Ciat and lighter colored, tbe southern with Baird has astablisbed the genoB orwrfyx ,' it ia
more black on tbe head, wings, and back ; a about 10| inches long, wiUi atont bill, crest of
■mailer and more grayish variety in Teias has two stnoght feathers, and short broad tail :
been separated as a species. The Sight ia rap- the general color is olivaceous brown, tinged
id, low, and with numerous quick flappings, above with rufous, and anterior part of the
It takes to trees when alarmed, a flock dispers- body grayish pluml>eons ; throat orange chest-
log in all directions and aiterward coming to- nut ; poaterior half of body beneath white.
g^er at tbe call of the leader. The males with chestnut brown central patc^. It is found
are very pugnacious, and in tbe breeding season on the mountain ranges of Oalifomi^ and Ore-
utter the well known notes, " Ah Bob White," gon, toward the coast. Tbe genns cffrt^nys
the flrst syllable rather low, but the others (Gould) has a very stout and robust bill, and
loud and clear ; by some these noteaare thought tbe bead with a broad soft crest of feathers;
to resemble "more wet," and are therefore the tail is very short and of soft feathers;
regarded as omens of runy weather. The wings long and broad, the coverta and tertiaU
rare 10 to 18, pure white ; tbe yonng run concealing the quills ; feet atroug, toea short,
it as. sooa as hatched, but follow the old and claws long. Massena's quail (C. Mamena,
Urda tiU spring, when they acquire their full Gould) is sbont 9 inches long, having tbe head
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
etriptd frith white, black, snd ]«ad color ; eficaom ii the A maxima, a native of Europe
ohin Mack ; feathera above streaked ceDtrallv very handsome and mnch cultivated ; it is aa
vith whitish ; wii^ with two series of roono- annnal, with sofUah, light green leaves, ud nn-
ed blaok spoti, aQd lower parts and ddes with merom large and manf-fiowered epUws. Ao-
roand white spots on a plambeons groand. It other speoiea is Uie A mtdia, a perenidal, with
U fonnd on the npper Bio Grande. — The Enro- dender, tail stalks, darker ^eea leaves, and
peanqoail belongs to the geniBieat«nits(l{Olir.) nun^ small, purplish spikeleta, which hang in
of the partridge Bi)l>-&mil7 ; In this the bill ii a graoefhl nodding manner. It oocutb sparinglj
short, elevated at the base and arched to the ob- hi postures of Peansjlvania, and la not QDcom-
tnae tip ; wings moderate, with the Sd to the mon in the rook? lands near Salem, Haas.
4th qnilla the longest ; tail ver? short, pendant. Other spedes are known, but these are the
and mostlf hidden hj the coverts. Tnere are principal introduced into florienltnre.
tbont 80 species, scattered over Enrope, Asia, QUA£ANTIN£ (It qvartmtina, Fr. ^piaran-
and Ansb^lia, migrating In large flooka to (onm, a qtooe of 40 dajs), a police regnlotira
warm regions in winter ; some prefer onltivat- fbr the exdnsicai of oontagions dtoeaiea from •
•d distriota, among tufts of grass, otliws rook; dtj or state. Quarantinee of a putial chorao-
places, and others elevated table lands ; the food ter were used in the maritime towns of Ital/ in
vid habits ore as in other partridges. The Eu- the ISth oentuT? as a means of preventing the
ropean quail (O. oimunuKM, Bonn.) b 8 inches importation of the plague. In IT20, when the
long, with an alar extent of 14 ; the npper aama disease ravaged Marseilles, the French
parts are variegated with reddish, gray, and government eatahlished a rigorous quarantine^
brownish block, with whitish longitudinal and the usage is now general in all commeroial
Kreoks ; throat of male dork brown, and a countries. The introduction from foreign porta
double intermpted blaok bond on the fore of yellow fever, cholera, the smoU pox, and
aaak ; throat of female Tellowish gnj ; head other epidemies, is thus resisted by detuning
oampletelT- feothered, with a whU» streak over ships, passengers, and goods at the :'.'ontiersL
the eyes. It is abnndont in sonthem Europe, wiuiont commnnioatiou with the people, until
India, and N. Africa ; it was well known to thej ore believed to be no longer capable of
the ancients, who emploTed it as a fighting communicating the disease. ,The period of
bird for their amusement; if the quuls whioh such detention varies according to clronm<
served os food for the Israelites In the desert stances and spetuol laws, and by no means ex-
were birds, and not locusts (os some m^nt^), tends in all cases to the original 40 dajs from
they probably belonged to this ^eciea. Tha whii^ the name of tiie regulation is derived,
notes of the male, especially in moonlight QUABLES, Fbanois, an Ei^lish poet and
nights in summer, ore very dear and pleadng^ prose writer, bom at Stewards, Essex, in 169S,
and have acquired fbr It the specific name a! diedBepL 8, 1S44. HewosednostedatCbriet's
daefoi^MondTU. The Chinese qnoil (C. OAinen- college, Oambridgc, studied low at Lincoln's
lit, Edw.) is a smaller species, used in the East Inn, wos cup-bearer for o while to the queen
Indies as o flghtiag bird, and also for the singa- of Bohemia, and in 16S1 went to Dublin, where
lar purpose of worming their owners' huids in hebeenmesecTetary to Bishop Usher. Betum-
winter. — The tumtcina or bush quidls of tiie lug to England after several years' absence, h*
old world have a moderote ond usually strught was appointed chronologer to the dty of Loo-
bill, short wiuRB, and tdl almost concealed by don, and devoted himsef to literory labors no-
the dorsal feathers; tarsi strong; toes usually tdl the revolution plunged hhn into diffionltiea
8, long, and free ot the base. In the genus from which he never recovered. His beat
tamit (Bonn.) the bill is curved, the t«rtials known writings are hb "Divine I^blema"
shorter than the primaries, and the 1st, 9d, and (1636) snd " Enchiridion" (1641). The former,
Id quills equal and longest. There are more imitated trom. the Pia Deridaria of the Jesuit
than SO species of stnoll sice, found in sonthem Hermon Hugo, connsts of symbolical picture*
Europe, India ond its islands, Africa, Hadagoe- with short moral lessons in vetse; Hie latter
cor, and Australia ; they freqnent men plooea is a collection of brief essays and aphorisms, in
near rivers, keeping near the ground when fly- vigorous and oooosionaUy eloqnent tongnoM,
ing, snd running rapidly among the grasses; Among his poetical works ore: "Feast for
the eggs ore usually 4. The T. pagnca (I^h.) Worms, or the ERstory of Jonah ;" " Argalna
of Jovo has the body varied with reddish, black, andPorthraUai" "Quintessence of Keditotion;"
and white, beneath streaked with white and "History of Queen Esther ;" an "Alphabet of
black, and throat black. Elegies," In memory of his friend AnshdeaooB
QCTAEERS. See FsmriM, and also appendix Ayhner; "Hieroglrohios;" "The Virgin Wid-
to this volume. ow," a comet^ ; " The Shepherd's Oracles ;"
QO AKINO GRASS (^fsa), a genns of oma- " The School of the Heart,'' bo. In most of
mentol grasses of little agrionltnnU valae, hot tbeee works he evinoe* strength cfif thought and
esteemed in gardena on aeoonnt of thesr elegant considerable wit, but in his exeessive eogemeaa
X'keIele,whTch,many-flowered,ovatoorheart- fbr effect he freuuently becomes absurd and
iped, flottish, tnmld, the florets doaelyimbri- grotesque. His "Enchiridion" has been repub-
eated, are sus{wnded on delicate pedieela and ushed in Smith's " Xibrary of Old Authors;"
are eonly a^tated by the wind. Tliemoflteon- the" School ftf the Heart" aitd "Hieroglypa-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
iea" v^e reprinted In London In 1856, and tib« rabbod togvtber in Che dark. Hi* primaiT
"Emblems" in 18G9. — John, aon of tbe prae«d- form of tbe cryatal, which is Ter^ rareij seen,
inK, born in Easei in 1624, diftd of the pUme is * rhomboid. The common form is & hex-
inXondoQ in 1666. He was edncated at Ox- agonal priam t«nnlnAt«d bj hexagcMial pyr-
o^itain of the rojal forces, and retiring to Lon- aereral hnndred pounds' wo^t. In the n
don after the king's final overthrow commenoed aenm of the univeraitj at Naples is a granp or
author for a living. He wrote " lU^ale Lectnnt uearlj half a ton weight. In Milan ia a ciTBtal
Fonntain of Tears;" a continnation of the "Hia- of natorol historjin Paris is 8 feet in diameter
toryof ArgalnsandPortlienia;" "DivineMod- and the eame in length, and weigha 800 Ibo.
itations," and other works in verse and prose. Occasionally immense quantities of cryatala are
Borne of hia poetry is well worth preserving, found collected blether in cavity in the Toda
tboogh Inferior to his father's in originality. end in CRYeft, loose and incrnating the walla.
QUARST, an open excavation made for oh- Budb a otdlection, discovered at Zinken mora
taiMng rocks, as granite, sandstone, marble, than a oentnry ago, produced 1,000 cwL of
limestone, and states; so named from the Aot rock crTstal, which at that period, when tho
that the stones are nsnally squared (old Fr. article was mora highly valued than at the
fuarri) for their nse in bnitding. present time, brought (800,000. In the United
QUART, a measnre of oapadty, the fonrth States some rich deposits have been met with
part of a i^on. (Bee G>u,on.) hi the EllenviUe lead mine, Ulster co., N. T.,
QUARTZ, the most abnndant of all minerals, and in some of the soathem gold mines ; and
existing as a constituent of many rocks, as the large gronpa of fine crystals nave been foimd
granitic, the micaceons and ailictoiu slates, com- in Uoose moonttun, N. H., and in Waterbnr^,
|>osing of itself the rock known as qnartzite or Vt. Little Falls on the If obawk in New Yo^
quartz rock, and some of the sandstenea and is a &mons locality for the purest tmtKpmalt
pnre sand, forming the chief portion of most oryetals of complete forms, and thej are met
mineral veins, and fbnnd interspersed in crys- with in other places also in the same region,
tals and crystalline fragments thronghont many occurring in the cavities of the calcif^ns sand
rocks, and espedally in their fissarea and cav- rock, which overlies tiie Potsdam aandstoiM.
Itieo. In composition it is silica in that state ^^nton Falls also fumiHhee perfect tmn^wr-
in which it is insoluble in strong potash soln- ent crystals, which are scmtetimea S inches
tiona. Often tbe mineral is nncontaminstcd long end contain drops of water. These are
with any foreign intermixture, and then spears occasionally recognized in quartz crystals of
in clear transparent crystals like glass or ice. varions localities. In SL Lawrence and Jeffer-
The presence of a little oxide of manganese son cos., N. Y., in tbe deposits of iron ore,
gives to these a violet tin^e, and they are then qnartz crystals are fonnd of dodecabedral
known as amethyst. Otner imparities which forma. In Orange co., 4 m. £. of 'Warwick,
varionsly aSect the appearance and properties they occur in the primary form. Uanj of the
of qnartz, even in the small quantities in which varietiea of qnartz are known by other names,
they enter into its composition, are oxide of onder which tboy have been particnlarly d«-
iron, almnina, oxide of nickel, Ac. Through scribed in this work. (See Austbvgt, Aoate,
all its varieties qnartz is distingnished by the Oabrklias, Oats' £ts, O&alckdort, F^jut,
same chemical properties and oegree of hard- Oxona, Jaspih, &c.) — Clear crystalline quarts
seas. This, whicb enables the mineral te called rock crystal, was in iona^ times ee-
scratch glass and to give fire when struck with teemed as a b^mtiftil material for ornamental
steel, ia repreeented hj 1 of the scale of hard- objects. It was cut into vaaea, cope, Inatrea,
nese. Its ipeoifio gravity is 2.S to S.8. Ite tx., many of which are still preserved na cn-
loatre is vitreons, its colors variona according rioritiea. In the - mnseom of the Lonvre are
to the imparities present, and its fracture con- great nmnbera of them, aome ixdon^png to the
ohoidal. It Is fbsible only at the intense heat times of the an^nt Greeks and }{<Mniuia, but
of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, and of the iiir- more generally of tbe period of the middle
naces lately invented by M. H. St. Claire De- agea. The pwfeotion to which Hie mann&o-
ville; but it is readily fluxed with soda or lime, ture of glasaand past«e has been brooght and
Tbe quartz glass obtuned by Deville, amounts the cheapness of these materials have almost
Ing to 80 grammes, possessed a density of only o«HQpletely taken away the valna of rock cot*-
9.3, or about ^ less tnan that of the crystalliEed tal, which requires a great amount of labw in
quartis from which it was melted, llie color- ita cutting and polishing, and aft«r all is not
lets transparent crystals impress circular po- really superior to the artificial products. Borne
Isrization upon a ray of plane-polarized light, nse is however still made of it, as for bntttma,
They exhibit double refraction when tbe ob' seals, breast pins, Stc. It is procured from
Ject is observed through two faces which are Ifadagascar, Bwitrerland, and Brazil. In Switz-
not parallel to each o&er. Uilk-white varift' erland qnartz veina which ooeadonally yield
ties often give a phoaphoresoent light when rich cavities of ojatala «e regularij mined
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
QVJJ9SU QITATSEHfiRS DE QDINOY 697
fortUspradnat. From Uadaoucsr large clear nated doctor in medidne uid edence ti Straft-
niMaea are roorived which Mil for from |1 to bonrg Id 1830, poblished papers Sur let airo-
$10 per pound. When oat and Bet by the Jew- lithe* (18B0), and Dt Vmitravtrtion de la teuU
ellersthestOTteiaoomtniMdreoldaswhhetopaa, ^832), and, while aamstant professor of chem-
and sometimes as " California ^amonda." In istrf in the medical faonlty at StrosboarK,
the arta lenses of pnre qoartx are need for object wrote cztendvelj for scientific periodicals, la
glassesof astronomical telescopes; and b^ the 163B he was appointed to the professorship of
French leases are out to give the donble image Boolt^ at Toulonse, but soon resigned it to re-
bj refraotion, and set in telescopes for estimat- ptur to Paris, where be fonnd great facilities for
Ing distances br means of this propertjr. Pure stodT-. Among his publications, most of which
qnartzia larKel; employed in the manuftcture have speared in the ^nna^ cfedCMncMnatw-
of glass, and is commonly obtained for this rellet,an: CoraidiratifmtturUtcaraetirettMU-
porpose in the form of sand. Quartz rook of f/tqua dei ronneun (4to., 1B40) ; Be VorganUo-
the metamorpbic gronp is sometimes fonnd of Hon de» anitnaus tan* ^>erti/>ra df* e6te* d» la
a granular stmotare and ommblr oonsisCencj, Manehe (1844) ; Eeehtrclie* rur U tytthna n«n>
and of great pnrity, well adapted for this ap- veux, Vembryoginie, le» organt* de* mm et la
t^ieatlon. (See Gi.ub.) Variaties of qnarta of oireulation de*anni.lidet(\%iA~'69)\ SwlM*-
s collolar t«xture and erest tenacity are need totre natureUe de* taret* (1848-'9) ; and Snr let
fbr nullstones, the rongbness and hardness of affinxtitet let analogie* de* lombrU* et de**<mg-
their snrftoe and aharpness of the edges of the me* (I8S3). He published in the Rfr^ue de»
cells Riving them a powerftal grin^ng capadty deuxmonde*, nnder the title of Soutenirt tfun
combined with great dDrabilib-. (See Buhb- nd£ufia2Mt«,aDarrati?eofsoieDti&ctra7elBalong
8TDNB.) Sandstones and conglomerates com- the shores of the Atlantic and the Mediterrft-
poeed of qnartE pebbles are refractory fire nean. Part of these &»»#nir« have been print-
stones, and are nsed fbr the heartha and inner ed aepsratelf (2 vols. 12mo., 1964 ; English
walla of fhrnaces. translation, 2 vols., London, 18GT). In 1800
QUASSIA, the wood of the timaruba exeelia he became professor of natural history in tbtf
(Ds Csnd.), quiu*ia exeeUa (Willd.), or pierama lyeie NapoUoa, in 16S2 member of the acad*
ABM&a (Liudley), a lofty tree growing in Ja- emy of Bciences, and in 1806 professor of anat-
mslos and the Oaribl>ean islands, where it is omy and ethnology in the maseam of natural
known as the bitter ash. Qaaagia was origi- history.
naUy obtained in Surinam from the qmmia QUATREU^KE, EmKNB Ujjeo, a French
amara, a small branching tree or shrub, all orientalist, bom in Peris, July IS, 1782, died
parts of which are excessively bitter, and of Bept IB, 1857. He was a pupil of 8y1vestr«
which the root bark and wood were formerly de Saoy and Ohfiiy, ai^nired a knowledge of
offleiul fbr thnr tonic properties. The sul>- the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Ooptio, Byriac, Persian,
■tanoe waa brought into notice as a medicine Turkish, and Armenian languages, in 1807 re-
abont the middle of the last century by a negro oeived a sal>ordinate office in the MS. depart-
of Bnrinam named Quassi, and being taken ment of the imperial Ubrary, in 1S09 was ap-
thenoe to Stockholm in 17S6 it soon became a pointed professor of Greek in the faculty of
vwj popnlsd* medicine in Europe. But as the letters at Ronen, in 1816 succeeded Laporte-
original source of supply fidled, recourse was Dntheil as a member of the academy of luscrip-
had to the similar product of the quattiatx- tionB,in]619 wascalledtothecollegeof France
eelta, with which the demand has since lieen to teach Hebrew, Cbsldaic, and Syriac, and in
met. It is received in sticks of an inch to 1S27 became professor of Persian at the school
nearly a fbot in diameter, which are pieoes of of the living eastern ''languages. He left many
the branches and stem ; and in the shops these valuable works. To him is mainly owing the
an kept split in smalt pieoes or rasped. The identiflcation of the modem Coptic with the
wood has an intensely bitter taste, and imparts language of the ancient Egyptians, which gave
Us properties to water and aloohol ; and of tbe first cine to the iuterpretation of the hiero-
late years drinking eups have been miade of it ^ypbics. His library, one of the most com-
for the use of invalids. Its decoction yields a plete in oriental literature ever collected, was
peonliar bitter orystallizable principle, named bought by the king of Bavaria and removed to
qnsssine. The properties of qnaaria are those Unnicb.
of the stauple UttMS, and as a medicine it b QUATREU^RE DE QUINCY, AitTOiini
adapted to oases of dyspepda and the debiU- OBBTsonowt, a French archnologist and writer
tatM state of the digestive organs which Bom»- on esthetics, second cousin of the preceding,
times SQOoeeds acute disease. The decoction bom in Paris in 176&, died in 1849. In 1785 a
was formerly nsod in England by some of the p^rSur Vartkiteetvre 6gypt\mne secured for
brewers as a substitute for hops, but this is nim a prize from the academy of inscriptions;
now prolilbited onder severe penalties. Vhea he was then engaged as a contributor to the
sweetened it makes an effloaceons fly water. Eaeyeiapidie miihodiqve, for which he wrote
QUATRE BBA8. See Watkbloo. a "Dictionary of Architecture" (3 vols. 4to.,
QUATBEFAGES, Jiait Loms AmcAiro nx, 179S-183S). On thebraaklng outof the French
a Fronefa naturalist, born in Vallerangne, de- revolution he sided with the moderate party,
partment of Gard, Fab. 6, 1810. He waa grad- and was ^pointed a mwnl>er of the o"
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Itr*
OfParis, and elected Kdepntr to tbelegidative Cnliou^tTO winiiMmenfrigghBiai
Wemblr in 17S1. Inpnaoned for 18 montha th« Mtobntod jduiiB of iMu; i
during the reign of terror, he owed his life to •tone, MnnoontM b^ ft ftidcilB tt i ..
the orerthrow of Robespierre, became one of dedicated ta the hhoioit tf teTgfcu
the council of GOO in 1767, and yrta Hospectod fell el thii point ; tiie otba-, oflnHt,i!«
of being ui active royalist. On the IStb Frao- crated to the memory of tMMUiniitii
tddor hi8 name vu placed on the pfoacribed their blood in the second b«tl«tilli|la
lut by the rBpnblLcan directors; but he avoided of AbrahamL The citadel, wUdiitiiiii
tranaportation hj concealment. He reappeared the ctJminaling point of lb OfidEi
under the consulate, became first a member muida the whole citj, i* W U^a
and then chief Becreurf of the mnnioipal coun- level of the rivw. It eoTatlmlKn
cil of the Seine, and under the Bourbona was and is r^arded as the Gibnbuof iia
appointed BuperLDtcndent of pnblio monuments The ^>prraeli from the wot, in h iiu
inlSlS, andm 1818 professor of aroheolog? in of theplainaof Abrahaii^ii4deaM>;»
the royal library. In 1820 he todk his seat in telle towers 600 or 600 rodi^ntttipB
thecbamberofdeputMs,buthesooiiabai)doned lAonti of amile from tht niifib;)
politica. He had earlybeen admitted to the The lower town lieiat tbtibot^lks
academy of ioscriptions, and afterward to that along the banks of Che rivtn, ipaiiitT
ot fine art^ of vrlucb from 1816 to 1S8D he wm snl, and is bordered with miiafif^ '^
■eeretary^eneral. Amonghisvolnminonaworka iatheeeatof theprindptlMMNifiltc
are: LeJupiUr Olympian (fbl, Paris, 1814), & rad here are to be finrnd th»gml(wn
leatoration of the grMtwork of Phidiaa; De honaea, banker tanrukea nlW<k'i°'?
Vvnitation daat U* beavaartt (1823; £ngliah the cnttom house, tta, PariigthiiMC
translation by J. 0. Kent, 6to., 1887) ; and Bi»- navigslion, ttus qnarier of tbtdn**^'
toiTeitliividetdetomragadeEaphamiS&^), aouie of great activity. Ikdaibliu
QUEBEC, a fortified city and port of entry of river vessela, the breweriM, Ua»ic
Canada £aa^ now (1861) actual capital of Can- deriea,^w<M-k>,taiuwriM,Hi|iii>i>b<A
ada and the residence of the govemor-general and ship yards are npon Uie bnb^iii'i
of the British possesaiona in North America, Charles, io the faoboo^ of 61 Exi Bi
sitnated on the K. W. bank of the river St. large quarter, though inbitatgd iiaii!;^°|
Lawrence, at its conflnence with the St Charles, working population, hasBOiH fwcA^
about seo m. from the gulf of St Lawrence, elegant stores. TheaiccDt&ouibl"''
and 180 m. N. E. from Hontreal, in lat 46* tie npper town k made br%liO«f
49' 12" K, long. Vl° IS' W.; pop. in 1661, and by steep winding streeta-OKtelwBr
ezclnave of the suburbs, 61,1S1, nearly ^ of fine buildings. The ctutamb<ae,«i'>t^
whom are of French extractirax, and \ utauan of the river, is an impodiigSait^''^
Oatbolica. The Trench is the prevaUing Ian- a dcme and a fk^ade of aoUe '^^^
gnage here as in Lower Canada generally, proadied by a long flight of Af*. 1^^
Quebeo is built upon the slope of an elevated the seat of a RananOUbDliciiikKitf'*
firomontory or table land, which forms the of an AngUoau bishop. Hie ^"'"X*
s& bank of the St lAwrence for about 8 m., Catholic cathedral, the dusd a *» '
and has on that side an almost preoipitoiiB face, oopaed fh>m the apsii of St ^'"^'^^
but declines more gradnally to the St. Charles, b much adnured ; the w«Ili ^•jJ^jX
This promontory is called Cape Diamond, paintinga, one of which ii **P*v^
from tbe numerons quartz crystals found inita The ohapel of the seminaT.Mrikui^
rocks. The city is £vided into the npper and has the bestctdloctionafnnpMilB'^
lower towns. The upper town extends along America. The Proteitiot ol^'^
the table land already mentioned, and inclines gray etUfice tannoantcdbyiUB^nwa
toward the river St Charles, in a N. W. direo- inUieoentreof alaraeaqav^tMi*'"^
aou. It is surrounded by a wall 2f m. in <»r- iron fence. To the I. E ii *» I**,^^
ouit, mounted with cannon and having 6 gates, a central point, adtxned *■* 'J'*^!'
Here are situated the great hotels, the finest and to the S, of thia )■ the ""^^^
stores, the theatre, the parliament house, the which travellers PTOii'"''''**J^Ejp
bureanxoftheofiEcersof Btate,thecourthou8e, view in the world. Tli«g«™"''!y
the dty ball, &x. It is the quarter of fashion, tress, another fine V'""'^ j^
and the residence of c^italiste and officers of erected in 1828 to ttio ""^ Jii:,!
government From its ramparts and terraces, heroes, Wdfe and JloiB** 5*1"^
Uie views of the lower town, the rivers, the Miains are buied jn Ih«<='>^*',rjfc0
ialand of Orleans, Point Levi, and tiie adja- of the Unalin«s, bnt die ^^ r%
cent country are among the finest in America, eenveyed to Wcstmiii'iw "l^r^fe i
To the W. of the walk, and extending along mors church, lie ¥e«l«r"«*^^,» \
the heights, lie the populous faubomga of Bt boyant stylo), and tiio "M* l^i (te^
Louis and St. John, reaching far beyond Uie tere, are good ^P^'^'^^ c^S^^ '
official limits of the city, in lines of degsnt arehitaotnreb ^^ ''i'''''*}'!''^^^ w
oonntry seats, surrounded by trees and gardens, the model of the tonipley "'"V^,
At some distance from the barriers of these banksofthellissn^tlittfw***^'''^
mtiTodtj of IiATal, tiie theatre, and tb» dlj tennlniu of tbe raOroad S. to Point Levi and
luU ace also wortlir of notiee.—- Qaebeo liaa Biclimond.whichisabranchoftbesraiidtniiik
aeveral aoieatifia uid literarj lodetiei and in- line. TeleErapbio linei alao connect it with
Btitntiona. The literary and histoiical aodetT, the prinoipai cities of Canada, the golf coloniea,
founded ia 1824, has a good librarj, and a od- and the United States. — Qaebeo is a free port,
lection <tf reoords of tbe reahn in 60 or 90 folio From the annus] official " Tables of the Trado
volumes, with manj historical maniucripts ; and NaTiRation of the ProTinoe of Oausda,**
bnt U aaJfTered a severe loss in the bnrning of a we compiTe the following statistics of its com-
part of its moseom and librar;' in the fire of merce for 1668, 16G9, and 1860 :
Feb. 1854. There are beside this several inati-
tntes, reading rooms, and librarf associations.
The merchants' ezoliange has a large reading Tau^
room, well sapplied with newspapers and peri- jggg
odioals. Tbe legislative librarj lias over 60,000 ieg«;
Tolomes, and a ralaable collection of historical }^*''-
manoscripts. Tbe ednoational institntioos are Of the anirals in 1860, 8S6 vessels came from
namerons, and hiably creditable to the city. QntX Britain. 176 from the English colonies.
The [uuTersitf of Laval, opened in 1854 in con- g4 frMu the Dnitod States, and 206 from other
neotion with the aemliuiryof Qaebeo, an old foreign conntries; 648 bronght oargoes, and
theologleal iastitntion founded in 1663 by the 704 W6r« in ballast. Of the departures, 1,188
first Oatholio bishop, Mgr. Laval, has buildings were destined to tbe British LIuuIh, 144 to
Talncd at t400,000, a library of 30,000 volnmes, Snglish colonies, 4 to the United States, and 9
a cabinet of phyMcal science, an anatomical mu- to other foreign oonntrlea. Beside this move-
aeom, &o. The law department has 3 profes- ment bysea, there came from Uie United States
aors, and the medical 8, Tbe faculties of arts in i860, by way of the lakes and river, 8 steam*
and theology, not yet fully organized, are to boats and 22 barks, with a tonnage of aboat
Lave 16 ohairs. The high school of Qaebeo 4,119; and tbe departures by the some interior
(Protestant) has 6 professors, 300 students, and route were 2 steunboats and 27 barks, ton-
• library of 1,300 volumes. The college of St.- nage 6,437. Quebec is the principal centre of
Uicbel has 6 lay Oatbdio professors and 142 maritime commerce in British North America,
stodauts ; and the college of Kotre Dame de la and one of the lai^eet timber and lumber porta
Yiotoire, oondaoted by tbe order of Christian on the American continent. But while its ex-
brothers, has 18 professors and 246 students, ports are lai^r than those of any other citv hi
There are 6 convents with 64 teachers and Canada, its imports are below those of Men-
over 1,900 female pupils, and 32 acadenuea treal and Toronto, Tbe following are Uie im-
and private schools. There are 8 newspapers ports and ezporte of tbe last 4 years :
published in Quebec, 2 of which are d^iy, 5 inwu tinn*.
fan-weekly, and 1 semi-weekly; there b also a issi t^,«ss iiti&sia
iDontUy literary joumaL Tte principal be- \^ ; V^^ J^""
sevolent msUtuUons are tbe lonatio asylnm, imo t,8»B,sn t,3ii,M>
the marine hospital, and tbe HAtel Dieu. Tbe xha principal articles of importation are
city is supplied with an abundance of pure woollen, cotton, and silk goods, iron, hard-
water from Lake St. Charles, just above the ware, coal, groceries, and lalt. More than 4 (^
fall of Lorette, 9 m. distant.— Tbe St. Lawrence the whole amonnt of imports comes from Qreat
is about J of a mUe (1,814 yards) wide op- Britain; the goods brou^t flrom the United
posato Cape Diamond, bat tbe mouth of tbe SL States amounted in 1880 to t&S7,697. The ez<
Chariee forms with it a basin nearly 4 m. long porta consist principally of ships, lumber, and
and more than 1 J m. wide. The depth of the grain. The ships built at Quebec are renowned
water is about 28 fathoms. The ordbary tide for th«r beauty, solidity, and soling qualities,
is 17 or 18 ftet at new and iUl moon ; but tbe The number and tonnage of vessels propped
spring tides attwa a hei^t of 23 or 24 feeL bj ndls and steam, buSt at Quebeo for the
Tbe harbor is aafe and commodions, and the Jut 4 years, are as follows :
largest vessels can lie at tbe wharfs. The sbin Tsm.
Bteamship Great Eastern during the summer of I°™J * 5™
1861 visited Quebec, and lay at anchor at the « mb* '.". ;;■";!;!!"!! a m»
foot of tbecitadeL In the latter part of De- " lsso to st,ee3
camber the river is dceed by ioe, and naviga. In 1860 the amount of lumber exported waa
tion oeases till tbe latter part of April, wten 696,996 tons, of the following kinds and values:
the ioe usually disappears very suddenly; white pine, $2,468,788; red pine, t607,608;
steamers urive from Montreal about April 26, oak, $871,480 ; elm, $206,607, &c. The avei^
and sea-going vessels about a week lator. age exportation of lumber daring the last S
There is a regular line of Ueamers plying be- years has been abont 600,000 tons. The other
tween Quebeo snd Qaq>4 and tbe provinces of principal exports were: deals, $1,691,148;
the golf, and two lines of royal mail steamers standard staves, $310,600; masts, $73,430;
between tiw oity and British porta. There ia latiis, $33,364; spars, $34,096; floor, $288,-
also a attfam ferry connecting tbe oitr with tbe 734 ; wheat, $36,133 ; cmn and bullion, $89,-
^.gmzoQbyGOO^le
700 QUEBEC QDEIN
ITS. The timber, deals, and cabinet irork Are eratelj rapid ; in 1844 its popnUtwn irai
tent mainly to Great Britain, and the broad- 82,876, beside 3,797 in tte snbarl* Two ter-
fltufis to the English colonies of North America, rible fires occurred in 1845, at a month'* in-
There are some mannfactories of diatilled and t^rral, ia the fanbonrgB of 8L Roch and St
fermented liqDors, leather, tobacco, soap, £& John; nearly 8,000 honaes were bamed, and
The city haa two banks of circulation, with a property to uie amonnt of more than t^OOO,-
paid-np capital of |1, 682,863, and authorized 000 was destroyed. These qaorters hare unee
t4,000,000j circulation, $876,828. It has also been rebuilt of brick and stone. In 1851 the
branchw of 6 foreign banks, and 16 insurance seat of govemment was returned to Qaeb«8
offices. — The maniciptd government of the city for 4 years, nnder the arrangement for alter-
eonajsts of a mayor and 84 councillors. It has Dating capitals adopted in 1849. It ia still di«
one representative in the legislative council, and capitiJ, and will probably remain so till the
8 deputies in the house of assembly. Quebec new buildings are completed at Ottawa.
is also the county Beat of the county of Quebec; QUEDA, or Ebdda, a native state on the
area, 16,440 sq. m.; pop. 37,B61, aside from W. coast of the Malay peninanlo, boniided K.
that of the city.— -Quebec was founded by by the Siamese territory of Ligor, EL by the
Samuel Ohamplain in 1608. It was taken by Malay state of Patani, 8. by the state of Perak
the English in 1629, and restored to France by and the British province of Wellealey, and W.
the treaty of 16S9. In 1686 it had 100 inbab- by the strait of Malacca ; extreme length about
itants. It was the colony of a eoncesnonary 160 m., average breadth CO to. ; area, 7,500 sq.
company, who did not ftilfil tbeir promises to m. ; pop. about 21,000. A chain of islands ei-
the settlers, and hence its growth waa slow, tends Biong the coast, the largest of which are
The magistrate, named by the company, was Lang-kuve and Trutao; but large vessels are
oalled a syndic, and had powers similar to those obliged to anchor about 4 m. from the abore.
of a mayor. The king, dissatisfied with the The country is drdned by nnmerons rivers, 6
management of the company, took the colony of which are navigable byboatsofcondderable
into his own hands, and in IS S8 appointed a Bize,bQttbcjaroall obstructed bybars at their
governor, and created the sovereign council of mouths. A great deal of the surface is level, but
Quebec, who were charged with its govern- there are several mountains, the most elevated
ment. During the war of the league of Augs- of which is Queda peak, 6,000 feet above the
burg, the neighboring English omonics mode sea. Gold, tin, and iron are found. The soil
an unsuccessful maritime expedition against it is particularly fortUe. Elephants are very nn-
(1600). In 1711 the attempt was renewed, merous, and are frequently exported to India,
with no better aneeess. The first attempt at The ichabitants consist of Malays, Siamese,
erecting stone fortifications waa made after the neeritos, and some immigrants from the £. coast
first of these attacks, the place having been of Hindostas and China. Queda hod formerly
previously protected only by palisades. In a considerable trade, the chief eiportn being
1784 it hod, including its suburbs, only 4,608 pepper, rice, and about 160 tonsof tin annually.
inhabitants. In I7C9, dnring the 7 years' war. The country was overrun by the Siemese in
the English Gen. James Wolfe attacked the 1821, who occupied it for several years, and
city end bombarded it. On Bent 13, 1769, then abandoned it after J of the popniation had
took place the first battle of the plains of been killed or driven into exile. Capital, Que-
Abraham, in which both the eontending gen- da; pop. about 2,000.
erals fell, and England gained at one blow an QUEES (Goth, qveini, ^umi, a woman, a
American empire. On Sept. 18 Quebec oapitU' wife; Sox. CKen, gveita; Gr. yuni, a woman),
lated after a siege of 69 days. The French at- the wife of a king, or a woman who is the
tempted its recapture, and in the following sovereign of a kingdom. In the fOTmer capa-
ipring the Zd battle of the plains of Abraham city she is regarded in most oonntries aa a per-
wos fought, and victory sided with the French son of dignity only inferior to that of her hna-
oolonists; hnt at the treaty of peaoe in 1768 band, and possesses all the privileges et^oyedby
Louis XV. ceded the whole of New France to a /ema toU. Thus in England aha con receive
the English. Quebec rose slowly from its grants &x)m or make them to her husband, on
ashes, &ough its commerce increased. In purchase or convey laud witbont his concur-
1764 the first newspaper, the "Quebec Ga- rence, can sue and be sued alone, and dispose
sette," published in two langu^ee, made its ef her property by will. She has a sepa^e
appearance. In 177S the city bad only 6,000 household and separate courts and officers, ia
inhabitants. In 177S a small American force exempted from paying tolls and ameroements,
under Gen, Montgomery attempted its capture, and has other ettraordinary privil^es; and t«
but failed, with me loss of about 700 men and compass or imagine her death, or to violate or
their commander. In 1793, the year of the defile her person, even with her consent, ia
inauguration of the representative system in treason. If accused of treason herself, she is
Canada, the first Lower Canadian parliament tried by the peers of parliament She ia also
was convoked at Quebec, and the city remained entitled to be crowned with fbll regal aolemni-
the seat of government for the lower province ties. In other respects she is on a fbotinc of
till the union of the O&nadaa in 1840. Buring equality with the sulgects of her husband, ia
this period its growth waa steady and aod* accordance with the maxim of the Bomao law:
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
QUEEN ANNE QITEBOITBOK 701
AvffutCa ItffibuM totvta nmi t^ Aiasorerdgn QUEEN'S, a S.co. of New BniiiBwiok; area,
ErincesS'-'S sigiiifloBtioii not originally compre- about 1,S00 sq. m.; pop. in 13S1, 10,634. It is
ended ia the term qnoen — she possesses oil intersected bj the nver St. John, and drained
the attributes of a king. In !Franoe, where bj by several of ita tributaries, of which the more
the Salic law a female oaimot anoceed to tlie important are the Salmon river, the Wasfaadon'
throne, the mother of a sovereien has some- rook, and the Nerepls. The St. John ia navi-
times ezeroiaed rojal aathoritj oitrinK the mi- ^ble to Fredericton, SO m. from its mouth,
uoritj of her son, in which case she has been The Salmon flows into Orand lake, a beautiiii]
called the queen regent. The queen dowager sheet of water about SO m. long and from 8 to
b the widow of a king, and as such eqjoys most 10 m. broad. Capital, Oagetown. -
of the privileges accorded to her during the QUEEN'S, a 8. E. county of Ireland, proT-
lifetime of her hnaband. In England ahe does Ince of Leiuster, bounded K. by King's conS'
not lose her rank, although she marry with a ty, E. by Eildare, 8. by Garlow and Kilkenny,
commoner; but no one can contract a marriage and W. by Tipperary; area, S64 sq.m.; pop.
with her without a special license from the in 1651,. 111,323. The principal towns are
sovereign. When the i^neen dowager Is mother Uoontmellick, Vonntrath, Maryborough, snd
of the sovereign, she is commonly called the Portarlington. The surface is ^nerally nndu-
qneen mother. lating, rising toward the N. W. into the Slleve.
QUEEN' ANNE, an E. oo. of Ud., bordered Bloom moDntains, the highest snmmit of whioli
E. by Delaware, w. by Chesapeake bay, and Is 1,784 feet above the sea. The principal riven)
N. W. by Chester river, and drained by a nam- are the Barrow and Nore ; ana there is onlf
ber of creeks, among which Tnckahoe is the one small lake in the coimty. Iron and copper
largest; area, 400 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 1S,S61, ore are fonnd; and andiraoite coal mines ara
of whom 4,174 were slaves. It has a rolling extensively worked. With the exception of
surface and fertile soil. The productions in the centre of the county, where there are ex-
1S50 were 697,169 bushels of Indiut com, tensivebogs,thesoilisgenerallyfertile. Queen's
178.003 of wheat, fiS,88S of oats, 9,614 of rye, county returns 8 members to parliament, 2 for
S8,7301bs. of wool, and 97,183 of butter. Tnere the county and one for Fortarlington,
were 8 grist millH, 3 saw mills, 3 newspaper QTIEEN8TOWN,orOovB07Coia,atownof
offices, 38 ohurohes, and 729 pupCs attending Ireland, county Cork, situated on the K. sid«
public schools. Capital, Centreville. of Cork harbor, 9 m. 8. W. from Cork; pop.
QUEENS, a 8. E. oo. of N. Y., in the TV. in 1851, 11,428. There are no manufacture*,
part of Long island, bordered N. by Long and the town is supported principally by tho
Island sound and S. by the Atlantic ocean ; naval and military establishments m Its vicini-
area, 410Bq. m.; pop. in 1860, fi7,891. Its sur- ty. The harbor b excellent. The name was
fkoe ia somewhat hilly ; much of the soil ia fer- changed from Oove to Queenstown in honor of
tile, and nearly all is highly cultivated. The a visit paid by Qneen Victoria in 1849.
shorea are much indented by bays and inlets, QUErABD, Josxph If abib, a French bibll-
and on the 8. beacb there are many small ogr^)her, bom in Rennes, Deo. 35, 1796. Be
islands. The productions in 1855 were 837,685 was placed in a bookseller's shop at the age of
bushels of Indian com, 103,317 of wheat, 199,- 12, and aiterward was employed in the same
SlSof oata, 71,0IBof rye, 21,334 of buckwheat, business in Paris and Yiemia, where he col-
391,136 of potatoes, 61,895 tons of hay, and lected the materials for his first bibliographi'
441.9B8 lbs. of butter. There were 24 grist oal work, La France littiraWe (10 vols. 8vo.,
mills, 7 saw mills, 5 newspaper offices, 73 1826-'43). This with ita complementary pub-
charohesi, and 17,365 pupils attending public Yv»t\on, LalitUrature FranfaiM eontempoTaint
schoola. It b intersected by the Long island (1837-'44), comprised a Ibt of works printed in
rwlroad, and the Flushing railroad lies wholly French since 1700, with biographical notieee of
within the county. Capital, North Hempstead, the authors. 8o far, however, did the oontinua-
QUEEN'3, a middle oo. of Prince Edward tion promise to exceed ita projected uze, that
island, bounded N. by the gulf of St. Lawrence tlie pablisher took it by legal process, nnfin-
and S. by Northumberland strait; nret 766 ished, out of QuSrard's hands, and it was com-
sq. m. ; pop. in 1848, 32,111. It is deeply in- pleted by others ; and Qn^rard, mulcted in
dented by a number of inlets and bays, oy one damages, passed several months in prison. Ha
of which, HUlsboronsh bay, it is nearly inter- has educe published various works, and prtgect-
■ected. This bay afibrds a safe harbor for the ed an En^eiopidie du iibliothieaire, upon a
largest ships. The surface is diveraifled and very extensive plan. His most ourions work
the soil veiy fertile. Capital, Charlottetown. is Let luperdten^ Utt&rairet ditoilia (6 vols.,
QUEEN'S, a S. W. oo. of Nova Scotia, bor- I846-'JSe), exposing the impostures, uiocryphal
dared B. K by the Atlantic ocean, and driuned anthers, and plagiarisms in modem 'FrtiDeh Ut-
by Broad, Mersey, and Port Medway rivers ; eratnre.
area, 960 sq. m. ; pop. in 18B1, 7,258. Its coast QUEROITKON, the bark of the black oak,
is indented by a number of bays, and the in- qtiM-eJu tirwtoria^ used as a dye stuff. The
terior contains several beautiftil lakes. Its sur- black outer portion of the bark being removed,
Isce is ruRged, and the soil along the streams b the inner portion is fbnnd to contain a coloring
fertile. Capital, liverpool. principle whidi stuns the saliva yellow when
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
703 QD£BETABO QUEVZDO T VILISGA3
the bark iBchaw«d; this ii eztneted by boll- Thftnaoiliider of hblUb wm qientii
iDg water, giving to it* brcnrnitb felloir col- Yoltaire dedicated to htrahi«"8«nir
or, which is deepened bj alkahee and bright- - QUEBADA. Bee XoiKns dk QcBau>A,
«ned bf aoids. The bu-k la largelj employad QUBSNAY, Ftxupoit, a French phTncian
tn the Dnttad Statee as a dye, and it is also re- tcai pelitioal economist, founder of the aeet of
daeed to a coarse powder and shipped to En- the phTnocrats, bom near UontfoTt-rAmaar?,
rope tn ^«at qnantities for the same nse, par- department of Seine- et-Oise, Jnne 4, lfl94^ died
tiealarlj- in calico printing. When its decoo- In VetwiBe^ Deo. 18, 1774. Altliongb th«
tioD has been depnred of tannin br means of son of an adToeate, his eartf ednoation waa
gjae, & fine yellow color is obtained npon fab- entirdv neglected; bat having a strong 1ot«
ncfl mordanted with alum, and Tarioos shades of stody, he fbond meana to acqnire « ntrwl
of olive with Iron mordanta. The coloring edge of Latin and Greek, and at an early wgt
principle is called qaeroitrine, or from its add b^an the stndj of medidne. He first catab-
reacdon qnercitrio acid. Black oak bark la lisbed himself in Kantea, from which place ha
Qsed for tanning also, but the yellow color ia returned to Paria abont IT29 or 1780. There
an objection to this use. Its astringent and be became physician to Mme. d'£tio1«a, after*
tonic properties have led to its use in medidne, ward the marchioneas de Pompadonr. In 17W
bnt white oak bark, having aimilar medical he was made atirgeon in ordinary to the king
properties without the color, ia preferred. On then secretary of the royal academy of snrgery,
account of ita tendency to uritate the bowels ' and in 1744 consolting phymdan to the kins.
it is generally applied externally as a bath He wrote a nnmber of medical works, and &isl-
rather than internally, and b prescribed, partlc- ly devoted his attention to political economy,
nlarly for children, in casea of cholera infan- (Bee AaBioTTi.TTTSAL Btstkm, toL L p. S24, and
tom^rofbla, intermittent fevers, &0. PouncAi. EcosoiTT, vol. xiii. p. 448.)
QUERETABO, a S. state of Mexico, bounded QU^TELET, Luokbt Ai>OLfaK JAognxa, a
N. bytbestateof 8sn LnisPotosi, E.and8. by Belgian astronomer, statistician, and tnor^
Heiico, and W. by Michoacan andOaan^usto; philosopher, bom in Ghent, Feb. 2S, 1790,
area, 1,820 sq. m. ; pop. 180,000. It occnpies When scarcely 18 years old he was appointed
a part of the plateau of the Oordtllero, and is professor of mathematics in his native town,
traversed by numerons mountain spurs; but and 5 years later at the AthennniR in Brasaela.
though it9 general character is rugged, it oon- In 1824 the king of the tTetherlands aent him
taina mnch fertile land. The rivers are all to Paris to complete his aatronomical stndies;
■mall, and the Tula and Bio de Ifonterama, and on his T«tuTn home in 1830, he waa tkirg-
which flow on the eastern frontier, are the only ed with anperintendlng the boildmg of an ob-
streams that deserve notice. Gold, silver, cop- aervatory, receiving at the same time tbediree>
per, quicksilver, tin, lead, and antimony are all torship of that institution, whidt he still holds,
found. Grain is extensively cultivated, and con- Between 1827 and 1829 he visited England,
eiderablennmbers of cattle are reared. Woollen Scotland, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. He
and cotton goods are manufactured, from ma- is now perpetual secretary of the academy (tf
terials produced within the state. — Qdkbetabo, Bcienoes of Belgium, and corresponding member
the capital, is situated on a plateau e,86G feet Of the French instituto. He has pubnAed Js-
above the level of the sea, 110 m. N. V. fty>m tivnomie ilemmtairv (182fl) ; BecKerthe* ^atit-
Mexico; pop. 47,S70. It occupies the sides tique*wuTleTeyaum»de»PvytBa»(\9&tS)t Ea-
and summits of several hills. The streets are ehtreha ««■ ia riprodvetion et la mortality, et
well laid otit, the houses regular, and the city t«r la population dt la Bel^gv« (16SS) ; Statu-
b considered next in rank to Uexioo. The iiqvt erimindla de la Btlgiqvt (1SS3) ; Bt rin-
principal chnrch is magnifleontly decorated, fiutnee da taiten* nir la nurrtaUli ou* d^t-
Thecity is supplied with water by an aqnedncl «»(»<(?<» p888); Sur la thioritda pnbab^tit
2 m. long, which crosses a plain upon arches ajtpUqvU* avx teieneet mi/rala et politiqvm
SO fbet high, and in connection with a tunnel (184S) ; Dn ryitime toeial et del Im* qui U ri-
brings the water a distance of 6 m. The man- gieaent (1848) ; Sur la itatutiqve montU tt Im
nfaotnres consist chiefly of woollen and cotton prmeipa qvi doitent m former la ba«e(l&48);
goods and lesther. In 1648 the Mexican eon- and unoe 1888 the Atmvain de Vobiertaioin
rress ratified the peace between Mexico and de BrvxelUt.
flie United States at Queretaro. QTTETZALOOATL. See HtrABTBOAa,
QDERINI,ANOK.oMAmA,anItaIian8cho!ar, QUEVEDO Y YH^LEQAB, Fbikotbco Go-
born in Venice in 1680, died in 176S. He was xiz db, a Spani^ author, bom in Madrid in
of a patrician family, was edncated at the col- 1680, died at Villanueva de los lo&ntes, Sept.
lege of the Jesuits in Brescia, and at the age 8, 1646. He was educated at the nniversityof
of 17 became a Benedictine monk in Florence. Alcala, and took a degree in theology at the
In 1710 he set out on a tour through Europe, ageoflG. Having kiUed a nobleman In a dnel
and travelled 4 years in France, England, Hoi- for insulting a lady, he fled to Sicily, where
land, and Germonv. In ITSl he was mode the viceroy, the duke of Ossuno, gave him hon-
archbtshop of Corfa, and in 1T28 waa trans- orable employinent, and on his removal to
ferred to the see of Brescia, created cardinal, Naples maue him minister of finance. Heser-
and aoon ^ter made librarian of the Vatican, era! times virited Madrid on diplomatic business,
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
e;
QtHOHUAS 708
TU Mrdoned tar hie former t^toM aoA r^ HmM xai driven into the sea bj 0«n. Hooh^
ceiTed a penaioD. H«vuooDoemedliitfaeoon- and the priwnere niassacred &tt«r capitul&tinc.
■luraoj' of th« doke of Bedmar agaliut Venice, QUlOuES, £ich£s, or Utlitbc&s, a aenu-
aad being in that tatj when ti)« plot was iia- eirilized nation of Gsatemala, vbioh waa allied
eovered doitowI^ escaped with bis life. After in blood and Isngnaee with the Kaohiqnels
tiie dugrace of hb patron (1620) he waa kept a and ZntngUs, and connected more or leu inti-
prisoner at his ooontry seat, La Torre de Joan matelj with all the membera of the great Tzen-
Abad, for Si years, on charge of libelling the dal or Haja fomilj. At the time of the con-
government, bnt was released withont trial He quest, the Qnich^ occnjued the greater part of
"labliahed in 16S1 a (»lleotion of the poetrr of what ia now called Los Altos, or the highlands
jnia de Leon, and a volnme of " Poems hj the of Qnatemala, indading the diatriots of Quiche,
Badiiller Francisco de la Torre," eonaiHting of Totonicapam, and Qaesaltenango. The tradi-
soonets, odes, eaneitmet, elegies, and eclognes, tiona of the Qnich^s indicate that they sprung
forming on the whole one of the best colleo- from the Toltecan stoctc, either as a colony or
tions of misceUaneons poetry ia the Spanish as a fragment thrown off at the time of the
langnaga, and being probably the wortc of disruption of the Toltecan power, which had
QaeTeoo hlmaelf. In 1689, having made an- its seat in the centre of Chiapas, and of which
other Tint to Madrid he was Beized one night Palenquewas probablythe capitiil. Their reo-
at the house of a friend and thrown into a ords, as transmitted to us by members of the
damp dnngeon in a convent. His alleged of- royu honse, who wrote them out immediatelj
fenoo was the composition of some satirical after tbe conquest, ^ve a long array of kings^
rersea which had been lud nnder the king's and imply a high antiquity for the nation. It
napkin at dinner ; and thongh it was soon dis- seems that the Kaohiqnels and Zntn^a were
covered that anoUier had written them, he was once embraced in the Qnichd kingdom, and
kept for 4 years in rigorous coafinement Hia that thdr separation was the act of the Ung
papers having been twice seized by the govern- Acxopil, who had two sons, between whom h«
ment, the greater part of hia works hare never divided hia power, retaining to himself llie
been printed. Among hie published writinga capital and Hnrrounding regions, which pro>
are : " On the Providence of God ;" " God^a served the name of Qnicnfi. These three divi-
PoIitiMandOhrist'sOovertiment,"in wbiohhe sions, sabaeqaently becoming hostile, were
endeavors to collect a complete body of politi- easily conquered by the Spaniards. Alvarada
eal philosophy from the eample of the Sav- encountered his most ■rigorous resistance In
ionr ; " On a Holy Life ;" " The Militant Life Quiob^ where the king, Tecum-Umam, w^nt
of aOhristian,"&c. His most celebrated works out to meet him, according to the chroidclars,
are hia prow satires, in which he exhibits more with S82.000 men. They fonght with great
wit than delioaej. Of these we ma^ mention braTcry, but mnsketry and cannon, and above
his " ffiatory and Life of the great Sharper, all the terror inspired by the Spanish horse,
Paul of Segovia" (163T) ; hia treatise " On all proved too powerful for resistance with the
Things, and mai^ more;" "TheTaleof Tales;" rade means at their command. The battle last-
snd " Letters of the Enight of the Foroepe" ed B days, the Indians fighting as they fell back
(Carta* M eavalUro tU la Teneua, IGSS). ^a with Virions desperation. The king at last was
Baettot, or " Visions," perhaps the most popular ulsin by Alvarado, and the snbjagation of the
and effective of his satires, were publiahed col- Quiches was completed. — The ruins of the city
kctjvely in 16SS and tran8lat«d into English of Qnioh^ described by Mr. Stephens, attest the
by Sir Koger L'Estrange in 1708. They di»- grandenr and power of this people, and give ■
Elay a great deal of bold and original thoi^ht, hir support to the early accounts of thdr nnin-
ut are coarse, overdrawn, and affectedly epi- bera. The district which they oconpied is the
grammatic. A collection of Qnevedo's poetry best populated portioa of Guatemala, and is al-
waa made by Salas in 164S, and another by AI- most purely Indian, the ancient language beins
derete in 1S70, underthe title of " The Spanish still in general use. The people are describea
Pamsasos, divided into its two Summits, with by H. Arthur Uorelet as "an active, coorageoQS
the Nine Castilian Mnses." The best eidition race, whose heads never grow gray, persever-
of his works ia that of Bancho (11 vols. 6vo., ing in their industry, skilful in almost every
Madrid, lT90-'94). A translation of the satir- department of art, good workers in iron and
ical works appeared at Edinbui^ in 1796^ the preciona metala, generally well dreeaed,
QDIBERON, a town of France, in the de- neat in person, with a firm step and indepen-
partment of Morbihan, utnated on a peninsnla dent bearing, and altogether constituting a clasi
of the same name, which forms witn several of citizens who only require to be belter eda-
amall islands a fine bay; pop. about 8,000. In Dated to rise equal to the best." Their language
174S,duringthe warof the AustriansncoesMon, la regarded as a purer dialect than eitherthe
the English attempted a landing here, but were Eachiqnel or Zutugil, with which it is compared
repulsed with great loss. On June 2T, 1795, a by Fray Ddefonso Florea, in hia Arte dt la Im.
body of French royalists under D'flervilly and gua Eachiqutl (Guatemala, 1703).
Puisaye landed herefrom an English fleet, and QUICHUA8, one of the four great families
took possession of Fort Penthv^vre, by which Into which the aboriginal Peruvians were di-
the peninsula is defended ; but they were de- Tided, the others being the Aymarea (Inoas),
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
704 QUIOKSaVXB QCIN
Uie Atftounas, and th« Obangos, each Bpeaking E. ooart of Africa, ritiuUd on tihe left twiik of
diatiact l&ngaages, but those of the Qiiichuaa the river QaUimane, the N. arm of the Zant-
ttaiAjmeiea having so aiaiijsffiniciea sa to be besi, 15 m. from the sea, in lat. 17°63'&^1mir.
regarded as dialects of a oommon tongoe. The S7° I' E. ; pop. aboat 16,000. It is irre^tlar^
Qaichuas were Che especial subjects of the Incas, built, some c^ the dwellings being of brick,
and the nucleus of tlieir empire, occupying the Bom« of mad, and many of re^ds and grass. I^
capital, Cdzco, and a vast extent of the sar- i^ef ezports are gold and ivory.
ronndiiig coontrj. Nomericallj the; were tha QutLLWOKT, a eabmerged aquatic plant
dominant race of Pern, and tiieir language was with rash-like or quilled leaTsa, proceeding
tiie most widely diffased of any spoken in the from a common contract«d stem (eornn/a), whic£
empire. At this day they compose nearly three emits roots from beneath. From its eva^rew
fourths of the Indian population of Pern and condition throughout the year, it has receiTel
Bolivia. Phyaically they are short, with broad the generic name oiitoitet {Gt.uror, eqiuI,aDd
chests, and capable of long and severe exertion, trot, year). Its organs of propagation sn
Their complexion has not the coppery hue of lodged in chambered conceptacles (sporocupe^
the North American Imlians, nor the yellow enclosed in ihe bases of the leaves, and fiUed
tinge of the Indiana oconpying the lower regions with minnte, Irregularly spherical bodiea
of Bouth America, but may he described as (oophoridui), which at first cohere in fonr&
olive-brown or bronce. Their color as weU as The qnillworta belong to the natnral ord«r )iy~
thdr physical pecnliarities have been ascribed iropteridet or water ferns, and ar« oellnlai\
to the fact of their ocoupying a countty ele- cryptogamons plants. The lake qnillwort (X
vatod f^om 7,600 to 16,000 f^t above the sea, laeutWU, Linn.) is the most common form, and
where the climate is always cool and dry. is found on the bottom of ponds and in slow
Their features are strongly marked, and ao- streams in New England. Other spedee ars
cording to D'Orbigny hsve a doser rcBemblance known in the southern and western states,
to those of the Ueiicans than those of any QUILOA, a town of £. Africa, on an island
other American nations, from which they are of the same name off the coast of Zangnelar,
fiirther distinguished as having the least beard, in lat. 8° 67' S., long. 89° 87' E.; pop. about
What is known as Peruvian civilization, art. 7,000. It has a fort bnilt of mud and brick*
and relif^on, attests their intellectaal and moral and whitewashed, and is partly smronnded
character isticB and capabilities. Previous to the with walls. The streets are narrow, and many
oonqneat they bad made considerable advances of the houses are two stories high ; and there
In science, apparently without foreign aid or is a large mosque with £6 domes. At one
snggestionB. They had a decimal system of time an eztenmve trade was carried on, bnt it
nomeration, a cironmstance which widely dia- b of little importance now. Quiloa forms a
tingnishes them from the Uexicans, whose dependency of the sultan of Zanzibar, ^dien
system was vigintesimal. They had observed the Portugnese navigaton fi rst visited th>t part
Ue solstices and eqainoies, and accurately de- of the world, Qniloa was a large town, and the
tennmed the length of the solar year. " They capital of a prince who ruled over Sofala and
cultjvsted poetry and mnsic," says Prichard, Hozambiqne. In 1606 it was taken and bnmed
"and the roundelays of the lucas were cele- by Francisco de Almeida, and the Portngnese
brated by the Spanish writers for their pathetio afterward built a fort, bat were compelled to
and heantiful simplicity. Their language was abandon it in conseqnenoe of the tmhealthy
harmonions, graceful, and formed by the most nature of the climate. It subsequently became
artiflcial system of inflections and combinations, a slave depot, and continued to be enriched by
Their religion was, if we may apply s^ch epi- that trafBc till the early part of the 19th oen-
theta to any nninspired f^th, the mere resnlt tnry, when the island was captured by pirates
of the inward light of an untaught human from Ifadagascnr, who held it until they were
mind, in the higheat degree spiritual andsublime. expelled by a force sent from Zanzibar by the
They recognized in Paohacamao the invisible imam of Hnscat.
God, the creator of all things, sopreme over QUIH, Jamis, an English actor, bom la
all, who governed the motions of the heavenly London, Feb. S4, 16G8, died in Bath, Jan. SI,
bodies, and whom they worshipped without 176S. Bis grandfather had been lord m^or
image or temple in the open air ; while to the of Dublin, and his father removing to that ci^
■un, his visible creature, Uiey erected temples, after his birth, James was edncated at the mii-
honored him with costly gifts, and with rites versity there, and when SO years old vent to
performed by consecrated virgins." Some au- London, and commenced the study of the law
thors classiiy the ancient Peruvians under three in ttie Temple. Having obtuned an engage-
beads : the Aymares (Incloding the Quichnas ment at Dmry Lane in 1717, he at first acted
and Aymares), the Chinchaa (corresponding subordinate parts, bnt gained some repntaticai
with the Ohangos of Prichard), and the Hnan- in the character of B^azeL In 1721 he se-
cas or Ataoamaa. onred bis Ame by acting Falataff In the" Uerry
QUICKSILVER. See MxRonsT. Wives of Windsor," and greatly increased it
quietism:. See Uolinos. In 1781 by excellmg Barton Booth in the put
QUILIMANE, or Eilhahk, a town of the of Oato; and on the ^ipearance of Garrick in
Portngnese territory of Ifoiuubiqne, on the 1741, be stood at the bead of his profeedon.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
QUINABY SYSTEM QDINCE 706
In 1748 he retired from the stage, thereafter veneration among Oie andente, and vas re-
reading at Bath, but in 1T4Q appeared in Tbom- garded as emblematio of love and hM)pinea8,
■on'a tn^ed; of " OorioIftDoa." Eeplajed for Utinj myths are connected with it, aDdSrom the
the lost time, aa Falstaff, on Maroh IS, 1T5S, rabbinical writings it is even thought to hare
refWng to ^j ailervard becaose he had lost been the forbidden froit. The earliest herbal-
his voice. He received a pension &om George bte ni«ke mention of the quince tree as verj
HL, whom in his youth he had inatraoted In common in the gardens of England. There
elocution. Ue onoe released Thomson the poet *re several varieties, but the most distinct are
from impriHonment in a sponging house, pay- Uie pear-shaped, which is doubtless the typioal
ing his debts to the amount of £100, althoi^ form, the apple-eht^ed, and the Portugal. The
he was persoDally onaeqaainted with him at first is the most abnndant bearer, but its fruit is
the time. not so mnch esteemed as that of the second:
QUINABY SYSTEU, Bee ENTOMOMaT, and this however is only a seedlmg variation, and
OBinTHou>sT. its seeds when sown produce the pear-saaped
QUINAIJLT, Piauppx, a Frenoh dramatis^ quince as frequently as its own form. To re-
born in Faria, Jane 8, IflSS, died there, Nov. produce itwith oertaint7,reooureemustbehad
26,1088. He was the eon of a baker, and was to other means. The PortugtJ ia not so good a
patronized by the dramatist Tristan I'Eermite. bearer as the others, nor is Uie color of its fruit
When about 16 years old he produced on the of so deep an orange. The orange quince is a
stage a 5-aot comedy, £m neabi, which was local sub-variety, and so is the large-frnited
received with applanse. He studied law, got qoinoe of the fruit catalogues. — The quince tree
rich by marriage, assumed the title of oonn- is readily propagated by its seeds, which ripen
cillor before the parliament, and bought an as well as those of the apple, and can be sown
office as auditor in the court of exchequer, and in the same manner; layers produce fine plants,
afterward a post in the royal household. In and even cuttings, put in the gronnd in autumn
1665 he produced his beat comedy, La mire or early in the spring in some moist shady
eoqu^tUf ou U* amaatt wrngit. He was less situation, root easUy. The better sorts can be
fortunate in the serious drama, AitarU, his also bndded, using the inferior Mnds for stocks,
only tragedy which is now remembered, owing or even the common thorn. The tree used as
its notoriety to the ridicule of Boileau. In a standard needs tittle pruning, removing the
1673 he became aoonatnted with Lully Uie lateral branches merely, or thinning the top to
composer, and nrote lyrical tragedies to which secure larger fruit It delights in a rich mel-
' Lully furnished the mnsio. la co^jonction low soil, and will repay the cost of annual top<
with MoliSre and Oorneille, ha wrot« some dreswig with manures. Oare should be taken
parts of Ptyehe, an operatic ballet eztempo- to examine the base of the trunk for the rav-
rized for one of the royal feetJvBla at Versailles, ages of the borer i»ap«fda bieittata. Say),
Ue was a member of the French academy. His which prove very desfruotive, A remarkable
complete works were published in 1789 and yellow ftmgua (_cmtridium Cydonirs) sometimea
1778 (5 vols. 12mo.); hia (Suwvi ehtniu* in attacks the young fruit and canses a conmdera-
1U3 (S vols. 8vo.). ble loss. The quince tree b used for stocks for
QUINOE, the fruit of a low, etraggling tree budding or engrafting the pear when needed
(^C^donia wigarit, Persoon), belonging to the for dwarfs ; the best sorts of quince stock are
nMoral order pomaetm, which likewise inoludea the Portugal, which lias a more vigorous and
the medlar, apple, pear, dec. (SeePBue.) The free growth, and a variety called the Angers.
common quince tree baa a crooked stem, risinz As a fmit the quince la chiefly used for pre-
to the height of 8 to 15 feet; irregolar and serving with sngar, and in making marmo-
twisted iM'anohes, its bark smooth and brown- lades, jellies, &o. A wine is made of it in
ish black ; leaves ovate, obtuse at the base, en- England. The mucilage which envelopes tha
tire, dusky green above, tomentose beneath; seeds is useful in relieving ^m throat. — The
the flowers large, the calyx tomentose, and the Chinese qnlnce ((7. ^nmm, Thouiu) is a very
aepala serrulated and somewhat leafy ; the handsome spedaa, growing 30 feet high in
CMvlla of 6 pale red or white petals, wluoh are an arborescent manner ; its leaves are ovate,
no longer than the sepals; stamens SO or more acuminated at both ends, acutely serrate and
in a single row ; fruit large, globular, oblong shining, smooth when fall grown: the flowers
or pear-shaped, of a rich orange or yellow color rosy, becoming red; fruit egg-sh^»ed, large,
when ripe, and emitting a peculiarly pleasant hanl, almost jnicelees, and of a greeiUsh color.
amell, but which to many persons is £Ba^«e- The Japan quince ((7. JifponiM, Pers.) is one of
ably stroug. The classioal generic name of Uie the most derirable shrnM in onldvation, and is
quince tree indicates its connection with Gydon, ccmspionons ibr its rich and abnndant crimson
a city of Crete, but it is thought not to have blossoms in early spring. It was known in
been indigenous to that coimtry. At the pres- England abont 60 years ago, and has found
«it day it occurs spontaneonsly in the south &vor widely in America for nearly the same
of France and on the banks of the Danube. — period. Its stem ia low, etraggling, and bufib*
The quince is mentioned by Oolumella and by like, throwing up munerous spiny suckers,
Pliny, who gives direotionB how it can be kept which fit it for use in mating live hedges; its
for winter use. It was in much eateem and leavea are oval, aomewhat wedge-ehaped, ere-
VOL. xm, — 15
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
nateijmKatBi,mHooai on bolh rite, iUimIm Am BrilU, he ttaiUadj dcnoanoed the op-
rcnibrm mad Mmted; flower* moiUrSor* prtirioM of 1h« patfrnaattt md to viol«lioM
together, oaljx BDooth, the •q«l* itKnt, ob- of theri^tattf tbeei>kidrt|LinpablieiM
toae, attire ;eoKdk villi BrieherimMmpetak; and throng the prow. Tnoo^ of « a
■tamens in Snnra; fnrit mall, baid, awtere^ frame md iaqwrnet health, he had k tom* of
with a eingolar arotaatio and Miperr perfiime, great oonipafla and beao^, a cnieeAil aad p^
and of a greeniah jellow etwor. The Ja{Ma aianate deurerj, tad^now^&aaAtat eiwe
qidnoe tnined to a wall or upon a fraawwoclc ftrrid and lo^oal, irttidi plaeed &i in tlw
prodnoea a veiT fine elbct, and when trwnad flntrankoftheoMocaof Oatdar. Hi* name
to a u^ atcm its drooping hraBobes are rtxj waa always yiatA by Ua ooatanporario^ nd
SictnreaqM. It fa propaxated Itom pieoM of atill omtiniKa to tm en, wiA tbmo of James
■ rooti, from onokera ana laf era, or bom ant- Otia and Joamh Watrai, aa men who v<re
tinga. ATerrdiitinetTanetywithereamjand noatpowofUljlBflaentidincanwwtlienm^
Uiub-tinted ilowers, aad another wHh aemt IntioD, tfaoi^fa death or caloo^ hin£wed ths
doable red 8ow«n^ are known to gardenara. fron awCiHpg in ita progrtaa and ito trimulL
Other ■apeiw Tarietka are the reaoita <tf the Beride Us apeeebes intown iiMi<<iin,ii aiiiT otW
labors of florfoaltnritta. pnblie aaanUies, in Fanenil b ~
QUINOT. L A lownthip of Norfolk «k, Booth ohnrch, be 1
UaM^ 8 m. S-t^E-tmnBoaton, bordering on pnblio sentiment of that tritkal Ihne by his
QnineytwrtandoB theliDeirftbeOldOolonT' txM and animated meala throodi the sew
and Fan Btrer r^lroad; pop. in I860, 9,186. p^>era<tfthedv,imder'nrioaaBniatares,b
It S m. from the b«j, m hi elevated range^ with no real eMwealmatt of annoidup. ]
mnenseqnarriesof granita,emplojingOTer Har, IT74, be pnbliAed his prineml pontic
SOO men, andiMdhig to tbe aonnalnine ot w<^l "ObeervatioiiaoB the Boaton IVwt KQ,
d>ont $«iO,Oim. The TiUage ia beantiAilly rit- withTbo«ightoon<Knl6oTennMntandStaDd-
■atedoaapUninflieoentraofthetowiidilpi big Anniea." This waa poblidied with his own
It eontaiiia a town boose, a newqN^er office, S name <m the title pagt^ aad produced n stronc
banks, and 8 ebnrobea, vis. ; S OongregatiMial, aad permaaeiit inflnenoe <m tlte o^nkms ana
1 E^seooal, S Ibtboditt, S Bomaa OathoUcs porpoeeeitfthepwiod. la it, aa in hia uiony-
sad 1 Uairwsalist. It waa fermeiir called moos wrilinga, lie distinctiT states tbe ineritn-
Braintree, and ia noted as tbe birthplace of ble neceeritr of the amieal to anna whidi soob
John Haaooek, Jtdta Adams, John QniiHy followed, bat wliich raw were thai readr to
Adams, aad Jodah QDin<7, Jr. In 1828 a regard aa anavoidsUe, aad plidnlj riiaaows '
stone choroh wss ereeted, eootsining mono- fntb indepeadmoe as the neoessarj resnU,
menlB to the memory of Joba Adams and liis which still fower wero tttea ready to etm-
wffe, and John Qtiney Adams and Us wif& templste. TUs work was r^nbHsbed ia Lma-
A horse rrilroad ia in prooeai of oonstrnotioa don, and ezctted much attantaOD on tlw port
otHmecting Qniney with Boston, n. The cap- both of ministerialists and the tq^Mxdtion. It
ital of Adsnu eo., Dl^ on the IBBaenpfa lirer, beara marks <rf baving been written in forrid
s. from Bt. Lonls, 110 m. W. from Bprtng- baste at moments snatdted fi«m pntfeasitHial
' — -^ —' - 'o- [o; |Jop.tn arocatioiia. B» had not eroi time to cor-
~ ~ — " prod^ wbicb service waa peifomed
_ „ by Samoel Adams. An attempt
of the rirer and coontry aroiuid, and has sn so- was made to deter him from pobbablag
tive trade. It contains the court hooee, a nmn- this woA l^ aa elaborate and wtdl written
ber of mann&etnring eatablishmcnts, S bsnk^ letter smt to him anonymomlly, bat bdieved
It new^i^ier offloea, and SI chnroheo. It has to have proceeded from a hi^ flmctknary of
Tery eittikaiTO railroad oxnmanicationa, l)eing the govermoMit To tbia letter he made a brief
tlte W. temunns of tbe Qiiosgo, Burlington, trat opirited reply throng the " Manachoaetla
and Qaitt<7', and tbe Qnini? and Toledo rail- Oasette," and forthwith imoeeded with the
roads, and ia also eoanected with St. Joseph, pnbiicatimi. Prerionsly to diis, bowem, sf-
oa tbe IDssooii br a railroad to Pahnyra. ter the "Boston masesore'' of Uarcb 6, 1770,
QUINOY. L Jotua, Jr. (eo known to bis be gave the strcngeat prot^ poeiible of his
eontMnporaiies to distii^iudi bim from bis moral conrage and sense of proAariraial doty,
fttber of the ssme name, who enrvived him). Immediately npon tbe arrest <tf Omt. Preston
an Americaa lawyer, t>rator, and pt^tioal aad tbe soldioa who fired np«Mi uie p
writer of the period Jast preoedmg the revo- apidicatioo was made oq thefr behalf t
lalioa, bom In Bosttm, Fd>. SS, 1744, died st Qainey and to J<Ad Adsms to act aa their
■ M, ms. " - • "-
iou m. inim at. uauiBf iiv in. n. uvid cipruw- luma ut loouinua ■
field, and ass m. a W. fi^im C3iioago ; liop. m arocationa. B» had
18*0, 18,718l ft ia handsomely sitaatea oa an root the prm^ wbii
devated bluff commanding an extennTe view for him by Samo«
an .American lawyer, t>rat(»', and puiuoal aad tlie soldien who Bred nprai tJie pemtle.
writer of the period Jast preoedmg tlte revo- apidication was made on thefr behalf to Mr.
lalioa, bom In Bosttm, Fd>. SS, 1744. died st Qainey and to J<diD Adsms to act aa their
sea off Okmcester, Xass., Apnl 28, 1775. He ooQosel. This dnt^ they aoo^tted hi the bee
was gradnsted at Harvard oollcse in 1708, and of the stronaest popnisr (^tprobriom, and in
etodied law with Oxenbridm Thaeher, jr., a the eaae of the former ol aa impwaioned re-
barrister in large praetioe, wtiam m hia oeath monstrance from his 6th». Theywa«natde-
in 1765 he snoMeded in lus bnaiaess aad took terred from thur dn^, bowevw, aad on the
at once tbe hl^teat rank in his profieaion. trials the next antnnu the acqnittal of the
After the psssage of the stamp aot^notwith- priaoners Jiutifled their oouw^ and did honor
the mlntary oocnpatioa of Boston by to the swse of Jutke and aelf-oontrol of the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
QtrmoY 70T
poople of Boston. In 1?78 the ttimitj of his Hie torn of bis talents and stndtw tor pobUo
profesdonal labors &nd the political ex<rit«menta life. He tob a candidate for eouffreBs in 17W,
of the tiioe told bo powerftallT on Hr. Qain- bat was defeated In that rear i^ twice aftei^
ct'b health, that he was obliged to remove ward bj' the demoorstlo oaadldate. In 1800
himself firom both for a time. He aocordingl^ be was elected and served nntil 1818. Dnring
sailed for Oharleston, 8. 0., and ptud a visit (J the whole term of hb parliamentary life the
a few weeks to that citf, retarnuig on horse- federal part; was in a hopeless minority. Its
back tn the spring. During this tonr he pnt onl^ service was one of protest, and Ur. Qoin-
bimself in oommunication with the principal cj was its most prominent and eScaent mem*
whin of the Boothem and middle states, and ber in Uie diaoharge of this dn^. With great
established a plan of correspondence between readiness in debate, earnestness and fervcw
them and the Massachnaetts patriots which was of speech, qniokneM of wit, keenness <^ satir^
of material service in orgaoiiing the revoln- and the most thoroo^ personal intrepidity, he
tion. The health of Ur. Qoincy a^in jield- was a constant thorn in the side <rf the adminis-
ing to his seTere application to affairs, he was trations of Jefferson and Hadison. The embar-
pravailed npon in BepL 1774, by the nrgency go, the war of 1818, the erection <rf the Orleans
of political as well as personal friends, to pro- territory into a state, which were the chief
oeed to England on a private mission for the public measures of that period, he enoonntered
popalar oanse, as well as for the good of hia with the most nntiring hostility. He was one of
aealth. This viMt, occurring at so critical a the first, if not the first, among northern men to
moment, excited considerable notice In London, denonnoe the slaveholding interest as a risins
He had interviews, at their own reqneet, with and dangerona tyranny. In 1818 he declined
Lord North and Lord Dartmonth, and was in a reelection, and returned to private Ufs, divld-
constant interoonrse with Dr. Franklin, Ool. ing his Tear between Boston and his coonttr
nartley, Oov. Pownall, the earl of Shelbanie, seat at Qoinoy, where he applied himself with
Ool. BarrS, Dr. Priestley, Dr. Price, and other ener^ to s<nentlfio fkrming. He was immedt
prominent fi-iends of America. Lord Hills- ately elected a member of the state senate,
borough denonnced him with Dr. Franklin, in where hia opposition to the war was as eameat
Us place in the hoase of lords, as a man who, as in congress, and quite as annoying to the
Sf the govemmeat did its daty, " wonld be in administrstion, inaamnch as the federaaats had
Kewgate or at Tybnm." The resnlts of his a large m^jori^ in both booses. He Joined in
missioii he and the English whigs regarded aa the protest of the legislature agtdnat the war
of the utmost importance to the American and the admission of Loniriana, and repmted
nose; but they were of a nature that coold the famous resolution, occasioned by a pro-
DOt be committed to writing with safety to the posed vote of thanks to Oapt. Lawrenoe for the
piirties conoeraed. He accordingly prepared capture of the Peaoook, to the eflbot that in a
to retnm early in the sprine of 1T7S, against war waged withont justifiable e«we and for
the advice of Dr. FothergiTl, postponing hia eonqnest and ambition, it waa not becoming a
dunces of recovery to the discharge of a pub- morsl and rdigiona people to express qiproba-
lic daty. Unfortunately, however, he grew tion of exploits not immediately eonneotedwitli
vorse and died Just before arriving. Almost the defence of Hm •eaeoaat and harbor. He
hia last words were that he should die content remaned in the state senate nntil 1631, when
wmld he have but an hour's interview with he was dropped by the federal managers un-
Ssitiael Adams or Joseph Warren. The revo- der an impresdon that hia nnoompromiaing
lutloD bad been began at Lexington, but he had coarse had weakened his popnlaiity. Hia im-
not the consolation of knowing iL His death mediate election to the house of representa-
UDsed a general grief throughont the country, tivea at the head of Qie ticket showed that
u his labors in exciting the revolution were they misunderstood the people, and he was
universally acknowledged, and the loss of the elected speaker, which office fie Wd while in
KTvices he was expeotedto render in its prosecn- the house. In IMS, however, he resigned to
tioo, hod he survived, as universally lamented, take the office of Jndge of the monidnu court
n. Josii.H, an American statesman, son of of Boston. During his short term of Judicial
^6 preceding, born in Boston, Feb. 4, 1TT2. office he first laid down the law in the case of
Hb received his early education at Phillips Joseph T. Buckingham, indicted for a libel on
academy, Andover, Mass., and was graduated John N. Maffltt, that the publication of the
at Harvard college in 1790. He studied taw truth, with a good intention and for a Jostifia-
with Jadge William Tudor of Boston, but the ble end, is not libellous. This ruling excited
practiceof the profession had fewer attractions ^at diacuasion and no small oensnreat the
for him than the stirring polities of that day, time, but is now the acknowledged rule of
*aeQ the people of the country bad Just begun law in this country and in England. The next
to orgaaiie themselves into parties, nnder the year, 1898, he left tiie bench to beoome the
^nt excitement of the French revolution, mayor of Boston, being the second incumbent
He Joined the Meraliste at the birth of the of that offioe. In iU adndnistratton he con-
P*^, and remained constant in his allegiance ducted himself with preeminent dealBion,enH^
ahIi'^ the last. He was early selected as one gy, and oapadty, and left to mnnidpal magls-
itted by hereditary di^oeiti<ma as well aa by tratea everywhere an excellent example of tn-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
708 QUIHOT QDINET
dnstrr, dUDtvnatadoeas, and fldelltf. In 18S8 trodnotion, and in 18S8 Booompanied a Bc»en-
he loBt his aleoUon throngb tLa influence of tiflc conmuoNon to the Moreo, where he ool-
the fire departznent, which he had reorganized, lect«d material for hie Oriee modeme et tea rap-
io eonaeqDeoce of his refnaal to appoint a per- portt mee Vantigniti (8to., 1630). Becoming a
BOS be deemed incompetent aa the chief engi- contributor to the Revue det deux monda, he
seer. The preaidenoy of Harvard universitj published in it in 1831-'2 a number of papeis,
, was then vacant through the resignation of beside an ambitions poem entitled AJioMKerut,
t)T. Eirkland, and the corporation at once and which waa reprinted in book form in I8S3.
nnaiumoDBlj offered it to him. There waa He also contribated to the same periodical La
some objection on the part of the olerrj to the poita d^ VAUvmagne (1834); Za poetit ^liqw,
appointment of a layman to a post which had Eomire, L'epopia Lalint (1B36}, and V^tmie
umoBt alwajs been filled bj one of their or- Franfam (I6S7), and published Yoya^/e* trim
der; but the voice of the general public at>- tolitaira (18S6), and two poems: A'apoUM
i^oved the seleotioD, and the result justified It (1636), and iVntn^Aee (1888), in which heat-
He was inangnratcd in June, 1629, and held tempted to realize what he conceived to l>e
the pOHt until Aug. 1846, when he resigned, the "democratic epopee." The mythical shape
followed by the regreta of all the meml>erB and and philosophical preten^tona of these poems
friends of the college. A man of the world being little in accordance with Prench taste,
and of business, as well aa a lover of letters, they had but moderate auccess. He continued
he conducted the oSairs of the college and ad- his studies on epic poettv in a brilliant eaaaj
ministered its discipline in a manner which Sur repopea JnMenn^ and, onder the title of
left it in a state of high prosperity. Since then Allemagne et Italie, published a collection of
he has lived a strictly private life, except in philosophical and poetical compoeitionB (2 roU.
the year 166S, when be took a prominent and 8vo., 1^9). Although appointed in 1839 pro-
ioflnential part, by speech and through the feesorof foreign literature at Lyons, he wrote in
press, being then in his 8Gth year, in the effort 1840 a sharp pamphlet against the policy of the
to elect CoL Fremont to the presidency. He government and uie war in the East, nnder the
is still living (1861) in full poHsession of all his title of 181S et 1840, which was followed b; an
mental fscmties and the uiorougfa ei^oyment Averti»tement aw payt in 1841. This did Dot
of life, the patriarch of the public men of prevent his ^pointment in 1842 to theprofes-
America, Bewde many speeches in congress sorship of the literature of sonthem Eoro^
and orations on particular occasions, the chief just established at the college of France. He
of which are those on July 4, 1826, the jubilee now produced Le genie eU* nligioriM, and with
of independence, on the second oentennial cele- Hichelet began a vigorous crusade against
bration of the settlement of Boston, Sept. 1630, the Jesuits, whom Uiey both aasaUed nnspar-
and the second centennial of Harvard uci- ingly in their pabJjo lecturea. La Jauila, a
veraity, Sept. 1636, Ur, Quiacy baa published summary of Uteaa lectures, which they pub-
the works named below : " Memoir of Jodah lished in conjunction in 1648, had an immense
Quincy, Jr., of Massachusetts" (Boatoo, 182G); sale; and Qumet's own pamphlets, Zic Za Ui«rt«
" History of Harvard UniverBity" (3 vols.. Com- de ditciution en matiire religieum, Sipctite d
bridge, 1640); "The JoomalsofH^or Samuel ^el^va obtenatiim* de 2Igr. Var^ieUqve de
Shaw, the first American Consul at Canton, Mam (1643), VuUravunUanitme, ov, ia loeieti
with a Life of the Author" (Boston, 164T} ; modtm» et tiglite vu>dern6, and L'inqvitUmn
" The History of the Boston Athensum" et let toditit lecrite* ea B^aane (1644), were
(Cambridge, 1661): "The Municipal History scarcely less successfuL But the war had beea
of the Town and Oity of Boston during two pushed too br for the government to overlook
Oentories" (Boston, 18G2) ; " The Life of John it, and Qninet was suspended from his profea-
Qnincy Adams" (Boston, 1668); "Essays on sorship. He occupied his leisure in visiting
the Soiling of Cattle" (Boston, 1859). III. Spun, and printed on his return JVm vaeaaoa
EDKuNn, a political and miscellaneous author, en £mafne, and Le Chrittianittat et la recola-
eon of the preceding, bom in Boston, Feb. 1, tion JVwifaiw (1646). The next year, being
1608. He was graduated at Harvard college elected a deputy by his native town, he par-
in 1837. He baa published " Wenaley, a Story ticipated in the refonn manifestations, took
without a Moral " (Boston, 1664), and has been up arms in Feb. 1648, and triumphantly re-
ft frequent contributor to literary neriodicab sumedhisprofeesorshipattheoollcgeofFranoe,
and political newspapers. He has long been where he waa proud "to inaugurate the re-
prominent among the Oarrisoniau abolitionists, public in the very chur of a king's lecturer."
QUINCY, QuATBKi^ia ca. Bee Qoatbk- He was elected colonel of the 11th legion of the
ukas DB QuiNoT. national guard of Paris, and sent by his depart-
QUINET, Edoak, a French historian, poet, ment to the ccmstitnent and legislative assem-
and philosopher, born at Bourg-en-firesse, da- blies, where he took his seat among Qie ultra
partment of A in, in 1808. Having visited Ger- radicals. In the mean time he published his
many and acquainted himself with German Eiretutumt d'ltalit (1648), and on the fVench
philosophy, he published a translation of expedition to Borne issued a pamphlet, Cniuade
Herder s Idtit «ur la philMopMe d« Vhittoir^ Autrichienjte, Ihmfaite, ^politaine et Gpa-
d» Pkumanili (8 vola, Svcs 1637), viUi Sa in- gnolt eontre la rspui^tM Bomaine. This waa
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
followed hj Vital d« tiige (1846), Ven»eiffne~ cipitated bf sd^tion of lime water ; Bome liiiie
■ meat du peuple (1860), and RhiUion (1861). combined with coloring matter fidls with it.
Bj the decree of Jan. 9, 18C3, he was exiled The precipitates are well washed with water,
from France, and retired to Bmasele, where he and the residnura is pressed, dried, and ptdver-
married the daughter of Assaki the Moldavian ized. It ia then repeatedly treated wiUi also*
poet. Hia dramatio poem. Let ckImm, ap- hoi, which diaaolvea the quinine and leares
peared in 18S3, and a historical easaj, Ando- most of the imparitiefk These being separated,
tion de la ripvbUque da £tati Unit, in 18S4. the aolntion is oonoentrated bj eTaporation to
In 1855 he published a remarkable artide in a brown viscid masa, whioh is impme qninia;
the Sevae de* deux mondtt, entitled PMlotophit or the tinctare in the diadUing Teasel may be
lie Vhittoirw de France. He has since prepared nentralised with salplitirio Boid, and the alcohol
an edition of bis (Eawtt oom^Utet in 10 Tola, being then distitled off, an impnre eolpliate is
8to. and 12mo., and to these m 1860 he added obtamed which orystallizee on cooling. Thia is
the lost of his philosophioo-poetical perform- expressed, and then dissolved in boiling water
ancea, Merlm Venehantear (2 vols. 8yo,). to which pnrifled animal oharooal baa been
QUnnO ACID. SeeKraroAoro. added. It is filtered whUe bot^ and then al-
QUINTNE, or QnnriA, an alkaline sobstance lowed to cool and orTStallize. The pnrificatioii
discovered b; Felletier in 1890, and procared is completed b; again diseolTing and cryatalli^
&om that variety of the yellow bark of the ing. Bnlpbate of dncbonia is commonly pres-
cinchona tree known as ealitaya. This bark ent, bnt being more soluble does not orygtalUza
is the product of the cinchona cdUtaya, and so readily aa the anlphate of ^niniA, and re-
is eialnsively obtuned from Bolivia and the mains in the mother liquor. This also oontaina
8. part of the a^iou^B Pemvlan province of what liebig regards as an amorphona variety
Oiffabaya. This yellow bark has been com- of quinine, which is analogous in its properties
monly referred to the eiru^uma eordifolia, bnt to nncryataUizable sugar; it is known aa qni-
it is ascertained that this species of the tree, noidine, and poBseasea the same medioal prop-
wbich is common in Sew Granada, is unknown erties as the snlphate. Snlphate of quinine, or
in the region where the true quinine bark is more properly the disnlphate, is the medicine
obtained. Several other species afford some commonly known as qninine. It oonnsta of
quinine, bnt the other alkaloid, cinchonia, being one equivalent of sulphurio aoid, 40, two of
more abundant in their bark, they are less vain- quinine, 834, and 8 of water, 73 =486. It is
able than the 0. ealitaga. The forests in which in fine, white, mlky orystala, which on exposure
tliis tree is found are in the Bolivian provinces, to the air effloresoe and lose tbeir form together
Enquirivi, Yungos, Lareonjs, and Oaupolican, with their water of crystallization. It dia-
at distances of 8 or 10 daya' Journey fraia in- solves in BO parts of boiling water, bnt sep-
habited places. They are visited by parties of aratea on cooling. In e^er it is slightly solu-
Oasc^illoa, men devoted to this business, who ble. Alcohol when cold takes np one part in
make an encampment and roam throogli the 80, and the diluted acids, tartano and oxalic,
region around, cutting down the trees they find dissolve It freely. In water addolated with
■nd gathering the bark. That of the branches, anlphnrioor other aoid it readily dissolrea, and
being laid in the sun, rolls up and forms the this property is taken advantage of in admiu-
qnilled variety, the larger pieces A-om the istering the medicine in a liquid fbrm- — The
^nk are piled np tc^ether and pressed flat by effects of sulphate of quinine npon the system
weights, when dry they are carried into the ore similar to those of Peruvian bark, and it
<^p, where they are assorted fbr transporta* is now in general use as a substitiite jbr this
tiou. 1a Paz is the principal town in the in- drug, being not only more easily administered
torior where the hark is collected. It is thenoe in large doses, and better retained by the stom-
Kut to Arica on the coast, and from this and ach, bnt also acting when required through the
other ports is largely exported to Europe and pores of the skin. It is a very powerflil tonio
the United States. — The manu&otnre of quinine and the most valuable remedy in intermittent
is eitensively carried on in Paris, in Stratford, and remittent fevers. It is exhibited in pills
England, and in Frankfort, from which place and also in solution, and it is found that its ex-
^nssia-Prussia, and Austria are chiefly supplied tremely bitter taste may be neutralized with-
vith this medicine. In Philadelphia the busi- out affecting its medicinal efficacy by the addi-
|ie« of extracting it from the bark is conduct- tion of i of ito weight of tannic acid. In ma-
ed ia chemical establishments also upon a very lignant intermittents it has also bsMi implied
iKi^ scale. The quinine in the process of its extemaliy in the fi>nn of an witmenL Qumine
eitraction is commonly converted into the in large doses powerftilly aflbcta the brtin, end
■olphate, which is the salt chiefly employed in even as ordinarily administered its effects are
nedteine, and of which from 2.0 to 8 per cent, aoon manifest in a feeling of lightness or disten-
13 usually obtained from the yellow bark. The tion of the head, ringing or buzzing sounds, and
pTocewes employed vary somewhat in differ- dnlness of hearing. Beaftaesa ia often indnoed,
«ttt countries. From a strong decoction of the which however passes off; bnt in vary larae
b^k in water, acidulated with hydroohlorio doses the most serious effbcts have fbllowed fta
^■^ and filtered, the quinine may be set tcoa use. — Qninine is often adulterated, ohiefiy with
"""> its combination with Unio add and pre- gypsmn aod other slkoliite or earthy Bsl^ also
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
viHi ngar, gnm, Hmh, itMrine, oafllBlne, nd prodoMd a bumD Tctame of lyiio mom whtiM
Tariona other BnbftanoeB. Aaj minentl nib- pabriotio ■pirit immeffiat^ bron^t tiican into
■tanoe not Tol^iable is detected b; exponng avta:, tnd in 1806 placed npm the rtage Us
the qoiniiie to t red hea^ bj irhioi the pnre Pttoffo, inteitded to ronae hu oouulrjineo to
ialt ta entirely diaripated. Treatment with al- reabt Ibragn oppwarion, vhieh waa eqnaDf
oohol and otber aolTenta ezpoaea tlioee imptui- well reoeirad. Iffia " Lires of Distiiwnidied
ties which are not also solnble in them. Bpaniarde" nSOT), and $ volnmea of adecitaona
<iVISSY(totmUitU,tuiiifffAiJili»,oieynanehi bom Bpanidi poets, wkh eritical notea, wen
toruiilarii; ¥r, tiquinaneiA, oommon inflam- prepared with the aame patriotic motiTs. On
matorr aore throat. Thon^ called tonnllitu, Uie revtdotion <Mr 180S be pnUiahed faia " OdM
the inflammation ia rarelr ooofined to the ton- to Emanopated Spain," and, both throng the
alls themaalTe^ bnt inTolrea the pbaiTnx, the preaa and aa aeoMtarT' to the oortea a£d the
eoft palate, and the nmla, and aometimea ex- resaunr, exerted UmMf to the utmost in be-
tMid* to the root of the tougne. Itoommenoes half of hia oonntrj-, bnt after the retnni of
with a foeling of dryneaa and diaoomfort aboat Ferdinand VII. from France in 1614, Qnintana
the throat, and with pain in awallowing. On waa confined to 6 yeara in the forte cw of Pun-
examination die mnoona membrane lining the pdnna. After the rerolntion of 18SS be re-
tiiroat ia tomd to be reddened and the tmuila mained in Eatremadnn until the aoeeanon of
more or leaa fwollen. Aatbadiaeaaeadvanoea, laabella IL, whose ednoatiiML L« had m^ena-
the inflamed parte, at first prel«mBtorallr tended, whoi he was recalled to office, (9«ated
drj, become oorered wiUi viaod mnoiu, and a peer, and crowned with lanreL Eia cran-
Uie diatrew of the patient ia greatly enhanced idete works haTe been pnbbahed in Itivade-
by the efforta whiiA he ia tempted to make to neyra's BibUoUea dt aut«r*t SptOuiei (ISfiS).
Kuore this secretion. In many easea siippiira- QUINTIXIAIT (QvnmuAvus), Maxovb Fa-
tioB oconra in (me or both tondla; wh«t this mos, a Roman rhetorician, bom probably at
takes place ttioae o^sni are ofteo enormously Oabngnrris in Spain abont A. D. 40, died aboat
swollen, and together with the swollen and ii^ 118. He was educated at Some, stodying no-
flamed polato mar render the breathing dlffl- der Dtmudos Afer, and after revisiting h£ da-
cult and paioftil. In aoohoaaM the febrile reao- liTe conntry retnnwd witii Galbai, and began
tltm is atroQglymsrked, the skin bring hot and the profesnon of an advocate, laA also bo-
the pnlse ftiO and frequent; the patient is en- came diatingniihed aa a teacher of eloqnenoe.
tirely nnable to take nonriahment, and the Among hia pnpila were the yoonger Pliny and
Toioe beoomM thick and ohBraat«risao of the the two grand-nephewa of Domitian, by which
disease. The pain, exceedingly aoote when monarch he waa invested with the conaalar
the patient attempts to swallow, or to dear his honors and title. He waa the £nt who re-
throat of the viaoMmnons which adheres to tt, ceived fr«m the imperial treaanry a regular
often eztMida to the ear, and aometimu ia at- salary of 100,000 sestercea a year, which waa
tended witii partial deafbeaa. The bursting of given him by Yeapaaian. For 20 years be
. tiie little abscess formed in tlie tomdl is at <Rwe tonght oratory with each soeeeas, that hia name
followed by great relief to the patient; the beoimesynonymonawith^neUenoeintlwart.
matter has a nanseotts taste and often an ex- His great wwk was a treatise on tiieedneation
oeedinglyofibnnve smell. The disease, thon^ of an orator, entitled 7)* /astiMJOM C^nuipris
very painftil, is attended with littie <« no lAbriZII. Ther«ar«164decJamati(HiaaBcribed
danger; it nnut be remembered, however, tohim; and he wrote also a w<m^ 2^ (^W**!
that the inflammation may by e:rtendon bi- Cvrrvfta Eleqwntia, The first complete MS.
voire the larynx and thas prove btal, and of the '^Institotea" was discovered byPonio
eases are on record In which death has ooenr- Brocciolini In the monastwy of St Gw while
red from the oloeration having involved a attending the oomunl of ConsUnoe. Toe edi-
branch of the carotid artery. — llie diaease re- tio priitetf* was printed at Borne by PhiL de
qnlres bnt little treatment. A ndld pargative Lignamine (fbl., 1470) ; the beat edition ia Uiat
In the commwoement and the use of warm begnn by Raiding and finished tij Znmnt (S
water aa a gargle are all that are neoeasary. vob. Svo., Leipsic, 1768-1689). The "tnsti-
Early in the attack powdered gnaias redn in tntes" have been translated Into English by
doses of 80 or 80 grains, an^ended in mod- Guthrie (3 vols. 6vo., London, 176S), by Pat-
lage or rimp, several times a day, often ^es soil (3 vols. 8vo., 1774), and by Wataon ^
great relief and aeema to ent short the attack, vols., London, 1806).
Late in the disease stimulant and astringent QUINTns OUBTIUS RUFUB. SeeCmann.
gai^es mar be advisable. QU1NTU8 lOILIUS. See Guibohabd.
QUINTANA, UunnL Josi, a Spanish poet QUIRINU6. Bee RoKUi.ua.
and patriot, bom in Madrid in 1772, died there, QIHTOLAIM, a word often used in deeds,
March 11, 1657. He wsa ednoated at Balv and nsnally in oonneptiou witii words of grant
manca for the profession of the law, whidi he and conveyance, when the grantor or seller in-
praotised for a time at Madrid. His tragedy tends to convey to the grantee or bnyer all the
of "TheDnkeof Viseo,"imitetedfi«m"The ri^t, title, interest, and estate of the grantor,
Oastle Spectre" of M. G. Lewis, was performed but without any warranty whatever, whether
in 1801, and waa sot anoceusfliL Li 160S he of title, quantity, or any tlung else. B<auetinua
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Qumuir 711
Ada«d purporta to b« s dwdof "gmt and lapwlBUitding stronl larg* Bngar and ootton
qoitolMro," wheottwgmtorftddstoUietrorda eatatM. In Jul;, ISU, be vat app<^t«d biig-
ttfgraitt mdMmreranoa, vordaofUmitedwar- adier-general in the U, &.tnnj, and ordered
lantf ; aa, for JMtaitee. wammtj againat him- to report to Qen. Tajlor at OainaMO. QniU
" id all peraona otauning b^ from, through, man'a brigade oonainted of the lat lOaMBipirf
' r him. Eran thla litmted varrantr, and Ist Tenneaaee repments. At the battle of
ud atiU m«» a geoand varmstf , wonld eatop Htaiterer, which ao<» followed, he diatingDuh-
the graator from onHiiig the grantee bj our ed himaelf bj hia anooeBBftd aaaanlt on Fort
better titia, not onnliu; throng Um grantee, Teneriee, and hia daring adranoe into the heart
wUeb tlM grantor nd^t anqnire anbaeonently of the dl7, fitting from honae to hons^ and
tohiadaed. But If the deed were one M grant driying the Mezioana from harrioades and bat-
and qnitolaim Mdr, without anr warrant, the traies. Sotm after the otqiltnlaUon of Konteref,
grantor mi|^t thea aaMrt row a title. For at hia own reqoeit, he was ordered to report
•zan^le, A aalla and oonroTa to B, by grant to U^cv-Qen. Soott at Tampioo. At the uego
and qoitolaim only, for a fall price, an estate of Vera Onu, he eommandod in the fint sharp
to wluoh it toRu out that A haa no title. But engagement with the enraiT, and anbaeqaentlj
A Bobaeqnentlj aoqnirea title to it by inheri- led an e^edition againat Alvsrado, In ooijano-
tance from the tme owner. A may now get tion with the oartX foroea vnder Com. Ferry,
the eatata from B; but not if he srwited with He r^oined the army soon after the battle of
warrant, beewiae if he then to<^ the eatate Oerro Oordo, and formed part of the advance
by hia Mtter title, B wonld tnm round npon mider Oen. Worth that took poaseirion of the
him on the warrant and get the eatate bank dty of Poeblo. Here be waa breveted major-
again. Qnltehdin la alao uaed in reoebta, nin- gMieral for gaSantry at Monterey, and recmved
dly with anoh worda aa releaae and diBoharge, aswordTOtod himbyoongteaa. In the attack
when it is intended to aignUy that the party <^ Ohapoltepeo hia mviaion formed one of the
giving the reoeipt or retoase agreea nerer to aaaanlting oolomna. He atonned the fbmdd^
nuke any daim againat the other par^ fi>r any bla worka at the baae of the hill, and promptly
vilatinffdebt; pushed forward to the Belen gate, which ho
QDlTlCAK, Josh Asthoxt, an Amerioan carried by aaaanlt, and planted the eolora of the
pcUtician and eoldier, bom in Bhinebeok, Sonth Oaiolina raiment, thoa taking poaaes-
Dntcheas oo., K. T., Sept. 1, 1799, died in don (tf the <^ of Hezioo, in advance of the
Hatches, Uiai., Jnly 17, 1868. His father waa general-in-cUe^ who, with Worth's dividon,
a native of Prnaaia, hia mother of Onra^oL In waa approaching by the San Ooame road,
hia 16th year he waa ei^loyed aa totor at Dnring the nigfa^ in the &ce of a tremendona
Hartwick aoadein', near Oo(^eratown ; at 18 fire, Ike erected bttteriea to support an attack
a« proftaaor of Engliah Uteratore at IConnt npcn the dtadel, a formidable work immedi-
Aiiy college, Germaotown, Penn. ; and at 19 atelylnhiaf^ont; bot early in the morning it
he travelled on foot to OhiUicothe, where he anrrandered. When the general-in-ohief ar-
ntered a law offloe^ aunkorting binoMlf mean- rived, he qipdnted Qoilman governor of the
while by teaching. He subae^iently aooqtted dty. He retained the office mitil he had thor>
aderbihip in theU. S. land i^ecs Delawaia^ on^ilyeatabIlahedorderaod^so^line,«ndtheD
0., whore be waa licenaed to praotiae law. la aoUdted leave to return to the Unitaid Statea.
ISSI he removed to Natohea, Hiae., beoame a He waa aoon after, and almoat by aoolamation,
fartner of Mr. William 6. Griffith, ft prcmioent elected governor of ICaaiBaippl. While eze^
lawyer, was elected member of the legiala- daiDgthedntieaofthiaofKce, npon the finding
tore in 1827, appointed chancellor of the state of a f^eral grand Jury in Louisiana, he waa
r, appomti
d aobseqi
196, and aabsaqnently continued in that threatened with arreat for alleged complici ,
office by election, and waa ohoaen a delegate with Geo. Lopea in o^anidng an expedlti<ni
to the oonVMition for reviring the state ooudi- to Cuba. Denying the right of the fbderal
toticsL Bedgning the ohanoellorahip in 18U, government to arreat the chW magistrate of a
he waa deotad to the state senate and ohoaen atate, he urged a BDroenaion of prooeedinga
its pvsiding offioer. While perfonnlng thia until the eiim«dan(rf bis term of omoe,pledf-
daty, a vacancy bai^ienins in toe ezecnttre <rf- ing himaelf then to demand a trial ; bnt this
floe, its ftuKtionadevolTed'^on him in 1686; but bwig reftieed, he resigned his offloe, not wish-
ix aoon after withdrew fh»n politioal hf^ and ing to [wovoke a ccdliooB with the fbdend an-
niied a small body of in«i with whom be thorides. He went to New Orleans in the
jcioed the Texans bi their stmnlo for ind»- custody of the U. & mardial, bnt after an
pendenoe. He reuudned in the field until the abordve ^ort to obtain evidence^ the proeecu-
cqttnre <tf Santa Anna, when, considering the tion waa abandtmed. The d^nooraao party
war at an aid, he retunted to Natdiea and re- in IGsdaailvi Immediatdy renominated him
"■■■Md the praotioe ot hia wofasdon. At the for gavenux', and he entered upon the canvaaa,
same time he dlseharged the dutiea of m^jor- his opponent bdag Gen. H. B. Foote. The »d-
emwd in the mitlte, director of the Kate jnatmentoromnpnimiBemeasureaof ISSOeon-
Boqdtal and of the Natohea lyoenm, trustee stitnted the issue. Q"*^"*" '""'■"' ■k>™>"W ^-
for the state nnivernty, and praddeut of the verae to them. Wi
'Xwd of tmateee for Je&rson college, beside greaeiiigj the people t
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
z
<Mbc
712 QUITO QUOBRA.
intwmedlate election for dd«gates to s >t>te racks and armory. Qnito is dte resldenoe of
ooQTentioD called to ooiudder th«M measures, the aole arobbiahap at th« ooontrj, and luta,
condemned the political views ha waa known buide the DniretMt)'' and the aeminarT ot Bain
to entertain, Quitman wttiidrew ttom tlie con- Lnis, a national ooUego, s nninber of other
test, and retired onoe more to private life. In edaostional establishmaits, S hos^tals, and
1865 he waa elected to congress by a large aBjlnnu for the insane and blind. The nuno-
mi^oritT, and in 1867 waa reelected vrithout faotnrea inclade ooarae cotton and wtK^Ien
opposition. Boring his whole term he re- good&^lace, hoaiery, confoctionerT-, aad jewel*
mained at the head of tiie militarj committee, ij. There is a large traffic in grain, indigo.
He took an active ^art in the general business iron, steel, predona metals, wine, brand;, and
and debates, but his parliamentary fame rests oil, with Oentral America and Pern ; and £nro>
chie&j on his celebrated speech for the repeal P;^ mann&otnres are extensively imported. —
of the neutrality taws, and hia argament on The history of Quito goes back to a remote
the powers of the federal govemmecit, which antiquity. Of ita primitive rulers, tra^tian
) him a position as the recognized head of preserrea the names of a number who ven
state rights party. He had never ceased called Qnita. About A. J>. 280 the city is aaid
to contemplate armed intervention in behalf to have been captured by certain foreign in-
of the Onbane as a dnty, and he sympathized vaders, who, under the name of ^ria, main-
with every movement for the eitenston of buned their dominion nntil the invasion of the
Ainericao institotions in the western hemi- inoa Hnayna Capao, who subdued the entire
there. Kis life has been written by J. F. H. kingdom, destroying the last of the Siria in
Mbome (3 vols. ISmo., New York, 1860}. the sangninary battle of Hatuntoati. Hnayna
QUITO, the capital of the repoblio of Eoua- Gapac, in order to consolidate the kingdom,
dor, and of a district of ita own name, formed married the daughter of the Siri, and added to
by a valley in the Andes, situated in lat. 0° the red tassel of tiio incas the emerald wUch
1 S' B. and long. 78° 48' W., on the E. fiank was the insignia of the kinga of Quito. At hia
of the volcano of Pichincha, 10,288 feet above death be divided his kingdcon between his two
the sea, being one of the highest inhabited sons, Atuhnallpa and Hoascar leavii^ to the
points of the globe ; pop. 80,000. Although flrst the sceptre of Quito, and to the secimd
almost immediately uuder the equator, its that of Oozco. War however ensned b^ween
elevation imparts a degree of mildness and the brothers, in which Atahnallpa obtained con-
aalubrlty to ita climate rarely found under the trol of the whole empire. But his triumph
tropics. Its temperatnre aversgee abont 60° was of short duration, and he lived to find him-
F., and may be truly described as that of eter- self the prisoner of the Spanish adventorer
nal spring. Fenoed ronnd by distant moon- Pizarro. Taking advantage of the c^>tttre of
tuns, and immediately surrounded by plains his king, Rumihagui, one of the inca generals,
and fertile valleys, the city forms the centre of usurped regal authinity in Q^to, but fled to
one of the finest landscapes of the globe, the monntaiua on the approach of Sebartian
Skirting the horizon may be discerned 8 snowy Benalciuar. Under the Spanish dominion Qni-
peaks of the Andes ; and to the S. and B. of to, erected into a presidency, first formed part
the cit^ are the broad and beautify plains of of the viceroyalty of Peru ; afterward it was
A&aqnito and Turubamba, the first celebrated attached to that of Santa F6, and ■obaeqnentiy
as the scene of the great battle between Gon- restored to that of Peru, to which it remained
ulo iHzarro and the viceroy of Pern, Blanco attached until the iudep^oduice of the country,
KuDea de Yela, in which the latter was de- when it was a^regated with Yenezuela aiM
fisated. Qnito has a nomber of large and Kew Granada m tiie republic of Colombia,
beantifbl public squares, of which the most On the dissolution of that republic in 1881, it
celebrated are those of San Francisco, Banto was o^anixed, with the diatrids of Amay and
Domingo, and Plaza Uayor, the lost surround* Quyaquil, in a new republic under the name of
ed by the cathedral and government buildings. Ecnador.
Each square has a stone fountain in its centre, Ql ITREST, certain kdnda of rent, called
supplied by snbterrviean aijnedncts. There are qnitrenta, according to Blackstone, because the
many fine churches, of which the most famoua tenant thereby went quit and free of all other
arc tiiat of the Jesuits, adorned with columns, services. Bnt this is the case with most rents;
statues, and rich sculptures, and those of Ban and the word came to be used generally in
FVancisco and LaUerced. The principal other England to dengnate a small or merely noori-
edificee are the palace of the goremment, that nal rent reaerv^ when the tenant or hirer
of the archbishop, and the house of the Jesuits, pud in gross for the lease a large sum, abont
now dedicated to various nses; one portion equal to the value of the land. The word is
bwig occupied by the university ; another by not much used in the United 6tat«a, and can-
the seminary of Ssn Luis, in which there is a not be said to have now any precise and dafi-
publiclibraiTof 16,000 volumes and a museum; nite technical meaning,
a ttOtd by the mint; and a fourth by the bar- QUOBRA. See^iazs.
>y Google
R
Rth« ISth letter and 14tb consoiunt of the deface hj the Hungarian kings, bat after the
• English alphabet. It is a lingnal and a battleof Hohfica was twice taken bv the Tnrka,
liquid, or BBmi-vowel, being prononnoed both A battle was fought nnder its walls in 1809,
before and after moet other ooDsonanta. It is in which the French defeated the forces of the
foond in all languages except the Ohinese and Hnngartan nobles. The former fortifications
the tongnes of some of the Korth American of the town were razed after the French war.
Indians. The Romana borrowed it &om the In the war of ISIS-'S the place was again Terr
Greek rho (PjP), which is derived from the conspicnons. The Hnngarians were defeated
Hebrew and FhiBnician nuA. It ia one of the before it br Hajnan, Jnne SB, 1B4S.
laat -which children leam to pronounce, and RABATT, a town of Morocco, in Fez, at
those who have been engaged in teaohinff per- the month of the river Boo-Regreb, ■'
I deaf from birth to artionlate, find the diatslj opposite SalS, in lat. 84° S' N., long,
greatest diffionlty in conveyiDg any idea of its 6° 46' W. ; pop. 21,000. The honses are well
Mrand to their pnptls. The most common bnilt, and it baa some mannfactnres and trade,
mode of prononncing it la bj an expiration The environs are fertile, and figs, grapes, or-
while the tongue tondies the roof of the month anges, and cotton are prodnced.
with a tremulous motion, as in the word rhet- RABBI (Heb., my master, lord, or teaeher),
oric. The tremnlons sonnd is more distinct a title of honor bestowed on the doctors of the
in iho Spanish rr, which indeed is not readilj Jewish law since the 1st centnrj B. 0. The
learned bj Englisbnien or Americans. It Is Hebrew or Aramaic words rai, ivbba, rab-
freqnently exaggerated by the Irish and soft- han (muster), nMoni (my master), and to6-
enm down by the English, who are more easily benv (oar master), have also been employed
distingnished by their peonliar proonnciation in the same sense. In modem naage the title
of this letter than by that of any other. — The rabbi or rabbin is frequently applied to the
Bomana often added an r to words which they distingnished Talmudio writers in general, in-
borrowed fh>m the Greek, as i^or, nurut; eluding the anthors of the Mishna and Gema-
iiva^, mtira ; and on the other hand often ras, and sometimes in a more limited sense to
dropped it from the nominative case of nonna the Jewish theological writers of poat-Talmndio
and retted it ia the obliqnecasea, OS (M, ftru; times, especially of the later periods of the
M, oru. It was interchanged sometimes with middle ages, whoee common dialect, a mixtnre
I, the words arena, larioiig, piffnora, I\irii, of Hebrew and Aramaic, is therefore colled
Valerii, and Fapirii having been anciently rabbinical. The modem religious heads of
written asena, lanbiu, pignota, ISuii, Yaleiii, Jewish communities or congregations are also
and Papuii. The some change ia observed called rabbis or rabbins, in which sense alone
in some modern languages, as £ng. hare, Qer. the title is sometimes need by the persons thna
haoM ; Eag. wfu, Qer. war. It is most fre- distingcdahed themselves. .^a& is also nsed bj
qnently interchanged however with L The the Jews of eastern Europe and others in the
Ohinese, who cannot pronounce r, always nse sense of the English Ur. or German Herr, be-
I in its place ; the Japanese do exactly the re- ing attached, both in conversation and writing,
verse. (See L.)~-As a Roman numeral R de- to the name of every married Jew enjoying a
notes 80, or with a dash over it (s) 80,000. good reputation.
The Greek p with a dash over it atands for RABBIT, the common name of several
100, and with a dash under it for 100,000. As species of the hare familv, especially the leput
an abbreviation, R signifies Simia, Semamu; evnteulu* of Europe and the L. tyhatieiit of
R. P., retpvbliea; R. 0., Soma eondita. North America; the family and generic char-
RAAB (Hun^. 6]/dT or Ifagy QySr; anc. acters have been given nnder IIahb. The En-
Arrdbonii), a city of Hungry, capital of the ropean rabbit or cony (£. eunum^uf, Linn.), the
county of the same name, situated In a marahy lapin, of the French, is sbont 16^ inches long,
plain at the Junction of the Rabnitz and Bash, with the tail 8 inches additional, and the ears
near theentranceofthelatterinto the Danube, also S inches; the tarsus sborterthan in the
M m. S. E. from Presburg and 67 m. W. N. hare ; tie general color gray brown, white be*
W. from Buda; pop. 16,000. It Is the seat low, the back of the neck rnfons; tail wnlte
of a Bonwi CathoUc bishop, has a cathedral below, blaekiBh above, but pencilled with dirty
and several other ohnrches, and a number of white: ears not tipped with black; compared
higher institutions for edncation, and carries on with tnatof the hare, the sknllhas themuzsle,
a very active trade. Tol>acoo and cutlery, in- interorbital space, and incisive openings nar-
clnding swords, are manufactured. The town rower; the mammte are 0 pairs, 3 pectoral and
was a place of importance in the time of the 8 ventral. In the wild state the rabbit in-
Bomans;. It was generally kept in a state of baUta Europe, ese^ the mere northern por-
UigiiiZOQ by Google
ti0Bi,iDdlT. AfllM; ttbOoa^tobeori^ AmariaM gty rrftMt (2L i»fcrtfai«v.BMh.) ii
naUr from Bpa])i, bnt, bdDg hiir^, hM been al)OBtlHf>Mlie«totlMrootofdi«ttfl,«idHi
MrriedtonuMtpartaortlisirorid; ttbeuOr to the end <rf tbs onUnbdied ten *>• t^ to
diitiiiKaiabed from the here by lt> auJler djN^ the cod of the bainHlxkM: nr aad padi
Craridi color, and short feet andean; ttalM of the feet Aill and sdliwaM back H^Td-
differs from the harea in Us bnmnring haUta. lowiah brown, Ihicd with Uaelt, grarer « the
Unable to eao^e from ita enmiee by apeed. It ridea; on the ronqi mixed aali,gn7,a
aeeka aafetjr in de^ h(4ea dog in dir aatkl^ pnra white bdow ; iq^cr annaoe a
plaoea, living in aooiety in what are called wai> the bank, below pure oottonj white; i
places, living in Booiflty in what are ealledwar> the bank, below pure oottonj white ; Mterior
nns, with an ample anp^y of food at hand, edgeof earawMtiih, edges of the donnlsarfeoe
tn plaeea anitable for bDrrowa,anoh aa sandy toward the lip blaii,t£e rest aAj brown; for
heMhaeOTeredbjaprioklyforce. Bemaii^ng lead-colored at the base. Tliia n "
•earoh of food, and oftcai do oonalderabla mis- being largeat in the west and i
chief by digging np the newly sprouted com coamciit haired In the sontfa ; it is found almoit
and gnawing the bark frvm yonng trees; these throng^oot the United Btatea, from the sooft-
warrena are often of lai^ extent, and a aonroe enipartsofKewHampehiratoX1orida,andwert
of great profit frmn the fleah and aUns of the to the npper IDwoqiI, being moat abtmdant in
animab, which are can^ In snares and tr^a. sandy regions oovered with [nnca. It alao fre-
dng or drowned ont, and banted by doga and qnents woods and tbicketa, eonoealing ttaelf in
fetreta. They are very ^vlifle. bMibuung to its finm, In thick bnahea, w in htdea in trees
breed at the age of 6 mcmtlu, haTtng aereral or nnder stones by d^, coming ont at ni^ to
Utters tn a year and S to 8 at a tune; the feed; it ia fond of visiting cloTer and c«n
period of testation is aI>ontS weeks, bn^ ai
ntens is doable, there may t>e two distinct lit- trees, w£
ters at an Intern] of a few days; the yonng are not dig burrows like the European rabUt, and
bom blind and naked, in a nest lined with cornea rather in the daas ot hares; when pur-
the motber'a soft for; they are aald to live 8 or ined H mns with great swiftness and with few
9 years. They eeem to have aoolal lawa, the doublii^ to its hole in a tree or rock ; thou^
•ame burrow betng transmitted frvm parent to it will breed in enclosed wan«na, it does not
ehndrai, and enlarged aa tlte flunily uioraases. beoome tame, and liaa not been dcnnestiaAted.
Babbits and hares ^ipear to be natural ene- It is very prolific, or else it would be exter-
mlea; they are not met with in the umelocali- mlnated by its numerous enenuea; it <dten
ties, and whan^they meet with each other al- runa Into tlte hole of the woodchuck, dunk,
most always engage in deadly combat ; wlien fox, or weasel, in the last 8 oases often felling
brooght np together they do not produce a a victim to the oandvoroua inhabitant (A the
fertile ofi^nlng inter m, and hybrids probably burrow ; it ia hunted by don, ahot from ita
never occw between them in the natural Btat«. form, and oavght In anares and tn^ ; Ha fleah
It has iMen eatimated that in 4 yeara a single is much esteemed. It somewhat reaemblcs the
pair of rabbits wonld, if nnmolMt«d, become Eunmean rabbit in its gray color, bnt it doe*
(he progenitors of more than I,S60,000 ; but to not oliange ita colore like tiie latter ; it ia also
eheok Uils increase we have the peraeontion smaller and more slender. The sage rabl^
of man and of oaraiToroas beasts and birds: (L. arttmitia. Bach.), from the west and the
their ravsgea are more than oonnterbalaneed plains of Uexioo and Texae, cannot be satiafoiv
by their flesh, which fomia a untiltioaB and torilydietinguiahedfrmn the last mecles. The
eaaly digested article of food, and by their jaokaaa rabUt or Texan hare (X. eauetit, Wa^)
aUna, which are used in making hata and are is so named ftom ita very long ears, measnriiig
dyed to imitate more expenrive fors. The about S inchea, thon^ the animal ia rather
name rabbit or cony is erroneouBly qtplied in amaller than the European hare ; it ia yeHow-
the tranalation of the Hebrew BcriptureB to the ish gray above, waved irregularly with black,
^qfan, a gmall pachyderm with burrowing upper part of t^ black, sides gray, and dnll
habits, described undw Htbax. Babbits are whitiah below ; nape sooty black ; it ia fbnnd
easily domesticated, and in this state vary in Mexico, Texas, and Oregon. Ihe long and
greatly in colors, si^ and oharaoter of for ; slender legs indicate rapid locomotion and a
black, white, and gray are the prevising oapaoity for making long leaps; it ia a solitai;
colors; in the ^TOT-grn variety the hairs are and not very common species, and has not been
white and black ; the Angora rabbit la noted found in OaUfomia.
for the length and softness of ita white ftar; in RABELAIS, FUsccis, a French author,
the lop-eared varieties the rise is 8 or 4 times bora in Ohinon, Toorune, in 1488, or perhaps
that of the wild animal, and the ears are more a little earlier, died in ISeS. The aon of an
or less bent downward fhnn the base. When u>otheoary or an innkeeper, apparently in good
tome they do not pair like those in a wild state, ebvumstanoes, he was sent at the age of 10 to
and lose more or leas the instinct of bnr- the convent of SenilU to be educated, but
roving ; their fleah ia also inferior in flavor, woved an idle pnpiL At the monastery of Ia
thoogh more delicate and digestible ; the tame fianmette, where he was next placed, he
malee not onfreqnently kill the young.— The diowed equal distaste for study ; but here he
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
bMWM aoqiialiit*d with the broflMn Da Bel- In oompanttr* aM« tnd tnaqQillitjr
._ .i_ _>. — — _ .._. i.._. _> ._ . ' d b/hU pro(__ _
Hen he
I iiim In alter UTft. Mow it the oomlknt&blQ Utiiw of JUndon. Men he
oh ft erMolesiTonDgTagkboiid ^^Ued bimadf lUthfillr to the dotiM erf hli
V of Tnndaosni i« not olear, ministrr, and derotad his leinm hours to th«
k^ponad tiiat aoob a e
•atared the ordv of 1
but probably it waa in obedienoe to hla father, comidetitBi of hie great work, S books of which
Admitted as A norioe at ftontenar-I^t^omte, lie hod already appeartd. Thla being done is
pnased throwfa the nanal atndiea and ordMla, 15fil, he onoe mora repaired to Paija, published
waa ordwnad piieat in 1511, and made np for his 4th book, and spent his later jears in de-
hla past laiinen bj deroting himself to the Totlonal exeroisea at Mendon. — Sooh are tha
sfendr of an(^nt and modem langna^ea, maa- asoertained facta of a life which baa been e:
d eapeoial atCraelion for him ; and this in- was of neoesut;r mnoh like aome of the obarao-
volved him in serious qnarrels with his feUow tera he haa depicted He has bean n ' *
monka, who cherished saoh animodty toward as a J0II7 hnflbon, dreaming of no
■' - ' T, ^ , ,_ . ., . . . ,^^iife_ Thereis
>eaa represent
of nothing t
-Kapar-
._ le of proof to snbstantiate this notion, whila
preoioQs Oreek 70101008 eonflsoated. Tha ill hU profonnd and Taried knowledge the atden-
fbding grew ao strong that the remoral of the tifiaw(vkawhIohhepnUisbed,sndhi8Soholarlj
Helle^st became a neeetd^, and in 1S24 be habita, are anffident evidence of their fiUsanaaa.
obtained parmisricoi ttann Pope Olement YU. The bnolAil image of Babelals that has latdy
to anMr the order erf Benediotinea. Ee spent been onrrent most be set aside, and the writer
several Tears at their hoose at "MaJllezaia, bnt moat not be mistakenforonaofhiaown heroes,
was no better satisfied than before, and in No performanoe in Froioh literature had grea^
1680 ^landoned the monastlo life altogether, er snooeas in its time, or has nnoe attnoted ao
and repaired to Uontpelliar, the seat of the mnoh attention, as his " Gargantoa and Pant»-
moat oelebrated medical school in France, gmel." It cannot he olasted with any reoogniied
Here be attended lectores, end in 1630 was order of works. It is a merciless attack opon
graduatedaaahaohelorlnmedioineandinlSS? monka, princea, 1dnga,and all reli^ons and
as n doctor. In 16Si we find him a hoapital p<^tioal aothoritiea. Amid Ita chaos of eoc«ii-
phTstcian at Ljona, and engaged in pablishinK trioitjeaand allnMons to persons and events, of
annotatedaodoorreotededitionBof varioDsmed- good senaa and folly, of delicate thooghta and
(oal works of Hipnoeratea, Oalen, and otherib ^ss obsoenitiea, oconmentatora have tried
From tS88 to lUOnepnblished several editions m vain to find a historical explanation <rf th«
of a boetiooa prodnotion, in whioh he endeav- work. According to the nuMt approved kev,
ored to destroy the &ith In astrology which Gart^tna standa for King Franda I.; Orjuid'*
still prevailed among the people. At Lyona gonsier for Louis XH. ; Pantagmel fbr Henrj
alao he pabliahed the first rongh aketdi of the JI. ; Hchrocole for V^TimiUmi Sforza, doka <rf
strange work npon which his &nie rests : Ltt Milan \ Gargamelle for Anne of Brittany, the
(btfi et diet* dv giant Qwrfontva «t ds sm ^ qneen of Lonia XII. ; Badelieo for Olaode of
PantagnuH (1688). Jean Da BeHay, his old France, qneen of Fr&mus I. ; Grand^ament
achoolmate, now bishop of Paris, being on his de Oangantiia for Diana of Poitiers ; Pannrge
way to Rome, where ne had been appointed for the cardinal of Lorraine ; and Fr^re Jeao
French ambassador, took him in the 0(^>acit7 des Entomeors for Oardinal I>a Bellay. Be
to soperintend the printing of bis edition of eonld appreciate its fine parts were also de*
Mariianl's Antiqvitatti Bmui Antimia. On lif^ted with those that an repulsive to oor
his return to Rome he found that his patroD taste." Lord Baoon styled Rabelais " the
had been promoted to a oardinalship ; and great jester of France;" while more recant
thionoh his inflnenoe, ^ded by that of nveral jodgea have called him a " nondo Homer."
other hi|^ digniUriea of the church, he sac- More than SO editions of his great work have
eeeded in obtaining from Pope Panl HI. a boll, been published ; the first oomplete cue, oon<
dated Jan. 17, 1586, which released him from tuning the S books, speared at Lyona in ISSB,
the penalties be had Incurred by the abandon- Among the subsequent editions, we may men-
ment of his order. This instroment, which, tion t£e two [ninted at Amsterdam in 1711
contrary to usage, waa delivmed to him gratia, and 1741, with annotations by Le Daohat and
allowed him " to retom into any house of the L« Monnoye (8 vols. 4to.); the standard mod-
Benedictide order which would reedve him, em tariorw* edition by Esmangart de Bonr-
and to praotiae physic on oonditlon of doing so nonviHe and E3oy Jobannean (B vols. 8vo.,
without hope of foe or reward." He now re> Paris, lSM-'6) ; uoae of De rXulnay (8 vols,
tnmedhomeandentored theabbeyof SlUanr 8vo., 18S8), of P. Lacnnz (BiUiophlle JacoK
des Fose6a at Paris, which waa nnder the con- lime, 18U, several times reprinted), and <rf
trolof Cardinal Dn Bellay, and remwnad then Bn^and Des Mareta and Bathery (S voll.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
Tie RABVK BAOHEL
ISmo^ Paria, 1B67), die mort oonTeidQiit uid bMs; Tatdiiiig the eoft-flfaelled turtle itj ha
acceptable of all, viitt a good biograpliical and 6gg» in the sand, it uncovers and devonrs them -
critical notJoe, ezplanationa, notes, Ac There It Beiaes dncka aa the; come to the vater, and
are aeveral English tranalstlona. That of Sir T. is extremely fond of ripe and jnicj ooni, as
tJrgahart, first poblished in IflSS (reprinted b^ well as of trogfi end diell fish. It is not en-
the Miiitland club, 4to., 1888), was adopted b^ tirelj aootanuil, and aometimea Tisita the coin
both Ozell and Hottenz as a ba^ Their flelda and the ponltr^ yard at middaj ; Hfeeda
united translation is often repriDt«d ; the last mntdi on an infBiior ojater in the soathnn
edition ie by Bohn (2 toIs., London, 1860). states, hence called the raccoon ojater; in &et,
SiiteenprivatelettersorBabeltusvrittenwhUe the animalis trnly omnivorona, eating, beaide
travelling in Italy were published in 1S51. the above, rabbits, sqnirrels, and other rodents,
BABUN, a CO. at the N. £. extremity of flah, nnta, and honey. It has been generally
6a., separated from Bouth Carolina on the B. E. supposed to dip its food in water bef<»« eating
by the Chattooga river, bordered N. by North it, hence its specific name of Idtor or washer;
Carolina, and drained by several smal] streama; this it does not generally do in c^rtivity, ae-
area, abont SCO sq. m. ; pop. in 1S60, 8,371, of cording t« Bachman, and it is probably only in
whom SOS were slaves. It has an elevated oocadonal habit of the onimaL It hibenutea
aorfaca, the Bloe ridge extending along ita B. E. daring the coldest weather in the northern
border, and a conaiderable portion is covered atates ; it is ahy, and haa an acate senae of
with forests. The prodnotions in 1860 were smell; it brings forth abont the loontb of Ifay,
64,6SS buahela of Indian com, 6,771 of oats, 4 to 8 at a time, in a nest in a hollow tree,
•nd 9,868 of aweet potatoea. There were abont the size of half-grown rats, which ntter
18 ohnrohes, and M4 papils attending pnblio a plaintive In&ntrlike cry. It is a ferorite
aohools. Oapital, Olafton. sportof the soatiiemnegroaB in winter to hont
RACCOON {prM!yM),8torr), a genus of Ame- "coons," driving them to a tree, and then
lican plantigrade mammals of the bear ftmily, climbing np and shaking them off, or felling the
of the section tuiuntniB. In thia genaa the ^ze tree to bring them within reach of the dogs;
ia comparatively amaU, Hie body aboat, and the they sell the skin to the hattera, and eat ttia
t^ moderately long, bnshy, andnotprehenrile; flesh, which is generally very fat and tender,
the mozile is pointed, and the end very mova- with a flavor of pig. Hany are oan^t also in
ble and slightly projecting ; the teeth are : leg and other traps, and are honted by toreh-
incisors §z}, canines jc-f, premolars fzf, and ligbL In captivity it makes a very conning
molare }r|, in all 40, or with one upper tme and intereeting pet, being eamly tamed ao as to
molar on «ich aide less than in the bears. The follow its master even into the crowded street
idiape ia not unlike that of the badger, though ambling along in the manner of a bear, and
the I^s are longer ; ears moderate, erect, and picking his pockets adroitly of dainties.— The
covered with hair ; head broad behind and fiat, black'tooted raccoon (P. Bemartdttii, Wag^),
with naked and large mofBe; whiakers in 4 from Oregon, Oalifomia, Mazieo, and Texas, ia
principal horizontal series, 6 or fi bristles in somewhat larger, with the upper sni&ce of the
each ; feet C-toed, with naked solas and no In- bind feet dark brown. The crab-eating raccoon
dication of webs ; claws curved, not retractile, (P. cancritorvt, Illig.), from Braail and the
and sharp ; though plantigrade when standing, northern parts of South America, ia longer and
the gait is rather di^tigrade. The common more slender than the common speoiea, grayish
raocoon (P. htor, Storr) la 32 or 38 inches long, above shaded with brown and black, and yet-
with the tail about a foot additional ; the gen- lowish below ; the &ce is whitish, with a blad
eral color is grayish white, the tips of the long bond surrounding each eye; tail leas distinctly
hairs black and giving this tint ia the back ; annuloted. Its habits ore nearly tlie same as
nnder suriaoe dark brown; an oblique black in the other species, but it ia more arboreal ; it
patch on the cheeks, continuous with a paler ia equally omnivoroua, obtaining frogs, fish,
one beneath the jaw, and another behind the and cmstaoeans when practicable; its flesh is
ears ; the end of muzzle, ears, and posterior also used as food. It is found on die sea coast
part of cheek ^tch whitish; tail bnahy, with and in the interior, and aa br south aa Para-
the tips and G rings black, and the nearly equal guay ; it haa received its common name fnxa
Interspaces rusty white; hind feet 4 indies one of its favorite articles of food,
long, dirty white above, the fore feet 21 inch- EAOHEL (Eusa Bachel Ffiux), a French
es ; mammcB 6, ventral ; there are anal glands actress, of Jewish parentage, bom in Munf,
whioh secrete a somewhat ofii'ensive fluid. Switzerland, Feb. 28, 1620, died at Cannet,
Some varieties oc<nir nearly black, others are near Toulon, Jan. 8, 1858. Her father, a ped-
nearly white. The raocoon is found generally dler, pursued his calling in various parts of
over the United States, as far north as lat. 60° Switzerland and Gennany, and was followed in
in the interior, as high aa Newfoundland on his wanderings by his fanuly, consisting of hia
the Atlantic, and farther north on the Pacific; wife, 4 daughters, of whom Bacbel was the
it is most abundant in the sontbem states, fre- second, and a son. At Lyons, where th^j took
qnenting retired swamps covered with high up their residence temporarily, Bachel and her
treea and well watered. It ia an excellent elder sister Sarah contributed to the common
dimber, in this way obtaining e^s and young snpport by tinging at the cafte and other pab-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAOEEL 717
lie resorts ; and at PariB, vhither the femily and hatred wore so robtly interpreted, that
removed in 1831, the two nstera Bimilarly em- the mind wu even less affected by what she
ployed themselves on the honlevards. Ohoron, expressed than by what she left to the imagl-
the fonsdoT of the royal institution for the nation. A circnnurtance vhioh contrihnted
Btndy of Mcred musio, Btmok by their perform- powerfully to her snccesB was the rapidity
ance, took them both nnder his instmotion; with which she reached the foil development
but finding that the talent of Rachel, to whom of her powers ; and others beside Janin were
he gave the name of Eliaa, was dramatic rather astonished that an obscnre yonng Jewess, with-
than vocal, he transferred her to the care of M. out edncation or assdatanoe, should, as if by in-
8t- Anlaire, a teacher of declamatdon, who care- stinct, saddenly master the chief prodnctions
tiilly gronnded her in the chief female parts of of French dramatic literatare, and reveal in
thp standard classical drama. Her ai&iirable them beanties previously nnsuspeoted. For
personation of Hermione at a private per- several years she contented herself with per-
formance of Atidromaque procured ber admis- forming in the old classic drama ; bnt finding
filon ial836aaapapUoftheMnwinxit<nr«;and that the limited roond of characters she as-
shortly after she obtained an engagement at the snmed afforded her rivals a pretext for denying
Gymnase, wbere on April 24, 18S7, she mode her the comprehensiveness and versatility of a
her pnblic debnt nnder the name of Rachel in great actress, she gradually formed a distinct
La Vendienne.a vaudeville written for her by riptrtoirt from the works of modem and con-
Paul Dufort Whether the part was not adapt- temporary dramatists, in which she appeared
ed to her, or she had not yet aoqnired confi- with varying sdodbsb. In Jvdith, by Mme. da
dence in her own powers, the performanoe at- Gtrardio, CathariM II., Firpinw, and Le aievx
trttcfed little attention, and for upward of a (2a 2a tMntonx, she made litUe impression; bat
ycnr she did not agun appear prominently be- In Jtarmt SAm, MarU Stuart, ana particolarly
fore thopnblio. In the mean time she stadied in ^iriMUwZtwtmvur, a play adapted expresft-
assidnonsly nnder Samson, an actor and author ly to her talents by Boribe and L«^uvl, she
of ereat experience, and on Sept. 7, 1S88, star- renewed the triumphs of Oamille and Phddre.
tied the Parisian public by a personation of The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 horded
Oamille in Les Haraeei at the iMdtrt Ihrnpait, her an opportunity for a remarkable perform-
so full of originality and tragic intensity as al- ance, half spoken, half sung, of the MdrteiUaiu.
most to obliterate the traditions of former ao- Bnbsequently she appeared in Cliepatre and
tresses in the same part. Her merit, however. Lady Tarttife, written for her by Mme. do
might Dot have been immediately appreciated Qirardin, in Victor Hogo'a Angelo, in Domas'
had not Jules Janin, in the feuilleUm of the iHlt. de BelU-Itle, in IHaM, Louiu d« Zignt-
Jirumal Ae» dibats of Sept. 10, declared that ratlet, and in Scribe's Oeoti'im, which waa the
the tragedies of OorneiUe and Racine bad be- last new part stndied by her. In none of these
come rennimatcfl by thegenina of Mile. Raohel. perhaps did she so completely satisfy her andi-
At her third appearance the receipts rose from tors as in the severe and lofty tragedy of the
about 800 francs on the first night to S,04d, a classic period, with which her genius seemed
Eabn)ou9 sum for a performance of a classical to have a cloee sympathy. Her theatrical io-
drama; and theuceforth she stood alone on the come, originally 4,000 francs, aooa rose to
French stage, oonfesaedly the first actress of 80,000; and in 1849 she effected an arraoge-
the day, and never probably rivalled in her ment at the thidtre Franfait, by which 8
peculiar walk of tragedy. The lous neglected mouths of absence in each year were allowed
plays of Comeille, Racine, and ToTtaira were her. The receipts fram her performances ia
speedily revived for her, and she ^tpeared with the provinces and in EngUmd reached enor-
pecnllar aucoesa ea £milie in Oinna, Hermione mona sums, and daring an engagement In Bus-
in Aitdromaque, Sriphile in Iphigkvie, Monime sla in 185S she received 400,004) franca as her
in MithridaU, Am^ualde in Tanoridt, Boxane share. These emoiumenta, however^ were
in Bajimt, Pauline in Polyeii«t&, Agrippine in gained at the expense of her health, which anf-
Brilimniout, Flcotre, Athuie, and Ph^re, the fered nnder the fatignea of so ardnons a lif^
last beingone of her greatest fariumpha. In per- In 1865, in company with her brother Raphael
sonating these characters she paid little regard F£lix and her sisters Sarah, Lin, and Dinah, and
to the cheriahod traditions of tAe stage, and the a complete trvap* of actors and actreaaea, she
actors performing with her were ft^qoetKly made a profMnonal visit to the United States,
confused and even startled by tones and get- and first «>peared before an American andienoe
tores so different from those estabBshed by at N'ew York as Oaio^e in Let Soratm. She
costom as to appear to them wholly foreign to was internipted in the midst of great anccess
the play. The stndied declamation of the old by the Ailnre of her healtii; having pl^ed
school woa exchanged for an utterance at once manytimesinNew TorkaodBoaton, in which
natural and impreedve, and the ezprenioii of two places she cleared some t60,00a and then
her face, her gesture or attitude, soaroely less onoe in Philadelphia and once in Oharleston,
eloquent than her voice, conveyed a fblneaa and she went to Havana In a vain effort to regain
force of meaning which made each part a new her strength through the mildness of the oli-
creation in her hands. She excelled ia the de- mate, but finally retumed to France a heavy
Uueation of the fiercer passions, bnt Jealousy loser and with little hope of recovery, Sh«
U,9,-„Z0QbyGOO^[C
with B. finely modelled head, dear, pue oom- plaidiutn, a yerj liTelf imitation <rf the
pleiion, aoA feataraa fbtl of «xpreMtoiL Her " Waqie" of AriatophaiMS, wis perfbnned ;
attdtudea and movMnenta wen of aurr—ring and In 1660 SritainuevM, a nuaterly adapbdJoo
beaat]^ and her Toioe waa etngnlarly dew, rich, of some of the moat powerfol pictorea of Ta-
and a^oting. Though never married, ue left dtns. About tUa time Henrietta of Boglaod,
two Bona, one of whom, acknowledged aa the wiahmg to pUee the veteran OtHndUe and hia
son of ILWalewaU, himself an illegitimate ton Toong liTal in eompetition with ^rndx other,
of Napoleon I., ha* been ennobled aa the eonnt priTWbelr reqneated each to write « tngedj
of £tiollea by Napoleon IH. founded nptm the Ulictt love of the empctor
BAOINE, aS. £. 00. ofWiseongIn,b(»d6red Titna and Qaeen Berenioe. Unfit for the atan
E. by Lake IDchlgon and drained bj Dea aa anoh a aaUeet was, the two poeta ea^er^
Plainea, Fox, I^e, and Root rirera ; area, accepted it. Badne tnooeeded in nrodnomg a
abont SOO aq. m. ; oop. in 1990, 21,868. It haa aerie* of tonohing wuie*, embelHued hj Uie
a noarl? level Bornoe, prinoipall;' prtirie, and most exqnUte poetrr, ao that hie £6rfmie» ha
aveiy fertile aoil. Ine produwona In 1860 beenpropwlri^^abeaotifiilflegrinltaclB;
were 818,149 bnahels of wheat, 78,847 of In- bntthe 7ttl«*t.fiMMM<tf OtnDeUlewuaeoa-
dian oom, 170,6611 of oats, 68,370 of potatoes, plete &i]nr& Baelne now wrote in anceetrioD
and 338,466 Iba. of batter. There were 6 saw 8 other tragediea : B^aaet (1673X whitdi, ccn-
millfl, 2 tanneries, 6 newspaper office*, 18 trarjto all fweoedenb^ wasfovnoed miaocn-
oharcbea, and 8,706 pnpila attending public temporary oeenrrwwe in the Ottoman em]nie ;
schools.— KAcm, the owltal, is ritnated at the Mitkridati (UTS); and Ipkigim* «n AwUdt
month of Root river on Lake Michigan, and on (1674), a remode^ig of ime of the ^Sja of
the line of the Chicago and IdwaDkee r^- Eoriiddes, which was pronounced b;^ Voltaiie
road, 38 m. S. from the latter and 63 m. N. the maaterpteee of Ae French stwew PkUn,
from tbe former ; pop. in 1B60, 7,8SS. It is which was prodnoed three feara latar, ia o<»-
bnilt on a plain aboat 80 feet high, and hai one sidered b^ some oritiM snperkir to MUgiitie.
of the best harbors on the lake, admitting vee- The dnke of Nevera, the dnoheia of BomDon,
selBdniwingiafeetofwater. Theoit^isregn- Ume. DeabonlidrM, and several other lilerarf
iarlj Uud out and weU boilL It contains a nnm- characters now put forward aa a competitor to
ber of public offloes, and is the teat of Badne Bacine a third rate poet named Pndon, for
a number of maanitotories, fkmuces, machine laritj, while th«7 dl ^._ . .. . _
shops, 3 ship rards, and 14 ohnrcihM, via. : 8 awi^ from the Uieatre m which the bne PJU-
Baptist, a Oongrcgational, 1 Episcopal, 1 6cr- in wss performed. TUa iqlnstice inflieted a
man Gyangdlod, 1 German Lutheran, 8 La- severe wonnd upon Baeine's sennbilitj-, and
theran, 1 Preabjterian, 8 Boman Oathdio, and having married a verr devout wifit, and pos-
1 Universalist. aeadng la b!a office aa royal hiatoriognqiher a
BAOINE, Jkav, b French trafno poet^bom oomfortable means of support, he reitolTed to
at Lafert^Milon, Dec. 21, 16SI9L died in Paris, cease writing for the tb^ie, and devote his
April 28, 1690. At the age of 10 he waa ad- time to religions ezerdseik the education othk
mitted to the select school under the direction children, and thepr^taralionof ahWcr7«tf Hie
of the rednses of Fort Bojsl, where ha re- reign of Louis XIV. The mamwcrmt ttf thia
mained fbr S years studying the clawdot, and work, which was never qnite eam|Mted, w-
especially Oreek, with eagemees. In 1660, lost in afire in 1726, wiu thee;
I marriage of the Spanish infanta Maria fragment indodlng 6 yeara, ttvm IfftS to 1678.
Theresa to Lome XIV ., he dedicated to her an In the mean time Badne had aoqoired tbe &TOr
ode entitled £a nympht dt ta Seine, for which of Ifme. de Maintoian, who posnaded lum to
he received 100 louis and a pension of 600 compose a drama to be acted by the pnpila <tf
livres. His relations insisted npon his becom- the roysl female semina^ of Bt. Oyr. Be
bg a priest ; and accordingly he repaired to therefore wrote in 168S his Ublical drama of
Uz^ where for several months he hved with Suktr, in which he introdneed diomsea, and
his uncle, a canon, who promised bim a bene- the performanoe was a decided sacceaa. The
fice. But he could not give up poetrj, and at poet, encouraged by Mme. de Maintencm, nnder-
last returned to Paris, where be published, took another play <tf the asme kind, but of wi-
toward the end of 1668, an ode. La ^tummit derscope and prtmorticma; theanlijecthechoee
a-ux Mnaet, which introduced hhn to tbe ac- was the &11 of AthaBah. This was Us last
qnaint&Dce of Boilean. A little before thia he dramatic compoailiMi. Mme-deMaintenonnow
had been encourSiged by Moiidre, who inggeet- had doubts about tiie propriety t^dramatk per-
ed the plan of his first tragedy, La TkiSaUt, fonnanoes by the yonng ladies under her care ;
on Utjrire* ennemtM. This play, performed in and when AtiaUe was completed in 1691, die
1604, although it showed no stnkiDg merits canaedittobe redted merely twice in a{«trata
either in constmcthHi or eieimtioii, was fkvor- room without coatsmea or aoenery. Vben the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
td«oe WM printed, It waa aeurcblf i»tic«d b]r of power, greataeM end ima^iution. The
thepoUio. B<rfle«i eonscded Ub IHend ander Mmemarbeiaidof hisfhiMKurtoandPeMM
his diaapptdiitDieiit. "This is 7011T finest work" dJMrHi. He wrote JH<Sm»ir« «w la cm et te
he aafd, " uid the pnbllo will aeknowledge It in ovnragtt ie Jvm Saoint (2 toIs. ISmo^ IHT),
the «id." The propheo7 wu fulfilled, Sitt not deddedlr to ne his moat valnable perforniaDce,
during the poet's life, if tAoUs hftd to wait 96 a prose translation of Milton's "Para^se Lost,"
yean to be performed at the tUdtm JVom^u, and other works. The best edition of hia works
■nd it was not nntil abont the middle of the Is that of Lenormand (9 Tols. 8to^ Paris, I80B).
leth oentnry that ftdl Jostioe was done to it. His poems have been pnblished separately, and
Bj the sdvioe of Ibne. de Maintonoo, Badne ue still reprinted.
now wrote a memoir In which he Tiridlj da> RADAOE um BALIOE, names given hj the
pioted the nnhappj oondition of France, and natives to two chains of lalands in the Pacifio
Kigge«ted some reforms at whldh Louia XIY. ocean, whioh, tcnether with Brown's rengef
"-^'7 offended; and hia di^leosnre is form the Marshallarchlpelago, extending frwn
« hl(^7 o:
dtouTe w
mind as aerknulr to agsnvate a disease of the 177° E., and separated ikom Uie Gilbert w
Uver onder which he nad been snffMog tor Eingsmill gronp by a channel abont 160 n^lea
aereral years. He pined awtn', and at the wide. The BadaokohmninelDdee among otlier
end of a year or two breathed his last Ha islands the Mnlsrave, Miadi, Tagia, and Daw-
was bnried, aeoording to his desire, in the son gronps; and the Ballek otnnprehends the
cemetery of Fort Boyu; and on the destmction Boston, Banham, Elmore, Bohantz, and Fsch-
of the convent in 1711, hie remains were trans- <AU. If oet of these gronpa are composed ot
furred to the chnroh of Bt. fidenne dn Hont, atolls connected at lew water and aeparated by
at Paris, where they now rest. — Beside his tiie sea at high tides; and the whole have the
dramatio works, Booine left prose writings nsnal character of coral islands. The outer
marked br terseness, perspicoity, and elo- side of the ree& is nn&thomable, and the la*
qnenoe. This last qaality is pecniiarly strik- goaas within are more or less shallow. Borne
ing in his speech before the French academy of these lagoons arC' very extenslTe, and ore
on the reception of Thomas Oomeille on Jon. navigable for vessels of every description ; but
3, 1685, when be psid a magnificent tribute of there are few paasea sofBdentiy large to admit
admiration to the geidns of the lottar's great ships drawing mnoh water. The principal
brother. S» also wrote a Aott aketch M the prodootiona of the idands are the cocoanntj
history of Port Boyal, and two aatlrtoal letters breadfndt, pandanna, and taro. The Uorshalf
in answer to eertaui strictDres of his old maa- archipelago is well jveopled, and on some of
tera upon dramatia poets. His ftmiliar letters, the groups the inhamtants are very nnmerons;
moat of tiiem addrased to his son or to Boi- They are an able-bodied race of a copper color,
leftn, are conched in an easy azid elegant style, and in general appearance have a strong re-
Host of his miscellaDeoiis poems, oonristing of semblance to Ualays. Thev have large canoe^
odes, eantiqutt tpiritutl*, and ei^anu, are and npon several oooaslons have made oombin-
of ft very high order of merit Tbe editions ed attacks npon vessels. — These islands were
of bis complete worlu are many, and those of discovered by Oaptalns Uarshall and Gilbert
his tragedies are nomberless. The most oon- of the Briti^ navy, in 1788, on the pasasge
venient of the latter ore those pnbllahed by from Sydney to Ofaina, after having landed the
Didot mider the supervision of LefSvre, in the first settiers in Aostralia: and as Oapt. Ifai-
C^i^t d^imcvre du IT' tiiele (3 vols. Svo.), and shall was the prindpal officer ot the expedl*
hi the OA^ d'eeuvrt de la Uttirature IhrngaiM tion, his name has been applied by Ernsenstem
(1 vol. ISmo.), and the mriorvm edition by and others to tbe whole arohipelago, while that
Louandre. The most valuable editions of his of O^t Gilbert has been given to the group
<Etwrf» oomplitei arethose of Ptorre Didot the lying to the B. There is considerable confh-
eUer (8 vols, ftil, Paris, 1801-'51, with 67 en- sion in the original accounts, Gilbert having
gravings by the first artists of tiie time, form- named some of the islands already named by
utg a part of that magnificent collection known UorHhall; and Oapt Bishop, who 10 yean af-
as the Sditiotu du £ow>re; La Harpe (7 vols. t«rward visited tnran and also named them,
8vo., Paris, 1807); QwSrof (7 vols. 8vo., added thereby to tbe difficulty, which has beoi
IS08) ; and Aimft Martin, with notes selected angmented br disorcpsncies in the longitudes
flrom all the commentators (7 vols. 8vo., Paris, given by all ™ ese omoers.
1830).— Lome, the eon of the preceding, a BADOUFFE, Aim, an En^ish novelist, bora
French poet and miscellaneous writer, bom in in London, July 9, 1764, died there, Feb. 7,
Paris in 1699, died in 1768. He was a pupil 1823. Her maiden name waa Ward. At fbe
(^ RoUiD and a man of great piety. He wrote age of 23 she married Mi. Villlun BadoUflb, a
two didactic poems : Zo giyfea (1792 or 1796), etndentof law, who afterward became tiie edi-
which emboiued the prindpUs of Jansenism toruid proprietor of "The English Ohronicle,"
npon the subject; and £a rtHaian (1749). a weekly newspaper. Her £«t novel. '"Hie
Both these poems, tbe latter especially, are re- Oastles of Athlin and Dunbayne" (1780), gave
markable for clearness of compodtion and ele- littie indication of her future powers, though
ganoe of style, but ore aadly diafident in point it poisened the wild and improbable plot ud
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
eBt" (1791) iBfinfBoient of itself to place her at termarte^feneral'a eta£ and coDiieillor a.
tbeheadoiallwriterHofmelodramatioroiiianoe. minister c^ wai, in wbich capadtr Ii« had a
■' The Masteries of Udolpho" (ITM) ia gener- large share in tiie reorsaiiizatio& of tlu armj.
all]' regarded as her masterpiece. About the In the campaigns of 1818-'14 and 1616 he vas
time this work was produced she made a tour chief of the staff of field Uanhal Schwarz^i-
through Qermanj, and in I7flS published her. berg, participsted in the battle of Kolm, the
"Jonme^ through Holland," &o., with some snocess of wnioh wa* in great measore due to
observations on the lake district of England, his oondnc^ and drew op the plan of tbe battle
Her last novel, "Theltalian," which deals with of Leipdo, m which he was severelr wounded.
racks, tortures, dungeons, confessionals, monks, AAer the dose of the war he was stationed in
and inqnisitora, appeared in 1T9T. One of her Oedenbnrg, snbeeqoentiy in Bnda, nai in Nov.
peculiarities is the care with which toward the 1821 was ^pointed commander of Ohn&ta^
close of her stories she usnallr en^Iains all having a short time preTions been made got-
their mjsterions incidentfl by natural and pn- eral of cavalrj. There he remained natil 1881,
erile agencies. A posthumous romance, " Gaa- when he was sent to Italy to take ccmunand cf
ton de Blondeville," was edited by Thomaa the Aostrian troops in that conntTT, and in
Noon Talfourd (1626); and a collection of 18S6 wasrmsed to thedignitj of fieldmarahaL
her poems, of which there are many scattered It was hare that he made himself more e^w-
throagh her novels, q)peared in 1834. ciallj famous by his conduct iu suppresHng the
BABOLIFFE, John, an English phyHician, Italian rebellion which broke out in 1848. The
bom in Waketield, Yorkshire, in 1650, died news of the revolntion in Fsris and the orer-
Nor. 1,1714. He was graduated at Unirersity throw of the government at Vienna inuuedi-
college, Oxford, in 1661, studied medicine, and ately stirred op an insurrection in IGlas, and
in 1675 began to practise in Oxford. In 1663 from March 18 to March 23 combats between
he received the degree .of U.D., and in 1684 the Austrian troofis and the insurgents con-
removed to London, where he soon acquired an stantly took plaoe in the streete. Chi the last
extensive practice. He was appointed prind- mentioned day Badetzfcy, finding his troops
pal physician to the princess Anne in 1686, and worn out and overborne, eTacnated ICian and
In 1713 was elected to parliamont by the town begon his retreat to Orema. Nothing datmted
of Buckingham. Many anecdotes are recorded by an eqnally gncoesaful outbreak in Yenioe.
of his wit and rudeness of speech, which some- he hoped to maint^ himself on the line of
times verged upon brutality. He was sent for tlie Adda ; but tbe spread of the insarrectioii
to attend Queen Anne when she lay at tlte point throughout the north of It&ly, and the junction
of death; but knowing the case to bedec^rate, of the revolutionists with the army of Ghailea
and being himself ill, he did not go. The feel- Alber^ king of Sardinia, which had been long
ing this excited against him is thought to have preparing for an attadc on the Anstriana,
hastened his death. Hebequeathed nearly his rendered it ncoeeaary to retreat behind the
whole fortune to publio uses, dividing it mostly Minoio, head-qnertors being eatablished at Ye-
bctween University coUese, Oxford, and the rona. The advance of Obarlea Albert at the
foundation at Oxford of a library with eq>eoial head of a large army compelled him to retire
reference to medical stnence, Thia is known behind the Adige. Here an indecisive actiim
osthe RodolifTe hbrary. was fought at the villa^ of Santa Lnoia on
RADETZKY, Joseph Wenzbl, ooont, an May 6, and on the arrival c^ the Anatrian
Austrian general, bom at Trzebnitz, Bohemia, reserve he endeavored, but in vain, to raise the
Nov. 2, 1706, died in Milan, Jan. S, 18G8. He siege of Peschiera, dosel^ invested by the
entered the Austrian armyinl7S4 as cadet in a troops of the king of Saxdinia. The fall of that
regiment of Hungarian cavalry, and served in fortress onMay 81 rendered hbpontion ezoeed-
theoampaigneof 178S-'9againsttbeTurks,and ingly critical, and his embarrassment was still
of I793-'5 against the french in the Nether- further increased by the progress of the revoln-
lands and on the Rhine. In 1796 he was aide- tion in Vienna. u\ this situation tbe general-
de-camp of Beaulieu in the army of Italy, and ship of Badetzky showed itself in a most
on May 29 was raised to the rank of major and marked manner. Feigning a general retreat
commander of the pioneer corps. On the re- he took the road to Yioenza, reanoed that city,
newal of the war in 1799 be agmn served in Treviso, and Padua, thus secnriiu his r«ar, and
Italy as aide of Melas, and for us abihty and rapidly returned to Verona. After a short de-
gallaotry was made lieutenant-coloneL Re- lay offensive operations were begun tm both
called from Italy in Sept. 1800, he was placed sides. The victory of Oustoua (July 25) forced
at the head of the regiment of Arobdnke Albert the Piedmonteee to retreat, and from this time
cuirassiers, and with them was engaged in the the success of the Austriana was aasnred. Milan
battle of Hohenlinden. In 160G hewaamadea oajdtolat«d on Aug. 6, and m armistice of 6
major-general, and acted under Davidovttoh in weeks was agreed upon between Sardinia and
Italy. In tbe campaign of 1809 he commanded Austria. Oharles Albert having reenmed hoe-
the fith division of the army, and for his great tilities, Badetxky invaded Pie^ont, »nd on
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
RADISH BADOM 721
Ibreh 9S, 1B49, a battle took plaoe at ITorara names indicate eome of the best kinds of fosi-
iMtween the oontending forces, in which the form radishes, viz. : earlr ftame, short top,
ATutriana were entirely viotoriooa. The result long salmon, long pnrplo, long white, &o. The
of this conflict decided the war, and from this globular are known as acarlet turnip, whito
point Radetzkj marched against Venice, which Dutoh turnip, purple turnip, Sec. ; the atttmnn
sfter a protracted siege finallj eun-endered, radishes are sub-varietdea of the black Spanish
Ane. 23. Badetzky was made govemor^gen- radish, the leaves of which are long and apraad-
errf and militaT;f commander of the whole ing, the root of an oval sht^e and of large size,
country, the duties of which situation heper- its color black, its flesh solid, white, and of a
formed with seal and nmnitlgated rigor, when hot flavor. There are several kinds of this in
war was imminent between Austria and Prns- much esteem as being more or leaa hardy, of a
sia in 1650, he was called to Vienna to pre- more pungent or of a milder taste, and of dif-
paro the plan of the campfdgn, but soon re- ferent color of the akin. A tendency in all
turned. !ui 18G6, at the age of 90, be was cruciferous plants to run into each other or
released at bis own reqnest from his command, hybridize, suggests the importance of keening
thedutiesof which he bad become too feeble to the sorts apart, if pnre Tarieties are deafred.
discharge. He bore the reputation of a brave — A distinct variety known as oil radish (£. t.
soldier and a conanmmato tactician, and was oleifer, De 0.), growing 6 to 24 inches high, is
decorated with the insignia of Dearly all the vei? much branched, with abundance of pods,
military orders in £nrope. His only surviving ftom the seeds of which is expressed an oil
children are the count Theodore de Kadetzky, similar to that of the rape, bnt not so readily
a colonel in the Austrian service, and the bar- obtained. It is however extensively cultivated
oness Wenkheim. in China for this purpose. The tree radish (£.
RADISH (Lat radix., root), the name of a eavdaliu, Linn.), a native of Java, is remarka-
salad plant, a native of Ohina, belonging to the hie for the length of the pods, which measure
natnral order of erut^ara, whidi comprises a more than the plant. The roots of the aea
greatnnmber of usefhl species, altdistin^ished radish {Jt. maritimvt. Smith) are preferred to
by the form of tbeir flowers. The petals are 4 those of horse radish fbr pungency ; its leaves
in number and arranged oroaawise, the stamens are liked by cattle. In the United States the
6, the 2 lower shorter, and the fruit either a fiat radish shows a tendency to become naturalized,
and eironlar, or else a long, tapering, cylindrical, while the charlock or wild radish (S. raphanu-
and jointed pod. The rEidisn was introduced trum, Linn.) is a troublesome weed.
into England during the 16th century, 4 sorts RADNORSHIRE, a county of S. 'Wales,
being cultivated by Gerard in the latter part honnded N. B. by Montgomery, N. by Shrop-
of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The stem of abire, E. by Hereford, 8. by Brecknock, and
the garden radish (raphanut lativvi, Linn.) W. by Oardiganshire ; area, 42G Bq. m. ; pop. in
KTOws 3 to 4 feet high, and branches outward- 1861, 34,710. The chief towns are Prestewie,
ly; its leaves are lyrate, sublyrato, and rough ; Knighton, Radnor, and Rhayadar. The Wye
its flowers are white tinged with pnrple ; its and its tributary the Elan are the principal riv-
pod uneven, tapering to a point, of 3 or E oells, ers. The aurfaca is mountainous, the bighest
and as long as the stalk. In shape the root is point being 2,168 feet above the sea; but the
either flisiform or globnlar. As this is usually 8. E, part is in general level. A great portion
eaten in a raw state, it is desirable that it of the county consists of common bog and moor
ahonid have a crisp and clear flesh, which can land. Numbers of small ponies are reared.
be produced by growing rapidly. Sometimes The county conttuns many remains of antiquity,
however the root is boiled and served like as- It originally formed part of the territory inhab-
paragns. The young leaves make a very good ited by the Silnrea, and, after its subjugation
pot herb when boiled, and the tender pods are and ultimate abandonment by the Romans, was
employed in making pickles. There are a great included in one of the petty principalities into
many varieties and sub-varieties suitable to which Wales was divided. It was formed into
every season of the year. Those called spring a coun^ in the reign of Henry VIH. The
and summer kinds may be brought forward ear- oonnty returns one member to parliament, and
ly by forcing in hot-beds or sowing in frames, one for the principal towns.
The autumn and winter kinds are sown in RADOM, a government of Busuan Poland,
July and taken from the ground befbre the separated W. and N. fi-om the government of
froste spoil them, and stored away like carrots. Warsaw by the Pilioa, and E. from that of Lnh-
When cultivated in the open air m private gar- lin and B. from Galida by the Vistnla, and with
dens, a warm, moist, good, well pulverized its 8. W. comer bordering on Pmsaian Sileria;
soil, that is free from stones, should be selected, area, about 0,000 sq. m. ; pop. 950,000, It is
and the seed sown in drills ; or the seeds may drained by the affluents of the I^lica and Vis-
be sown between the rows of asparagus beds, tula. The soil is diversified, and the surface
and when the young plants show the rough the most elevated in the kingdom of Poland,
leaves they should be thinned and kept dear being slightly monntunons in the 8. E. part,
of weeds. If conlanuous crops are needed The capital, Radom, Is situated in the K. E.
through the season, renewed sowings every part on a small tiibatary of the Vistula ; pop.
ibrtni^t may be resorted to. The following 8,000.
VOL. nn.— 46
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
723 RADOVITZ BAEBDBM
BADOWITZ.JoBBFHTon, ftFrasaianaenerL tttemaelves widely known, but the moat dntfat-
asd BtftteBmou, bom in Blankenbnrg, Feb. 8, gnuhed in later timea are the three follow-
1797, died in Berlin, Dec. 28, 1868. He re- iag. I. Akthont Hehxt, prince of Olyks and
ceived his military edacation in Paris and in Nieswiez, bom June IS, 177S, died in B^
Westphalion sohoola, and on accoont of bis tin, April ?, 1838. He married in 1?96 Qie
pro&cienc; in mathematica wa» sjipointed in only danghter of Prince Ferdinand of Ptw-
1813 an officer in the Westpbalian artilleiT. sia, and became in 1816 Pnisiaji governor of
At the battle of Leipsio he wai voimded and the grand duchy of Posen. He was distin-
taken prisoner. Upon the diaaolntion of the gniahed for hia aoqoaintance yfitb mathauados
kingdom of Weat^alia he entered the eervioe and music, and the music to which he set the
of the elector of Hewe-Oassel, and partook in poetrj of Goethe's " Fanat " gained him maeb
the campaign against France with the Hessian reputation. His two sons are now in the
artillery. After the peace he was made teacher Prossiaii aerrice. II. Hidhixl Qsbos, brother
of ma&ematica and military science at the of the preceding, bom SepL S4, 1778,died May
school of cadets in Cassel, bat finally quitted the 21, 18S0. He served nnder PoniatoweU (17S^
Hessian service for that of Pnusia. There he Kosciusiko (17M), and Dombrowdu Q^^
became captun in the general staff, teacher of and in the campaign of 1813 against Bnsaia
Prince Albert, in 1828m(uor, and in 1880 chief conunanded are^^ent in thegruid an&y. At
of the geueral staff of the artillerj. By his Smolensk and in the battlei of Vitepak and Pa-
marriage with the countess Uaria von Yobb, he lotzk he manifested each daring conrage that
became a member of the highest aristocracy of Napoleon, made him a brigadier-general. In
Prussia, and also a favorite of the crown prince, the Polish revotntion of 18S0-'81, when Glilo-
afterward Frederic William IV. In 1886 Ra- pioki had laid down the dictatorship, he was
dowitz was made minister plenipotentiary to appointedcommander-in-chief in Jan. 18S1; hot
the Gennwiic diet at Frankfort, bnt in 1889 he distrusted his own abilities, and the Esme
the prospect of a war with France led to his re- of the battles of Dobre, Oroobow, andnthera,
call to BeriiQ, andto his bemgsenttotbecourt wbichfotlowed,belongBmoretohiBHabordinateB
of Vienna. In 1 842 he was made ambassador tifan to himself. At his own wish, on Feb. SS^
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Skrzynecki was made commander, and Badzi-
the couri« of Carlsmhe, Darmstadt, and ^Tassaii, will entered the ranks. After the captore of
and in 1840 was created m^or-generaJ. After Warsaw he was conveyed into the int«rii» of
the revelation of 1848 he was elected to the Boasia and there held nntil 1886, and ail«r that
Frankfort parliament, and there became the time lived in Dresden. III. Lko, nephew of the
leader of the extreme conservatives. After the preceding, born March 10, 1808, was an offiow
revolution he entered the Prussian cabinet as in the Polish guard at the outbreak of the Po-
minister of foreign affairs, and the adoption by lisb revolution of 1830-'81, but remained faith-
the king of his political views, which aimed at fal to Bnsda, and during the campaign of 1881
a consolidation of northern Germany under served against hia countrymen. Aa a reward
the lead of Prussia, led to a difference between he was promoted in the army, and when in 18S3
that power and Austria, which in the autumn he married the prinoeaaSoptuaUronaeoff here-
of IB50 came near leading to an open war. oeived the oon^oated estates of his nnde Ui-
At length Prussia retreated from its position, chael. His property, now immense, was valued
and Radowits left the ministry. In Jan. ISfil, at 10,000,000 rubles. In Aug. 1849, he was
he retired to Erfurt, and in 1863 was recalled sent to Oonetantinople on a speoia] mission to
by the king of Prussia and made director of obtain from the Porte Hie surrender of the
military studies, but took no part in political Hungarian ntageae who had fled to Turkey,
life. He wrote on mathematical, military, and BA.EBURN, Sib Hbkbt, a Scottish painter,
political sabjects. His " Oolleoted WorW' ap- bom in that part of Edinburgh formerly called
peered in BerUn in 6 vols, in 18e2-'8. Stookbridge, March 4, 1766, died Joly 8, 1823.
RADZIWILL, the name of one of the oldest In early life he was apprenticed to a goldsmith,
and most distingaished princely familiea of bat evmcing a great taste for art he was en-
Lithnania. The first of the family appears in abled to cancel hia articles, and to oommetice
1405 as marshal of Lithuania, and in 1618 the the practice of portmt painting in Edinbu^
emperor Maximilian I. made tJie palatine of where be soon became a rival of David Hartin,
Wilna and chancellor of Lithuania, Nicholas who then stood at the head of this brandi of
ni. Eadziwill, a prince of the empire; and in the art. Bubeeqnently, by the advice of Sir
this statioQ he was conflrmed by Sigismnnd I., Joshua Reynolds, he made a vimt to Bome.
king of Poland. When this line died out, the Returning to Edinburgh in 1787, he at once
same honor was conferred unon the members became tbe leading portrait ptdnter of tlie
of another branch, Nicholas tiie prince of Birxe Scottish metropolis, a supremacy which he
and Bulimki, and Nidiolas IV. and John, muntained nntil the close of his life. Ammg
princes of Olyka and Nieswiei; and from Nioh- his sitters were Sir Walter Scott, of whom he
olaa IV,, snmamed the Black, who is renown- paiated several portraits, Henry Vsckenzie,
ed as a promoter of the reformation in bis conn- Dugald Stewart^ Lord Eldin, George lY., ?»>•
try, and died in 1S86, the present honse is fessor I^ayfhir, Dr. Hu^h Blair, Je^^, Ali-
desoended. Many of tiie family have made son, and many others distinguished in litets-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
tnre and id pollUcal UEb. Id 16U lie was BaSing for New York In 1S16, he was ship-
elected Bn aeaooUte mi In 1B15 a member of wrecked on the ooaat of Long island, and loM,
tlie royal acaden^; and in 1832 he was knight- aa be sajs, "my fortime, my ahare of the
ed by George IV. cargo, my collections and labors for SO years
RAFFA&LLE. Bee Rapbasl. past, my books, my maniiBoripta, my drawings,
RAFFLES, Thoiub, an English dissenting eren my olotbes." He became teacher in a
clergyman, bom in London, May 17, 1788. family, and in 1818 made a torn- to the Weet,
He stndied theology at Homerton college near and was for a time professor of botanyia Tran-
London, and in 1809 was orduned minis- sylvamanniTersitT,Lezingtoii,Ey. flnallyhe
ter of the Oongregational church at Hammer- settled In Philadelphia, and established in 18S2
amith. Here he remained 8 years, at the end a periodical called " The Atlaalio Jocmal and
of which time he was celled to take charge Friend of Knowledge, a C^opadio Journal
of Great Ctorge street chapel in Liverpool, and Review," which, according to the prospeo-
He has written a nomber of popular works, tns, was to " contain everr thmg oaloiuatea to
among which are stone poems, a memoir of enlighten, instrnot, and improTe the mind."
hia predecessor the Kev. Thomas Spenoer, Only 8 nnmbera werepnblislied. In 1886 ^>-
aod " Letters dnring a Tour tliTOagh some part peared his " Life of Travels and BMoarahea,"
of France, Bavoy, Switzerland, Oertnany, and bIvIdk an account of the places be had visited,
the Netherlands" (1817). He has also pnb- He also wrote several botaoicBl works.
liahcd sermons, and a large nnmber of fogi- RAFN, Oabl Ghbibtun', a Danish archee-
dve articles. He retired from the pulpit m ologist, bom in Brahesborg, island of Fflnen,
Dec I860. Jan. IS, 1796. He was educated at the uni-
BAFFLES, Sis Thouas Staupobd, on Eng- versily of OopenhageiL of which in 1831 he
Ush official, born at sea, off Janu^oa, July 6, was made an assistant librarian ; and while in
1781, died July 5, 1896. He was an assistuit that position he nndertook a general revision
clerk in the India hoose at the age of 16, and of all the Icelandic andNorwegian manuscripts
in 180S was appointed under secretary to the yet anpablished, belonging to Uie collection,
new government formed by 'Uie £sst India Through hia exOTtions £e "Bodety for North-
company at Penang. He afterward became em Antiqaities" was founded, the principal ob-
ehief secretary; but intense application to bnsi- Ject of wniohwaa to pnblish those manQscripta
ness affected his health, and m 180S he was which couldthrow any light onthe obscure pas-
compelled to go to Malacca. In 1809 he pnli- sages of Scandinavian history. It has already
Itshed an essay "On the Malay Nation." It published about 70 volames on the history
was by his advice that the expedition was fitted and antiquity of the North. The work which
ont against Batavla in 1811, and when tliat excited the most attention was the Antiqui-
place was captured he was appointed lieutenant- taUt Ameritanm, uu Seriptora Smtentriimala
povemor of Java and its dependencies. He Bentm Anis-Colmnbianarum in Ameriea (Oo-
held this offioe for G years, dnring which slavery penhagen, 18S7), preboed by a snmmary in
was abolished; and upon bis retnm to England English, In which ne attempted to prove that
he published a " History of Java" {1817). In the Scandinavians discovered America in the
1818 he was made lientenant-govemori^ Fort 10th century, and that from the 11th to Uie
Marlborough, the seat of the English govern- IJHitheymadefVeqaentvoyageB to the western
ment at Bencoolen, Sumatra, and remained 6 hemisphere, and etibcted Mttleraents in what
years {n this position, emancipating the slaves is now Manaohnsetts and Rhode Island. An
herealso. He established the British settlement important sequel to this work la the "Histori-
at Singapore, and fonuded a college there for cal Monmnents of Greenland" (S vols., Oopen-
the encouragement of Anglo-Ohjnese and Malay hacen, 18S6-'U). Ot his ArUigvitit HiUMt 3
literature. Tbe state of his health compelled volumes appeared in 1860-'fi3. As secretary
him in 1824 to resiKU and return to England, of the society tor northern antiquities he baa
where he founded the present zoologi<»l so- had much to do with preparing its various pub-
ciety, of which he was the first president. His lications for the press, and has also been the
" Life and Remains" were edited by his widow translator and editor of other works.
(4to., London, 18S0). RAOLAN, Jamks Hbnbi F^tzkov, baron, an
RAFINESQUE, 0. S., an American botanist, English general, bom Sept SO, 1788, died ht
bom in Qalsta, a soborb of Oonstontinople, in camp before Sebastopol, June 28, 1865. Ha
1784, died in Philadelphia, Sept. 18, 1842. His was tbe 8th and youngest son of the 6th duke
&ther was a merchant in the Levant from Mar- of Beaufort, and grandson on his mother's side
seilles, and the son was carried to that city of Admiral Bosoawen. He was educated at
when 7 years of age, thence token to Italy, and, Westminster school, and at tbe age of 16, being
after residing in varions cities in the northern then known as Lord Eltzroy S(mierset, entered
Kt of that country, came in 1802 to America, theith re^raentof dr^foons asensign. In 1605
ring collected a large nnmber of bot-inical he became lientenant, in 1807 accompanied Sir
specimens, be returned in ISOS to Leghorn, Arthur PagetintheembassytoOonstontinople,
whence he went to Sicily, where he romwned and subsequenttf became attached to the staff
10 years. While there he published a work in of tiiedake of Wellington as aide-de-camp and
Frencli, entitled "The Analysis of Nature." military secretary. ^ this position he parUi^-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
•m BAGurr bahwat
patod In an Uie dnke'a enfogeraente daring th« Preddott Adanu was ma^ ehu^ d'aflUres
peninsolar war, manifesting Rrest intrepiditj- to that oonatry. There be remaned 5 j^is,
on varions occanona, especially at Salamanca, and upon his retnm to the United States edited
Yittoria, Orthez, and Tonlouse. At Bnsaca he several jonmals devoted to free trade doctrines,
was wounded, and at the Btorming of Bad^oz He pobliahed " Friudplea of Free Trade" (8vo.,
be waa one of the flrat to enter the town. At FbiladelpMa, 183S), and a treatiae "On Cqt-
'Waterloo be lost bis right um. In retam for rency and Banking" (1839), which waa repob-
his services be was made colonel and knight liabed the same jear in England, and waa abo
commander of the bath. In 1814 he was for a translated into fS^nch.
short tame secretary of embassj at Paris ; from BAGUS A (Blav. i>u&roenti:}, a fortified eea-
Jannor; to March, 181S, he acted as minister port citj of Ansbria, cuiital of a district of the
plenipotentiary, and snbeeqnently he was secre- same name, province of Dalmatia, situated on a
tarj again until 1819, when he became military small n^iinsala of the Adriatic, abont 40 m.
secretary to the dnke of Wellington, and held N. N. V. from Cattaro, in lat. 43° 88' V K^
thia post ontil 1827, when in the same oapa- long. 18° 7' £. ; pop. S,000. It is bnilt partly
city he followed the dnke to the horse gnaros. at && foot and partly on the declivity of ifoont
From 1818 to 1826 be represented the borough Seivio, so that tbe upper streets are connected
of Jmro in parliament, where he acted with witn the lower by steps. The harbor on tha
the moderate tones. After tbe death of the S. is small and exposed to the siroooo ; bnt on
dnke of Wellington he was made master-gen- the N. side of the penJnsnla, 2 m. distant, is tbe
eral of the ordnance, and elevated to tbe peer- harbor of Gravosa, which is large enoogh to
age (1BC3), with the title of Baron Banian, admit ships of tbe line.— Bagnsa was foonded
When the war with Bnssia broke out, he was in the 7th centnry, being peopled by Slavic aod
app<nnted by Lord Aberdeen to command the Italian settlers, and formed down to recent
army sent to the Bast, and promoted to the times an aristocratic republic, which flourished
rank of field marshal. In March, 1864, he left sncceesively under Greek, Venetian, Hnngarian,
Bnglaad, in September reached the Crimea,' aod Turkish protection. Alter the peaoe of
and on Sept. 20 fbngfat in cor^nnction with Presbiirginl80B itwasoccupiedbytbeEVencL
Marshal St. Amand the battle of the Alma. In 1806 the Montenegrins and Bosraans overran
Daring the following winter the allied troops its territory, and besieged the French within its
perished in large numbers in the trenches be- walls. It was sabseqnently created by Napo-
fore Sebastopol, and his anxiety in regard to teon a dukedom for Marmont, and incorpor^ed
the condition of the men and the attacks of the with the new kingdom of Illyiia, with which
English press upon his military movements in 1614 it came Into the posseedon of Austria.
weighed heavily upon his spirits. In this state The city has been frequently iqjured by earth-
of mind he waa seized with the cholera, and quakea. The latest earthquake was that ot
soon died. His body waa taken to England 18E0.
and buried in Badminton ohnrch, Gloucester- BAHBECE, Kkud Lvm, a Danish author,
dure. A pension of £1,000 was settled for life bom in Copenhagen, Bee 18, 1760, died April
npOQ his widow, and £2,000 upon his son. 2S, 1880. He was educated at the nniversity
BAGUET, GoHDY, an American merchant of Copenhagen^ where in 1790 he became pro-
and political economist, bom in Philadelphia, fessor of ffisthetics. From 1798 to 1806 he waa
Jan. 28, 1784, died there, Match 22, 1842. He teacher of history in Christian's institntA, from
was of French descent, was educated at the 1806 to 1816 lectnred to actors on the dramatic
nniversity of Fenusylvsnia, and for 18 months art, and in 1809 became an active member of
afler his graduation pnrsaod tbe study of law ; the managing committee of the theatre, ta
but the death of his father leaving him depen- 1816 he was again a t«acher in the nnivenity.
dent npon hia own exertionB, he entered the He waa the most active and influential of the
counting house of a merchant, and at the age literary men of Denmark, and wrote plays,
of 20 was sent to St. Domingo as supercargo tales, lyric poems, essays, and tnmdations.
ofavessel. There he spent 4 months, and on The Daiiikt TiUktier ("Danish Spectator,"
his return published a work entitled "A Short 1791-1806), an imitation of Addiaon's "Bpecta-
Account of the Present State of Affairs in St. tor," is eenerally regarded as his beat work.
Domingo." After a second voyage to the same BAH WAT, a city of Union co., N. J- on
island in 1606, when he remamed there 8 the Rahwsy river, 6 m. from its month, and on
months, he published "A Circnmetantial Ac- the New Jersey raUroad, 19 m. W. from New
count of the Massacre in SL Domingo." In Yoi^ and 9 m. W. from Newark ; pop. in 1860,
IBOS he went into busine^ on his own account, 7,180. It was formeriy divided by the river
was highly sucoesdU, and became manager or into Upper B^way, in Bahway township,
president of several important commercial in- Essex oo., and Lower Bahway (formerly
BtittitionB. In 181S he was elected a member Bridgeton), in Woodbridge township, Middlesex
ofthe lowerhoosecf thePennsylvanialegisla- co.; bnt it has now been consolidated and is
tare, and subsequently of the senate, and in in Union oo., which has recently been formed.
1622 was appointed by President Monroe con- There are 87 different manufacturing eatab-
Bul at Bio Janeiro. Not long a^r he nego- lishments, producing annually to the value c^
tlatedacommen^ treaty with Brazil, and by $1,662,700; of theee,89 manu&cture oarriages
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
BAIKES BAIL 726
totiie annual va1aeoft80S,{K)0, andS cloUiing iQtiie!roftokliDgnot«s. The laifrert of the North
to the amount of t229,CKI0. It contains the Americ&n r^ls, and one of the handsomest of
Athenian academj, the Eahway female insti- the genns, is the red-breaBted leil or the fresh
tat«, e publio Bohoola, a hank, 8 newspaper water marsh ben (£. «f«pa7i«, And.) ; itisabont
offices, and 18 churches, viz. ; I African, I Bap- 18 inches long, the hill 8, and 24 in alar extent^
tist, 1 Episcopal, 8 Friends', I German Reformed, with a weight of about 1^ Ibe. ; the color above
4 Methodist, 3 Presbjterian, and 1 Boman ia olive brown, with longitudinal atripes of
Catholic. The river, a very small stream, will brownish black, espeoiallj' on the back : throat
admit of the passage of vessels not exceeding and lower lid white ; neck before and breast
60 or 60 tons. The settlement of this town tofoua chestnut ; sides, lower parts, and under
was commenced about the year 1720. tail coverts with transverse bauds of brownish
KAISES, BoBBBT, an English philanthropist, black and white : upper wing coverts reddish
the originator of Sondaj schools in England, chestnut, the under black wiui white lines. It
bom in Oloncester in nSB, died April 6, 1811. ia found ia the middle and sonthem states od
He received a liberal education, became asso- the Atlantic coast, probably extending across
ciated with his father as pnblisher and editor to the Pacific, and ohieflf on tbo margin of
of the "Gloucester Journal," and eventually fresh waters; it be^ns to breed in the southern
ancceeded to the busioess. The state of the states about the middle of April in its favorite
county bridewell attracted his attention, and marshes, Borrouoded by alligators and myriads
he made a strong and in some degree euocess- of frogs, in places ahnost inaccesMble and ex-
{al effort to ameliorate the physical condition ceedingly mmealthy to man ; the young leave
of ofienders of all grades confined there. But the nest as soon as bora, safe from man^at net
his most earnest efforts were eioited in favor from minks, wild cats, raccoons, owls, snakea,
of the moltitudes of poor children whom he turtles, and other camivorons animus. The
found in the streets of the town abandoned to females are tike the males, bnt smaller; they
the practice of every vice. In 1781 he hired do not take to the water willingly, and are
rooms for Sunday schools, employed peer wo- - rather poor divers ; the flesh ia good, especial-
men at a shilling a day to teach the children 1^ in autumn, and their eggs are said to be de-
to road, and was successful in inducing them licions. The dapper rail or salt water marsh
to attend. The movement became popular, hen (S, ertpitaji*, Qmel.) is about 14 inched
and in ashort time Sonday schools were estab- long, with an alar extent of 30^ and a weight
lished in all the larger towns of England. of } of a lb. ; the adnlt plumage is conwderably
RAIL, the proper name ottbaralliTUi, a sub- like that of the last species, but the upper parte
family of wading birds of the &mil^ rallida. have a light ashy olive tint, and the neck and
The genus raUuM (Linn.) is characterized by a breast are more yellowish. It is abundant
bill longer than the head, nearly straight and from New Jersey to Honda, extending also to
slender, with the cnlmen a little curved, and Bouth America, and ia rarely found Br from
tip obtnse and slightly notched; nostrils in a the sea; the nest is deep and fimnel-shsped,
membranous groove which extends for I of the made of marsh plants and fastened to reeds
bill; wings abort, with the 2d and 8a quills above the ordinary high tJde level; incabation
equal ana longest; t^ short and rounded; lasts lidays; the egga are also excellent, and
tarm shorter than the middle toe, covered with are collected by hnndieds in New Jersey to-
transverse scales; toea long and Blender, free ward the end of spring. Eollowing the edge
at the base, the hind one short; claws short of the tide, it searches among the reeds for
and sharp ; forehead, as in all the snb-fiunily, email oraba (fiddlera), mollu&s, the fry of
feathered to base of bill, the culmen parting fishes, aquatic insects, and the seeds of vater
the frontal feathers for a short distance and in plants ; it makes a loud cackling noise ; ft ia
an angle. There are about 20 species, foond not a rapid swimmer, but ia a good diver, and
in all the temperate parts of the globe, reaem- a very swift rnmier either on the ground or
bhng each other in habits and much alike in on floating weeds ; its flight is slow and gen-
plumage; they inhabit marshes and borders of erally atrught ; though esteemed as food, other
rivers, among reeds and aquatic plants, which species are more sought after, especially the
their long toes, sharp claws, ana compressed sor^n the middle states. The Virrfnia rail
bodies enable them to climb and run over or (B. Ft^niantw, Linn.) ia about 10 inches long,
between with great Jollity ; the flight is awk- with an alar extent of 14 ; it is like the others
ward aud slow, with the legs hanging down, In form, and resembles R. ^egant in color,
and for short distances onlj^ except during mi- hardly doffering from it except In die. It ia
gratiou; they are good swimmers and divers, found throughout the temperate re^ons of
and very rapid ranners on the ground. Their North America from the Atlantic to ^ePaciflo,
food oonsiats of worms, slugs, cmataceans, tad- most abundantly along the margins of rivers
poles, insects, leaves, and seeds of water plants ; and bays on the Atluitito, migratjng south in
the nest is made of coarse grasses, and placed autumn ; it is a very r^iid runner and good
in retired marohca, and the ^gs are 10 to 12. swimmer, feeding both on salt marshes and
They are very generally called marsh hens, as fresh meadows, by day and night. It breeds
they resemble domestic fowls in their manner from the beginning of March to the middle of
ofcanyiogthehead, in soma oTtheir habits, and June, aoooraing to latitnde ; like the other Bp»-
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
oIm U ii ft good Tentriloqoiit, seanliw oftan to iru rogardod hy Aodnbon $a one of the eaa-
be &r off when doM at hand; thefietliiagood necling links between land and wnter birds;
eating in aotmnn and winter. The European the fleBh ia delioate. — ^In the gentu erex (Becbst.)
water rail CGloTuaftnu, linn.) iaMvou brown the bill ia conical, shorter than the head, aul
spotted wiui black above, blush ash below, and the whole appearance and habits are mach like
barred tdack and white on the sidea. Thehabita those of gallinaoeons birds, liia European
ai« the same as in other species ; the flesh Is es- land rail or corn crake {C. praUtrnt, Bedtst)
teemed, though hariog rather a marahj flavor, is aboot 10 inches long ; the general color
— The genns ertygomttra flinn.^ has tieen sub- above is blackish brown, with lighter edges,
dividediuto|wn«na(Vieill.)andorsii(Bedist). but without white spots; grajish below. If
hi portanatho bill isshorterthanthe head, the lives and neatlee in fields sndinaadowa, ranmLg-
primaries longer than the tertiaries, the tail with great rapidity ; ita crj resembles the tjl-
ebort, and the legs robust ; there are about 20 lables "crei, cres," cannng a diaagreeable
species in the temperate regiona of the globe, rattling in the throat, whence the name r^
with babita similar to those of mlltu^ Among derived from tiie French rdle, according to
Uie North American species maj be mentioned Buffou. It ia a solitar; bird, remaining con-
the Carolina or sora rail (P. CaroUnmtu, cealed dnring the daj, and seeking its food at
Yieill.), so well known and so abundant as to morning and evening: it is a northern species,
be called "the rail" in the middle states ; the migrating to central furope in faring and re-
length isaboat 9 incheaand the alar extent 14; turning m October; the French call it "king
the color is greenish brown above, with lon^- of the quails" from ita coming and going about
tndinal lines of black ; behind the eyes, sides the same time with that biH; in summer it
of neck, and breast bluish ashy, with round seems to be a constant viutor to Greenland,
white spots on the latter ; middle of abdomen and is oocasionallf seen on the E. coast of the
white. It occurs throughout temperate North TTnited States ; it feeds principally on grains,
America on both shores, migrating southward insects, and worms.-~The following genera are
in winter ; it is rarely seen east of New York, less known. Aramidtt (Fcch.) has about a
though capable of rapid and protracted flight ; dozen species in the warmer parts of South
in autumn it is abundant in uie rice fields and America, inhabiting thick woods and perching
fredi water marshes of South Carolina, skulking atni^bt; the notes of one species (A. Cavcn-
among the grssses and reeds in search of food, nfluu, Gmel.) are so loud and dear that they
climbing with ease to the top of plants when may be heard for more than a mile ; this ia a
forced by the tide ; thousands are ahot at this large bird, 18 inches long with a bill of 3 inch-
•eason on the James and Delaware rivers from es ; it feeds on small mammals, birds, fish, eggs,
boats, near the height of flood tide, and osn- inaects, and ftnita, and is useful about houses
allyringly: sometimes they are kno<^ed down by destroying r^ aoA mice. Eviabtomit
by poles when dazzled by a bright light In the (Oonld) is found in Australia and tbo Uoloc-
bowofacanoo. It is semi-nootnmal in habit ; cas; there are abont half a dozen species,
when migrating the flight is low and in oom- Corathvra (Reich.) has about SO species in most
pact flocks ; Instinct teaehes them the last mo- parts of the ^obe.
ment at which thay can remun in the antomn, BAELBOAD, or Bailw^t, a road constructed
all migrating in a sin^ day or niKht, whence of two parallel bare of iron, upon which the
the once prevalent idea that they dived nnder wheels of carriages mn. Yarioos devices have
the mud to paia the wmter. The little blade been employed from the time when wheel car-
rail (P. JamaieeMu, Vieill) is about 6 inchea riagea were flrst nsed for facilitating their move-
long, the inti»llart of the North American spe- ment over the ground. These have been, bow-
dea of theftmily; the head and lower parts ever, mostly limited to the smoothing and hard-
are sIate-cok>Ted, nearly black on the tc^ of the ening of the road bed. The ^yptians learned,
head; abdomenliandedwith white; upper parte in moving the great stones for Ihdr pyramids
brownish black with white stripea, and reddish from the quarries, the advantage of solid track
chestnut on the npper back; the young are ways, and the remains of such formed ofblocks
wholly blntsh black. It is rare on the continent, of stone are aud to have been found on the line
bnt more abundant in the West Indies; it is high- of the great roads they constructed for this
ly prized by ooUectors. The yellow-breasted purpose. The andent Bomans made an ap-
nu(P.JK>««&ora««Mu, Yieill.) is abont 7 inches proach to the invention of railroeds in the Ap-
Ifmgand IS in slar extent ; the color is ochre piaa way, which wasformed of blocks of stone
jellow above, with brownish black and white dosely fitted together, their surface presenting
stripes ; neok and breast tinged with reddish, a smooth and hard track for the wheels. In
middle of abdomen white, sidea banded with modem times such tracks have been made in
reddish brown and white ; nnder tail coverts several European cities, as Hsa, Milan, Londou,
rufous, whito4potted, and nnder wing coverts &c The first instance of the use of rails sp-
white. This pretty bu^ resembling a young pears to have been some time previous to the
ohtoken, is found, though not abundantly, in year 1676 at the collieries near Newcastle-
damp meadows in the eastern and southem up<Hi-Trae, En^And, At that time, as narrat-
8tat«s; it a^proDohea in habit the com crake ed by Roger North in his hfe of Lord Keepei
and in some respects the European quail, and Kortti, the coals were conveyed fh>m the mines
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAILBOAD 727
to the haska of the rim "hj]a,j]itg rdls of the safety of the o&rriage. The7 moreover add
timber exact!}' iCr^ht and paralle] ; imdbnlkr tmneoaBBaril^ to the weight cf the rail. A
o&rts were made with 4 roUers fitting those great atep in advance was made in 1789 l:^
rails, whereb;^ the carriage was made ao eagj Jessop, who laid down at Longhborongh oast
that one horse wonld draw 4 or S ohaldrona iron " edge rails," of even Burpee at the top.
of ooal." This great improvement waa alowl; the ledge being transferred round tJie edge of
wpreciated, and its adoption was for a long the wheel and forming a fluige, which was
tune confined to the coal districts of Northnm- kept above the ground b; the elevation of the
berUndandDnrham. Ohanges, however, were rail. The rails are «aid to have been set and
iDtrodaoed In the oonatmotion of the track, bolted in cast iron chairs and on sleepers. The
and, aocording to a desoripUon of the road hnportanoe of these improvements, which corn-
made abont the year 1769, it had already as- prised someof the essential featnresofmodem
somed the principal features of railroads, even roads, does not appear to have been immedi-
biolnding the use of fianges upon the wheels, atelf appreciated. Edge rails were again in
bat sot an iron ntrface for the wheels to roll ose, however, in 1801 at the slate quarries of
upon. The following was the method of con- Lord PenrhTn, made of oval section with the
struotion. The road being brought to as uni- longer diameter vortical. They were 4} feet
fbimaninoIinationaspracticable.Bqnaredblocks long, and each end terminated in a block of
<tf wood, called sleepers, about 6 feet long, were the shape of an Inverted wedge, which fitted a
laid 2 or 8 feet apart across the track. Upon cavitj in 'an iron sill imbedded in the road,
tbeae two long strips of wood, 6 or 7 inches The tire of the wheel was hollowed out to fit
wide and 6 inches deep, were fastened by pegs the convex sur&ce of the rail ; but as the fit
parallel to each other and abont 4 feet apart, became too tight b]'' wear, it was aiterward
and these lines ware thus extended the fhU found expedient to make the sarfhce of the r^
length of the road. The track was then filled flat, and that of the wheel the same with a
in with gravel, ashes, or other road material, flange around each edge of it. So greatanlm-
■Wagonacarrjing 3 or 8 tons of coal were used provemont was this, that it was found 10 horsea
to run on the track, their wheels provided with could do the work tk&t had employed 400 upon
flanges which pressed against the edges of the a common road. Edge rails wore soon after
rails, and prevented their slipping off. The introduced at the collieries in the north of Ew-
atmcture was improved by securing a second land, and a new form was there adopted with
eet of niie upon the top of the flrst, thus In- the view of aecnring increased strength witb-
oreaaing the facility of removing and replacing out proportional increase of weight. Thef
the wearing aurface in any portion withont were made thin, spreading in thicmess at tha
affecting the remainder of ^e road. Even at top, and the under edge was ourved, giving the
tlus time straps of iron were nailed upon the greatest depth midway between the ends or
rula to diminish the friction wherever the as- points of support of the rail. This was known
cent was steep or sharp curves made the from, its form as the "fish-bellied" rail, and
draught more difficult The next improve- long continued in nse even after wrought iron
ment wasintrodnced in 1707 at the iron works rolled rails were substituted for those of osst
of Colebrook Bole, at a time when pig iron was iron. It was in 1808 that this improvement
very cheap, and the metal might advantageous- was Introduoed ; bnt flat bars only could be
ly be applied in the way of experiment to new nsed, and it waa not until 1880 that machinen-
nsea. The proprietors made iron bars to take was oonstrnoted for rolling iron Into saitabte
the place of the upper rul of the road, casting shapes for roils. The subetitntitin was very
them 6 feet long, 4 inches wide, and 1} inches important, as the oast iron roils could bemad*
lliiok, with boles for the spikes by which they straight only 8 or 4 feet long, and oonsequentty
■houldbe secured tuthelowerr^l. Sometime required frequent points of support, and the
after this, abont the year 177S, the iron rails Jointa were numerous. The material more-
were cast with a perpendienlar ledge upon the over is brittle compared with wrought iron,
oater edge, in order to keep the wheds from and altogether nnsuitable on this occount for
running off the track ; and oner atime the led^ heavy loads ond high speed. The motive pow-
was transferred to the inner idde of the rail, er employed was almost exdnsively that of
Theee were called tram roads and plate roads, horses. On inclined planes gravity waa mode
the former name being derived fnna a Mr. nse of for descending wagons, and these were
Ontram, who waa connected with the collieries, sometimes made to draw up others by means
Tram is also the name of the wagons run on of a rope passed around a wheel at the emnmit.
these roads. The snooess of this improvement — The posnbility of constructing steam carriages
led to its general introduction in mines, and for had been soggested by Watt in the course of
a long period the ruls were made altogether his early investigations of the properties and
of cast iron ; bnt since the constmotion of the applloauona of steam ; and in 1789 Oliver Evana
new machinery fbr rolling malleable iron, this of Philadelphia patented a steam wagon, the
has been in great measure snbatitnted for It. drawings and speclfloationa of which were sent
The objection to tram roads is the liability of to England in 1787, and ag^ in I794-'6. A
the rail to get obstmcted with stones and dirt, locomotive carriage was also patented in 1784
and thus impede the nrogress and endanger byWatt; and anon-oondensingworkingmodet
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
was oonatroctod th« Bam« jtmt bj his Minstant, fore known, destaiwd to b« r^dlj eztoidgd
Wm. Mnrdoch, Id 1803 Richard Trevithlok pat- and to exert aa eslraordiuarj and most ben^
«nted a high presEure locomotiTS engine, and cial inSnenoe apoa human affUn. 1^ eduU
inIBD4conAnictecI<mefortIieUerth^T^Til engine that determined the qoeation of thor
railwaj in S. Wales. Ijghtlj loaded, it did verj^ use eoon gaTeplaoetomorepowerfblnuohiD^
well upon a level sor&oe or moderate nade ; till some of tboee emptored upon the £ngt^
bntmoreseTerelf tasked,thewheelewo^ddip roads have attained » weight exoeeding 30
roond without advandng. A oheok waa thna tons ; on the great western Ime are some of S]
put apon their osa until eome method ooold be tons, and on ua Scamering line of 48 tone, hiT-
devised bj which thef might obtain a hold in^ 6 coupled wheels. The road npon vhidi
np<Hi the tracker otherwise posh themselves this great result was accomplished wuludirtt
forward. A rack laid along the side of the rail wrought iron rails of the " fish bell;" km.
into which worked a toothed wheel fitted to the Beveral of the carves or spans were included ii
looomotiva was tried in 18II on a colliery line each rail, and they were stiffened tg- pKijwAiai
near Leeds, bnt the friction was too great, and ledges or rims on the under side. Their vei^
it was abandoned. The next year engines was 88 lbs. to the yard ; and they were taf-
were tried with 8 driving wheels for securing ported in cast iron ch^rs, wliich were ipikri
the required adhesion ; and abont the some down to square stone l}looks between tbt
time other engines were oonstrncted with le- spans, or at every three feet. The gaiga or
vers projecting behind and working alternately tUstance apart of the two rails was ileA^
like Uie hind li^ of a horse. In 1814 and 1810 inches, which, having been afterward gen-
engines with plain wheels were found to work eraUy adopted in England, is oonsidered ss Um
snccessfullj on some of the northern roads; notional g&nge. New roads were inunedute);
bnt no other application was made of them projected in England, chieQy in the nwtheni
than for transporting the coal and ore wagons part, connecting together its prindpsl dtie*,
of the mines. The first railroad opened for or adding to the numbers already conetrDctcd
conveying passengers was the Sto^ton and in the mining counties. The capsd^ of tbe
Darlington road in 182fi, and this was worked looomotive was not however yet tfpreciiUi.
with horse power. The fVench engineer, M. and upon most of the roads it wis Muulered
Segnin, in 1820 successfully introduced locomo- necessary to bnild inclined plsnu for over-
tives upon the railways from Boanne to St. comiug the ascents, and npon tbesa m^
Etienne, and from St Elienne to Lyons, and to stationary engines to draw the truss to Um
Andrezieux; and in these he first constructed summit Upon thesa and upon tmmd&, bolli
small tabes passing from the fire box to the designed to reduce carvatores to the least f»
chimney, an arrangement of the greatest im- sible amoont, and also the grades npos the
portance for irtoreasing the evaporative power running portions of the roads, money wse moffl
of the engine, and which was adopted by Ueesrs. freely eipended; and as a measure of eafttj
Stephenson and Booth in their engines. He the more important Toaids were from the £nl
also increased the draught of the Are by means built with double tracks.— The advwitiget
of a ventilator, an efioot which Robert Stephen- aeenred by these improvements were looim-
son better accomplished in 1829 by the action of portant to be overlooked in the Doiied Btilea
the steam. The Liverpool and Uanch ester road Before the applioationof steam to railroad pn>
was commenced in 1825, and it was the inten- poses was established, a horse rsDrosdvaapu-
ttouof its projectors tonm the carriages npon it tJally built in 1826 and completedinl82T,in!Oi
at high rates of speed. To do Uiis with horses the granite quarries of Qnincy, Mass.,sduUMe
was expensive, and to work it by steam power of 8 m. to.the Neponset river. TTus Urmmaled
it was supposed that stationary engines would at the quarries with a self-actinginclined planfc
be reqnirM at short intervals along the road The road was built upon granite aJeepera it
to draw the trains by ropes from one station to feet long, Md 8 feet apart The i^°'^
another. A premium of £500 was offered for apart, were of pine, a foot deep, corered witt
the best engine— one that should not produce an oak plate, and this with flat bin of^
smoke, should draw 8 times its own weight The second road was laid out in Jan- 1"''
at the rate of 10 miles an hour, should be sup- and was completed in May of the earae jeMj
ported upon springs, should not weigh more from the coal mines of Mauch Clinnli, "^J""".?
than fl tons, or 4i tons if it ran on 4, wheels the Uhigh river, a distance of 9 m., wd inu
only, and should not cost more than £550. In the turn-outs and branches the whole IW^
Oct. 1829, 4 locomotives were presented for exceeded 18 m. From the anmmit 'ii™
trial, and the prize was awarded to the Rocket, half a mile of the mines the descent IdJm
weighing 4 tons 6 cwt., built by Messrs. Robert river was 983 feet, of which 235 were "i<^,TV
Stephenson and Booth, whichranatanaverage ins self-acting plane at the river, and w»ei
speed of 14 miles an hour, with a gross load more in a shute by which the coal 'J'ss ^
of 17 tons, and under oert«n circumstances charged into the boate. The '^'^'^ ua
doubled this speed. The next year steam car- in a continual descending grade, ^"'"'-'j^
riages were in regular operation uponthisroad. the loaded wagons ran by gravitr, one o
Thus was established a new system of locomo- being appropnated to the ""^jj^ ng
tion, vasdyexoeeding in oapadty all others be- the empty wagons were drawn itact.
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
BAILBOAD TS9
rkfla jmn of timber Ud on iroodoi sleepers two Tears, wlien It exploded, end tos rebuilt
and striped with flat iron. In other statea at irith a fine boiler. Upon this road, in 1881,
this time an extraordinary aetivitr b^(Bn to be was first introdooed on any railroad either
sroosed and measures set on foot to iotrodDoa abroad or in the United Btates the important
the improved meaoi of oonveyaace and trans- arraogemeat of two 4-wbeeled tracks for
portation of freight apon the prinoipal lines of looomotiTes and long passenger oars. Tbeae
oommnuioation. Charters were obtained in were bnilt f^om plans designed hj Mr. Horatio
Hassaohnsetts, New York, New Jersej, Penn- Alien in 1630 ; and with no essential change his
Bflvania, Uarjiand, South Ooroltno, and other ^tem of double truck running gear, including
states for nnmeroos roads, some of which were ue application of pedestab to the sprites, has
dddfEtied npon a grand sjatem, £avored by ttie ever slnoe been adopted upon all the roads of
peomi&r (botnres of the oonntr j and thesncoeas the oonntry. — Of the great railroad enterprises,
which had attended the Erie oanal and other one of the principal was the Baltimore and
works of internal Improvement, The Dela- Ohio road, of which the first stone was lud on
ware and Hudson canal oompanf in 1828 con- July 4, 1828, and which was gradually extended
Btmoted a railroad from their coal mines to from Uie city of Baltimore across the Patapsco,
Honesdaie, the terminus of the canal ; and had and up this stream to Ellicott^s Mills, 18 m,
already oommisrionad Mr. Horatio Allen, who from Baltimore. It was thence projected to
had gone in the Butanm of 1827 to England for the Potomao at the Point of Bocks, 67 m. from
the purpose of investigating the railroads of the city, on the line of the Potomac valley,
that country, to purchase their railroad iron to the coal region of Maryland and to the Ohio
and 8 locomotives. Oneof the engines, built by river. The road was originally planned for
Qeorge Stephenson at bis works at Newcastle- horse cars only ; but the suoceasful introdao-
npon'Tyne, arrived in New York in the spring tion of steam looomotivee in England enconr-
of 1829, and was to be seen for some time in aged the attempt to mn them here, and in 1880
the yard of E. Dnnseomb in Water street, its a amaH locomotive, bnilt in Baltimore by Mr,
wheels raised above the ground and kept ran- Peter Oooper, was pui upon the road, and by
ning for the gratification of those interested, this and also by horses trains were regular^
Another engine, bnilt by Foster, Rastriok, and run in that year to Ellioott's Mills. From Jan,
CO. of Stonrbri*^, urived soon after, and was 1 to Sept. 1, 1831, the number of passengers
put on the road the latter part of the summer transported was 81,906, be^de 5,931 tons of
of 18S9. This was the first nse of a locomotive freight. The road was constructed of long^-
inthis conntry. It was an engine on 4 wheels, tadioal rails pinned down to the wooden or
furnished witii the multitubular boiler and stone cross ti^ which were imbedded in the
the exhaust blast. In South Oarolina opera- ground, and npon the rails were fastened fiat
tions were commenced in 1829 upon the road bars of iron i and j inch thick and ii to 1^
dengned to connect Charleston with Hamburg inches wide by spikes, their heads countersunk
on the Savannah river ; and 8 m. were oomplet- in the iron. This method, which was generally
ed from Oharleston in that year. It is a note- adopted upon the early American roads fhMa
worthy fact that before the use of locomotives cousiderations of economy, and with the view
was established in Great Britain, or they were of extending the lines to the utmost limit of
known in the United States, the directors of the capital provided, was soon found to involve
this road detormiaed, under the advice of their great danger and oonaequent expense. The
engineer, Mr. Horatio Allen, as given in his ends of the rails beoame loose, and starting np
oommunioation to the board in November, 1839, were occasionally caught by the wheels and
to make them exclusively the motive piower, thrust up through the bottom of the cars. It
and the road was oonatrncted in ench a manner was found necessary to run the trains with
as to be wholly dependent npon them, being great caution npon the roads thus coustmoted.
bnilt upon piles, often at a great height above and the passenger traffic was serioosly diverted
the ground. The company offered a premium from those lines that had acquired a notorie^
of ^00 for the best plan of horse locomotive, for "sn^e heads." In Aug. J830, the Hudson
and this was awarded to Mr. 0. E. Detmold, and Mohawk railroad, from Albany to Boha-
atterward of New York, who constmoted one nectody, N. Y„ 16 m., was commenced, a char-
with the horse working on an endless chain ter for which bad been granted in 1823. hi
lilitform. It carried 12 passengers at the rate Dot. 1881, the number of passengers upon it
of 13 m. an boor. The same gentleman, in the was stated to be 887 a day, and in 1 883 a loco-
winter of 1829-'80, made the drawings of the motive with a load of 6 tons travelled on it at
first American st^m locomotive, called the the rate of SO m. an hour. Several othw
"Beet Friend," which was planned by Mr, railroad enterprises were undertaken in the
E. L UiUer, then residing In Oharleston, made Pennsylvania coal region in 1880, and in the
by the Kembles at their shop in West street, session of the legislature of 1830~'S1 no fewer
New York, and placed on the road late in the than 12 railroad companies were incorporated,
r of 1830. It was a small 4-wheeled In 1880 operations were commenced upon U" -
" " ■■■ -■■ - ■ -"--id. Inl8l
eu^^ne with upright boUer and water fines Baltimore and Snaqnebanna railroad. In 1881
close at bottom, and the flame oironlating a road was completed on the S. side of ths
tronnd them. It worked suooeasfnlly for about James river in Virginia, from Manoheater, o^
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
to the aatonlo road, tlKm^paliqw not bnlltBMfillf
, . ^e year onthiaaooonnt auoMwfitadNewTorkiatto
&e Lake PontchartraiD road la Louisiana, H winter, partiaiaarly la tbis eoinpetHun willi
m. long from the lake to Neir Orleans, was Boston. Bnt before these entw^isce wen
opened. From this time theee enterprises were completed the latter dty had foniiahed the
mnltiplied with great rapidity. In Pennsjl- means for opening tke lOchiem ceobal road,
Tania, it is stated, 67 railroads were in opera- ezten^ng it from Detroit to CbicagD, tiiat the
tion in 1693; and in that year were oom- prodnots of the West mi^tt mors readily reach
menced the most important linee of Hassaohn- Albany ; u>d it was also aeD^ng ont its loos
setts and New Jersey. In a very short time arms toward the H. W., reaching the ontld a
the roads OBtstripped in length those of Qreat the great lakes at OgdeiWHirg,bd'ore this peiat
Britun, and have ever eiooe &r ezeeeded in was connected foy railroad vitii the metrmofia
nnmbera and extent those of otiier ooontries. of its omi state, liese arterpriees stimnlated
Thoy have howerer been planned and con- Pennsylvania to perfect her Ime of oommn^
stniotad in great measnrein^pendently of each cation between Philadel^iia and mtsbmg,
other, without regard to any great ^stem ; and which frvm Haniabnrg to HtdUdAynboig was
as the charters are granted by each state for by canal, and thenoe over the AllM^anymoan-
the roads in its own terrUory, a ringje state has tains by a sncoeedon «^ 5 inolined {dutea md
aometimes, by refodng to antfaorlie the con- iuterTMunglerelsap themonntain onoaeBde^
atnictdon of a proposed road, snoceeded in pre- then by a Iodk level to the 5 inclined Tdanea
venting the eetabUahment of an important line, and levels which terminated bdov at Johna-
the opemDg of whidi, it waa supposed, might town, where another eanal took the bosta thrt
t^nrionsly affect the whole or a &vored part had been brooght over the moontaiii in see-
of such state. This want of system is per- tions, and conveyed itaa to PtUa)>nTg: Hie
oeived and its erils are experienced in tiie canals and Inclined planes were dtme awi^
varioQs gauges adopted by different roads, with, and a continnona road was opened aerosa
rendering necessary freqnent transshipment of the state. This has been made toconneetwilh
Mssengers and freight. The early roads using Oleveland on Lake Erie, with Cbieago, and
English locomotives were constracted for a through Oolnmbns and Cflndnnatf with the By>-
gwigeof4feet8}inohes,thatbeiiiathe chance tern of roads of Indiana and Blinds. Balti-
vidth of the old tram roads of the north of more, feeling the effects of these advances, was
EnglancL and retained npon the newer roads, impelled to push fbrward the Baltimore and
In the United States independent gauges were Ohio road, which had long stt^iped in the
afterward introdaced, as of 4 feet 10 Inches in Oninberland coal re^on, and it was at last
Kew Jersey and Ohio ; 5 feet, which is the c<mipleted to Wheeling on the Ohio. Owries-
gaoge of the Vii^inia and Tennessee road and ton and Savannah early api^edated Uke im-
othersoDthem roads; G feet 4 inches, that of portanee of connecting Hiw harbmrs with
two roads in Ohio; G^ feet, that of the Atlantic the productive districts of the interior Iv rwl-
and St. Lawrence road, Maine, also established roads ; and whan these bad penetrated tluar
by law in Uis»oDri, and afterward in Canada ; own states, the line of e«uu importance to
and 6 feet, which is that of the New Toil and both waa extended throng N. Oeor^ into
Erie road. In order that the hasmess of the last Tennessee, connecting in 1844 Ohattanocna
of these roads might be brought to New York with those dtiea. All these advanoee into the
oity through New Jersey on the line of the Pat- valleys of the branches of the Mississiiyi af-
erson rood, it was found necessary to add a third fected the dties of the gvlf of Ifexioo, and
rtui to the narrow track for the special acoom- Uobile and New Orleans hastened tarwitid the
raodatton of tiie Erie trains. Notwithstanding lines which in the eariy history of American
the original want of system, Beveral important rwlroads they had projected for aeooring to
continuous lines have been developed, m part themselves the trade of these valleys, tiaia
by bringing together detached and indepen- Mobile a road directed toward the month ot
dent roods, and in part by the construction of the Ohio has been completed into N. Misnsaip-
long roads looking specially to this end. The pi ; and from New Orleana, thrtragh the een-
first great lines were established to secure to tral part of Mismsdppi and across W. Tenneseee
the cities on the seaboard from which they and Kentaoky, the Ohio river has been reached
emanated a larger share of the business from at Paduoah, a few miles above its month. Tir-
the -western states. The advantage secured to ginia, seeking the trade of the same r^on, hat
Boston hy the opening of the western road ter- also reached K Tennessee by the roads from
minating at Albany, and taking thence into Usa- Itichmond throngh Ijnchbnrg toKnoxvtlle and
aachusetts at all seasons, and especially in the Chattanoc^a, whence the western line already
winter when the Hudson river was closed, prod- completed to Hanphls on the Mjssisdppi eroesM
noe bronght by canal and by the New York cen- the Missiseippl railroad at Grand Junction on
tral roads from Bnfftdo, compelled New York the southem Use <tf Tenneesee, and with this
to open a route direct from the city to Lake makes the eommunieation oomplete from Alex-
Erie ; and the Erie road, commenced in I8S8, andria, Norfolk, and Biohmond to Neir Or-
waa pushed forward to ite completion, which leans. The conneetion between the cities on
howeverwas not reached until 1851. The Hon- the Atlantio coast, with the exception of the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
oliort IiTMk betreen "Wathfaigton and A1«z-
Aodria, is oomiilete bj independent roads,
plaoneid oriKinallf from one citj to the next;
and from Philadelphia to Portland, Me., bj
nameroofi parallel routes. la the N. V. Btates
railroad enterprise faae been developed to &n
extent hardlr sor^ssed in the most popaloaa
districts of New England, the constrnction of
roads being there greatly faoilitated bj dona-
tions of land by thejtovemmeot. The longest
of these lines ia the minoia central railroad, ea-
teading from Oairo at the month of the Ohio
to Dimleith on the ICsMssippi river in the ex-
treme N. W. comer of the state, a distance of
455 m., with a branch of 353 m. from Centralia
to Chicago. On both sides of this road and its
branch the oompan; was endowed with alter-
nate sections of land, of the total width of 6
sections or miles and length of 706 m. Where
the land^ were already token np, the company
was privileged to select any others within 15
m. of the line of the road. It thns acquired
8,595,000 acres in an excellent farming region,
and from the sale of these the expenses of oon-
Btrnction, amounting to $33,487,060, are met
In this state, where in 1850 there were 011I7 S3
m. of railroad, in 185Stherewere a,7S0m. In
Wisconvn three ports on Lake Michigan are
connected by as many lines of roads with the
Mississippi river, the most northern reaching
it at La Crosse near lat. 44° N., whence it is
to be oontioued to St. Paol and the falls of St,
Anthanj. In Iowa several lines are directed
V, from the Mississippi, destined to reach the
Missonri nrer, and in N. Missonri the Hanni-
50AD m
bal and Bt Joaeph, S06 m. long, and the K.
Missouri railroad from St. Lonis to St. Joseph,
804 m. long, already make this conneotdon. 8.
of the Miasonri river, what is called the Pacific
railroad is completed from 6t. Lonis to 8yra'
cuse, Mo., 166 m. In the wonderAi] progress
of railroads thronghont the conotry, the great
and nnsorpassed natural means of communica-
tion between the interior and the seaboard
have been found wholly inoompetent to meet
the increanng demands of tbe people for tba
most unobstructed and rapid means of trans-
portation. Kailroads are built shmg the banka
of navigable rivers and the great lakes, and
from the current of the Missis^pi draw awaf
to the distant ahores of New England and of
the middle states the products that should nat-
urally follow the river to the sea. The most
important natural routes of the S. £., where
they lie on a direct course, as the two lower
lakes and Qio St. Lawrence river, are bordered
on both ndes with Unea of railroads that ex-
tend from tlie head of l4ike Erie to Quebec ;
and where the inland seas present circoitoua
routes, a« from Lake Ootario to Georgian bay
and Lake Huron, and from Lakes Erie and ^
Clair to Lake Michigan, these are cut off bj
various direct railroads across the peninsulas.
— The progress of tbe rulroads of tbe United
States m periods of 2 years each, from the year
1886, when the number of miies completed
amounted to 1,843, to the dose of the year
1860, ia represented in the following table,
which also deagnates tbe l^igtbs of road in
each stato for the ssme years ;*
Bhoda latnd...
Comwottout....
NaoYork
Murlud
Yiigim*
Hnth OuDllu.
Soulh Cunllu. ,
MMHlppl...
JiOBbUlU. . . .
UllfiiraU...
Total)
tJMH i 1.1«T «.Wt 4.»W
llUl I».1W
ATM IT.IES SLIM
• I( la Impoolbla to obt^o
nir. MOMMiif tbamdmD lato dlthrtnt ■utst.uil tb*
dlMiiMlioD 1) Dot «lw*7( rnida of Lha nnmbai nf mllea ba-
kiagln; lo eadi lUta. Th>«1a»l«o " .-->--- •-
lanimii' to ehcuts tbi
Jib anmlMr of mllu In
ID tbaanmbiiriidofha In
nosHdlDf uil woMtltiKa
of tiro ntn. Bmb si
to aSbn tb« gsMHl vi
"-'i tba pnaadlug p^
ft V ud nntmpor-
D,o,.^oob,Google
The tot«l lengtli of TfUtda prttJected and ooa-
BUt««,md<x»toftbeHm
are given in the following
ai°''"'
..«.
'Ti"
.F.1L..
^lOpMU.
.«-*
'fir
~ ',.'"~
aer&taMn Mait.
la.M
4mn
tit,e3«,«i
Aif^MaCu.
GILU
TVLn
IS!
TOLBl
iliwa tet«ri«- «(iiCh.
IMll
to.
'^'"■h:—--.
yortX tmrHar 1am
HuTtuidudlHMtM
rn
l.»LKI
Total
Saa:;;;;::
"ffiS
»>?5
OW
i],i«!i[iurjt
Tjsaea
B^tt
The oomparative Btatoment of the extent and
variona conditione og to ooat and profits of the
roads of the principal oonntriea of Enrope, of
the United States, and of Into fit ti« '-i:
named, is presented in the fdSorji?'*"
given hj English authorities:
0-^
t™..
SJi
sib
Uxm.
1-— •"■;t^
ISBS
18U
ISH
1861
1«U
'4*6
■i
in
1T,4S1
£18.811
.St
!S
M
n*
TO
S
s
KS' :: :•■:•:::::(
if: 1 ^^
^S^-
It nDdl
ffihmo'it*
traffic in Great Britain in 1869, according to
the report of the department of railwa7s, was :
TTmiks; nertftt, £t,Wa.K» IT. id.
» " " l,a67.TM 8 9
10 " " B0*.9Sr S 8
ToUl R,7W " " £11,S(B,T8> lOt lilt
— Although, before deciding npon the constmo-
tion of a railroad, the first reqnisit« wonld seem
to be a careful computation of the amount of
business airoady done upon the route in the
transportation of pasBengers and freight, with
the view of determining whether this would jus-
Idfj' the proposed expenditure, estimates of this
character have been found by eiperienoe to af-
ford a very uneertain index as to Ine actual busi-
Stances. AmoreenlargtdTiewirfU*'-^'^
of the conntTT throngb which the niiJs^!"
is conseqaenUy necessary, mi • **'St-
erstion of tii« effects alreri; "P*^^
the openingof new roads in othwm^r^jT
Hew brandies of traaenaybe«ti>i«l«^J
greater economy of trin^w«>« 'T^^
the new road, inducing »a uo*** "'-.'^
tion and of the travel of P«»?^j„,ii
as well as freight may moreow m cn_^
from other channels of ami ^' ' j
tion of most of the rosds of J*',"?^'.'
to a less striking eitent of wsdsBPi^.^
of the United States, has ^f*?,^—
derftil manner what hu been «IW,'« "
lingpropen8itieeofthep«(«- *'*''
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
"hy the fbtlowlng examples, the first colmnn of constmoted by a partial abandonnieitt of Qm
£gnr«s (a) representing the estinuUed onmber old rontes under more judicious snrreyB, or
of possengerB before the road was boiit ; the from the increase in the bnsinesB iasti^ins the
second (b), the number soon after; and the adoption of a more perfect line. As already re-
third (c), the number in the Tear IMS ; marked, the old sratem of oooasional Inclined
planes is almost wholly abandoned for roada of
general travel, and the construction and caps-
i^ of locomotiTes and carriages i» so mnoh bet-
N^fnL
■ 1 .
t
BoMon ud VoraittT....
BotUB ud LdwsU
utioa
B«b>n ud Mniu
ifci.
ter nnderstood, that a mnoh greater range in
ourratnres and grades is now found practicable
dkanvasfomierlTeTertlioughtof. Asregarda
A similar increase has been experienced also onrves, it was formerij recommended in Eng-
upon most of the roads in the amount irf freight land to fix the minimum radios that should be
transported. But as railroads have been mmti- allowed at one mile, and in 1846 it was one of
plied and an active eompetitton has grown up die "standing oidcrs" of parliament that no
among them, such results can now rarely be curve could be made lees than with a radius of
counted on in shwt periods. Another consider- half a mile (2,640 feet) without special permia.
ation, which experience has shown to be a very eioa of parliament. In France a minimam was
important one, and which now often induces established by "the administration of roada and
the construction of rulroada, is the influence bridges" of 3,700 ftet^ or al>ODt 2°. OntheHud-
whidi these are likely to have upon the valae son river railroad tJie mininioin carve has a radi-
of real estato along their line, and even in the nsof2,06Sfeet =S.Tfi°. But the Baltimore and
ciUes where they terminate. Again, as the Ohioroadwaa built with several curves of 400
prosperity of one city is found to advance rap- feet radius (14.36°), and with one of S18 feet
idlf from the effect of its railroads, property (18°), and no diffioulty was experienced in run-
htdders in others, which are iqjnrioosly abated ning over them at IS m. an hour. Theobjec-
by the diveruon of trade, are compelled to open tionable features of the curves are avoided by
mmilar avenues for th^ own [votection. Tuns piRiring Qie wheels conical, of greater diameter
it has been in the United Sttfes that many of within than at th«r outer edge ; the effect of
the roads have been prqjected, not with refbr- this in running on a carve, when the wheela
enee to direct remonaation bj the basinesa done on the oaUa ^e are pnidiea by the centrifiigal
upon them, hot to indirect ratuma, in which foroe outwardly, is to make them roll on their
many whoignorantlysnbscribetothe stock can larger diamet^, and at the samo time the
have no immediate interest. — Preparatory to the wheela on the other ride, drawn in toward the
location of a railroad, surveys are made along centre ot the track, roll on their smaller diam-
the several routes the road may follow, and eter. On each aide they are thus aocommo-
plans are constructed representing the exact dift- dated to the different lengths tJiey have to
tanoes and grades or the amount of deviation traverse, without straining the axles and witli-
fromalevelat all the points. From these plans out greatly increased friction or slipping of
are calculated the amount of excavation and em- the hmer wheel opon the ruL The friction
t)ankmcnt, of tunnelling, bridpug, &c, neoos- against the outer rail due to the centrifugal
sarytobringtheroadwithinthereqnireddegree force is partiaUy prevented by elevating the
of straightnese and level. Thus the estimates outer ruL The olgeat of atteohing the wheela
are obtained, by comparison of which, includ- to their ailes Instead of letting them turn upon
ing with each also the ascertmed amount to be these, is to eeenre greater steadiness at lugh
paid for right of way, the location of the road is speed. The requiring of minimum degrees of
detemuned. The importance of the road and curvature has been abandoned opon the Bullish
the special purpose for which it is deugned, aa and French roods, and occasional instances are
for transportation chiefly in one direction only, now noted of very dkort curves, aa of 8S0 feet
or in iMth, whether it is to be run at moderate radioa on tiie 'Woolwich line near London, and
or high rates of speed, Ac, are to be duly eon- of S28 ftot on the great western, great north-
ridered in deciding upon saving of distance and em, and NewoasUe and Carlisle lines. In
rednolion of grades by heavier expenditures. France, upon the Paris and Orsay and Paris
fioada upon which numerous trains are to pass and Soeanx railroads, there are curves of 63
dail^, each one of which will incur a certain feet radius, and trains, the engines and osr-
additional expense for every additional mile^ riaKOs of which are provided with loose wheela
and each mile will involve a oertun annoal ex- and guide rollers, ran through complete semi-
rse for keeping in repair, may econcmdoally circles at 20 m. an hour. — Upon the earlier
shortened at increased ontlajs that would roada in Great Britain and in the United States
be entirely inadmissible in securing a similar gradee of 80 or 40 feet to the mile were consid'
reduction of dlstanoe to lesa trareUed routes, ered heavy,at the lastflgnrenearty tripliugthe
So upon roads that are to be run at high rates power that was required to draw a load upon
of speed short curves mnst be avoided at any a lerd. Grades <tf 70 to 80 feet were r^arded
e^iense. It has Jumpeoed, frmn the experience as almost impracticaUe, aa they wonld compel
gamed in the working of railroads, that some the carrying of light loads over the whole line ;
of the earlier lines have been eoonomically re- and tlwnfore, when such grades could not be
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
784 RAHAOAD
otherwise sToided, inclloed pknea worked ij ABploead in tlie spring thMre; In wet wetEOiw
stationaiy engines were adopted. The Hudson it roiiBt prove rerj iuBeonre, tutd in diy westb-
and Mohawk rulrond, in a length of 16 m., wu er verr dostj. The aleepws soon aettle irr^
hdilt with ODO mch plane at Albany, and an- olarl^, platniig tlie rails ont of line, and thus
other at Bchenectadj. The Philadelphia and Co- are inTolred rajrid Tear, det«noratwii, acd-
Inmbia railroad was sIm bnilt vitix two planes, dents, and loss to the rolling stock and to the
one at Oolombia and the other near Fhiladel- road. The dost rises in elonda, to the great
phia, and Qiere were 10 on the Alleghany port- iztiarj of the maclunerr and <rf the paMmger
age road over the All^ihany monntoina, all of eaia, and seiionalj inoommocUng the pnimrngfiii
whiofa have been displaced bj the sobstitatioQ themselves. The effects of water at>ont tb
of heavier grades oa more ext^ided lines, Bnt earthwork of railroads are rwarded sb m iiyv-
as experienee was oeonlred in the working of Hone that an eminent ''^'■gHah anthori^ eaya:
railroads, it was fonnd that locomotives ruel^ " Wherever it is known or snqteeted to exiat, ill
uuTiedmaximmnloada for the moderate gradeik immediate sonrce iihonld be traced, and eveij
and that a temporary sladeDing of the speed poeetble means adopted for dlvoting it fkom the
npon the steep grades rendered a fkirther por- elopes anda^acentsniftcee." Not onb- are ea-
tlon of the power ctf the locomotive avulable padona and permanent oolverts, ditehe% and
for overooming the Increased reeiatance. Thns, arainBBbnndantl7'prorided,bntiab-drabuigeb7
when the donbtfU point as to the adhesion of tile drains is also empl<7ed to great advaati^ ;
the driving wheels to the r^ was aatiafaoto- andasaflnalpreoant^nitharo^bedisballaaled,
rily determined, and the common law of me- nsDally a fi>ot deep boieath the daqxra and
ohanioe, that power can be guned at the ez- another foot aronnd and over them, ntd for a
peose of time, was found to be applicable to width on donble tntOa of 26 &et^ tiie qnaUity
ascending grade* of a railroad, these were in- per mile amounting to 10,000 or 1S,0CI0 cnlM
oreased much bejond their former limits, feet. The material preferred for hallaMiagrav-
HlgU grades were sooner introduced in this el contuning a natural mizture of dean Hand,
country than in Enrope, but the; have reoentlj and next to this broken stone in pieces not ex-
been adopt«d there also. On the Uonnt Sav- ceeding H int^ee In diameter. limeeUme is
age and George's creek railroads in Maryland not so gooi as gneiss, as it packs too densely,
grades of 140 feet to the mile have long been and trap rock also is hkelj to become too soltd
used; and on the Baltimore and Ohio road, and ri^d. A certain elastidtyin the bed ia
through the Alleghany monntaina, of 1 14 feet eetentlal for the dnrabilitj of the rails ; and
In England thoee of 100 feet to the mile are where no other suitable material is at hand,
not uncommon, and there are several from ISO common clay burned in lumps in great he^ia
tolCDfeet. AtShefBeldisagradoof 19S feet intermixed with bitoininoua oou has been
to the mile, and the same is seen at Oldham on found to answer very well, eepedally If hvd-
the Lancashire and Torkahire road, extending homed. Cinders and nnul coal are excdlent
for li m. In France on the St. Oennain rail- materials, snd in Holland diells and brobn
roadisagradeof ISSfeet to themileforabont bricks ore extensively tised. The French
li m.—ik the construction of railroads the double track roods, man the reports of 1S6T,
proper preparation of the road bed should be expended 116,000 francs per kilometre (equal
an object of the most particular care. Being to |6,089 per mile) for ballast, or 17 per cent
thefoundationandenpjwrt of the whole super- of die whole cost of "way." The road bed
structure, it should as a matter of economy be through the long English tunnela, and also
made as firm and darable as possible, Bnt it npon the viaducts, Is well ballasted, and the
ia in this that the American roads are most wear of the rails ia thereby matenally de-
deftective. The least width of embankments creased. The wooden sleepers on the Eoro-
for double tracks (and roads of importance pean roods are also very commonly protected
abonid always be laid out for these) ought not by some chemical application. (See Fumavx-
to be less than the width of the two tracks, tioit or Woon.*) The ordinarr dnralirai of
with 6 feet between them, and S feet outside of sleepers upon American roads is hardly 1 years,
each. In excavations the width of ditches on bnt npon English roads it is 15 yeara a^ up-
each side should be added. A oommon width ward. By the scmpnlaas attentitnt directed
of embankments in England is S3 feet, while to these details in boilding the Enropeaa roadi
on the prindpal American roods it is about a great savhig is effected in the cost rfmain-
9? feet The transverse elopes of the English tenance of way," engines, and working. Fmn
roads ore mach flatter than ours, and are com- thereportofMeBBn.OoIbiiniBi)dHoUey("Per-
monly well protected with a good grass sod.
Bnt the most essential diffbrenoe is in the drain- * a mttiiod of pmnrtiig tiw tlMpm, not matiiHMd ti
age, npon which more than any thing else d*. f*"'"SjK»it* vatUaaAta tb* B«M]iait nOnwd, !• hM-
jaa. dmbuity of the <«rth.o?k ».« of S3;i.T!;ftSS!fflSL"'iSSL'SS SS£
the sleepers and rails. Upon some American p«>idfi][4BtMioniB0TFuMttbt^lcMMtkv»iiltav
rojd. th« ,i„p,™ », i^d dir«.tir npon <h. sss.s^^iSi'ss.-T.srs.'sj'A.'T^.'a
natoral soil, or Dpon this thrown up in a bank. tti*iruidiiiniiiediu»iT«ipiwdfniiiiteaUtu'. EaAiiwpfr
Where the ground iteexee, any superstmoture "'^,^°°St'^iJS'"^, "!?.¥' ■»**»• e-tfcr«d
onsnchaSadsbo^dStobe^oraorlea. ™;^'2Si'"*"~*- 0»^^'«^'''*«-=»^
RAILBOAD 78S
mueDt Vtj" Hew YaA, 16K8) it iqipears Uie vxettdn ireu opon the nUa thtu ^aoed.
that theM iMniB oa English lioM aTerage leas The great weatemrmd in SnglandJieonrinioU
UuD ooe half the unotmt of eimUar ezpensea ed with lonc^tndiiial bearings or Billamunriiiig
on the railroads of Kew York and Mawachu- 10 inches sqnar^ and framed together l^ oroM
setta. OnlrooehalfaamttohAieliBOonsiuned ties of 6 b; 4 inches everj 6 feet. The ar-
to the mile run on the EngUab and Frenofa rangament ia said to be easj on the rolling
roadisaaon thoaeof the northern UnitedStataa; sto^ but as regards cost of maintenanoe of
and the oonsomptioa cf fnel m^ be takMi aa a wa^ this la one of the most e^ieiuure roada in
msMiire of the renatanoea overoome. If the England. — The raila, which are stndght bars
English traJna are t>om SO to SO per oeot, lighter of wrooght iron, difier greatlj in the shape of
than those of American lines, tbej are mu S6 their eroas aeotion, their w^i^t, qoalitj, and
per cent faster, thos requiring aboat the aame the manner in which the; are seonred to the
power. The cost per imle of maintenanoe of road bed. Ahnost tlte fl^ form was the fldn
way- on the Lcmdon and north-western railway bellied rail, made abont the ;ear 1820. Thia
in 1S65 ia aaid to hare betti only one fborlh aa Bo<m gave idaoe to others of more economical
mDohasontheNewYorfccentraL Jfthepropor- ah^ie, aa the T and the X rails, and to these
tion had been one haU| the saTina to the Udter was aidded the bridge or hollow rail, the form
roadwonldliavebeea9418,381. noperoiiginal of which is neariyt^ of the letter U inverted,
oonetniction aa regards eartbwM'lC drainage, These have been Tariooalj modified in their
and ballaat, wonld without dcnbt have effect- figures and proportions, and a great number of
ed thla saving. — The saperstracture of rallroada ouicr fbrms that ma^ not be referred to either
ia olmoet nnlveraaUr npcm transverse wooden of theae have been introduced upon different
deepers, theprimsrrol^eotof whlchistogive roads. In the United States an inverted T
a ateadj bearing Dpon the road bed. Seasoned rail has been in very general uae, bo as to be
white oak u preferable to anj other wood for known as the ATuerican rail. It has a broad
strength and for holding the spikes, ^mlook bearing foot, and is easHy eecnred to the sleq>-
is better than cheetuot and both these are ex- era bjbook-headed ^kes driven into eltmgHb-
tcnaivelj used in the United States. Their dl- ed slots in the edge of the flange, or mm^y
mensions are oommonlj 8 feet long and 7, S, or over the edge, thus allowing ezpanaion and oon-
g indies width of bearing aar&oe, and their dis- tnotionofther^withchan^ugtemMratures
'—wapart fromoentze tooentreiefrtHnflfeet without djatnrbjng the fiMteninga. with Uda
inohes, aa on the £Me road, to i feet S rail oast Irtm ch^ra, emptoved for sealing and
inches. Upon the English roads thev are com- holding almoat all other raus, are not reculred
monlj S feet long, 10 inches wide, often sqoar- except at the Joints, and the additional ooit
ed, and 6 inohea thick. They are nanallr laid of the iron, which is an important oonnder^
8 feet apart A«m centre to oentre ; and that a tion on American roads, is saved. A favorite
uniform beariugkmay be eecured, partlcalar rail in England is the X or double-headed raU,
cue is taken that the sleei>ers are aluce in aize which has the advantage of fundshing two
and regularly spaoed in their beds. In France sides for wear, being earaly taken out of its
the experiment has been tried of ontting the chairs and turned over when one side is wont
slee)>era in two in the middle, leaving one in out. Fntfeasor Barlow's modification of thia
every 10 or 13 feet to bind the two rule to- is also much used, the foot of which is much
gether. The result was very satis&ctory, the amaller than the head. Hie saddle-back r^
object being to prevent the apring of the Aill- <^ die aame inventor has a split foot its whole
length sleepers or the movement they some- length, the parts spreading like a saddle,
times acquire on their centre. But far theee It was dewgned to be imbedded in the ballast
and detached rectangular blocks of any mate- without sleeper*, and with occasional ties of
rial, either transverse or lonf^tndioal, it is easen- iron rods, conneotiiig the two raUa. About
tial that the supports shonld be well paoked 900 m. of track were 1^ with this rail in
upon a thoroughly ballasted road bed. LiEng- 1868, but it did not prove altogether satia-
land, where wood ia expen^ve and iron com- factory, and cross sleepers were found to be
paratively cheap, rectangular blookg of cast ewentiol for its stability. It ia remarkable
iron have been tried npoa aome of the roads, tliat iu the long lensths of 5 or 6 m. in which
and with good results ; but the oonditions of the rails were firmly riveted together no acy
costarealto^thernn&vorabletotheiradopticn cnmulated motion by expansion and contrao-
in the United States. Oranite sleepers have tion has been observed. Oompoond rails, pat-
been tried aud have oontinaed in use upon one ented in England in 1M7, nave not been
of the tracks of Qie Boston and Lowell road, adopted there. A form is in nse in this ooon-
Tbey make a very hard and rigid anpport, and try, in whloh the portion of the rail beneath
cannot be used in connection with wooden the head appears as if split its whole length
aleepers interspersed or alternating with them, into two parta, and these being placed so as
uneveBueas in the track soon resulting. The to break Joints are riveted or bolted together
amooth fhce of a rook ledge baa been tried upon through their ddes. Up to about the year
' ' ■ 64thew''- -
the Uanchester and Leeds road, the raila bdng 1864 the weight of raila had been steadily in.
spiked directly down apon It. It waa soon creasing from oboat 86 lbs. to the lineal yard,
found neceisary to take them up on account of till it had reached in Eoghmd 86 to 100 lbs.
U,9,-„Z0QbyGOO^[t
nS RAIUU)AD
No Adtantage vu finind tn tli« vt/rr htKVf manylowrdlsiioirliiiise; for the latter often
rails, hoveT«r, but on the contrary tin iron in contain a nselws amonnt of iron, eepedallr in
saoh large piles was neoesssrily leas worked the bulge beneath the "pear«baped" head,
in the manaftotnre and ▼as in a poor oondl- and also in the Qiickness of the web, irMch
tioa for wear. The tendenof has sinee been need not eieeed ^ of an inch. The excess of
to ratnrn to tighter rails, of 06 to 65 lbs. to metal whtoh does not add to the strengtb, and
the yard, and to require these to be made of the presence of wluch actoaBj interi^es with
Iron originaUj good, the piles to bo first rolled the proper worUng of the iron to make r^ls
into bloonu, and these tobeag^n bronghtto of good wear, may amount to 13 tons or more
a welding beat, and then rolled into rtms. to the mile; a sBving well worthy of conrndera-
^e miserable qnality of mnoh of the iron on tion, especially where iron conunands a hi^
American roads is dae to deficient working, price. — ^The eecnring of rails to the trade and
the fibres of the iron as it wears showing thai keeping their ends together are jirorided for
they have never been thoronghly inoorporated by a vaiiety of expedients. In aU of diein h
together. In bargaining for it no test and no is necessary to recognize the principle of con-
particnlar conditions of mannf&otnre were r»- traction and expansion of the rails by changes
qnired, as is cnstomary in other conntries. of tanperatnre, andin thelayingof the rtils a
Bails of 4& lbs, have worn nnder the heaviest proper sllowsnoe is always made for this ; thus
trafBo for 30 years, as those laid in 1887 on rails 80 fact long, at the temperatare of 100'
the Beading railroad, while others of nearly F.^ntay be set close together at the endsi If
donble the weight have given oat on other laid at 80°, a space shoald be left of .OSS indi ;
roads in 1,9, or 8 years. The first rsilseraplOT- at60°,.0e5; at40*,.l)98; at 80° ISl ; at 10*.
ed on the Btonington railroad, of H lbs. to the .U7; atO^.ISS; and so on. Byneglect of
yard, also lasted 90 years. Baila have been this precaution it has happened that the ruls
made in lengths of IS, 16, 18, and 80 ftet, and heated by the tmn have expanded so aa to be
recently of 91 ; on one road in England 80 feet thmst npward, lifting the sleepers ont of the
rails have been nsed. An impMtant feaCnre ground to the height of one or two feet. Tmm
in the rail is its height or depth. Its atiflhesa^ this canse, a train mnning in Jnne, 1^6, on
if the rail ooold be regarded as a rectangnlar the nortb-eastera railway in England, at 40
beam, increases ae the square of tiie depth; m. an honr, was thrown off the inside of a
thna doubling the hdght and retaining Qie curve, though the 89 lb. rail w^s £uitcned
same weight of material qaadmples the stiff- evety 8 feet in heavy chturs and *'fished"at
ness, hut doubling the height and weight also the Joints. Almost the nniversal ftatenings in
increases its stiffiieea 8 times. The eSeot of a Eii«and need to be cast iron ohurs, made to
want of atifihess in the r^ is deflection be- hold the r^ in an opening in the top, into
tween the supports under the weight and a which it was seated and keyed by a wooden
maahlngof the iron into thewoodof tbealeep- wedge. The chure were themselves stronglT
ers, which continually increases the miscjiief. bolted down npon the sleepers. Those for re-
Even lietween rigid snpports the temporary odvlng the two ends of adjoining rails are
depresBon d the rail is snch as to present a much neavler and stronger than tiie others,
ccatinnal ascending plsnein front of the wheels, weighing &Yim SS to 89 lbs., the others 18 to
which the descent of the slope from iMhind 96 lbs. It is of great consequence to keep the
does not in any measure oompoisate, (he ad- enda of the rails securely upon the same bori-
vantogeof this D^ng wholly balanced by other zontal line. If one end is depressed by the
considerations. Bnt high rails require strong weight ooming npon it, the wheel strikes the
lateral supports. These on the Englid roads end of the next roil with a concussion that
are fumiaoed in the oast iron chairs on every soon ehatters the rail, and being repeated at
sleeper, and by the stiffening of the rails at other Joints seriously injures the rolling stock.
the ends by the peculiar Joint in use; and the Yarions methods of keying the ends in the
RngliiJi are thos able to employ much deeper chair are in use, one of the strongest of whidi
nils than are seen upon onr roadst Unleea of is that known as Burleigh's, with a t^wring
the n form (and this is now little nsed), their iron key 14 inches long. What are called fi^
rails are rarely BO low as 4} inches. They run Joints were designed in 1 Si? to keep the ends
frcxn this to 6^ inches, and present a head of In line. As first proposed, two sleepers w^e
alwut 2i inches, the sur&ee of which is convex, to be placed 0 inches apart at the jmnts, and
the curve having a radios of about tiie height two pistes of iron slightly wedging were to be
of the rail. The American rails di^ fivm driven one on each side between the Jaws of the
these diiefiy in the hel^t, which is rarely ohair»fiat agafaut the aides of Uie two rails. In-
somuch as 4 inches, but commonly about SJ. eteadofthia, however, apairofplates 18 inches
On the Oamden and Amboy road was laid a long, ) of an inch thiok, and about 8 inches
rail of S2 lbs. to the yard, with a broad foot wide, are b<dtod together tbrongh the rails with
to eecnre lateral support, and of the extreme i or J inch bolta, Uie holes in the rail bwng
tisioht A_< i..4'»jn^...^ i» v— 1 — a. -riT :...i — .i ""^ *" "Uov fbr contracdon and ea — *-
ne plan was tried in 184
OeL; but it was found in
iw rails snob as are need in
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
height, first intrododed in En^and, of T inehce: elongated to allow for contracdon and expan-
but the use of snob a rail has not been adopted rion. The same plan was tried in 1848 at
on other roads. High rails do not necessarily New Oaatlo, Del ; bnt it was found inoom-
involve a great weight compared with that <a pattble wiUi low rails snob as are need in this
BAILBOAD TSr
eomitiT. Though extannrelr naed In Europe, them, pateing thrangh vertjoal Biota, and lield
the arrangement is open to serioos Directions ; at the ends by keys. At the Joints of the ndl
and the angle brocket was patented in 1S58 u angle brackets are used 16 inches long bolted
a Bnbstitate. This consists of two hraoee either down to a cross sleeper. — In order that trains
of oast or wrought iron, each made with a of cars maj pass from one track to another
fiat foot which is spiked to the sleeper npoa an extra pair of rails ore laid down, which
which tne Joint comes, one on each side of the can be moved so as to complete the connection
rail, and their npper edges fitting nnder its with either one of the lines as desired and
head are bolted togetlier throngfa the web of break it with the other. These movable rails
the rail The wedge method in chairs la pre- are called switches, and are controlled hj a
ferred on American roads, though the angle lon^ bar nnder the surface connecting with on
bracket ia well adapted for the rails in, use. npngbt lever at the side of the road. This b
Upon the Oamden and Amboy road a sin- inthecareoftbemenknownasswitch tenders,
gnlar connection eolled a ring joint is made whoso duty it ia to see before tbe approach of
to bold the ends of the ruls. Tbe taod of tvorj train that Uie rails are so placed as to
tfie rails for two inches at each end is cnt oarry it upon the right track. Tnm tables are
down so as to reoeive a strap, which is shmnk circnlar platforms which can be pushed round
over them ; the width of the str^ is about i upon a curcnlar track sunk below the level of
inohea, and its thickness is Just equal to the the gronnd. A locomotive or car being rnn on
depth of the portion ont out. Bails are some- to the platform, it is thus easily turned aboat
timea relieved fi'om violent Jarring by means or directed npoa any other diverging track,
of a cnsbioD or spring of India robber placed numbers of wnioh usually concentrate aronnd
either nnder the rail or imdor the ch^r which the turn tables. — In treathig upon railroads tm-
holds it. A method of suspending the rails by meroua important considerations present them-
a coatinaons bearing applied on each side nn- selves beude those already noticed, each of
derthe head and bolted tbrongh the rail has wbicbsbonldrecetveparticularattention. Saeh
been introdneed in England within a few years especially are the viaducts, bridges, and tun-
past by Mr. W. Bridges Adams, and is regard- nels, and the immense cuts or eicavationa and
ed by many as likely to supersede all the other embankments ; also the processes employed by
methods of supporting the rails. It ia known the engineers in laying out the road, their seek-
ns the suspended girder rail, and is used either Ing for the most level and the strughtest line
with angle iroa brockete or with timber bear- while restricted by the amount of means pro-
era, one uid along each side the rml and bolted vided, and planning tbe excavations and em-
throngh. The angle brackets have tbe form bankmonts, so that the material supplied by
of long fiat strips of iron turned up lougitu- the former shall amount as near as may be to
dinoUy at right angles. They are placed with that rei^uired by the latl«r. The station hoQset,
the angle under the head of the rail, the nar- which m themselves are an important class of
rower part of 3 or 3 inches width fitting in the struotnres peculiar to this now improvemeot,
space between the head and foot of the rail, merit a particular description ; as also tbe va-
and the wider strip extending ont horizontally rietiea of carriages in use npon tbe road, the
from tbe nnder side of the head to a distance locomotives, &o. The last named will be no-
of 4 to 6 inches. Bolts pass tbrongh every S ticed in the article Steam Oaiiriaob. Uention
or 3 feet. Ko two Joints are allowed to come ia made of some of the principal railroad bridges
oppowte each other, and the three pieces ore in tbe general article Bbidos. A passing notice
thus firmly secured together. The two rails mily may be given to tbe tunnels, always s re-
arc held to their gauge by ocoadonal tie bars, morkabte feature of engineering, but especially
which are fastened at their ends bysome of sointhelargesoaleuponwhiohthey have been
the bolts which secure tiie brackets to the rails, constmotfid for railroads. In Great Britain
The rail ia of the common double-headed form, they amount to about 70 m. in length, which
7 inches deep, and is laid directly In the ballast, is equal to abont -[Ib' of tbe whole length of all
It derives its mun support from tbe horizontal the roads ; and the total cost is estimated to
wings or brockets, and also bears upon its average £102 for every mile of railroad. In
under surface. This arrangement secures great the United States, in a total length of over
stiffness both vertically and laterally, and the 81,000 m., there are only about 18 m. of tun-
load being taken directly nnder the head of nel. In Great Britain it is conndered cheaper
the rul ^e web between the top and bottom to tnnnel throng rock than to moke open outs
may be of mnch thinner iron than is ordina- deeper than 60 feet. Where the rock is inse-
rlly used. In nsin^ timber bearers instead of cure at the sides and top the tnnnel is lined
continuous angle iron brackets, considerable with brick in several successive rings, and the
saving is efiected in the first cost, and an upright arch is sometimes supported upon an
equally stable snpport Is obttuned. The timbers inverted arch bnilt under tbe rails. The long-
are scantling of equal depth to the side ohan- est tunnel is the Woodhead, at the summit of
nel between tbe head and foot of the rtul and the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire
about 6 inches width, thus making with the raUway,it8 length being S m. 60 ft. The Stan-
rail a bearing width of 10)- inches. Instead edge on the Loodoa and north-western rail-
cf bolte, flat bars of iron are used to secure way ia 8 mi. long ; and 13 others on otber
VOL. xin. — 47
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
988 KAII£OAD
roads «se«ed 1 m. eaoh. Tha Box ttmnel on Bhie lidge nUlrosd fat StxA Onolina How
the gt«st w«at»D railway, between Bnth and tunnela are nawty or quite ocmideted in VUk-
ChippeBhan, i» 8,1^ yarda long, or rattier ena district, of which the Bhortest ia 616 ft.
more tJion ij- m. It ia 80 ft. wide, 26 ft. high, long, and the longest, the Stomp Honse monn-
imd 70 ft. below the anrfaoe. It ia ventilated tain tunnel, fa S,8M ft. Four alisfta are sunk
hj 11 air ahafta, most of vbioh are abont SB from the snmmit to e:^>edite the work. In Uk
ft. diameter. The Kilsbj' tonnel on the London N. £. comer of Qeorgia, lai the same road, an
and north-western rsilwaj is 1 m. 1,014 ft. long, two tonnela. The long dock tnnuel in BeigeiL
80 ft. wide, and 80 ft. high, 160 ft. below the N. J., oppoaite New York dtj, was ccaniJeted
enrf&ce, and is aired and partially lighted 1^ 3 in 1860. It pasaes through the trap hills that
shafts of 60 ft. diameter. The total coat was extend from the Palisades 8., and ia 4,811 ft.
£320,000, thongh contracted for at £09,000. long, S3 ft. high, and 80 ft. wide. Eight laige
The increased expense over the estimate was shsfts 70 to SO ft. deep were snnk from the
cansed by qnloksands. The Shakespeare tonnel summit down to ita lereL The longest tnnnd
through the chalk diffi near Dover, on the sooth prcgeoted in the United States is that throogh
eastern rulway, is composed ofS narrow tunnels the Hooeio monntain in Kassachnsette, bt-
each 13 ft. wide and 80 ft. high, separated by tween the heads of the Honaatonio and Dew-
a solid pier of chalk 10 ft. thick. It ia l,i80 field riTers. The total len^ is 24,500 ft, or
yards long, and is prorided with 7 vertical 740 ft. over 4i m.; the h»ght b 18 ft. and
shafts 'from the vorface averaging 180 ft. deep, width lift. The monntain is of mica elate and
The tnnnel laid out under the Alps between qaartx rock, and rises 1,700 ft above the levd
Vodane in Savoy and BardoneccMa in Pied- of the tunnel, so that shafts have been ecmair
mont, to connect Italy with France, wilt when ered entirely ont of the qnestion. One, how-
completed be abont 8 m. in length, and at snch ever, was started in 1661. In Itaj, 1860, the
ft depth beneath the snrfkce as to reader«baflB work had been poshed in 1|6B3 ft. on the £
impracticable. It can therefore be worked side and 800 ft on the W. with anofa means
from each end only, and 'serions difficnltiee aa are at command for ventilating, it wonld
most be enconntered in ventilating aa well as aoom to be almost a hopeless nndertakiog to
expediting the operation, which at the nsoal endeavor to penetrate this monntain. Should
rate of excavation woold occupy at least 40 thetsakeverDeaccomplished, thedistanoefrom
year*. A new method of ventilating and driv- Troy to Boston wUl be reduced from 208 to 166
ing has been applied 4» this work, and by the m., with an important reduction also of high
iDBchiBea now ia use, according t« tttpotta re- grades and corves. — The comparative econrany
«eivedin-#u1y, ISfll, the tunnd ia extended on in tha constrnction and work^g of railroads in
the Italian flide'rather more than 8 Jbet perday different countries isasntgect of the first im-
to a width of about 10 feet. Most qf uie tun- portance, and one to which many competent fair
nels upon American roads are on the lines gineera have ^ven particular attention. While
croBstng the Alleghany tnonntains. Throng tiie English roada exhibit an extraordinary
the main All^any ridge, near its snmmit, a amount of first cost, it does not appear that the
tonnel waa oempleted fe Jan. 1864, for 'the expenditures for actnal oonstniction have berai
Fenngytvania rairroad, the length -ot which is in mnch lai^r proportion than in the United
8,61Sft.,width24ft.,faeight'23ft. Toezpedite States, but it ia ihe extremely heaw outside
the work and facilitate Iha removal of the expenses that absorb the capit^. Stul, thon^
rocky materials, three shafts, eadi vieasaring 6 the aame amount to the mile ahonld be expend-
by 10 ft and of the respective depths of IKO, -ed for the constmction of the road in both
196, and 1G4 ft., were snnk fh)m the sur&ce conntries, agreat difTerenca would be observed
down to its level; and a fourth of larger dimen- in the remilt from the greater cheajmeHaof labor
nons, 8 by 13 ft, was afterward fomid neoes- and materials in England. This is shown by
Bary-, this waa 194 ft. deep. The rocka are the following estimatea, one for each country,
the 'nearly horizontal strata of the coal meas- The former is for a thoroughly first dasa road
nres, the tonnel in great part lying along a bed with ample slopes and ditchea, deep ballast, a
■of fire clay, which, tliongh winij excavated, 70 lb. rail, fiah-Jointed, and the sleepers chemi-
«anBed conaiderable 'eipaBse in properly eecor- oal^ preserved to last 16 years. The second,
ing the walls and roof. The work was done or American lino, has scanty earthwork, thhi
in 2 yeora at a cost of |460,000. A great nam- ballast, a 60 lb. roil, with open joints, and the
ber of short tunnels are found on the Hne of .sleepers destined to decay in frwn 5 to 7 years.
Eiiaijia Bou>, It lm. It4n.
gnia. The Rue ridge Tfulroad orosaea the -
Ine ridge in Virginia by a tnnnd 4,378 ft.
long OB a grade ascending west of 70 ft. to the
mile. Ita height is 21 ft., greatest width 16 ft ^"j J^of ,^l
The work was o«ried on f^m each end at the ' • — ■■ ° —
tC7iutld«irtbwork at ..
tmiliiit..
'liO ton of nlla, puueheij
Tiite of nearly a foot every 34 hours. It was . iua<a
tjommenced in 1860 and ftnished hi 1867, witii- ^^
out ahafta, at a cost of about (464^000. On the Tnt.1..
It. fiiii pliJcs
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
*J»»i,.^
«S!5'
*s:
^tam.Mtiim..
s:
Total
•HSMDO
Among the great items of oost upon Engliah
roads, Gio first in amonnt is compensation fbr
land, the most extraTOgant prices being award-
ed and largelr increased hy nomerons beavr
cbarvea. The average npondl the lines has been
ratea at 148,000 per mile, or more tlian the en*
tire average cost of American roads. The "par-
Uamentarj' expenses" incurred in obtaining a
charter are also enormous. Upon G lines these
have amonnted to an average of (7,864 per
mile, while on several others this amount has
been very far exceeded; the great northern,
for example, having pud aboot $5,000,000,
which for S14 m. of road is abont $10,000 per
mile. The several items included in "nannial
management, as interest, disoonnt on loons,
bonnses, Ac, are estimated at fbll (20,000 per
mile. Larger expenditares than are nanal in
the Umted States are involved trom the more
nnfavorable phTidoal features of the conntry,
the topt^rapny presenting no long lines of wa-
ter coarses, nor wide table lands, both which
are common in this country. Boggy districts
are also more froqnent in ^gl^d, and the
constrndiou of a permanent road across these
has often cost Immense sums. Even when the
embankments throogh them have been ap-
parently completed, aa mnch mora material
nas in some csaea been required for their nuun-
tcnance in conseqaence of their subsidence.
The bridges, viaducts, tunnels, &o., are much
more numerous and expentdve stmotnres upon
English than American roads. The superior
equipment of engines and carriages adds a con-
siderable amount to cost per mile, some of the
roads having eren more than a locomotive for
every mile, the cost of which averages abont
$13,000 each. Among the heavier items of
expense are the approaches to the cities, Lon-
don partioalarly. The roads for several miles
are fVequentty constructed upon arched via-
ducts of brick. The London and Greenwich
character, oost |1, 408,804 per mile. From
such causes the total cost of English roads hss
amounted to about (170,000 per mile. The
French doable track roads in 1867 were esti-
mated to have cost (101,877 per mile ; abont
i of the whole waa for earthwork and " works
of art," as bridges, viaducts, and tunneb; i
for rails, chairs, ties, and keys ; and (6,089 for
ballast, much more even than upon the English
roads. Few roads in the United States nave
reached an expenditure for construction eqnal
to that of the least expensive roads of Great
Britain ; and the average coat of ail those of
the United States ia estimated at less than
itOAD 7g9
(40,000 per mDe. The effiwt of Hie mor« fin-
iabed eondltion of Engli^ roads ia shown in r
remarkable degree in the comparative oost of
muntenanoe <n way, or of keeping the roads
in working order, and of the running expenses,
as exhibited in the following table, prepared
from the results of the working for 18SG :
l(>.it
i..rv.«a
..„ UlT
dftonu.
i.ts
1(LW
S8.I8
S3M
ATcnn at Maw
TocEiwdt
l^!H9
In 18ST the average expenditures for mainte-
nance of way per mile run on the English ro^
were estimated at 10.G6 ots., in France at 7.8
ots., and in the United States at i6 cts. In
the oonsamption of fttei a difference qoite aa
striking ia observed. In Great Britain the dis-
tance mn to the ton of bituminous coal or of
OokevarieaftvmTSto 118 m., the latter having
been attuned fbr a ftill year on the Cork and
Bandos line in Ireland, the fuel being coke. A
fair average Is oonaidered to be 77 m. On the
Baltimore and Ohio road In 18C7, for every ton
of bitttminons coal oonanmed the number of
miles nm was 88i ; and on the Heading rood,
for every ton of anthraoite, 19,1 m. Allowing
It cords of wood aa an equivalent to a ton of
ooal or coke, the comparative running of the
tninB on the roada of the northern states ia
about 8S m. As r^ards loads, the English
trains, thongh drawn by heavier engines, are
ligbt^ than the average of American trains ;
but this is offset as to cost and wear by the
greater speed at which they run. The esti-
mated number of pasBengers to the train in
13GS was 46, npon the Massacbnaetts roads 65,
and ufon those of New York 72.0. On Uie
New York roads tbe number of tons to each
freight trun was 71.3. The rate at which
ts-ains are mn npon the Engliah roads is not
BO high as it was formerly. Fassenger trains
mn fh>m 18 to 40 m. an hour, the laUer being
the speed of some of the express truns ; the
average rate ia abont 97 m. Freight trains
average about 16 m., Inoloding all stops. The
highest rate attuned for a few miles together
has been 9S m. per hour. A speed of 60 m. is
made daily for snort distances, and sometimes
eftn of 7B m. an honr. Tbe average speed is
oonsiderably greater than on the French roads,
and Ml S6 per cent, greater thanon the Ameri-
can. In 1861, when the Cridns were run at the
highest speed in Hassacbosetts, passenger trains
averaged for the year abont S4 m. an tour, and
freight trains 13} m. Tbe same was tbe aver-
age rate of passenger trains in New York in
1655 ; express trains running B8 m. an hour and
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
740 SAILWAT BAIN
Rccommodadon traini 2S m., and the aTerage Venioe to pcaanra redieM, and s&eceeded in
being 34 in. In 1861 the rates of the express preTentiog the fbrtfaer sarreptitioaB use of his
ttelm between Kew York and Boston are 39k monogram. The career of Raimondi propeilj
m. an lioiir,diBtanc« 286 m. ; on theNew York commences in Rome, whither be next pro-
central road 36 m. an hoar, distance SSO m.; ceeded, and where he was employed during
on the Hudaon river road 24 m. an honr, di»- the lifetime of Raphael in engrarioK the choice
tsDce 144 m. ; on the Erie road 2S m,, distauco works of that master. Among the first of
469n]. The last is the rate between New York these were the " Death of Lacretia" and the
and Philadelphia; and between Philedelpbia "Jadgmentof Paris;" and as B^mondi gained
and Baltimore it ia 34 m. — Cilf RaUroadt. in boldnesa and fitcUity of eiecntion, the pro-
Although railroada were long used in Great fi»»donal relationB of the two artists became
Britain with hone power only, this method of very intimate. After the death of Raphael lie
working them has been there generally aban- was employed for some time in engraving the
doned ; bnt in the United Stat«s their pocntiar worka of Ginlio Bomano, and be is also said to
atiaptation for the streets of cides was early have excited tlie wrath of Pope Clement VII.
perceived, and they arc now in oae open the by exeonting a set of obscene prints, for which
principal tboronghforea of most of the cities, he was thrown into prison. Having appeased
Oars carrying from 36 to 40 passengers are eauly the pontiff by an admirably execntedplste afln'
drawn by two horses at the rate of 5 or 6 m. Bandinelli's piotnre of the " Ifartyrdom of St.
an honr, and take the place of a moch larger I^wrence,'' he pursued his art in Rome with
number of omnibuses, runnmg at the same time nndintinished soccess until the sack of the city
8t considerably less expense. The tracks turn- by the constable do Bourbon in 1637, by which
ing upon pivots, the carriages turn ronnd the he was reduced to poverty. Be retomed to
comers of the streets without diiBoultr; and Bologna, where he redded until his death,
the rails being laid nearly flush with the sur- actively employed in engraving. For pnrity
face, no obstruction is present«d by them to the of outline, correct exprea»on, and drawing, he
passage of vehicles across the track. The im- was one of the most remarkable engravers on
Sortance of this application of railroads being record. The British moaeum has 600 of his
ilty established by long trials, an American choicest produotionB.
CHr. Q. F. TraiiO undertook in 1869 to intro- RAIN, the moisture of the atmosphere con-
duce them into England, and in 1881 the first densed and falling in drops to the earUi. Some
roads of this character were in succesaM oper- of the principles connected with the formation
ation in the streets of liverpool and London. of rain have been treated in the articles Cloud,
RAILWAY, ATUoepHCBio. Bee ATUoepHXXio Bkit, and Foe. (See also A^ugs, AnaospnsKE,
Bailwit. Hail, Mbtbob, and MsTEoaoLoai.) little was
RAIUBAOH, Abraham, auEn^ish engraver known of the agencies by vrhich the waters
of Swiss extraction, bom in London in ITTS, of the earth are r^sed up and form donds,
died in 1348. His plates after Bmirke for Fob- which fioat in the atmosphere, and at last pra-
ter's illustrated edition of the "Arabian Nights" cipitate their waters back to the earth, until the
first brought him into notice, and subsequent enunoiation of the theory of rain by Dr. James
to 1S13 he enjoyed a considerable rq)ntation Button in 1787. The pnnoiple thus announced
for his line engravings from the chief pictures was mtunly that when air is suddenly chilled
of Wilkie. Among these were the "Rent Day," its capacity of holding moisture in the state
the "Village Politicians," the "Cut Finger," of invisible vapor is £minished, and the ex-
"DistralningforBent,"&e. His autobiography cess of moisture present becomes visible aud
was printed for private circulation by his sod, is set free in particles which coalesce and form
under the title of "Memoirs and Recollections rain drops. ^Johu Leslie illa£trBted and ap-
of the lat« Abraham Raimbacb, inoluding a plied this principle as follows : " Suppose equal
Memoir of Sir D. Wilkie, R.A." bulks of air in a state of saturation, and at the
BALMONDI, Habo' Antonto, an Italian en- different temperatures of 16° and 4G°, were
graver, bom in Bolo^a in 1487 or I486, died iotemiixed, the compound ariung Irom such
subsequent to 1689. He was instmcted in de- union will evidently have the mean tempera-
sign Slid nielh work by the Bolugnese painter ture of SO". But since at these temperatnres
Francesco Franoia, some of whose pictures he the one portion held 200 parts of humidity and
engraved as early as in bis 16th year. Sntv the otber 600, the aggr^ate must contain 1,000
sequently he imitated Mantegna and Albert parts, or either half of it, 600 ; at the mean or
DDrer, and while on a visit to Venice made resnlting temperature, however, this portion
facsimile copies on copper of the latter's set tf could only anqwnd 400 parts of Immidity, aud
86 woodcnts representing the life and passion consequently the difference, or 100 part^
of the Saviour, to which, according to Vasari, amounting to the 300th part of the whole
he attached Dorer's monogram. The plates weight of ur, must be precipitated from the
however are without the mark of that master ; compound mass." For ur not entirely satn-
but another set of 17, representing the life of rated with moisture the amount set free would
the Virgin, have his mark, and the imitation obvionsly be proportioiukltj less. On account
was so exact that Btumondi's prints readily of the greater proportional capacity of air at
sold for originals. Dfirer was obliged to vimt high temperatures for holding water, it is also
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAnr 7«i
obTioTU that fhe blgher tlie teroi)«rattire at aeasona, pasabw In onr enriiigtiiiiA IT. from tli«
whicb tbe change takae ^lace the greater is eqaator to their N. limit at the euauner eol-
likel; to b« the bU of rain, and laoh ia ob- stica, when the beit ewuiga back again with
served to be the case in the heavier (ihowerB the bud, carrying over the reeiona which it
of eammer and of tropical climates. The cause twice orosaea entirely a secona rainy season,
of the ohiUing is inppoaed to be the meeting and at the winter solstice it reaches its south-
and intenniiing of currents of air of'difrerent em tennlnna. The qnantity of rain that falls
temperatures ; and the amoobt of rain pro- ia bo great, that in the TS or 80 days in which
dnoed by this intermixture will depend npou. the belt is passing over the equator the total
the degree of saturation with moiBture of the amoant is estimatea at 95 inohes, or an average
carrenta, the elevation of their mean tempera- of 1.14 inobea dtul f. A better Idea is had of
ture, and the difference of their respective t«m- this vast amoant by comparing it witJi the fall
peratnres. It has been suppoaed that this ex- in the raioy days of other places, as in St. Peters-
planation did not eafficiently account for the burg, where the yearly r^na, oconrring in 160
magnitnde of the phenomena as often exhibit- days, reach only to 1 7 inches, or to a duly aver-
ed, sometimes even unaccompanied with any age of aboat ^ inch. The width of the runy
Appearance of commingling currents ; and eleo- belt is greater than that of the equatorial calms,
trical action has been suggested as a possible as the rains encroach to some extent upon the
means of retuning the particlee of moisture in borderii^ belts of the trade winds, as would
the air by repulsion among themselves, and ooour by the lifting np of the snr-satnrated airs
that when freed from this influence they coa- into the elevated regions above the calm belt,
lesced and fell as ram. While it is very possi- and there overspreading to the N. and B. The
ble that there maybe some other agency by exact limits of the-bdts cannot be defined
which the tir is chilled beside that of an ap- even on the ocean ; but the calm belt has beui
Eroachin^ current of colder air, the electrit^ observed in July and Angnet between lat. 7°
ypothesis cannot be admitted nntil sust^ned and 12° K., or occasionally further in that (U-
by positive proofs. — The distribution of rain rection, while in Uaroh and April it is between
over the earth is governed by the winds and lat. S° 8, and 2° S. The whole sweep of the
the local con<^tions of the surface. The chief rainy belt from N. to 8. is nsually estusated at
source of the supply being the great oceans, more than 1,000 miles. Upon the land the po-
and the winds sweeping over these and becom- sition of the belt is still more uncertain, Uio
ing charged with moisture, the precipitation influence of the topogr^hical features of the
must take place wherever it is gathered in country very materially modifying the extent
qnantitiea beyond the oapacitj of the air at its of the phenomena. Bulges of mountatna cov-
existing temperature to retain it; and thus it ered with snow oause a sudden precipitolion
b along the equatorial belt that the rainy re- of all the moisture in the clouds, while exten-
gtons of the earth are in great measure found, sive regions under the lee of the mountains
For toward this belt in the northern hemi- reoeive no rain for years. The arid deserts
sphere thetradewindsalmost universally blow too, by the strong heat reflected from their
from the N. E.,and in the southern heml- surface, disperse the rainolouda; and thougli,
sphere from the B. £. As they meet under the like the southern border of tlie great desert ra
equator the urs, intensely heated by the snn Bahars. they may lie in oloee proximity to the
aai charged to their fullest capacity with runy belt, little or no water may fall upon
moistnre, are turned upward, and ascend into them. The great rainless districts of the globe
the cool regions of the higher atmosphere. oompHse : 1, the whole K. portion of Africa
Here, being chilled, vast bodies of water are (except a narrow margin on the Athtntic and
set free and &11 back to the earth in torrents the contiguous regions along the Mediter-
ofrain. The frequent changes of temperature ranaan), uionoe extending through Arabia,
involved by these movements occadon violent a part of Persia or Iran, and a part of Be-
sqaalls, tornadoes, and thunder storms, with- looohiatan, to the S. borders of Hindostan, a
out the occurrence of which scarcely a day territory ^together of about 8,000,000 sq. m. :
passes. The runs however are not constant, S, the desert of Gobi and the table land of
and in some portions of the runy zone their Thibet and Mongolia, which carry the same
fall ia very generally limited to a tew hours in desert range on to the K. E. into the borders
the afternoon, the morning and evening being of China and Tartary, and include 2,000,000
bright and clear and the nights oloudless. But eq. m. more; 8, on the American oontinent,
In the East Indies, the Ohinese seas, and about the desert region under the W. slope of the
Sumatra and Java, the tropical rains are some- Andes along Ute Pacific in Ohili, Bolivia, and
times most frequeat at night. The belt in Pern; 4, the small district of Oumana, theK,
which this operation goes on, and which en- extremity of South America; 6, the W. coast
ctrcles the whole earth, as the rings of Satarn of llexico and a belt of country thence extend-
encircle that planet, moves S. and 6. with the ing N. Into Arisona. In other regions are
progress of the sun In the ecliptio, forming a numerous districts snbject to dron^ta from
thick and protecting curtdn against its rays for their peculiar positions, such as being sepa>
all those places over which Its path is in the rated from the great sources of supply of
zenith. Thua the tropioal rains move with the run by interveniug mountun ranges, which
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
742 BJ
Also Ii« in &e direotion vbence come the
proTailiag winds. All the roiitlMa redons
are not iiecessarilf deaerts, the moistnre aeld
in the atmosphere and depo^t«d as dew being
snfficient to austain vegetation. ThiB is the
caao at CiunanK, and varions places on the "W,
coaat of America ; ftnd alBO in upper EgTpt and
other portions of the dry regions of the Eoat.
FertOizing streams moreoTer may have their
sources, like the Nile, in the districts of
the tropical rains. — Nowhere is the effect of
the winds upon the distrihution of rain more
marked than in the Indian ocean In the re-
gion of the monsoons. Curing the prevalence
of the S. W, monsoons from April to October,
the ordinary roatine of the tropioal rains iB dja-
tnrbed, and the parched deserta to the N. draw-
ing the air in that direction, torrents of water
are poured down npon tho W. coast and the
mountains of Hindostan ; but the N. E. mon-
soons succeed and blow from October to April,
bringing down npon the eastern coasts the wa-
ters raised up from the fcay of Bengal. In
temperate regions the distribation of r^n, lite
the winds cpon which it depends and the geo-
graphical features which affect its precipitation,
IS much more irregntar, and, tboagh in some
localities floctnating more or less with the aea-
eons, cannot be referred, like the r^ns of the
tropics, to well defined periods. In general
the rnin falls at aU seasons, and the zones onl^
side of the tropics are oonsequentlj known as
those of "contlnuons" rains, in contradistino-
tion to the inner zone of "periodical" rains;
Yon Cnvftird, WIhmsIb. . .
lalpUiL FtBB., i
ud LunbntrHlai S.J...
a those localities where it is most freqi
it otten happens that the qnantitj precipitated
during the year b less than in other places
where showers are more rare, bat heavier.
This is particnlarly the case when the compari-
son is made between the runs of the tropics
and of the temperate latitndes. A diminution
in the quantity is experienced in passing from
the tropics toward the polar regions-, and, as
roughly estimated by Humboldt, the average
depth which foils m the latitudes 0°, 19*, 46°,
and 60° may be token respectively at 98, 60,
29, and 17 inches. 8o from the coasts into the
interior of oonntries, at least in the eastern
hemisphere, a like falling off is observed in the
supply of rain ; and so far as observations have
been made similar results are foond to obtain
in North America, though from the configura-
tion of the sea and land the interior of this con-
tinent is open to soppliee brought by the winds
fWim the 8. as weU as from the Atlantic ocean.
The mean annual quantity of rain and the nnm-
ber of rainy days are thus given, as oI»erved
in different parts of the world :
BrltHh Uluidi
"WiMrrB Fiman
£iHI*nt Fnnoa
Centnl ud K. Ovmuf. .,
Euti-ra RnMlj^^Mn.,..,
Blbaili, YikooUk
That the quantity of rain which falls npon par-
tionlar localities, tiiongh dependent npon the
general laws of the distribution of rain, ii ma-
terially affected by local fsatures of topt^raphy
and temperatOT^ is shown by records of the
annual fall. In the tropics of uie eastern hemi-
sphere tliiB is estimated st 77 inches of wsler,
and in the western hemisphere at 116 inches;
but at Paramaribo, Dntoh Gniano, in IsL 6°
49'N., it amonnts to 329 inches; at MaranhJo,
Braril, in lat S° 82' B., 276 inches have been
observed; and at Uiuiableahwnr on the "W.
Ghants, in lat. 18° N., 802 inches, which is the
largest quantity ever noticed. At Singapor«
the annnol mean is 190 inches; at Uatonba,
Ouadelonpe, lat 16° N., S8G inches. At other
places in latitudes crossed by the rainy belt a
striking contrast to these figures is observed.
At Santa F6 de Bogota, lat. 4° 86', the &H is
89 inches; this is at an elevation of 8,6S4 feet
and meui temperature of 68° F. ; at Harmato,
lat. 6° 97', 64 inches, elevation 4,674 feet, mean
temperatore 68° F. At localities within the
tropics but ontside of the rainy belt, where
G nodical rains following the snn prevui at
ist upon the land, but with less violence than
in the equatorial belt, the differencee observed
are leas marked. At Vera Ornz, lat. 19° 11' N.,
the annual foil was found to be 64 Inches; at
Havana, lat 28° B' N., 91 inches; at Calcntta,
lat 23° 86', 76 to 118 inches. In the temperate
regions the mean annual smoont of nun in the
eastern hemisphere is 84 inches, and in the
western 89 ; considerable differences, however,
exist in diSerent placea. At Brnssda and
Paris the fall is 16 inches; at Florence, 41.S;
Lyons, 89.C; Marseilles, 18.4; Borne, SI to
88 ; the Great St. Bernard, 60 ; London, 20
to 25; Glasgow, 21.8S ; Ediobui^i]25 ; Uver-
pool, 88.8; Manchester, 8S.14; B. W. coast of
Portogai, at Lisbon, 27; Madrid^ not more tlian
10. hi contrast with this minimum amount,
Ooimbra, at the W. foot of the Kerra d'Estrel-
lo, in the valley of the Mondego in Portnoal,
receives more r^n than ai^ other place in En-
rope, the quantity observed having been va-
Honaly eswnatad at IIS, ISS, 180, and 236
inches. — In other latitudes becdde the tropics
the fall of rain is not uniformly greater in the
summer than in the winter monuie, bat some-
times the opposite. In London, from Jancary
to July indosive the results of 40 years' obeeN
vationagive a fall of 8.629 inches, and frvm Jolv
to December inclusive 13.147 inches. The fol-
lowing is a statement by Prof. Daniell of the
amount that fell each month of the year :
Jul .... U8I I AprQ.. LTBS I JnlT... LSIS [ Oct ... inn
Veb.,... O.TM Mar... USS Aw... LUi Bar.... IW
Hud..1.4MljDM..l.«N Bi^..USlll>M....UM
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
BADT ORO'V BAIN GAUQS 74ft
tTsaaZlT in tomperato radons the greater jwr- month of the vesae! 1>t/iag formed ot veitioot
tion ofthe rain fkUflintha mtanuutl mcmtba, mdee, agamBt which the winds that often ac-
and until the livers h&ve been filled b; them oompanj ahowere caoM eddjiug cnirenta ot air,
tbe cold weather of irinter rarelf aata in. £x- which eeriooBlj affect the amount of rain re-
cessive rains oooadonsUj' oooar even in redoDS oeived in the aperture. To guard against the
wLere moderate ndna onlj prevul and a large loaa bf evaporation, fnnnela are employed to
portion of the year'a anpplj has been known receive the rmn and oonvey it into some nor-
to fall in the conrse of a few honra. At Oats- row-necked vesael beneaUi, which mav btt
km, N. Y., on July 38, 1819, the eitraordinary graduated either upon its owti snriaoe, if of
fall of 18 inohea oocnrred in 7i honra. ("Amer- glasa, orupon an upright glaas tube, connected
lean. Jonmal of Science," vol. iv.) ui B day' at bottom with the receivmg veaael, so that the
ftnd sight, Oot 20, ISSS, a fall of rain at Oe- water aball stand at the same level in both;
noa amounted to ES inches. At Joyense In tiie and the cUvidona of the loale shoold be sach
6. of Franoe, Oot, 9, 1627, in 22 hoars the fall that the unit may represent a quantitj equal
unonnted to 81 inches. But In the tropica to the oapacitj of the mouth of tlie fbimel and
saoli excesdve floods are not ao rare. In the one inch depth. The f^mnela are commonly
month of July, 162S, nearly 60 inohea fell at made of the area of 100 inches. The qiparatiia.
Araosn in Burmah, lat. 20 80', and in August adopted hj the Smithsoniaa institation oonsiets
aboat 43 inohee; and at Oayenue, lat. 4° 59' ofawater-tightoaakBonkinthegraundto with--
N., as stated by Oapt. Roussin, there fell ICl In 8 inchee of its upper edge} this is covered
inches from the lat to the 24th of Feb. 1820. with hoards, which slope away from the centre
fVom such extraordinary riuns there regult and project a foot or more beyond the barrel,,
disastrous floods, accounta of which are re- and over the boards are placed Bods to imitate
corded in the annals of moat conntries aa the natnral ground. In the. centre is left a
having occurred at intervals from very remote oiroular aperture for the frmnel, which is Be-
times ; and on the other hand much more dis- cured by two " clasps" to the board cover,
astrous effects are recorded aa occurring tronx The flimml projects a f^w; inches above the
droughts, the result of long continned want of cover, and ia smaller at the mouth, which pre-
rain. — As rain is a product of distillation, car- saDtoanareaof IDOinchea, thanitiasttheleveL
ried on by nature, the water that falls should of the cover. The sides are thus sloped out-
be pure unless It meets in its progress to the ward down from the month to lessen the influ-
earth foreign substanoes whlcn it may take ence of eddying currents.. At the bottom of the
along either mechanicdly or in solution. The barrel is placed an earthen jug, into the mouth
carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and ammonia of which is Introdnced the spout of the frinneL
also which often e^sts in the air, are the most exactly fllling the opening. Two Kraduated.
frequent impurities present in rain, both which, measming glasses ore also kept in the barrel,
if at all ohjeotionable, are exi>e11ed by boihng. inverted upon two long-wooden pins set in the
Nitric acid is sometimes detected in it, particu- bottom. To determine the amonnl, of rain that
larly in thunder storms, and is snppoeed to be has fallen, the funnel ia liited out, and then the
a product of tiie oombination of tne nitrogen jug and the measnriug glasees. The divisions
of the ammonia with oxygen of the idr, the of the larger one containing each a cubic inch.
nnioQ induced by the electrical discharaes. of water, every one of these' represeals t^t "'
Many instances are recorded of solid bodies an incJt fallen intothe rain gange, and they are
common totheearth being bron^tdown by large enoagh. to admit anapproximateestimate
Uie rain- anch as fish, frogs, a great variety of of the thousandths, which, however, osn bO'
vegetable aubstances, as pollen, &xs., and also exactly measnred by the smaller glass, that;
mineral substancea. All these, it is now well ia ^adnated for this pnrpoae. It ia sometimes
understood, are first raised up by whirlwinds desirable to try the rain gsagcupoa elevated
or water spouts, and being carried by the msh situations.. Whenever thls-is done upon a roo^
of the winds to such distances as these are it should be placed several feet above the top,
capable of supporting them, they then &11 to and away from comers and the edge.. In some
the earth by their own gravity, of the obaarvations made to Europe- with the-
RAIN OBOW, or Rajs Bird. See Onozoo. rain gauge, a singular difference hka been no-
RAIN GAtJGE. For ascertdnlng the amonut ticed m the quantity of rain, which falls at dif-
ef rain which falls npon any locality, instru- ferent elevations in. the same locality.. For a
menta are employed called rain gauges, ombro- period of IS years at the obs^^atory at Paria
meters (Or. oitffpot, rain, and lurpar. measure), the excess of run falling In. the court over that
orplovlameters(Lat.f Iut>ia,rain,andffl«tr«m,a falling on the terrace, 9S feet above this, waa
measure). For a rough estimate any oylindri- estimated to amount to aboiA} the laager qaan-
cal vessel, aa a tub, presenting eqnal areas at tity; and frora.similar obeervMioae in England
all points, might answer this purpose, the depth it appeared to be eatabliahed that the quantity
of wat«rthat falls being measnred before any received at the lowest levels was always greater
materia] diminntion oonld have occurred by than that in anperior elevations. This was ao-
evaporation. But beside this source of error connted for on the supposition that the lowest
another is involved (tnm which Indeed most strata of tdr were highly charged with moisture
ot the nia gauges in ose are not free) In the and added their quota to the rwn. drops ontil
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
744 KAINBOW
these reached the earth. Prof. A. D. Baofa* pUnatioii of it is that ot Ajiatotle. He ob-
threw mnch donbt npou these oondiisions b^ served thu&om a glan^obe filled wiOi water,
his experiments in Philadelphia in 16S&, in and set in the son, oerbun oolcffs w«ro alw^s
which be proved the eztrsordinAr; inflaenoa retorned at certain aag^ widi the ooone ct
of the currents of air deflected from the walls the sun's beams; andhepnqnrijaxplained the
of baildinga in modifying the amoont of water oironlar form of the bOT, by Mying that if the
received in the r^n gauge. Thisvasatrikiiiglj' sonbeam patting through the otwffrer'aeje he
exhibited in trials made npon the top of a shot taken as an axis, uid the globe be revolved
tower 1S2 feet high, the rain collected at the round this axis, and at the same distance trom
same time at the different angles varjing it in all parta of ite coarse, the same colx)ra,pre-
Clly in qnantity. la general uie g&ugee to aerviogUieiriinglewithtbedirectionofthesDii-
ard received more rain than those to wind- beams or of the axis, wonld be vimble through
ward; and in one extreme case the qnantitj' all parts of this conrse ; and henoe it £aUowed
collected at the S. E. angle was i^ times that that a rainbow wonld reinilt if there were globa
at the N. W. angle. enough, and so placed aa to reflect colors at
RAINBOW, a circular arch of TariooslT' the same time from all parts of an arc of sodt
colored light, visible neoallj on a portion of a circle. The oolore, however, were acpposed
ekj overspread with falling rain drops, and in to be merely reflected from Ihe globe, or (is
its ordinarr forms always opposite to the place theeky) from thedrop of water, until Fleischer
from which the son or moon is shining at the of Breeltui (1671), conclnding that reflected
time. When the field of falling drops is large, light does not give colors, stated aa a oonse-
and the illumination thrown on it is brigbt^ a qtienoe that the rays roust enter the draos.
second bow, exterior to and ooooentrio with Of the light falling on the presented side of ue
the first, appears. The inner, or most nsual, drops, of oonree part will be reflected, but ta-
is termed the iirimary, the outer the secondary other part will enter and be refracted at Ihe
bow. Each snows the same colors, and in the same time ; striking on the inner opponte anr-
same encoea^on, as those obtcuned in decom- face of the drop, ptjii of this beam will emerge
posing a beam of sonlight; the difference be- and escape, while anotiier part will be reflect-
ing, that the spectrum constituting the rain- ed; and on again striking the ude of the drop
bow may be regarded as wonderAilly extended toward the spectator, though a portion of this
on both sides, and curved into a ciroolar form, residne of the first beam undergoes a Beoond
In fact, the bow ia always part or the whole reflectiou, another portion emerge, again re-
of a complete circular spectrum ; and it can be frvcted, and, if at a proper angle, then paeaes to
exactly imitated bypassing an intense beam the eye. KenlerogreedintUsview, bat erred
of light through die entire refracting edge or insuppounguiBenteringlight tobetbatof r^s
angle of a circular glass prism, and receiving grazing or tan^nt to the upper sides of the
the miniature rainbow thus formed on a white drops. Antonio de Dominia, m 16U, carefbllj
screen. The eye, however, does not readily repeated the experiments with the gloss sphere
discern in it all the prismatic colors, the breadth filled with water — these being easily performed,
being limited, and the gradation of colors Quite and showing in snulight very vi^d colors to
inseneible. lo the two hows, the colors lie in great distance, and eat^ at an angle of its own.
oppomte order ; in the primary the red Is out- Newton, however, gives to De Donunia nndne
ermost ; in the secondary it is innermost. The credit, and unquestionably thron|^ his jesl-
primary ia always the brighter, and distinctly ousy of Descartes, who in fact completed the
the narrower. When the light is abundant, explanation of the rainbow, with the exception
this bow is often accompanied with successive of a single link, finally added by Kewton him-
bands of red and green, lying just within it or selt Descartes showed : 1, why there must be
overlapping its violet edge, eoncentrio with it, on the illnminated field of foiling drops a cir-
though usually through parts of its course only, cular belt of colors bright enough to be seen,
and especially where it nears the horizon, and always of a definite diameter ; and 2, that
These are called snpemnmerary bows. The the colon are in separate bands or stripes in
writer has observed one distinct red and green this, becanse they are not equally refracted.
band, and very bright, lying within the primary He gave the reasons why the colors must be
how and cantinnoue through its whole extent, jnst where they were, and in bands just so
when, the sun having nearly set, the bow hod broad, if they all appeared ; he could not tell
risen to near ita greatest altitude. The com- why they all most appear. This element New-
mon centre of the two bows is always in the ton supplied, when he discovered (167S) that
sCr^t^t line, prolonged, that passes through sunlight is decomposable into a fixed number
the centre of the sim and the eye of the spec- of different colored rays, refracted or bent at
tator ; so that, of course, the runbow rieea at the same time in different but definite d^rees,
the same rate as the sun declines, and declines so that they must apptear, under given circom-
it, the time being morning, the sun is rising, stances, separated Jnst so much, and always in
— The conditions requisite to produce the rain- the same successive order. This result will fol-
bow have been In a general way understood low, then, whether sunlight is dispersed bj
from an early period, though its causes were prisms, or by transparent spheres, as water
not BO. The earliest known attempt at an ez- drops are. The maihamatical theor;, wUoh
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
belongs to Descartes, mej b« found tn tbe after two refleotions, emei^ In a parallel and
higher tert books of optics. It is ver?' clearly relatively bright beam, have also their limit
stated in 01mat«d's "Philosophy" (revised of divergence within the drop; and thcyaro
ed., New York, 1980). It will be proper to those entering at an arc of 71 and 7S° from
giro a brief outline of it in this place. If a its axis ; when thej emerge, the angle the com-
rayof light pass through the centreofasphere pact rod be«ni makes with the axis is 60° GT';
or drop, its course is in an axis of the sphere or the other colors following in order to the violet,
drop ; it is not refl-aotod. A ray pflraUel with whoge angle is 64" 7'. The breadth of ibis
this, and verj near it, is refracted within the bow is thns 8° lO*. The colors are reversed
drop, toward the ails, bnt verj slightly. Other becaose the rays under two reflectioDs have
rays, farther and farther from the aiis, are re- been made to cross themselves. The bow is
fraoted more and more toward it, bat yet so as more faint, in part owing to its greater width,
to Ml, by lesseniQE degrees, farther from it on and in part to loss of light by an additional re>
the Inner or second sni^ce of the drop ; nntil, flection. The breadth of &e space between
as Descartes proved, a ray entering the upper the two bows Is 8° 65'. Bnt tnoagh tbe aa-
aide of the drop, when thb is above the eye, gles stated above fbr the primary bow are those
and at a point on it distant by an arc of 60° of the greatest deviations for the red and violet
from the axis, wlU strike, on the inner surface, by one reflection, yet, within 41° 17', all tbe
aa far as any ray can do from the axis ; the rays oolora may emerge, and do so, thongh in mora
incident at gr»tter arcs than this, np to 90°, feeble degrees, at all angles down to 0°. Again,
deviating again toward the axis. Of conrse, while the angles given for the secondary bow
near this limit, the deviation is very slight for are those of least possible deviation within Uie
rays coming on either aide, so that mnoh more drop, yet in a more feeble degree all the colors
li^t within the drop will bs accamnlated just may emerge at all anglcsfrom 64° 7' up to 160°.
at this point of the second anrfaoe than at any The consequence is, that the whole visible
other ; and though part of it emerges here, a sky, if the whole could be overcast wiih
Bofficieut quantity is reflected, and that in raya drops, save the point at which the sun shone,
which preserve a parallel course after leaving would be Wntly lighted np with white light,
the drop in the direction toward the spectator, save the bows themselves, and the space be-
to form a compact, parallel beam, bright enough tween them ; and from thia last space all
to afibct the eye at a great distance. Light fall- light would be excluded. And it is easily ob-
ing on other parts of the drop is reflected, served that this belt of sky between tbe two
transmitted, or refracted so irregularly, that it bows b quite dark, while within the inner and
is difiVised and feeble, and but slightly affects without the outer bow a diffnsed illumination
the eye. Now all the rays thns entering the really exists. Thus, rainbows are the colored
upper or onter sides of myriads of rain drops borders of iUamin^ed s^ments of the ^y:
are sensibly parallel with a ray or line — the or they are concentric hollow cones of colorad
axis of the bow — from the snn's centre through light, the intersedaona only of whose bases by
the eye of the spectator. Calculation shows the plane of the falling rain appear visible to
that the angle which the oomoact and visible us. A third or "tertiary" bow. due to three
emergent beam of red rays will make with the reflections, and situated on the side toward tbe
incident sunbeam, and hence with the axis Bun, at an angle of 40° 40' from it, may be
of the rainbows, or line through the eye, is formed ; but from its extreme feintness and
42° S' ; that for the violet light 41* 17' : the unfavorable porition, it is but seldom seen. It
other colors being at angles between tnese. Is stated that with a cylinder of water within
Hence, all the other colors most be seen, in glass, tbe bows have been distinctly traced and
their order, upon drops lower and lower down, measured, growing successively broader and
compared with the place of the red band ; and funter, up to the 18th order.— From the above
the breadth of this bow will bo 1° 45'. If, explanation, the following consequences are
now, these rays, coming to the eye at Bttch obvious : that the ordinary rainbows must be
angles with the axis or conrve of a sunbeam at on the side of the observer opposite the sun ;
the time, be for the moment Imagined to bo that their centre must be in tbat line already
inflexible wires, reaching ftom the eye out to described as the axis ; that they must move
the cloud, and (remembering that the angles with the motion of the sun, declining in the
must contmually be the same) be Tevolvod com- mommg, and rising If seen at evening ; that
pletely round the axis of the bow, there will when tte sun and the observer are both in
result a complete circle, the larger portion of the aame horizontal plane, as at sunset, the
it usually below tiie horizon ; the part above bows will be semicircles, and their altitudes
the horizon, and so visible, is the primary bow. then about 49° and 64° .- that they can never
The explanation of the secondary bow is in approach nearer than t^ to the zenith, unless
principle the ssme, with tbe di^rence that the observer be on an elevated position, so that
this is formed by light entering the drops near the sun can shine from bdow the horizontal
their lower side, or that towara the axis of the plane in which he is; that at the tops of high
bows, which undergoes two reflections and mountains theymEl<rbe seen as complete cir-
emerges from the upper near side of the drop cles : and that, to one at the ordinary level, in
toward the speotator. Tie rays tliat can slil^ the low and tniddle latitudes, they are never
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
T46 EAmSD WOBK IIT UETAL
Men between obont 0 o'oloek in tha monung strnck into the die; and If Oa metftl is not
and S o'clock in the aA«moon ; while in highw anffioientlf dnotile to tales die ehape wilLont
l&titades, where the ann U often very low in tearing, it moat be ansealed, a prooeas which
the a\f, tliej maj oooor even at midday- ^ i° nuinj operaliona of this duoacter reqiiirea
tiie rain is near, the bowa mar aometimeB be to be aeTeral timea repeated. Thimbles tre
seen prolonged upon the landscape. The email etmck between ooDioal-ebq>ed dies, of wMch
water drops conatitating s^raj ma; afford a aeTeral pairs are need, each snooesaiTe pair ui-
rainbow. Hence, it is seen in the mist arising proaching more nearV the final forat- The
near cataracts, and, baoaose near, is then small, metal m&j require several annealings in this
and maj appear aa a complete circle. A par- process. — Another method which b practised
tial bow may be obaerved in the mist created for snob hollow articles as t«a pots, deep pan^
hy whirling a wet broom ; in the spraj driven crndblea, &&, is that known as spianiDg or
b7 the wind &oin the crests of waves ; in that " bomishing to form." In this proceas the di^
thrown up hj the paddle wheeU of steamers ; of metal is held between two blocks qiplied to
and at timea in drops of dew or rain opon ita centre, and secured to tiie mandrel i^ a lathe,
herbage or grass. The formation of the super- bo as to rerolvs with IL A smooth, hard, and
nomerar}'bowBwasexplainedbjYoung(1804), rounded point held in a rest is then preyed
as due to interference of seta of rajs emer- agunst the middle portion of the disk as tt
ging at angles very nearlv those of the proper revolves, and a wooden rod at the aama time is
colors of the bows. Biot, and afterward held against the edge on the opposite side ot
Brewster, have shown that the light of both the disk to regulate the form into which the
the bows is polarized in a plane cutting the metal is bent back. The shape la also con-
snn and the eje, henoe polarized bj refleo- trolled in part by that of the blodc against
tion. — The lunar rainbow is usually ^gle, the which it is bent, and which thus serves aa a
primary bow only, and u oAen white; when moald. When thesideehave thnabeenbent in
colored, it is but &intly so. Yery rarely, also^ to fit this block, the piece is taken off from the
the solar rainbow is produced on cloud, t. «., on mandrel, and if the utiole to be made ia a tea-
vesicular drops, when it is called a " fog-bow ;" pot of which the neck is to be drawn in, a
and its diameter ia variable, sometimes S4°, but plain oylindrioal blot^ of the diameter of the
always less than that of the proper r^bow. reoiiired neck is Bnbstituted, and the partially
Ool. SykeB("FhiloeophicalTranaactions,"188G) hollowed sheet ia attached to this as it was to
■aw such a bow &om the top of a precipioe the other. Being again made to revolve, the
2,600 feet high, among the Ghaots, formed edge is turned down to the cylinder by means
upon a fog cloud, while tne sun behind him was of bnmiahers of proper shapes, leaving uie body
low. It was near to him, a complete circle, of its fall sze ; and with a nooked stick the ez-
apparently not more than CO or 60 feet in di- treme edge is made to torn back and curl over
ameter, and of most vivid colors ; and in its in the hollow bead which gives the finish and
centre, as in a splen^d frame, appeared dia- stifOiesa to the month of the vessel Some-
tinct images, in shadow, of himself his com- times a mould is employed of th« exact shape
panions, and horse. An outer faint bow was of the interior, formed of several piecea, which
also Been. At another time, in India, he saw a can be fitted together after they are introdnced
bow upon a fog bank, perfect^ white. Such a into the veasel, m the aame way that the parts
bow was once observed by Niebohr, and onoe of a hat block or boot tree are fitted. The
by U. St. John. spinning process is very e^)editionB, and when
EAISEO WOBE IN KETAL. Hollow arid- oniformly oonduoted the form is p^eot For
olee in sheet metal, as tea and coffee pota, om- merely turning ap the edgea of metaUio sheets
dbles, thimbles, covers of vessels, Ac, are gen- machines are employed by silver and tin amitii&
erally produced from flat sheets, raised into the which, on turning a winch with one hand and
required forms by a variety of methods. One holding the disk with the other, take the edge
of these for articles only partially hollowed oat, of the diak between two wheola and by one
which are to be produced in great numbers, revolution bend it into the reqnired form. —
ia by means of dies made of hardened steel, A third method of rainng the aurbce of metal-
into which the metal is forced by a succession lie disks ia by the hammer ; and by this means
of blows from a drop hammer. These may be the largest vessels constructed by the copper
applied upon an upper hardened die having the smith are fiishioned, as the great pans and stills
same figure in reverse, and thus exactly fitting of many hundred pounds weight each used by
Into the lower one. By this process, known as the sugar refinen. The method is also applied
swaging, the gold plates f6T artificial teeth are by silver amitha to shaping most of the hollow
formed between diea of lead and unc. (See articles of their manomcture. The action of
Dkntisiet.) For more oomplicated work, re- the hammer is really like that of the bumlshei;
quiring a slowly progressive adi^tation of the the blows being applied in sooceseive circles
metal to the irregularities of Uie dies, several round the metallio sheet, with the oljject of
aheets are lud one upon another between them, regularly ^preaching the dedred end. Yari-
and after each blow the fapttom plate ia taken oua sorts <^ hammers are used with &ces t^
out, and a fresh one is tmt in at top. Each dally adapted for the sort of onrved snr&ce to
plate is afterward finished singly by being be produced, and the anvil or bed (q>on which
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
tiie articles are snpportod la shaped with refer- grapei, bnt also fh»n the meOiods cf drying,
siioe to the same object. Etstj blow giwa AnioDg the best sorts are those known as ths
with the hammer is either intended for stretch- Jiiiaga, Knacatel, or "ana runns." Theso
ing the sheet, aa whea It strikea feir npon the are dried npon the Tines, the stem of eaoli
metal, then supported npon a fall beanng snr- bonoh when ripe bcjng partiaUy severed, and
face, or it is intended to bend it, when it rests the leaves that shade it being picked o£ Thos
over an edge of the anvil, or ig placed over a exposed, the grapes soon shrivel by the evapo-
cavit7 into which it is to be driven bj swaging, ration of the water tliej oontwn, and become
It is eitraordioarv with what aocnraoj this sweeter bv the oonseqnent oonoentradon of the
work is oondocted; thaa a skilfal workman pnlp. When dried uie bunches are taken off
knows exactly the size of the disk which will and carefully placed in boxes with sheets of
suffice to prodnoe any required otject without paper separating the layers. These raisins,
any defloieooy or exoasa. For example, in better tlian any other sort, retain tlie freahneea
nutHng a hollow ball S inches in diameter, 2 and bloom of the fruity and aoqnire leas of tbe
disks of copper are required, each of 7i inches saccharine deposit which ia found npon nuiet
diameter, or (roughly estimated) 22( inches of the other varieties. Other rumns are prs-
ctronmference. Each one is to make one of ths pared by drying the ripe grapes after they or*
hemispheres of the ball. By hammering Jndi- picked, dther in the sun or in heated rooms,
cioQsly the diameter of the dbk is increased by and while they are dryi^ sprinkling an alkalina
the strctehing or hollowing oat of the sheet to lye over them. The enect ot this is to oaoM
fl inches, while the circamferenoe at the saiae a saooharine exudation to take ^ace, which
time becomes contracted to 18 inches, which farms concretions upon the rai^ns and coata
g^vBs the required diameter of the ball. The them with a thin varnish. The raisins known
great art of Uie workman oonsista in correctly as leeiaa are so called from the lye emi^oyed,
estimating these effects and bringing out the and include the varieties called Valencia ana
result in a sheet of uniform thickness and with Denia. The best of these are hnng on lines
the least possible number of blows. In articles to dry in the sun, and as tiiey begin to shrivel
of comphoated figure it is evident that long they are dipped in the lye once or twice and
practice is required to attain thb skill ; and the hang up sgtun to complete the diring. Of
methods are of a nature impossible to explain Turkish raisins two varieties, the saltanaa and
without the ud of illostratlons. Reference may black Bmyrnas, are the beet known. The for>
be made to Holtzapffel's " Mechanical Uani^ mer are from a email delicious gra^ without
nlationa," toI. i. p. 898, where the sabject is seeds, and come packed in dmms. The latter
follT treated. A remarkable example of tbis are also small raisins, bnt have very larg«
kind of work is the ball and cross of St. Paal's seeds. They are genenjlyftee from the angary
cathedral, London, The copper ball is 6 feet ooncretions which are conmion to the wher
in diameter and { inch thick, and is raised in sorts. — A very important variety of rairina,
two pieces only. The metal was first thioned and one rsrely nnaerstood to be the fruit of
and partly fbrined under a tilt hammer at the the vine, is the " dried cnrrant" of oi ....
copper mills, and eunk in a concave bed ; the This is a very small-razed grape, laigely oulli*
raising was efibcted with hammers bnt little rated at Fatras, in Zante, Ithaca, and Oephalo-
larger than nsnal ; the two varts were riveted nia, and in the Grecian archipelago ; its name is
together in their place, ana the joint is con- a oorruption of Oorinth or Oorinthiaa grspe.
cealed by the omameutai band. The work on The grapes are no larger than peas, and uis
the cross also is hammered np. The consoles bunches are only about 8 inches long. They
beneath the ball are of gun metal. The whole are Imd np to dry in the sun, in heaps called
height of this metallic structure is 39 feet, and eouehei, and are then deported in large qnanU-
it contains 3i tons of copper, beside aboat 2 ties ux rooms called teraglvm, where the masse*
tons of iron used in framing and bracing within, become so compact from the sticky qoality ot
In the ^ding 86 ounces of gold were used. — the sugar which exudes from them, that thej
Raised work in the precious metals ia called have to be forcibly dng apart for packing. For
chasing, and is effected by hammeriiw, by ahipment they sre placea in casks, and mad«
punches, ius., furnished with grooves, and bnr- into a solid mass by treading. The demand
nishing tools. (See Khohasino.) for these ia very large in the United States
KAlSn<r (Fr., a grape), the dried frntt of the — Bmaina are sometimes employed InetM^ of
grape vine. In varioos coontries where the grapes in the mannfJacture of wine, and among
grape is lai^Iy cnltivated, and especially in the ancient Bomans and Greeks Bome of ths
the regions around the Uediterranean, the fruit, best wines were of this diaracter, Halaga
after ripening, is dried either in the sou or in wine has also been prodnoed in this manner, and
ovens, and is then packed in botes or casks for the Hungarian Tokay is made from half-dried
domestic use and foreign export. It has long grapes. — The importation of rainns into tha
been a commercial prodnct of no small impor- United States daring the year ending June 80>
tanoe. The varieties recognised in trade are IBGB, amoanted to 34,446,680 lbs., chiefiy from
not vei7 nnuierons, but their ^fferenoes from Spain, valued at 11,420,980 ; and of oarrants,
each other are strongly marked. These arise 7,149.898 lbs., chiefly from England, QretKiei
Sot merely from the original dlfforenoea in the and Aastria, valued at $819,899,
RAJAH, a Bnuerit word rimitjing kinj^ tuna then are MTcral ranall lakes; and in
and ^plied to nunf prinow, nuera, and Mttj sun;' places sbimdant crops are raiBed Ity Irri-
chieft of Hindoatan, uie oonntrtea ];ing E. of gating the flandy soil with water t«ken fitnn
the bay of Bengal, Tariona ialands in the Indian the li^ea or drawn from weQs, some of whkli
ocean, and tiironghont the In^an archipelago, are 900 feet deep. WLeat, cotton, barley,
BAJAHMUNDBY, a province of British Jn- millet, infMor opinm, tobacco, sngar, md In-
dia, pruidener of Haaraa, boonded N. by digo are cnltivated in diff^nt k>ealitie&
Orieaa, N. E. bj Tisanpatam, B. E. and B. bj doth, evorda, and firearma are mannfiactnnd.
the haj of Bengal, w. hj MasDlipatom, and — ^The inhabltanta consiiA prindpaDy of R^
K. W. b]' the territor^r of do Mizam; area, poota, who are Hindoos, ana of Hohmomedans.
4,601sq.m.; pop. 1,012,080. The coast ia low. The rem^der of thep<»alationisniadeapof
and the port of Ooringa ia considered one of Bheela, Jaina, Jants, and Haira. Hie B^jpoota,
the beat upon the £. ahore of Hindoatan. The hj far the most nnmerona, are anppoaea to be
onl:r river of importanoe is the Godaverj, deaoended from the EshattriTaa^rae of tlie 4
which euUra the province from the N., and original castes into which the Hindoos were
after flowing aboot half its lengtb divides Into divided. Their empire appears to have been
two branches, one of which runs B. and S. W. m<Mt poverfiil about the end of the Ifitli cen-
for m m., and the oUier B. E. and E. for 53 m., tniy, when Delhi, AJmeer, Emmonj, and Gnze-
fbrming a delta that contains some of the most rat fiirmed parts of it. In 1198~'4 ttiej were
fertile land in India. The water of the Ooda- aeveral times acverelj defeated bj the Maliam>
very is oBed for irrigation, and the river Itself medana. In aeveral other parts of India, aa in
la navigated hj boats and amall ateamera for Bondelcond, Rewa, Cntch, and Gnrhwal, the
acme distance into the interior. In the neigh- race Is still met with. Thej are all soldiers;
borhood of Hie coast the sndVice b level and each divisian has its military leader, and each
the soil for the most part fertile, but the N. and forms a separate commimity. Some of the
N. ff . portions are hilly. The principal crops E^poot states became connected with the Eng-
raised are rice, tobacco, indigo, cotton, maiz& liah East India company early in the presoit
i^et, varions kinds of poise, oil seeds, and centnry, and aince then the others have sub-
sogar oane. Many cocoannt and other palm mitted to British protection,
trees grow in the sandy soil along the sea shore. RAKOGZY, a princely fondly of Transylva-
Ootton goods in imitatioD of tbose of Europe nia, distinguished for its oppo^ion to the honse
and America are anccesefnlly made at Samnl- of Anstria, and several membera of whnn were
eottah, and ship bailding is carried on to a con- princes of Transylvania. Its moat celebrated
riderable extent at Goringa. — RAJi.H]iuiiDBr, member was Fuuracs; 11., bom in 1S75, died in
the capital, ia situated on tbe left bsnic of the the castle of Bodosto in Turkey, on the sea of
Oodavery, S8A m. N. E. from Madras; pop. Mannora, April 8, 173tS. After the death of hia
about 20,000. It has a fort with mnd walla. fkther and the anrrender of Mmikics after aS
RAJPOOTANA, RiJisrHAU, or Rajpoot years' heroic defence by his mother, he WM
BrAnta, an extensive territory of Eindostan, bronght np ncder the care of the Anatrian
bounded N.E. by Uie British districts of But- court, and dnring the inanrrectJon under Tckd-
teesna and Eurreeana, and the native state of lyi was placed under the Jesuits in Bohemia,
Jhnjhur; E. by Goorgson, Bhurtpoor, Dhol- vrhostrove In vfJn to induce him to change his
poor, and Owalior ; 8. by the province of Omut- religion. Subseqaently he received part of the
wara, the territories known as Sindia'a, Hoi- Hungarian estates of bis relatives, and was per-
kar's, and the Onicowar's, by Jaboah, and Hy- mttted to reside in that country. The diagrace
bee Oaunta ; W. by 6inde ; and K. W. by Bha- of hia ftmily and the degradation of his oonn-
wnlpoor. It comprises the British districts try had sunk deep into hia mind, and, accused
of Mairwarra and Ajmeer (area, 2,800 sq. m., of being engaged in a conspiracy to esdte re-
SDp. 962,000), and the native states of Alwnr, belUon, ne was token in Hay, ITOl, to Austria,
anawara, Bikaueer, Doongerpore, Jecsnlmeer, and confined in the same dungeon at Nenstadt
Joodpoor or Marwar, Jeypoor, Jhallawsr, from which, 80 years before^ his maternal grand-
Odeypoor or Mewar, Tonk, Berohee, Eerowlee, &ther, Peter Zrinyi, had been taken to the
Hishenagur, Fertanbgheer, Kotah, and Boon- scaffold; butheauoceededinescapingfromcon-
de6(area 116,000 sq. m., pop. 7,680,000). The finement, and fledtoPoland, where he reinsined
Aravnlli mountains stretch across R^pootana a year and a balf. Hera he completed his ar-
in a K. £. and 8. W. direction. The greater raugements with the disaffected Hungariansi
part of the country lying W. and N. W. of and in 1708 suddenly appeared in the vidnilj
this range is a sandy waste presenting an aspect of Uunkiice, collected an insurrectionary bani^
nearly dmilor to the most desert tracts of and on June 7 issued a bitter manifesto agaiDEt
Arabia and Africa. Oases oocar at intervals, Anstria, In this work he was snpnlied with
Id the largest of which are the towns of Biko- money by France, then engaged in tne war of
neer, Joodpoor, Jeasnlmecr, Kagore, and Ohoo- the Spanish auccession, and waa so sucoessM
roo. The river Ohnmbnl flows along the 8. E. that eher a short time he had almost all Hun-
frontier, and the Lonee bos a course of abont gary and Transylvania in his power, and even
900 m. toward the S. W., tvhere it la lost in the threatened Vienna. N^otiations were op^ed
Ronn of Cutch. 8. £. of the Aravulli monn- witli the inanrgenta by &e emperor Leoi«ld L
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
KA£0S fiALEIQH 748
■Bd hia saceeMOT Joseph t., but, in epit« of the the Abnald laognage, which U now preMrred
noble moderation of Rik6czy, were all fraitlsBs in the libraiT' of Hturard college, and has
in conseijueuce of the high demBiida made b^ been printed in the memoirs of the Americ&a
the more songuiae patriotB. A diet was held aoademj of arts and aciences, with an intro-
•£ S£6c3£ny, and the revolted proTincea and ductioa and notes by John' Pickering (4to.,
(utlea insUtnted a regolar confederation similar Cambridge, 1833). In 17S4 a partf of 208
to those uf Poland, Bilk6cz;', who had [)revioiia- men irom Fort Richmond aniprised Nonidge-
ly been elected prince of Tranaj'lTania, being wook, killed a nnmber of we Indians, and
intraatcd with the direction of the league with ahot Father Bale at the foot of the miadoD
the tiila of (£uz (Hnag. veier). In Ang. 1708, croae, 7 chie& who endeavored to protect him
tlie Hungarian leader while investioK Trent- aharing hia fate. Ma body was afterward dia-
schin was surprised and badlj defeated by the grftcefolly mntilated. — See a memoir of him by
Austrian general Edster, and Blikdczy himself ConTers Francis, D.D., in Bparka's " American
escaped with diffionlty. From this time the Biogra^y."
arms of Austria were in tiie aacendant, and her R AIJIlaH, a W. oo. of Ya., bordered £. by
victories in the field were asaisted by the di»- New river and drained by its tribotarira ; area,
Bensiooa which Ions before bad manifeated about SOO aq. m. ; pop. in 1660, 8,867, M
themselves among the confederates. Rdk6ci7 whom 57 were alaves. It has a mooattunoos
having gone to Poland^ in order to meet with surface, and in the valleys a fertile aoil. The
Peter the Oreat of BosBia, a peace was conclud- prodnotions in I860 were 4&,6I1 bushelaof
«d in his absence between Austria and the con- Indian oom, 1S,268 of oats, 2,B9S of wheat.
federates at Szatmir in Jan. 1711. K&k6czy 4,929 lbs. of wool, and 81,289 lbs. of butter.
went first to France, in 1718 repaired to Spain, Yalne of real eatate in 1856, (610,266, showing
and from that oonntry went to Turkey, and, an increase since 18C0 of 1 13 per cent, Oapi-
accompanied by a number of his fellow refu- tal, Beckley.
gees, poMod the remainder of his life at the ca»- RALEIOH, the capital of N. 0. and seat of
tie of Rodosto. He wrote a narrative of the justice of Wake co., 6 m. W. from Neuse river,
struggle in Hungary nnder the title of JUSnwttm m laL86°47'lf., long. 7B°48' W. ; pop. in 1861^
mirie»Tii>olutio7iid«ffim^it{thoEMgae,l%SS). 4,780. It is pleasantly aitnated on an eleva>
He also composed meditations, hymns, solilo- tion, and is very regularly laid ont. la tha
quies, and a commentary on the Pentateuch, centre is a park of 10 acres called Union sqnar^
The name of Ruk6czy has been given to Ute irom which extend 4 streets, 89 feet wide, di-
princip;il Hungarian national march. Tiding the city into 4 parts, in each of which
BA.KOS. See Festr. is a square of 4 acres. The state house, one of
RALE, or Raslss, S^bastibs, a French mis- the moat aplendid capitols in the Hnited States^
aionary to the North American Indiana, born isbuiltofgranite, 166feetlongand90featwide,
in Fraoche Comt6in 1666, killed at Norridgo- surmounted by a dome, and surrounded by ool-
wock, Mdne, Aug. 19, 1734. Having joined nmns 6^ feet in diameter and BO fl»et high. It
the Jesait-i, bewas engaged for a time in teach-- is generally modelled after the Parthenon, end
ing Greek at a college In Nimes. In 1689 he was erected at a cost of 9600,000. Theoldatat«
came to Quebec for the purpose of devoting house, containing Caoova's statue of Washing-
himself to the Indians, and was stationed sno- ton, was burned in 1631. Raleigh also con-
ceasivdy nt the Abnaki mission of St Fraacis taina a oourt honse, Kaol, 3 banks, 9 newspaper
near the fiills of the Ohaadi^e, then in the H- offices, fi chnrches (Baptist, Episcopal, Uetno-
Imois conotry, and finally at Norridgewock on dist, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic), and
the Kuanebeo. He arrived here at least as is the seat of the North Carolina institutdon for
early at 1696. Host of the Indians were al- the deaf and dumb, and of a Innatio asylum,
ready Christians, and thev even had a small By the North Carolina raOroad it has commn-
ohurch in their village, where the missiouarr nioation with all parts of the conntry ; and the
remained with the tribe during a part of each Raleigh and Gaston railroad connects it direct-
year, accompanying them in all their hunt- ly with Riohmond, Ta.
lag and fishing eioursions, and winning their RALEIGH, or Ralboh, Sot Wiltbb, an Ikig-
confidence to such a degree that the Eug- lish oonrtier, author, and adventurer, bom at
lish settlers ascribed their quorrBls with the Hayes, Devonshire, in 1BB3, beheaded at Old
Abnakis to hia inSnenoe. They accused him Palace yard, Westminster, OoL 29, 1S18. He
of instigating the forays of the savages upon was the son of a gentleman of andent family,
the settlements along the coast, and finally re- and was sent to On(^ college, Oxford, abont the
solved to destroy him, and set a price upon age of 16. He seems to have been distinguished
hb head. A party of New Englanders under in his studies, but ho had been there barely a
Oapt Hilton attacked Norridgewock in 1706, year when he volunteered nnder Henry Oliam-
bnt withdrew after bnming the ehuroh. A pemoOr who commanded a small body of
second e.tpcditioa tn 1722 pillaged his cabin troops sent by Queen Elizabeth to assist the
and the church, which bad been rebuilt, but Hnguenots of France. After serving about 5
ftuled to secure the missionary himself who years under Admiral Oollgni, he proceeded to
escaped to the woods. Among the papers the Netherlands, and fought under the prince of
nhich they carried off was hia dictionary of Orange against the Spamards. On his retnm
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
to England he found people's mfaidi filled with had been qipobited wmiwihil of the dadbiei
projecta for colonizing the new vorld. ffia of Devon and Oornwall and lord irardui of
if fbrfeited land In Ireland, vfauh
itnK a plantation in America, and had little he sold to Riohard Bojle, afterward eari of
auficoltjin persnading Raleigh to enter into Oork. HisbvcvatoonrtcOTitiimedtoinevasi^
the scheme. Thej pat to sea in 1579 ; one of and waa eren notieed on the stage in tcnai
their ships wsa lost, the remainder, it is aaid, which gare Elizabeth great ofienoe. Amoi^
were orippled in an engagement with a Span* the nnltitade he was one of the moat cordiaU;
fah fleet, and tbej retnrned withont nuufaiK hated peraona in England; and tiie elder Jxod
land. The next jear Bal^h distingaiahed Bnrleigh, adTinng faia aon to avoid Ute haiq^i^
himaelf in Ireland, where he held a captain's oairiage of Ea]<^ and thedaogerona pops-
commission in the force emplofod in patting laritjof his riral, n^ed him to "seek not to
down the rebellion of the Desmonds. At the be ^sez and ahnn to be Baleigh." In 1681
enrrender of Smerwiok he oaneed, under orders two partiea were seat ont to Yirginin with n-
from his eommander, several hmidred Span- enforconents, bnt thejr foimd the setllenHnt
ish alltes of the Idah to be mastacred. On al)andoned. The dUieartraed ooloniata bad
his return to England, meeting the queen one gone home in Sir franoia Drake's ahh), and titi
daj as she wss walking, he spread his mantle trait of their ezpedildon had been little raon
over a wet place in the path for her to tread than the introdnotion into £ng)and <^ t«baMa
noon it. Straclc hj bis gallantrj, Elizabeth and potatoes. Banishing the viaiona of gold
admitted him to conrt, loaded him with atten- and silver mines, in the pnraoit of which ao
tions, and emplojed him to attend the French manj of the early American ooloniea wm« de-
ambassador Bimier on his retom to France, atrojed, Raleigh now determined to fonnd an
and afterward to escort the dake of Anjoa to agricnltnral etaM, and in April, 166T, deqiatch*
Antwerp. In her f^vor however he had a pow- ed a considerable body of emigrants with their
erftil rival In the accomplished Essex, and manf wives and fanuhea to make a settlement on
romantic stories are related of the aaeidnitj Obeecqieake bay. He granted tban a tjiarter
with which the two conrtiers endeavored to of incorporation, and appointed a manioipal
supplant each other, Baleigh soon tired of an government for " tiit <Atj of Bald^^" inbuat-
Inactive life, and made nse of his inflnence to mg the administration to John Whtte, with 11
promote a second CKpedition to America. Pre- aaBistants. The; foonded their dtr not on (he
vented hy an accident A«m going in person, bay, bat on the site of the toaaar settlement at
he left the command of the fleet to Sir Emn- Boanoke island, and when their ahip returned
Shrey Qilbert, who sailed from PlTtnonth with sent Gov. White back to En^and to expedite
ships in Jnne, 1G88, and reached Newfonnd- reenforcementa. Bntthere£nforcementsnew
land, of which he took possession in the name came, and two ships whiidi Balei^ sent oat
of the qneen. One of his vessels had tamed with aapplies fell into the handa of a Frenob
back when on^ two days ont; another was man-of-war while they were looking fen' prizes,
abandoned at Newfonndland ; attdrdwas lost, Raleigh's means were now eihaosted; the Kig-
with nearly 100 men ; and Gilbert himself, on lish public were boned with other matters, a^
the voyage home, went down with one of the the colonists all perished, in what precise man-
remaining two. Raleigh however was not dis- ner is not known. Having expended £40, WO
heartenea. Obtaining from Elizabethan ample in bb attempts at colonlzatum, Baleigh tn 1069
patent and the title of lord proprietor over an formed under hia patent a company of "o>a^
exteneiveregion,heflttedoQttwove<selBander chanta and adventorera" to coatjnoe thcsn.
the command of Philip Amidas and Arthur Bar- Ueanwhile he had exerted himself to asdst the
low, who reached Ocracoke inlet on the shore of preparations for resisting an expected Spanish
North Carolina, Jnly IS, 1S84, uid after being invarion ; and when the great anoada appMred
hospitably entertuned by the savages on Roan- in the channel, he hnng npon ita rear in a ve^
oke island, and exploring Pamlico and Albe- sel of his own, annoying It by qnick and nnex-
marle soonds, returned to England in Septem- pected movements, which ree^nbled, aud Sir
ber with the most Rowing acconnt of their Henry Wotton, "a morrice dance npH» the
discoveries. EUsabetb, as a memorial of her water." He was in Drake's expedition to restore
state of llfb, called the newly fonnd region Bom Antonio to the throne of Portngal (IdS9X
Virginia, and conferred npon Raleigh the honor and before his retnm oaptored some Spani<di
of knighthood, with a laerative monopoly of vessels intended for a fresh invasion of England,
wines. Raleigh, now a member of parliament Visitbg Ireland, he saw Edmnnd Spenaer, with
for Devonshire, obtained a bill confirming hia whom he had already contracted a friwdahip,
patent, raised a company of colonists, and in and bronght him to EUzabeth'aooort to present
1666 sent ont under oommand of Sir Richard to her majesty tlu«e books of the "Faery
Orenvilleafleetof 7 vessels with 108 emigrants. Qneen." He Ailed to procnre for the poor port
The colony landed at Koanoke island about the substantial advantages which he cov^ed,
Jnly 1, and Grenville soon afterward retorned but he himself was loaded with favora. In the
home with the ships, eqitQring on his way a hope of shattering the power of Spain in the
rich Spanish prize. In tiie mean timo Raleigh West Indies, he collected, mostly at his own
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
BALEIGH RALES .7S1
expense, a fleet of la vemeiia, with wUoh he 'VUliers haTioe mppUmted Somerset In th»
s^ed from the west of En^and. With the royal bvor, Kdeigh bribed th» unoles of the
cooperaticm of Frobisher he captured the Ur- new &Torite to obtain hit release, and he was
geet Spanioh prlie that had ever t>een brought aooordinglr libented In March, 161S, bat not
to an EogHsih port, bat he w«nnB to have done pardoned. It has been supposed that the Ung
no more. Boon after thia (I6S1) it waa dis- nad an e^o to the posdble profits of a l^ean
covered that he had debanohed one of the Toyage to Oolana which Raleigh had pro-
gneen'B maids of honor, the dangbter of Sir poaed making, and to wUoh be inunediatelf
Kioholas Throgmorton ; and thoogb he mar- deroted the rannant of hia ovm and his wife's
Tied the lady and lived with her hsppU; till his property. Obtaining from Jamea a commis-
death, anoh sn offence to her mqjeaty, eapeciallj rion as admiral of the fleet with ample priri-
(mm one who bad been eo long her own pro- legea, he fitted out 14 ehips, and reached Oni-
feeeed admirer, was not to bo orerlooked. Im- ana with the loaa of two, NoT.ia,1817. Key-
prisoned for two months and banished from mis was sent np the Orinoco with 250 men
court, be employed the period of his diagrace in boats, landed at the Bpamab settlement of
in planning an expedition to Guiana in the Bt. Thomas, and, in defiance of the peaoeable
hope of discovering the golden region of El instmotions of James, killed the governor and
Dorado. Ha set saU with fi ships in ISDfi, and set fire to the town. fisLldgh'a eldest son
returned the same year, after ezplnring a oon- was killed in the action. Unable either to
■iderable extent of conntry abont the Orinoco advance or maintain th^ podtion, they re-
and destroytng the Bpanish settlement trf San treated in haate to the ahipa, a Spanish fleet
JoB& ms " Discovery of the larae, rich, and hoveringneaFtb6m,whiohhadboeninfbrmedof
beantifbl Empireof Qniana,"in whichhe pnh- their intended movements. The leader of thb
lished an acoonnt of this viqrage, might almost unfortunate party eommitted anioide ; many of
be styled a spirited work of fiotion. In the the sailors mntiniedjthe ships scattered; and
following year he cooperated with Lord How- Baleigb landed at Pljmonut in July, ISIS,
ard of Effingham, Lord Thomas Howard, and completely broken In fortime and reputation. .
£asex ia the ci^itnre of Oadic, where he was He was immediately arrested, and feilmg in an
wounded. His only reward was a restoration attempt, by fsigning madness, to esoape to
to the queen's favor. In 1S97 he sailed under France, was conunitted to the tower. The
Essex against the Azores, quarrelled with bis Bpanish ambassador demanded his poniahment,
commander, and retamed to find the partial and James was not relnotant to grant it The
Mure of the expedition ascribed by the public Jodges deciding that, b^g atiU under judg-
to his misoondnot. The court however judged ment of death prononnoed in 1 BOS, be could
differently. He had obtdned a grant of the not be tried agun, it waa resolved to eiecnte
manor of Sberbome in Dorsetshire, which be the former sentence. From the moment that
msgnificently embellished, was sent with Lord his fate beesmo certain, the fortitode wbioh
OobiiBm on B Joint embassy to the Nether- had failed him on his arrest returned. On the
lands in 1 000, and on his return was made gov- scaffold he asked for the axe, and feeling Hit
eruor of Jersey. The exeoution of Essex, which edge observed with a smile : " This is a aharp
he was supposed to have had an agency in medicine, but it ia a cure for all diaeaaes." —
effecting, ooded greatly to the public odium Kaieigh was a man of imposing person, daunt-
with which he was regarded, and the death less courage, eiteoslre biowledf^ and varied
of Elizabeth io 1608 proved a final blow to aocompliahments. His litenur productions,
hia fortunes. On the aooeanon of James he bedde those already mentioned, include B<»ne
waa stripped of his prefennento, forbidden the abort poems, "Maxims of Btate," "The Oabl-
Toyal presence, and shortly afterward arrested net Oonnctl," "The Sceptic," and "Advice to
CQ charge of oonspiring to place Lady Arabella bis Stm {" and be Is also remembered in the
Btoart on the throne. He made an attempt, world of letters aa the founder of the " Uer-
probably a feigned one, to commit suicide, de- maid clob." His life has been written by
daring his peraua^on that he waa doomed to William Oldya, Arthur Oayley (2 vols. 4to.,
bll a victim to the arts of hie enemies. Oon- London, IBOS), Mrs. A. T. Thomson (8vo., Lou-
rioted on the slightest erideaoe, after a rancor- don, 1830), and P. F. Tytler (Edinburgh, 1888).
oua speech from Attomey-Qeneral Ooke, who His poems were collected by Sir £. Brydges
^yled him a "damnable ath^st," a "spider of (London, 1814), his "Miscellaneous Writings"
hdl," ft "viperous trritor," he was reprieved byDr. Birch (2 vols,, 17B1), and hla "Complete
and sent to the tower, and his eatatea were 'W'orkB"werepnblishedatOxford(8vols.,1829).
SIvea to Oarr, afterword earl of Somerset RALIJJ, a K. E. oo. of Mo., aeparated from
'ariag the 18 years which he passed in ccmflne- lilinois on the N. E. by the Miaaiasippi and in-
nuQt he composed bis " History of tlie World " tersected by Salt river ; area, about 460 so. m. ;
(lAIl), f^m the creation to the fall of the pop. in 1860, 8,092, of whom l,7ei were alavea.
Uacedonian empire, a work greatly superior It has an undulating aurface and a generally
boUi in style and matter to the Engliah his- fertile soil, underlaid by limestone. The pro-
torieal compositions which had preceded it. ductionsinl8ti0were46G,486bnshelBof Indian
. During 6 yoara of hia imprisonment hia wife corn, 61,427 of wheat, 49,603 of oata, 2,291
^»a permitted to bear him company. At laat, tona of hay, 39,8S8 lbs. of wool, and 78,274 of
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
7(2 SAL^ tAVnJIBB
butter. Tbem vera IB chnrohM, Bad 1,498 flie baad-qtutrten of the U^eet ftdikHuU*
paplls attending pnblio ichoola. Oqiital, Kew nod litentfjr aodtXj of Psiis during Qie Siat
London. h&lfof the IfthemtBrj, It woe tdtnated ne«r>
RALPH, Jambs, an Bn^iah author, bom in I; half vc^ between the Palua BotkI amA the
FbiUdelphio, Penn., died in Cbievick, Euj^ Lonvre, and was emb^ished, if not entirel;
land, in ITOfi. H» was a tchoolmastor in Fhil- bailt, bf Oatharine d« YiTonne, mandiioiMai
adelphia, and went to England in companr of Rambonillat, who aom made her drawing
with Beqjamin Franklin in llHi. Id the firat room, known as the ehambn iteua d'ArtkiiUet,
book of the " Dnnoiad " be is called one of the centre of the moet refined and brifiiant so-
Walpole'a gaxetteen. In 17SB be pabliabed a detj of the oapital. Here might be aeoi tiie
Cm eatiUed" Night." He wrote " The Fash- bigheet among iba nobilitj, as the princcaa
able 1^7, or I^Ieqnin's Opera," performed of Cimdi, Charlotte de Montmorency, with ber
in 1730, and altered several oli plaTs. Host daughter Anne Genevidre de BonrtHm, sfter-
of bis separate publications were political ward dnchess of LongaeriHe, and her acpn the
Ciphlets on cnrrent topics. He attaohed dnke d'Enghlen, aftoVard the great CoDdi;
self to the fiudon of Uie prince of 'Wales, the most aocompliehed and Tirtnons ladiea Vt
and Horace Walpole mentions bis baTiag, in the time, who were stjled prieieiua, the «otm-
Jnne, 1768, "bad the good fortune to be tees de la Saze, Hme. d'Algaillon, Ibns. de
bongbt off from his last jonroal, ' The Pro- 8abl^ Iflle. Btnd^rj, HUe. Paole^ lime, de
teator,' for the onl7 paper toat be did not write I^ayette, and Mme. de B6TSgn6; and tlte most
in it." His oul7 political work now remem- oelebratedwitaandaathors,iEMlndiDgLaRocbe-
bered is an octavo Tolnme in answer to the foncaold, Balaao, Yottore, Patm, Godeao, UA-
dndieas of Marlboron^'a " Aooount of her nage, and Bt. Evremond. Here Ualherbe, the
Ocmduct," in which he defended the memory poet, was reroeotfollj welcomed in bia latter
ot Qneen Uar j and Qneen Anne. He oon- years ; bare Oomeille read bis maateipieoeB,
tinned anonymonsly Gntbrie''B history, under Le Oid, Horaee, Cisiva, JPoigesete, and otfaere/
the title of a "Hi^ory of England during the hereBossnet, aearoely 16 years <dd and stilla
B^gns of King William, Qneen Anne, and pupil at the college of Kavarre, preached big
Qeorge 1." firetsermon; wbileDeacartee'JfjUodswashera
BAM, BATTStnTO. See B^TTSBiFa Ram. recetved with applause and eagerly diamaaed.
RAMADAN (Arab., a consuming best), the Bnch society could not fiul to ex^rdse a marked
Bth month of the Mohammedan year, during inflnenoe, and it contribntad greatly to the im-
the whole of wbioh a rigorous fast is com- nroreioent of the I^nch Isngnage. During
manded bytheEoran. 2fo one is allowed food xta palmiest days, from 16S4 to IMS, it was
or drink from snnrise until tbe i^pearanoe of oonsidered &o "^ffacle of good taate ;" but ita
the stars; and those who are nnable to obaerre idcety gradually degener^ed into fhstidions-
the ordinance on aooonnt of sickness, most tut nesa, and ita wit into mannerism and afieeta-
dnringtlie month immediately sncceeding their tion. The pricituttt Cell into auch disrepute
recovery. The Moslems compensate them- that in I66t Moli^r^ who had Jnst arrived in
aelves for this rigor daring the day by feasting Paris, satirized them in bis little comedy Zst
at its close, frequently earned to great excess pridevtei ridiculet. On the death of the mar-
aud continued through the whole night ; and cbionesa in 1866, tbe rtmuottt oeaaed. A very
Kamadan is sncceeded by a month of feasting int«re9tmg account of them was given by Count
called tbe B^ram, tbe two corresponding to RcedererinliisifanMnfjMursemrdrAMtoiri
the Gbristian Lent and Easter. (See Bai£am.) de la teeiilipolie en Pranet (Paris, 1830).
RAMBOUILLET, a town of France, in the RAMEAD, Jkam Phiufpb, a French musical
department of &eine-et<}iBe, 83 m. S, W. from composer, bom in D^jon, SepL 2fi, 1S8S, died
Paris ; pop. in 1B6S, 8,022. It is situated in a in 1764. He was tbe aon of an organist, and
fine valley, at the 8. end of the forest of the was educated f<:»' the bar ; but he bad no taste
aame name. It contains a maarive ohatean, for any study but mosie, and at the age of 18
built in tbe shape of a faorse shoe, protected by went to Italy as a violinist, returned to Paris
ditehes and fiutked with 6 strong towers, in in 1717, and was organist in several churches.
<Hie of wli ich Franoa I. breathed bis last It He oompoeed andiems, cantataa, and pieces for
is surrounded by beantdftal gardens planned by the organ and the harpsichord, pnbliahed a
Le N6tre and a large park and forest. In the Thiiti da rAarmmia (1722) and Iiovtrau tyt-
park is a model farm established bore by Louis tiiru de vm»iqv« ttUoriqve (1?!G), and oont-
XVI. in 1786, for the improvement of the posed pieces of musio for several of Firon's
breed of sheep, whiohinlSllrecwved tbe me- Ught oomedies. Hewrote the music for Vol-
liaos that had been imported from Spfun by taire's Sainton (1782) and Pellegrin's Bipp^
Napoleon. The seignenry of Rambooillet was Igte et ArieU (1738), the second of which was
purchased in 171 1 hy the count of Tonlonse, very soccesafol. During the next 80 years be
8d son of Louis XIV. by Mme. de Montespan, vroto no fewer than 22 operas, now obsolete,
and in 1714 was erected into a dnkedom. In and various theoretical works.
1778 it was bought by Louis XVI. BAMILLIES, a village of Mgirao, province
RAMBOriLLET, Hdrai. de, tbe residence of of South Brabant. 16 m. S. by E. from Loovain:
the noble fuiuily of BomboQillet, celebrated as pop. 400. It b famous for a victory won b;
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAU8AY 768
th« dok«ofUarlbgroi^OTarQi«iy«acihdDi>- araprMMitBtionof giiemioea; andthoii^Dot
ing thia war of the SpuiiBh snooeaakto. Mar- reoo^nized offloiaUr, bo wm noceBBfal m Ua
Bhal Villeroy, a favonte of LoaU XIV., but tlie miasioD.
most presnmptuoiia and iooapable of his nn- RAUOBINO, Giboiamo, b military adven-
«rala, had plaoed the Yrtrnth annr in Bnoh a tarar, born in G«iioa in 1793, executed m Tarin,
Soaition as to render defeat inoritable. The llay 22, 1849. He was a natural aon of the
uke, at the head of the allied foraea of the rrenoh marshal Lannes, entered the ranks ot
Eagliah and the imperialiatB, attacked him, the French armj, and in the campaign of 1809
Maj S3, 1T06, aad within a few hoDn Becnred againat Anstria senred as a oommoa soldier,
a eompiete triomph. The loaa of the French and in that of 181S agunst Roasia aa captain
Amounted to 6,000 killed or wonnded and 16,- of artUIerj. In 1816 the emperor appomted
000 iH^nen, while ICarlborooi^ loat fewer him officer of ordnance, and after the second
th&n 8,000, and was Miabled at onoe to take restoration he redred to Bavoj. During the
posseesicHi of Antwerp, Bmaaela, and Ostend. insorreotioo which broke out in Piedmont in
BAMISSBRAU, an island between Oejloa 1821, he along with the count of Santa Rosa
and the continent of India, at th« W, extrem- plaoed himself at the head of the insurgent
i^ of the chain of rooka and aand banks, troops, and b; a dexterous retreat ftom Casale
eolled Adam's Bridge, that stretch across flrom toAlessandria Bared them from being destroyed
Ooyloa and saparste Palk's bay fh«n the gnlf by the Aostrians. After the &tlure of the
<rf Manaar. The Island is of irreg^ar shape, movement he fled to France, and at the begin-
aboat 13 m, long and S m. broad. The surface niiw of the Polish insnrrectlon of 1880 hastened
ia (generally low, and there are tracts of conaid- to Warsaw to offer bis services. He was first
Arable eit«nt covered by swamps. It is well made oolonel, and then general of a corps with
watered, and ther« ia a fi^sh wt^r lake nearly which he gfuned numerous advantages, and his
8 m. in oiroamfereoce. It has on its E. side snooeesalone saved him fromthe condemnation
a town named BamisBeram, contuning about of a court martial on account of his Sequent
1,000 bonsea, and a magnificent pagoda built disobedience of orders. After the fall of W or-
of immense blocks of granite; ite inhabitants saw he retired to the upper Vistula, refused
are prindpalty Brahmins. The Island is looked the Russian Bmnmona to surrender, but finally
upon as a jdaoe of great sanotity by the Hln- crossed the frontier and laid down his arms in
dooe^ and pilgrimages are nndertaken to it Galici^ whence he went to France. For a
troBi the most distant parts of India, the an- short time he served in the Spanish civil war,
nnal nnmber visltiog the great pagoda being and in 18S3-'4 engaged in the invasion of Savoy
estimated at 80,000. planned by Mazzini. After the failure of this
BAiUfOHUif ROT, rqfah, a Hindoo scholar expedition (see Mazuki) he went to Paris,
and rofomier, bom in the district of Burdwan, where he lived in poverty and isolation nntii
Bengal, about 1774, died near Bristol, Endand, 1848, when he went to Italy to serve against
SepL 37, 1888. His fiunUy were strict Brah- Austria. At the beginning of Charles Albert's
mins, bat having studied the Koran he early second csmpaJKn, in the following year, Chrza-
reoonDced polytSieism, and bis father was com- nowski placed nim at the head of the Sth ^vi-
pelled to witAoraw bis oonntonance from him, sion, with orders to occupy a position on the
though be oontributed secretly to his support, right bank of the Po, ana, should t^e enemy
In 1808, after the deatb of bis fither, Rammo- advance from Favia, to cross the river and pre-
bon Boy pnbUdied seTeral pamphteta in tbo vent his march. Bamorino, mistaking the de-
native ud foreign langnagea, to uow that the rign ot the Austrians, oommanded by Radetzky,
Brahmins had uUeo away from their original acted directly contrary to his orders, and left
faith, for which an nnsoooesrfbl att«npt was tita left bank of the Po undefended and the dl-
made to dwrive him of oaste. He translated rect road from Pavia to Turin open. The fatal
into Bengalee and Hindostanee the Vedanta, iasne <tf the battle of Novara, March 28, 1840,
or body m ffindoo theology as oontained in the was tbe eonsequenoe. For this conduct be
Vedos, ^terward prepared an abridgment of was d^irived <a his command, and was sns-
it, and in 1610 translated the abridgment into peoted of treason. He retired to Borgomanero,
English. Inoonjnnotionwitb two other natives which he believed or affected to bdiove was
be published the " Bengal Herald," an Eng- the bead-quarters of the Sardinian army, but
liah newqwter, and in 1S90 published in Eng- was arrested at Arena by the nsdonal guards,
lish, Ssnsorit and Bengalee a series of selec- tried before a court msmal on a charge of in-
tlans from the New Testsment, entitled "The subordination, and ssntenoed to de^. He
Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and Hap- Juslifled his course i»i the ground of the feebl«-
piness." In this he advanced Unitarian opin- ness of his division, 8,000 strong, which ren-
ions which involved him for seversl years in dered itimpoedbleforbimtoredsttheadvanoe
oontroverey with Dr. Harduoan and otber mis- of the Austrian army. The senteuce was car-
nonaries. He believed in the divine mission of rled into exeontion, although he stoutly main-
Christ, and considered Ohrietianity consistent tained his inuooenoe and died bravely.
yritit Brahminism as it ia in the andent Ban- RAUSAY, Allui, a Scottish poet, bom in
sorit authorities. In 18S0 he was aooredited to LeadhUls, Lanarkshire, Oct. 16, 1686, died in
the British oonrt by the king of Delhi, to make Edinburgh, Jan. 7, 1767. Hb father, who waa
VOL. ziii.— 48
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
7M BAUSAT
nuungv of the lead mfaiea of Lord Hopetonn, fUled Utrongh the action of the marietnt^
ol^med descent from t^a earls of DaUioiifiie, who enforced against him the act for ticonsti^
and oolhUeral relationship with the Doaglasee, theatrioal performanoes. Br carefiil attention
a oireumstance referred to with ooosiderable to hig bneiness he repairad his looses, and whea
complacency b; his son In varions passages of near his 60th year built a hooae on the CafUe
bis writings, Allan is said to have been eni' hill,inwhichhepassedtheTeniBinderof bis lift
tiloyod when a child as a washer of ore, but hi eaar ctrcmnstances. InlTSShopubUBhrdb;
he acquired a tolerable education at the vil- sabsoriptton a second Tolmne of hia poema in
lage school of Leadhills, where he learned, qnarto (including " The Gentle Shepherd'^
among other things, to read Horace " fatntlj which proved equaTlfsncceBBfnl with tne first;
in the original," At the age of 16 be was ap- and bis entire poems were republished in Lon-
prenticed to awigmalcer in Edinburgh, an em- don in 1731 and in Dublin in 1738. Bts Isat
ploj'ment in which he continaed for several original work of importance was a collectim
Stars after the expiration of bis apprenticesbip. of fables pnblisbed in 1780. A complete edi-
is poetio talent did not develop itaelf until be tion of his poems, with a biography hj Georze
was about 26 years old,and hisfiratprodoction Chalmers, was published in 2 vob. 8to. u
in verse was an address " To the most bappj 1800, and " The Gentle Shepherd" is frequently
Members of the Zasy Clnh," a convivial asso- republished. Avery correct edition was print-
oiation of Jacobites. Aj poet lanreata of the ed by W. Gowans (New York, 1B64). — Ajxai,
club he produced a number of light and hn- eon of the preceding, a portrait painter, bora
morouB pieces for their edification ; and he in Edinburgh in 1718, died fn Dover, Aug. 10,
Bobscquently published on single or half sheets 1784. He was a man of literary cnltnTe, settled
many poema on local or famihar topics, which In London, and was a frequent visitor at the
at the moderate price of a penny each found hooseof Dr. Johnson. Though raised by politi-
a ready sale among the citizens of Edin- calpartisansbiptoanioinentaryrivfllrywithSir
boi^b, who were in the habit of sending J. Beynolds, his works are not above mediocrity.
their children with a penny for " Allan Bam- RAMSAY, Andrew KCiohael, better known
say's laat piece," BQs first poem of eonsid- hy the name of the chevalier de Ramsay, a
arable length waa a continuation of £ing Scottish author, bom in Ayr, June 6. 1684,
James'a " Christ's Kirk on the Green," pub- died in St. Germain-en-Laye, France, May «,
lished in 1716, and of which in 1718 he pub- 1743. He was educated at the nniTerdty c^
lisbed a second edition with an additional can- Edinburgh, and in bis 23d year, becoming un-
to. A short time previous to the latter date settled in his religona convictions, he repaired
he ezcbanged his employment of pemke mak- to the university of Leyden to consult Poiret,
ing for the more congenial one of bookseller, a leading advocate of the mystical theology
and at the Uercnry opposite to the head of then popular on the continent. He next viait-
Niddry's wynd he prosecuted his business, ed F£n£Ion at Cambray, and during a 6 months'
which included that of author and editor, with residence in the honae of the ardibishop was
industry and success. In 1720 appeared a 4to. by him converted to the doctrines of the Ro-
edition of his collected poems, which bronght man Gathotio church, which he ever alterwaid
tbe eutbor the very considerable sum of £400. professed. He mastered the French language.
Incited by this success, Ramsay produced in which be wrote with great purity, and tbrou^
tbe conrse of the next few years a volume of the exertions of FfnSlon was appointed tutor
" Fablea and Tales," the " Fair Assembly," to the dnke of Ch&tean-Tbierry and afterward
*' Hedth," a poem inscribed to the earl of to tbe prince de Turenne. Subsequently he
Stair, and the " Tea Table Uiscellany," a col- had charge fur a year at Rome of the education
lection of Bongs, Scottish and English, with of the two sons of tbe pretender, Cbarlee Ed-
many of bis own composition, which was ex- ward and Henry, afterward Cardinal ToA.
tended to 4 volumes. This was aiwgested by a He revisited Scotland in 17SG, and for several
volume of Scottish songs pnblisbra by him in years was an inmate of the family of tbe duke
1710, and was in snch detnand Iftiat in a com- of Argrle, and in 1780 he received tbe degree
jMratively short time it ran throuob 12 edi- of LL.D. from Oxford university. His largest
tions. In 1734 he also published "The Erer- work is "On the Principles of Natural and Re-
green, bdng a Collection of Scots Poemswrote Tealed Religion," published posthumonaly in
hy the Ingenious before 1609," into which is 1740 (3 vols. 4to., Glasgow). His Vof/agadef)/-
[ntrednced -a poem by himself -entitled the nu, by which be Is best known, is a palpable
■"Vision, " a Jaeobite allegory. His most im- imitation of tbe Telimaqve ot Finiloa. It bis
portant work was "The Gentle Shepherd" been frequently reprinted, tbe best edition in
(1726), portions of wbidi bad appeared in his French being that of 1727 (2 vols. 8va, Paris
nrdt volnme of poems. He sow removed his and London), and was translated by Nafhanid
business to a larger shop, which soon became Hooke. He also wrote a biography of hia
the resort of the wits and literary men of Edin- friend and benefactor, F^n^lon (the Hagoe,
bnrgb, Kod in Which he established the first 1728), end one of Uarshal Turenne, both of
circulating library ever opened in Scotland, whidi were translated and republished in Eng-
In an evil boor he waa tempted int« building land. His renunciation of tbe Presbyterian
at great expense a theatre, an enterprise which creed, in which be had been etrictly reared,
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAM8AT BAUnS 765
■ererad eompletelj' his relations Titli his feml- H« hu i3ao written Mmral OMologlesl and
Ij, who ref^ised to receive an annaitj which he derotional works, ea " Direrritaes of ObriitiBii
wished to settle on them; and It ia said that Character" (Edinbni^b, 1868), "Advent &er-
hia biher, an old-fashioned Covenanter, in- mons," fto,
dignautly declined a present of monej from RAMSDEN^ Jessk, an English maker of
hie Bon, ezoluming: "It cam* bj the beaa^ philosophical iQatraments, bom near Halifax,
and let it gang to the boasL" Yorkshire, in 17Sfi, died in 1800. He first serv.
SAU8AT, Datid, an American phjsldan ed an apprenticeship to a cloth dresser in
and hiatori&n, trara in Lancaster oo., Fenn., Halifai, bnt his matnematieal tastes led him
April 2, IT^O, assassinated in Oharleston, B. 0,, afterward to bind himself to an instrument
l£ij 8, 1810. He waa gradaated at Prince- maker, and he eorlj opened a shop of his own
ton coueg:e in 17B5, studied medicine in PhiHa- in London. He improved the coDstmotioQ of
delphia, and in 17T2 commenced practice in the sextant so as to redace the limit of error
Harjlaiid, whence in the sQcceeding year he itom 6' to 80". The telescopes erected by him
removed to Charleston, S. 0. Hetoosthefleld at the observatories of Blenheim, Uoanheim,
as a surgeon at the ootbreok of the revolnlion, Dnblin, Paris, and Gotha were remarkable for
was a member of the Sonth Carolina legislature the superiority of their ol^ect glasses ; and in
andof theprivfconncilorcoonoilof B^ety,and his moral qnadranta Aimiahed to the observa-
in the latter capacity became so obnoiions to tories of I^oa'and Wilna, it was not posaiblo
the British aathoritieSjthataflierthecaptureof to detect an error omonnting to Si seoonda.
C1iaTlQ3tOiiihewa9inclndedamonethe40inhab- One of his most celebrated prodnotions was a
itants of that place who were held in dose con- dividing machine of great perfection. (Beo
finement at St, Aogustine as hostages. InlTCB Diviorao Ekowx.) By his wUl a large portion
he was elected to congress from the Oharles- of his fortune was distribated among the work-
ton district, and held for a year the office of men whom he 'had employed.
presid^t of that body. In 1780 he published RAMSEY^ anE. co. of IQnn., bordered S.W.
Li9 " History of the EevolutioQ la South Oaro- and partly s. by the Hissismppi, and drained
liaa,"and in 1?90 his "history of the Ameri- by Bum river; area, about S,800 sq.m.; pop.
con RevolaUon." Both were republished in In 1860, 19,160. It has an elevti«d snr&oe,
£nrope, and were translated into Trench. In with prairies and forests. Capitol, St. Panl.
leoi he published a " Life of Washington," and RAM8QATE, a seaport town of Kent, Eng-
iulBOS a " History of Soath Carolina" (3 vols, land, situated at the S. E, corner of the isle of
8vo.), founded upon a previous "Sketch of the Thanet, 87 m. E. from London ; pop. in 1951,
Soil, Climate, "Weather, and Diseases of South 11,888. The harbor is artificial, and nearly dr-
Oarolina." His next production wasa "History cnlar, oomprisinz an area of 48 acres, and in-
of the United States," from th«r settlement aa duding a dry dock and ship railway. Ship
Eogliah colonies to the close of 1808, which building and rope making ore carried on.
was pablished posthumously, with a continaa- Bomsitate is a dependency of Sandwich, and
tiuD to the treaty of Ghent, prepared by theRev. a fashionable watering place,
Samuel Stanhope Smith, in 1817 (8 vols. 8vo.). EAMCS, Prtbb (Pixbu m tA RAirts), a
Another work upon a more comprehensive French grammarian and logidan, bom in Outh,
plan, which had engaged his attention at inter- Picardy, in 1609 or 1016, killed in the massacT«
vals daring a period of nearly 40 years, was of Bt. Bartholomew's day at Paris, Aug. 24,
nnTiliahoil in IflTO nn^pr tliA tit] A nf **TTiiivfiT^ 1679. TTAiPfliihm-n nfnnnr narmntiL nnil nt tha
from the earliest records to the 18th century, and a good part of the night in study. He
Apart from his literary labors, he practised his made rapid progress, and conceived s great love
profes^on with success in Charleston, and was for lode wiUi a profound contempt for the way
augagad ia many public proceedings of irapor- in which it was tanght. When his conrse was
tance. He seldom devoted more than 4 hours finished, and he presented himself fbr examinb-
oat of the 84 to sleen ; but notwithstanding tion for the degree of master of arts in 1680,
thiisniall allowance or time for rest, his health he chose forhfs exercise the following sul^lect:
vaa vigorous. He was shot in the street by a Quaewn^ue ab ArutcUte dieta erne eommentieia
lonatic, of whose mental nnsoundness be had ette ("All that has been afBrmed by Aristotle
^ven evidence before a commission dt hmatieo is a i!abrioalion''1. So bold a denial of the in-
tAfuirmdo. fallibility of Aristotle startled the judges, bub
RAK3AY, Eninnn) BiSSSBXAn, a Scottidi the young candidate maintained his side with
aathor, bom in 1779. waa graduated at St. so much skill, that he was admitted to his de-
John's college. Oambridge, became incumbent gree. He afterward taught in the eolloge of
ofSt John's church in Edinburgh in 1880,and Ave Uaria, and when gboutS8 years old pnl>-
vas anpi^ted dean of the ^ooese in 1888. He Ibbed two works in Latjn entitled respectively
Is author of " Beminisoences of Boottish Lifa IHaleetiett PartitiaiiM adAeodamiam Portrim-
and Character^' fEdinburgh, 1808), which pass- wm, and Animadtmtumt* in IHidtetiDam Ari^
ed through 8 e4itions in 3 years, tteside 3 in totelii. These beoka had searody appeared when
America ; a second series appeared in 1S61. they were attacked by the offlcem of the uni-
U,9,-„zOQ-by Google
TSe fiAKUSIO BAKDOLPH
MnJty of Paris, and SB Older for ilidrnmrM- wiUi note* and commoilB. Though tk priest
donwaaoMafaiedfruntheBi^istraUa. Tdshi- in 16G1, he led a r&ther disapated life, and
tiior waa reprMOitod as impioDi and seditious^ was on asridnons rimtor at the H&tel de Rsot-
snd MsiEQiiigtodeatn>7alI sdeaceand reliidon bonillat, where be fall in love with the dndiesa
imderthepretwioeof satsillngAriatotle. The of Uontbuon. On her death some jeam later
qaarrel betWMti the riral tje&ma of lo^ was he tamed hia thonghta to religion, anbmitted
tA last settled bj the king, Fkwuns I., who or> himwlf to severe penance^ save all Lis prop-
dered a trial in which two of the Jodgea were ertj to the poor, and resign^ all hla benefices
to be Dominated b; Samos, two \>j Gorea, except the abbe; of La Trappe, to whitji be
hia dtief soonser, sad one by the Unc, After retired in 166S. The disordai-a that prevailed
ft regnlsr, thoi^ it ta chsrged an nn&r hear- here Aroaglj irapressed bim with the oeceE-
tDg,Baoiiia,(aiMarohl,lM4,waaeondMniiedaa sity of s reform in monastio life,' and he went
brning "acted raahl]', srrogsstlr, and ioipa- twice to Rome in I66S to oblAia from the pope
dently," sad wss prohibited from tMCihing and permieaioa to enforce in France the rnlee of
Us booli anppreraed. Boon after he leotared the former " atrict obserraDce of C^teani"
on iliettnio at the coQem of Prealee, and in He fjiiled in his minion; bnt neverttielees ia-
1S4S retnmed to Fsrls, where by the inflnenoe trodueed tlie most rigoroua regulations into
of Uie oardbul of I>orralne the roval probib- hia own community, and brouebt it hack to
itory decree had been caneeUed. Turning his ita original seventy. Ranch's doctrines were
attention to mathematioB, be began a coarse, denonnced, and in ISTS arbiters were appointed
which waa ocmtinned until 1651, when Henry by the king, who came to no decision. In 16S3
IL appointed him professor of pblloaophy and be published a treatise De la tainUti el det Jt-
eloqneaeeinthecMlegeof Franoe. During the voindtln tie tnoruutique. and in 1690 assumed
10 followineyeara, i»iieh were the most trau- the spiritual direction of the convent of Le»
quilof hIsBfe, he pubUshed s6reek,sl«tin, Olaireta, a female community dependent on
and a Frendi grammar, and freatises on mathe- that of La Trappe, and composed hb EiJUr-
nudJcs, Ii^o, and rfaetorio. In 1661 he em- ionttur le* quatra itangilUUt. In 1695, bar-
braoed FroteatantlBm, and kdvoeated hia opin- ing bronght on a severe disease by bis ansteri-
ioiis with great seal. In July, 1663, he vat ties, he resigned bis abbacy and remained a
forced to flee, but was offered by Oharlea IX private monk in tbe coDvent, redoubling his
a refuge at tbe palsoe of Foataineblesn, while penances, sad finally breathing his last npon a
bis own house waa pillaged and Us library de- bed of straw atid ashes. His life was written
stroyed. In ISdS, after the treaty of Amboise, by his contemporaries Uaapeaa, Uaraollier, and
he retnmed to Psria, and for a time occupied Lenain de Tillemont, by Cn&teaubriand (Puis,
his professor's chair: but in 1666 be received 1814), and by 0. Bnaer (London, 18141.
permissioQ to travel on aoooant of the civil BANDOIJ'H, tbe name of connties in 8 of
troublea. In Heidelberg he Isotaredon mathe- the United States. I. A N. co. of Va., drvned
matics, and in Geneva and Lausanne on logic, by tbe soarces of the Monongahela river ; ares,
Qs asaassiaation on the night of Bt. Bartholo- about 2,000Bq.m.; pop. in 1860,4,990, of whom
mew was effected through the agency of one 168 were slaves. Tne snrface is raountun-
Jaeques Oharpentaer, whose ai^intment to tbe ons, a ranse of tbe AUeghsaies mnning along
^air of matfaeraatice In the nnivernty he bad its E. border, and several parallel ranees ei-
^posed. HisfolIowerswerec^ledBamiBtsor tending within its limits; tbe soil in tiie tsI-
luuneana. A eatatogoe of his WM'ka may be leys is fertile. Oosl, iron, salt, limestone, and
found mSmmu, n» vi»,attieriti tt »et optnian*, other minerals aboond. The productions in
by WaddI&fct«»i-Eastaa(8vo., Paria, 1866). 1660 were 11,740 bnabeU of wheat, 87,468 of
BAUU8I0, OmiBAmeTA, an Italian travel- Indian com, 44,789 of oats, 6,460 tons of hay,
ler and sobolsr, bom tn Treviso in 1486, died 1,844 lbs. of tobacco, 16,896 of wool, and 66,-
in IHST. He held many offices under the re- 889 of hotter. There vere 10 ebarchea, and
pubHo of Venice, was eeoretary of the coonoil 860 pnpUs attending pabJic schools. Yalne of
often, and travelled ss an ambassador throoKh real estate in 1856, $1,267,662, showing an In-
IVaaoe, Bwitierland, and Italy. In 1S60 be crease unoe 1660 of 14 per cenL Capital,
began to publish, under the title of SaceoUa di Beverly. H A central co. of N. O^ driuned
Tiovigationi « vtagffi, a collection of the most by Deep river and branches of the Ysdiun;
important voyages and travels to distant ooun- area, about 900 sq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 16,793,
tries in andent and modem times, wMoh is of of whom 1,646 were slaves. It has a diverai-
Tsloe to the Ameiloan historian, as it possesses fied surface and fertile soiL The prodnrtions
some relations of discovery and ctHiqnest of the in 1860 were 8S,S64 bnsbela of wheat, 440,086
new worid, not elsewhere extant. Twovoliuaes of Indian oom, 88 bales of cotton, and 1,915
were published during his lifetime and a Uiird Iba. of tobacco. There were SO grist milli, a
after Us death. woollen factory, 6 cotton factories, 6 tanneries,
RAKO&, Anuns Jxur Li BouTHnjjKB m, 1 newspaper office, 49 churches, and 1,660 pa-
ths refbrmerof the monastery of La Trappe, pils attending pnblic schools. Capital, Ash-
bom in Paris, Jan. 9, 1626, died Oct. 86, 1700. borough. III. A S. 'W. co. of Ga., separated
He was a godson of Cardinal Biofaeliea, and at from Alabama by tbe Chattahoochee, intei^
the age of 18 published an edition of Aniaoreoa, sected by Patanla creek, and drained by
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BASDOLPH 7ST'
branches of Flint river; area, about f 00 sq. BAHDOLPEL John, of Roanoke, sn Aiaer>
m. ; pop. in ISSO, 0,671, of whom 4,467 were can itatefflDan, bom at OawMna, CbesterSeld
stavea. It has a nearlj level anr&ce, and a co., Vs., June 3, 1778, died in Philadelphia,
fery fertOe soil En the river bottoms. The Jane 24, 1SS8. His parents were of ancienb
Kodnctions Is 1960 were 454,668 bushels of and wealthy fiunUiea, and on his fother's side
dian corn, 151,182 of rweet potatoes, 60,BS0 he was descended from Pocahontas the Indian
of oats, and 10,583 bales of cotton. There princess— a descent in which ha always took
'Were 8 Rrist mills, 12 saw miUs, 2 tanneries, great pride. His esrlj education was condnct-
44 ohnrohes, and 716 pnpils attending pablio ed at home, hot abont his 16th year he spent a
schools. Capital, Cathbert lY. An E. oo. few months la stndj st Princeton, utd at Co-
of Ala., bordering on Geor^a, intersactod by lambia college, New York. He studied law at
the Tallapoosa river ; area, aboat 900 sq. m. ; Philadelphia, bnt never engaged in the practice
pop. in 1S60, S0,0G9, of whom 1,004 were of the profession. In 1796 he was elected a
slaves. It has an tineven snrfaca and a gener- representativa in congress, and soon became
ally fertile soil. Gold Is found in the county, ooospiouons, in the langoage of the historian
The productions in 1350 were 819,188 bushels Hildreth, as "a singnlar mixture of the aristo-
Of Indian com, 60,930 of sweet potatoes, T,IB6 orat and ^e Jacobin: an aristocrat by birth,
IbA. of rice, and 1,98S bales of cotton. There ednoation, and temperament; a JacoUn at this
were 40 chiirches, and 1,B29 pnpils attending time out of enthusiasm for France, and durii^
ptibllo schools. OapitaL UcDtmald. V. A all his life ont of a sort of Ishmaelitish opposi-
N. E. CO. of Ark., bordering on Missouri, and tion to the exercise of authority by anybody
drained by Eleven Point, Big Black, little but himself." In a debate, Jan. 10, I
Black, and Oache rivers, branches of Black the army bill, he spoke of the offioere
river; area, abont 860 sq. m.; pop. in 16S0, army and navy as "a handfbl of ragamufflns,^
8,261, of whom 8S9 were slaves. Its surfaoe and was in oonsequenoe insulted at tha theatre
is generally level and the soil fertile. The a few nighta aftwward by some yonng military
Erodactions in 1804 were 202,018 bushels of offloera. He wrote next day a violent letter to
idlaa com, 0,728 of wheat, 16,842 of oats, the preddant demanding the punishment of the
and 276 bales of cotton. In 1860 there were 8 ofiendars. The prendent referred the matter
fist mine, IS saw mills, a woollen bctory, and to congress, and an iuveetigation was ordered,
tanneries. Capital, Pocahontas. VL An E. which resulted only in severe oensnre by a
CO. of Ind., bordering on Ohio, and drained by committee of Bandolph's letter. He was re-
White, ItDssisdnewa, and Whitewater rivers; elected in the following year, and, there being
area, abont 460 gq. m. ; pop. in 1860, 19,016. It a repnblicui minority in tha house, was made
has an undulating snr&ce and fertile soil The chairman of tiie committee of ways and meaner
frodnotions in J860 were 626,197 bushels of In which position his fluency, skill at retort,
adian com, 67,048 of wheat, 75,290 of oatg, and acrimonious wit made him the acknowl-
60,126 lbs. of wool, and 7,S6I tons of hay. edged leader in debate of the administration
There ware 82 churches. It is intersected by part;. In 1606, however, he quarrelled with
the Bellefbntaina railroad line, which passes the adnunistratlon and asssited President Jef-
through the capital, "Winchesfer. VII. A S. ferson and his supporters with great virnlenoe.
"W. 00. of HI., separated from Uissonri by the He also attaoked Uadison's administration, and
Uiaeissippi river, intersected by the Kaskaskla, opposed v%oronsly the declaration of war
and drained by various email streams ; area, a^iinst Oreat Briton in 1812. His opposition
about GOO sq. m. ; pop. in 1880, 17,206. It caused his defeat at the next election, and he
has an nndolating and hilly snrface and a gen- retired from the house, of which he had been
erally fertile sou. The prodnctioas in 1860 a member for 13 yeara. He was, however,
were 448,491 bnahals of Indian com, 60,914 reelected in 1814 and again in 1818, liaving de-
of wheat, 126,180 of oatsM,29e tons of hay, dined to be a candid^ in 1816. In the con-
and 17,761 lbs. of wool There were IB saw gross of 1819-'fl0 he vehemently opposed the
mills, 2 tanneries, 8 newspaper offices, 24 SCsaonri compromise, atigmatizing the norOt-
churches, and 1,414 pnpils attending public em members by whose ooOperation it was caiv
schools. Oapital, Chester. VIU. A N. co. of ried as " don^acea," an epithet at once adopt-
tio., intersected by the East fork of Chariton ed into tha political vocabulary of the United
river and drained bySilver creek, the Elk fork States, and still in use. In 1822, and ag^ in
of Salt river, and Uie head waters of Bonne 1824, he visited England, where his eccentrici-
Femme river ; area, about 450 sq. m. ; pop. in ties and strange figure and costume attracted
1860, 11,406, of whom 3,619 were slaves. It considerable attentjon. From 1826 to 1827 ho
has a nearly level Bur&oe and very fertile soU. vaa a senator of the United Btatas. He sup-
The productions hi 1850 were 668,195 bushels ported Ur. Crawford for president in 1824, and
of Indian com, 60,914 of wheat, 126,180 of Gen. Jackson in 1828. In 1889 he was a mem-
oata, 2,362,796 lbs. of tobaooo, 86,809 of wool, her of the oonvenl^on to revise the constitation
and 138,768 of butter. There were 9 saw of Ylrginia, and in the foUowingrear was ap-
mills, 6 tanneries, 14 chnrches, and 807 pnpils point«d minister to Bnssia, an office which he
attAnding public schools. The capital, Hunts- aooepted on condition that he might spend the
ville, la dtoated 78 m. N. W, of Jefferson Oil?, winter in the sonth of Europe, as his baalth,
U,9,-„Z0QbyGOO^[
T68 RANDOLPH
whiob for tome jtan had been Bsrionilr tm- after hiring beu gradnitted st tfas college of
p^ed, WM now ezceedinglj feeble. Soon William and Marj, he was sent, like most
after lus reoeption bj the emperor, he departed jotmg men of the sriHtoorecj, to complete bis
sbraptlj for Sngtand, where he remained for edaoation In England, and stadied law at the
nearl; a year, and retomed hmne without re- Temple. In 17^ he was appointed king's at-
Tiiitiog Knai^ His district agidn elected him tome? for the oolonr, and the same year was
to oongress, but he was too ill to take his seat, chosen amember of the house of bniwesseafrom
Kzhan^ed with consomption, he died in a ho- the oitf of Williamatnirg. Ihiring that seBnoa
tel at Philadelphia, whither he had gone on be was made chainnas of a committee anlhor-
Ikis war to take pasMM again acroee the ocean, ized to prepare a general revisal of the laws
— Damg his life Mr. Bandolph's speeches were of the colonj, and from this time omtioned me
more foUr repcnled and more g^eroUy read of the most active and inflnenda) members of
than those of an; other membM of congreaa. the assembly. In 1762 lient. Got. Dinwiddle
In the house he was always listened to with in- came into conSiot with the Tlr^nia bouse of
tenseintereat,andthefbroeof biseloqnenoewBS bnrgeflsesby imposing a fee equiralent tofS.HI
h^htMied by bis personal appearance, which for eTerr seal annetea to a grant of land, ind
waa singnlarly strikmg. He was tall end very Bandolph was sent by that body aa their agent
slender aad Mdaverons, with long, skinny fin- to England to proonre redress for their griev'
gera, which he was in the habit of pointing ances, but vas nnBOcoessM in his miadon. la
and shakluReipreasively at those against whom ITSfi, after the defeat of Braddock, he and lonie
he spoke. Hie Toioe was ahrill ana piping, bnt other gentlemen formed a regiment fbr the
nnder perfect command and mnsical in its tower pnrpoae of joining at the frontier the colonial
tones. His favorite weapons in debate were force under Wasbrngton ; bnt as the enemy re-
invective and sarcasm, and for many years hia treated to Fort Dnqoesne, no engagement took
sharp and reckless wit made him a terror to place. In 1TS4 the Tiiginia honae of bnr-
Ms opponents in the honse. "For more than 80 gesses voted an address to the king agunst the
years," says Ur. Benton, " he was the [K>litical jiaaaage of the stamp act, and Bwdolph drew
meteor of congress, bla^g with nndiminished it np. Wbeo in 17(6 that act became a law,
splendor daring the whole time, and often ^>- Patrick Henr? moved on May 80 bis celebrated
pearing as the 'planetary plagne' whioh ebed, fi resolntiona, which Bandolph strongly oppos-
not war and peatUence on nations, but agony ed, not however on any question of odt rights,
and fear on members. Wit and genine tii al- " bnt on the gronnd," aaya Jefferson, " that the
lowed him; sagacity was a qoality of his mind same sentiments had been at the preceding ses-
viBii>le to all o^rvers, end which gave him an sion expressed in a more conciliatory form, to
intuitive insightintothe effect of measurea. He which uie answers were not jet received." (See
waa longthe chairman of the oommitteeof ways Hkitbt, Fatbice.) When in the same year a
and means — a place always of labor and re- congress met at New York, and Yir^inia was
sponsibility, and of more then than now when prevented by her governor from sending depu-
theeletnentaofrevennewereleasBbundanti and ties, the assembly of that state forwaided to
no man conld have been placed in that ritua- England petiUona of a character similar to those
tion during Hr. Jefferson's time whose known adapted by the congreaa. The addreas to the
sagacity was not a pledge for the safety of his king waa written by Bandolph. On April 18,
lead in the moat sudden and critical circum- 1T66, on the death of Speaker Robinson, Baa-
stancea. He was one of those whom that emi- dolph was made speaker of the house of har-
nent statesman habltnally consulted during the gesses, resigning about the same time bis office
period of their biendahip, and to whom he care- of attorney-general. In the meaanres of oppo-
nilly commnnioated his plana before they were sition to the English government he now took
^ven totbepnblio." Bandolph was one of the a conepicnons part. In March, IT 73, on the
urgest alaveholders of Virginia, and at the time receptjon ofoopiee of an address and reaolntion
of his death poeseeeed 818 slavea, whom by bis from the Maaaachuaetta assembly, Bandolph
will he manumitted, at the same time beqneath- was one of the most prominent in ntguig in-
ing funds for their settlement and maintenance atant and bold action. A ccHnmittee of vigi-
in a free state, la 1808, as chairman of the lanoe waa appointed, of whioh be was one, to
o<»nmlttee npon a memorial from Indiana ask- obtun the most accurate and clear intelligenoe
ing for permisdon to introduce slaves into that of all acta of parhamect affeothtg the rights of
territory in apite of tJie prohibition of the ordi- the colonies; and it was also anthorized to
nance of 1787, be reported adversely to the open a correspondence with the other ooloniea.
petiUon on the ground that the ordinance was In the convention which met in Aug. 1774, at
"wisdy calculated to promote the happiness Williamabni^, Bandolph presided, and waa one
and proaperity of the north-weetem country." of the delegates elected to the continental con-
— See " life of John Bando|ph," by Hugh A. gress appointed to meet in Philadelphia in the
Garland (2 vols, 8vo., New York, 1660). following September. On the BHSembling of
in 172S, diedin Philadelphia. Oct. 2a. 177S. He that psitioo only 6 or 6 weeks. In 1775 be
was the second son of Sir John Handolph, and presided over the aeoond convention of Yii>
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
SAXOOOir BAST01TL 7S»
glnlft, wUcb BMainbUd et lUohmood <Hi ICamh diaooattniMd in ISU. K* next wotk «m
30, and yna elected again as ■ delegate to oon* Deutiehe&«iehieht»ii»ZtiialUrdtr S^/i»-matitM
greoa, with the eabstitotioii ot Jeffenon in hli (" Hittorj of G«rmug< in the Time of the Bef-
C' « in case of his non-att«)danoe. That ormadon," 6 toIs., Berhn, lS39-'47), in whiob
rmet at Ftiiladelphla<ntMa]r 10,1776, and he gareanaccODntof the riseof Frotestantiam.
Bandolph wm reBleoUd president ; bnt finding This work, which has also been translated into
it unnrwnTj to retont to Virpnia to resume English bj Mrs. Austin, is considered hU best.
thedatiBaof speaker of UiehoDse of bni^ewes, It was followed bj ^«un BUeher PreMintcher
b« was ancoeeded in his office bjr J^ohn Han- GetehichUn (8 vols^ Berlin, IMT-'S), for aid in
oock. He died soddenlf of apoplexy. He was writing which the Fruasian arotuvag. were for
& man of excellent Jadgment, thongh withont the flnt time opened. This work has l>eca
genins, of imposing presence, inoormptible in- translated bj Sir A. and I^tdj Duff Gordon,
tegritj, and ezb'emelr intolorant to religiona noder the title of "Memoirs of the House of
diMmtera. He waa bnried in tbe chapel of Brondenbarg, and History of Frosaia during
iniliam Mid lUrj, the 17th and 18th Ceotoriw." Turning his at-
RANGOON, tha oommerolal capital of FegiL tention to French histor;, he wrote FratuJiiUeht
sttoated on the left bank of tha £. branch of Getehiehl^vam^lLnlicMml%teawull%UnJaliT~
tiie Irrawaddy, aboat 23 m. from the sea, in Autufurt (S vols., Stuttgart, l&GS-'S), which con-
laL ld° 47' N., long. W IS' E ; pop. 20,000. tuns an acoonnt of Frotestant etrnggles in that
Almat 2 m. below Uie town the river divides ooontry. Be»ide these he has written JaArbQ~
uito two arms, both of which are navigable, tiherdti DtaUehenEeKhtunUTdtm S&ehti*che»
but the W. brandi, called the Kangoon river, is Bmitt (8 vols., Berlin, 1837-40), and several
generallr preferred. The town extends alxtot other historical works.
ft mile along the river and tiie streets are nar- BANEIN, a centra] oo. of Miss., bordered
row bat olMn and well paved. The houses are W. and fi. W. \>j the Fearl river and drained
raised on posts, but there are a few bailt of by ita branches; area, about 80O sq. m. ; pop.
brtok, chiefly belonging to Europeans, and ednoe in 1860, 1S,687, of whom 7,10S were slaves.
its oocupation by the British the place has been Its surface is covered with pine forests, and its
fortifieiC There are some onrions Baddhist soil is generally fertile. The productions in
pagodas and monuments. Bangoon was built 18S0 were 317,678 bushels of Indian com, 68,-
in 175S, when the Burmese conquered Pegu. 306 of sweet potatoes, 66,105 lbs. of rioa, snd
It ia well snited for ship building, as the tide 2,670 bales of cotton. There were 16 churches,
risaa team 18 to 24feet, and a large quantity of and 849 pupils attending public schools. It is
teak timber is floated down the Irrawaddy. In intersected by. the aoutheroMissisuppi railroad,
Jan. 1B62, Rangoon was taken by the British, which passes through the capital, Brandon.
In 1868 it an^ed from a severe fire witich RANTOUL, Robbbt, !r., an American states-
bnmed a great part of the town ; and again in man, bom in Beverly, Maea., May 13, 180G, died
18SS it was almost destroyed by flra. in Waahuigton,I>.0., AQg.T,18C2. Bisfather,
BAN MS, liEorou), a German historian, bom who survived nim for several years, was long
in Vlehe, near Nanmbui^, Deo. 21, 1796. In a member of the state legislature. The son
1818 he became principal teacher of the gym- was educated at Phillips academy, Andover,
nadnm of Frsnkfort.on-the-Oder, bnt occupied and at Harvard college, where he was gradu-
himself chiefly with historical studies. In 1824 atadinl82S. He studied law with John Pick-
appeared at Berlin the 1st volume of his 0^ ering in Salem, was admitted to the Essex bar
UMehUdM'BomanitiAeundQtTmaniiehaVolker in 1827, and for several years practised in
ton 1494-lfi56. He was in 1826 made profea- Gloucester, tVom which town he was in 1884 •
•or of history in Berlin, and soon after was sent and in 8 succeeding years elected a meml>M of
by the Prnsrian government to Vienna, Venice, the legislature, where be distinguished himself
Borne, and florenoe, to ' search for historical as a reformer and as on advocate of the rights
materials in the archives of those cities. The and interests of the common people. He ex-
reanita of his lalwra were first made manifest erted himself for the aboUtion of capital pun-
in a work entitled .fSnten wuj Voiktrvon SHi- iahment, and mode a report to the legislature
tttnrpa im 16t«n Mnd lllmJahrhundert (1827). on that subject^ which is still one of the stan-
In 1829 he nnblished Die SerHteie IteB«hitu>ii, dard authorities of tbo opponents of the prac-
ia 1831 Utbtr die VenekMrung su VMedig, tice. In 1887 he was appointed a member of
and in 1884 Vwittungeri tar Oetehiehta ier the Massachusetts board of education, and gave
ItaUenitehe Pome. His work entitied Die much time and attention to the advancement
SimiMehm PiptU, ihre Kirehe wtd ihr Stoat of the system of public instruction. In 1848
(" The Popes ofBome, their Church and State," the president appointed hira collector of the
8 vols., Berlin, 18S4r-'e) has been three times port of Boston, and in 1846 he was made U. &
traodatad into Englif^ : by Mrs. Austin in 1B40; district attorney. In 1861 he was elected tl. S.
by Scott, with an iotiodnctory essay by Herle senator to suooeed Daniel Webster for the abort
D'Aabign6,in 1S46; and by E.Foster in 1848; remainder of his term; and in the ssme jeer,
In 1833 be began tlie Hittarieeh-polititehe Zeit- having token bis position prominently among
kKt^ (vol i., Hamborg, 1882 ; vol. iL, Berlin, the opponents of the extension of alavery, the
1888-'S), whiob being deoiied as illiberal was freeeoilers of his diatriot united with the demo-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^le
760 BANUNOULUS BAKZ IfflB T.UMES
erxU In d«otlDg hfan to Qi« TJ, B. boiiM <rf rf^ tn, and % cjUndrioal Hpikwl frviL XaOdock,
resentaUvea, of which he vas a member at the & celebrated florist, enumer^es 800 sorts iritk
time of hii nidden death. A Tolume of his proper ntuoee and ttngei in gronpa acoordtng
speeches and writiiigB, witii a memoir, was to their several colon, as porplft, gr^, eriin-
pnblished in Boston u 18H. son, rod, ros;, orange, yellow, wWe. These
RANDNCTTLTTS (Lot., a little frog), the bo- have some charaoteristia nark bj which they
tonical name ot oertW herbaoeons pUnts with are known, and were prodnoed by "o^NL ^^
more or less divided leaves and showy flowers, seeds of the finest seou-double varieties. What-
whiiji grow in ^aces frequented hj the frog- ever is the parent fiaat, none of its ofl^BSOC,
The ranonoali are tither perennial or aminsi, however nntoeroos, resemble it. Thnsan atS-
wiUi mostly radical leaves, and flowers either less variety oan be expected, and out of a law
solitary or somewhat ooryiabed, the prevalent number only the Teiy best are selected. To
color yellow, thongh sometimes white ; the increase these, the roots are candiiBy divided,
calyx has S sepals, and the ooroUa 5 petels, each division flowering in the second year,
with a scale or pit inside eaoh petal at base ; There are two distinct sorts known as the
the stamens are ntunerons ; the fruit (oeAmsi} Turkey and the Pertdan, both of which reonire
many, compressed, ovate, pointed, and di»- a rich loamy soil that is well mannred. They
posed in ronndish or eylindnoal beads. They are planted in the antamn, by plocfaig their
bear the names of epearworta, orowf6ots, but- Bmatl, forked, tuberoos roots 6 or 8 iocfaes
tercupa, kingcups, and the like, in reference apart in beds of soil free from stones, it being
to the form of the foliage or the bright hne foond that stronger blossoming is thereby so-
ond shape of the blossoms. The rsnmionlus enred. — Three species of rannnonliu, known
ia the type of the natural order ronun^uJacM^ as bnttercops or kingcups, adventitious from
which embraces herbs, woody vines, and sub- Earope, are oommos weeds in oar pastu<ea,
dirubby plants, all oonspiouous for ^e beaoty fields, and meadows. They are ctmspieaaus
of tiieir flowers and the acridity of their for their large, onp-sbq>ed, golden-bned bloa~
Juices, found growing for the moat part la soma, and are attraotive plants in the gsnlea
nwthern frigid and temperate regions. The when in tb«r doable-flowered fbrm, requbine
number of species of ranuncnlns, aooording to only occasional taking op of the roots and
Persoon's Synoptit in 1807. is 80 ; but in the transplanting. They are Uie bulbous crowfoot
EoTtvt BritannievM, pablished in 1880, there {R. biilbo*u$, Jinn.), with a solid fleshy root,
are 9G eoumerated ; the number found in the acrimonious and almost caustic i the tall ocw-
United Btstea alon& according to Torrey and foot (S. aerit, Linn.^, with a fleshy, fibrooa
Gray's " Fiora of North America," is 41, in- root; and the creeping orowfbot (B. repMs,
eluding a few that are considered donbtfhl ; Linn.), with a prostrate stem and nomerona
several are regarded as adventitioiis from £u- nmners. A widely distributed speciee, ran^iig
rope. A few are remarkable for beenty, snoh tram extreme arctio AmeriM to the Rocky
as the alpine crowfoot {S. alpettri*, linn.), a moontatDs, and appearing in other parts of the
little plant 8 to 8 inches high, with thickened United States, is I^rsh's crowfoot {R. PvnkH,
fibrous roots, smooth leaves with S to 6 lobes, Bichardson), and the R. Sabinii at R. Brown ia
flower stems either solitary or several ; flow- one of the few plant* that constitnte the scanty
ers 1 or & at the summit, white; petals re- flora of Melville's ialsnd. The early crowfoot
carved, heart-sh^«d. It is found on toe highest (R./a»oieulari», Muhlenberg) isonecf thefint
summits of the Austrian Alps, and on the Jnra, harbingers of a New England spring ; its Sow-
bloomiogin June and July. The fair maids of era are small and yellow. The snudl-flowered
* France (£. axmUi/elivt, linn.) is of a different crowfoot (£. aiortivut, Unn.) Uosstnns ear^y in
style, having a stem S or 8 foet high, polmipar- shady placee, and ventures into the garden as a
tite, toothed, and inoised leaves, sod white bios- weed. A onrions variety known ss the if. a.
soma of 0 or 0 petsis and pubescent sepals, var. mieranthvt ia by bo meoos oomnton. The
There ia a moltiplez-petalled variety much sea crowfoot (S. eymbalaria, Paffih) prefers thm
cultivated in Europe, onder the above fsnoii\il seaside or the vicinity of salt springs ; it haa
name, as a choice border perennial ; and an- been fbnnd from the Arctic sea, in lot. S8°, and
other variety is known in the wUd state, la met with on saline q>ota across the ooutiaent to
which the leaves difi'er permanently in their the Fsoifia ocean. — The order ranmi^vlacMa
shape. Several aquatic species with finely cut comprises many other beautifolfioweringiduita,
leaves have very pretty white flowers, which such as the ariemont, el«t<uUit, adottit, ealdkoy
risejustsbovethesunbceof thewater. Butper- trolliia, dtlphinium, and aq^iUgia; and many
haps the most remarkable of all the crowfoota useftil in medicine, such as heU^on», eaptU,
Is the cMUmon garden ranunculus (£JsMtt0ti«, aaonitvm, and podcphyUum. In get^rophical
Villd.), from the fact that it is the original type distribution, the largest proportion is foond in
and parent of innumerable superb forms with Emrope, which contains more than i of the
double and multji^ei-petalled flowers of every whole ; very few are found in Africa, and Nmlb
shade and hue. This species, indigenous to the America potiaeaees abont 4-
Levsnt, is a low plant with temate or bitemata RANZ D£8 VAOSES, the name applied to
radical lesvea, an erect, simple or branched certain simplemelodiesplayed bytbeiooinitain
flower stalk, variously colore^ 6-petalled flow- ■hepherds^SwitBsrland upon the A^iin* horn.
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
RABZASI BAFE 761
and which ore Identified with the soenes utd dent and modem, hai declared hj ita erhninal
pnrsnita incidental to pastors! Uib. The term, code Ita abhorrence of this offence, and affixed
which is rendered in German hj Ev&reihtn, to itscommlBaiontheaeTBrestponiahments, By
means litorally oov rows, and is so called from the Moatdo law, to raviah a damsel who was
the fact that the cattle, when answering the betrothed to another waa a crime prntishabla
mosical call of the shepherd, move toward him with death ; and in case of one not betrothed,
in a row, preceded hy those wearing bells, the offender waa oompelled to take the damsel
The character of these melodies, which are to wife and pay her father a fine of 60 shekels,
scarcely such in fiict, as they are not governed By the civil law rape waa pnnishable with death
by the ordinary mlea of mnsio, Tories in difibr- and confiscation of goods. Unlike onr law,
eut parts of Switzerland. They are in genertd however, the civilians made no distinction bd-
withOQt words. A ooUectlon of the varions tween rape as defined by na, of which force is
Ema dsi Vaeha and other Swiss airs was pnb- the characteristio element, and sednction with-
Udied in 1818 under the title of Sammlung eon out force, of which the criminal law of Enp-
BehtetiiBr Kiihrtihtn itnd VolkelUd&m (Bern). land and of the United States takes no cogm>
They are also incorporated in the All^tmeinat zanoe ; and bjthe dvil law thennlawfiil camal
BAveiter lAfderhuck, pnbliehed in IMl. knowledge of a woman with her consent waa
RANZANT, Oaiollo, an Italian natnralist^ subject to the same sererity of pnni^ment aa
bom in Bologna, Jnne 29, ITTfi, died there, if obtained forcibly and against her will. This^
April 33, 1841. At the age of S3 he became we aretoM, was because tbe Roman lawenter-
mifeaeor of philosophy in the university of tained go high an opinion of the virtue and
Kano, where he received holy orders, and chastity of woman, that ft would not presume
tan^t uDlil 1798. Political diBtnrbancee com- her to be capable of a violation of those qnali*
pelhng him then to return to Bologna, he was ties, unless induced thereto by the evil arts and
appointed keeper of the botanical garden of aolicitadons of man; and in order to secure
that dtj, and in 1S08 professor of natural his- her the more effectually from the danger of
tory in the nniverrity, of which ho became reo- these, it made such a violation of chastity, how
tor in 1S24. In 1836 he introdnced a course ever consummated, equally a crime in bim, and
of lectures on geology, a atndy which had re- visited its penalties upon him alone. By the
ceivedStUefavor In Italian schools. Hisprin- Saxons, rape was also esteemed a felony and
cipal work is hia ElemenH di toologia, of which nnnished with death, though the woman rav-
10 volomea were published, and which bia ished (ifHingle)might redeemtheofi'enderfW)m
deith left incomplete. execution if she were willing to accept him as
RAOUL-KOOHETTR Dftsrsfe, a French ai^ her husband, and be were wilHng to be so ra-
oheolo^t, born at St. Amand, department of deemed. Bnt William the Conqueror, probably
Oher, March 9, 1790, died July 6, 1864. He deeming the punishment of death too severe,
was educated at the college of Bourges, re- altered it to castration and loss of the eyes. In
paired to Paria at the age of SI, and in 1618 the reign of Edward I. the law was still further
obtdned a prize at the institute for a work modified, and rape was declared to be, and was
npoQ the "History of the Greek Colonies." puniahedas, a misdemeanor only; bnt the con-
la 1815 he succeeded U. Gnizot in the profoe- sequeuces of this amelioration proving di8a»-
eonship of history at the faculty of letters. He 'tfous and Inducing a fearftat increase of the
became a member of the academy of inscrip- crime, 10 years afterward, during the same
tioos, and one of the oontributors to the Jour- reign. It was restored to the rank of felony and
*al as* aaiKmtli in 1810 ; succeeded Millin as punished as before with death ; but by 9 Oeorge
keeper of the cabinet of medals in the royal IV. and 4 and 6 Victoria it was mtMe a non-
Ebrary in 1818 ; held the office of royal censor capital fblony, punishable by transportation for
of newspapers in 1830 ; and was asristnnt of life, instead of death, as formerly. la the TTni-
tjaatremgre de Qninoy in the chair of archee- ted States, although by statute the punishment
elegy In 1834, andsDcoeeded him in 1820. In varies somewhat in different states, it is by all
1838 he was one of the scientifio commission treated as felony and pnnished either with death
■ent by the French government to the Uorea. or imprisonment for life. — It waa for a long
He wss admitted in 1833 to the academy of fine time an unsettled question what was requisite
arts, of which he became perpetual secretary to constitute this offence, and proof of the full
in the following year. The government of accomplishment of the act was once considered
1848 deprived him of his office as keeper of the indispensable in order to secure a conviction.
etbinet of medals. His works on aroluBoIogi- As far as the wrong and outrage to the indl-
ul snbjects are extremely numerous. vidua! is concerned, the crime Is perhaps equally
BAPE (law French, raj>t; law I^tln, rm>- entire where the offence is imperfectly com-
'w), the violation or carnal knowledge of a mitted. Bat the physical completion of the
voman, forcibly and against her will. Early offence is not now necessary, in law, to com-
^i^h statnt^ which have perhaps in the plete the guilt of the offender; fbr it is not the
UnSted States the foroe of common law, extend degree of gratification to the Inst of the ravishcT
this to the case of a woman child nnder the age which gauges the degree of criminality, bnt th«
^ 10 years carnally known either with or Iqjury done to the person and feelings of the
*S^nst her wiS. Srery oli^liaed nation, to.' victim, and the dastardly violation of £at mod-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
Ttt BATl
Mi^Biid senM ot itSkatj vhidh attma hw evideDeeofnUttMAwveoiiviatingtlMaoeiiud;
impluited in the fenuJe hurt Foroe, aa we for, as Sir lutthew Hale fbrther remarkB : " li
haTS before obaerred, is & neoeeearr element to true rape i> a most deteatable orime, and
and the offence miut be perpetrated against the therefore ousht aererelr and impartaallf to be
irill of the partj raTished. Though the wo- poiiighed with death ; but it most be remeu-
man at first consent, yet if she is afterward bered that it ia an accnu'^on earily made and
forced, or if her consent is obtained through hard to be proved, and harder to be defended
duresa or fear of death. It is equally a rq>e; by the party accused, thonKh never ao iimo-
and HO careAiI is our law of the rights and cent;" and he then proceeds to state seTeral
. safety of all classes and persons, that even a singolar cases, which came under hia own jodi-
ocHomoa prostitute may be the enbjeot of a rape, clal observation, and in which iimocent parties
Uiough by the dril law she oonld not be. - Bat &lsely and msliciooaly aocoaed of Ihia criine
iraod is not equiToIent to force, and in the case nairowly escaped conviction^ The defendsnt
of Jackson, who accomplished his purpose by may Impeach the character of the prosocctiiz
peraonatJng the woman^e husband during hu by general evidence, but particular acta of mis-
absence, it was hijd.'i^t^'i'^re^ consideration conduct or immoraJity are inadmissible. As
by the judges, that he could not be convicted regards the testimony of children under 10
<a rape, bnt simply of an assault. A husband years of age, upon whom tliis offence haa been
oamiot oommit a rape moa his wife, for by the committed, it is adnussiUe where the witness
marriage contract die yields herself to him, and ia old enough and possessas safficieat inabuc-
flh* eauiot afterward retraother assent ; but if tion and intelllgeoce to understand the rela-
ha is present, and aids in prostUoting her unto tiona of good ^d evil, and the nature of an
another aminst h«r will,be becomes thereby oath;' but, like that of older oomplainants, its
le same punishment aa the actual perpetra- urcnmstances. — Aa in olher felonies, there
tor of tiie outrage. Aa iofimt under 14 years may be accessories before and after the tact;
of age ia presumed in law, on the ground of a but all persons actually present, aiding and
aapjMMed unbe<uli^ of body if not of mind, to abetting its commisdon, are principals, and »n
be mcapable of committing a rape ; and though Hable to the same punishment ss that awarded
as to other felonies the muim malitia ttqipltt to the actual perpetrator of the outrage. An
atatem holds, it is not so as regards this offence, attempt to commit a rape, which ia tunally in-
That this incapacity in either respect, physical dieted as " an assault with an attempt," &e^
or mental, always exists prior to that age is by la a high misdemeanor, and is severely punish-
no means true as a matter of foct, for instsnces ed by the laws of the various United States.
are not rare in which the child has reached the- BAFE, a biennial plant which is cultivated
we of puberty, and certainly in which the mis- in Europe for the BaKe of its leaves as fodder
^evous propeosities of the mind have been for sheep, and its seed for furnishing oiL It
fiilly developed, at a much earlier period ; bat belongs to the cabbage or turnip family, and
in this, as in all other matters relating to per- Its root like that of the tnmip is esculent, and
sonal responsibility, the law must draw a divid- has been used to some extent as an article of
log line somewhere, and has accordingly fixed food, eapecially by the French. Two apedes
npon this limitation as being most in conformity are well known in England: i>\ittiea rapa or
^th the law of nature. An Infant may, how- praeot, the summer rape ; and £. naput, or win-
ever, where the mischievous intention and oa- ter rape. In Fraitce the so called colza oil is
pBoity are evident, become a principal in Uie obtained from the brauiea ctanvettrit eld/era.
second degree, or suffer conviction for an as- Thia oil is largely employed for illuminating
sault with intont. — The party ravished is a com- purposes, and particularly for lighthouses. For
patent witness against the accused; but her preparing the oil the seeds are kept stored
credibility is a matter for the conaderation of some months until they are perfectly dry ; and
the jory; and if unsupported by other direct they are then advantageously submitted to
testimony, it must depend on concurrent steam heat in order to coagnlste the atbnmen,
droumstances for confirmation; as "for in- a considersble quantity of which exists in the
stance," ssys6irMatthewHale,"if the witness seeds together with mudla^nona substances,
be of good fame, if she presently discovered the By this precaution more oil is obtained and of
offence, made pursuit oner the offender, ^owed much purer cbaractcr thsn the green seeds
t^roumstancoB and signs of the injury, whereof would prodace, thongh still not ftoe from mu-
many are of that nature that only women are cus and coloring matter. It is purified by agi-
the most proper examiners and inspectors, if tating tt with about jtj port of sulphuric acid,
the place where the fact was done was remoto and leaving it to repose. Other methods are
from people, inhabitants, or passengers, if the also nsed, Kape oil is of a light yeUow color,
offender ned for it; these and the like srecon- and has a peculiar taato and EonelL It contains
curring evidences to give greater probability to 46 per cent, of solid fat, which congeals at about
her testimony, when proved by others as wdl 28 F., but rei^irce a heat of 43° to mdt it
aa herself." In charges of this nature the again. Seaide illumination, its oses are for lu-
courts are compelled to prooeed with the ut- bricatiag machinery, especially locomotive and
moat caution and care, uid to require eonvindng marine en^es, and after thorough poriScation
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
no iril anpeara to be bettor ndtod fiir this por- flneat worb of botit. FreBnuneat amonK ths
pose. It is also used in the mann&otnre of productions of Raphael at this time were mose
woollen goods, and of some kinds of leather, testi^ng bis devotion for the Virgin, to whom
and in soap making. The residoe which re- he in after life dedicated a chapel in the ohnroh
maiiu after the oU is ez^^wed is known as of Santa Ifariadella Rotondam Eome. "Tb«
Tvpa cake, and in Gr^M Britain this is ezten- mere oolleotion of all the Virgins painted or
tiY&lj used aa a manure, bring even imported even Bimply designed b^ Raphael," aays Qna-
from the oontinent for this pnrpose. It eon- tremire de Qoincj, " and the dotul of the va-
taiiu, in 9,240 Iba., ammonia 140 lbs., phoa- nations whi^ he introdacad into his oomposi-
C' rto add 43.7 lbs., potash 37 lbs. Pnlver- tJons, would form an abridged historj of hia
and drilled in with the seed, 6S0 lbs. are genius." The Madonna del gratiduca, recently
Boffloient to the acre ; or it is applied to good in the Pitti palace, painted either during ha
adraatage in a oompost with fiirmyard ma< firat visit to Florence or in the earlj part of
Dure, It is partionlarly benefloial in the cnltnra his longer sojourn there, represents the higheat
of wbe^ and alao ot tnmips. perfection of which Pemgino's type was capa-
RAFSA£L (RtrrAXLLO Sarxio, or S^irn ote. ImmediateljsQcoeeding this in date were
D'UsBiHo), an Italian painter, bom in TJrbino, the i' Madonna of the Palm Tree," now in the
lEaroh S8 (Good Frida;), 14S8, died in Rome, Ellesmere oolleotion : the Mad^ana d«l eardeU
April S (Good Friday), 1G30. Ha belonged liw> (of the goldfindi) in the Florentine gal-
to a &mil7 of artista, and his father, a man of lery, so called because Ute little Bt. ioha ia
moderate ability, was his first instmctor. At presenting a goldfinch to the infant Christ;
the age of 12 he was placed in the school of and the pictore in the Lonrre known as La
Perugino, and remained with him until near hia heUe jardiaiire, in which the Madonna ia sit-
SOthyear, assisting him in manj of his most im* ting with the two children in a landscape of
portant works, but attempting nothing which surpaanng beantj. To this Florentine period
oonnowbeautiientioatedaBhisownmitilabont belong also the "St. Catharine" in tlie British
1600. Hia first original works reflect the man- national gallery, the two little " St. Georges"
ner of Pemgino, but exhibit at the same time in St Petersbnra; and the Louvre, the" Entomh-
an iDdividoality which ripened with each per- ment" in the Borghese gallery, and the well
formanoe. After leaving the school of Pern- known ptortrait of himself, " the mirror of tho
^o, he practised his art for about a year in pure miad from which emanated his earlier
Perngia ^d its neighborhood; and among his works," in the Ufflzi at Florence. The pro-
pictures of this period are the " Morriage dnction of works like these made Raphael'a
of the Yii^n," now in the Brera at Milan, name famoos over all Italy, and Pope JuBus II.,
and well known by Longhi's engraving, the who was oontemplating the decoration with
"Knight's Dream," in the British national gal- tresoom of those halls of the Vatican which
lery, the "Agony in the Garden," "Bt. Michael bad been commenced and left unfinished by his
and St. George," all of which are executed in predeoeasorSiNicholasV. and Pius lY., selected
what la known aa his first or Pemginesque nim for the task ; and so peremptory was tha
manner. In 1504 Raphael visited Florence for order of the impatient ponlifi^ that Uie painter
tho first time, oarrying with hun a letter of was obliged to proceed at onoe to Rome, leav-
reoommendation f^om the docheae of Sora, sia- ing several of his pictures to be finished br
ter of the duka of Urbino, to the gonfaloniere Ghirlandaio and Fra Bortolomeo. In the mid-
Soderini, in which he is descril>ed as " a dia- die of the year 1608 Raphael arrived at the
oreet and amiable youth." The famous compo- papal coart, and forthwith commenced that
ritions by Leonardo da Vinci and Michel Augelo, grand series of works which develop his third
known as the "Battie for the Standard "and the or Roman manner. Hisftesooea, oovering the
" Cartoon of Piaa," iUostrating passages in the ceilings and walls of three chambers or eam«ra
Florentine wars, had recently been opened to and a large saloon, known collectively as the
pnbllo inspeetion, and to their infloenoe, proba- " Stanze of Raphael," were intended to gloriiy
bly, more than to any other worka Raphael ooa- the power of the church, and to represent
templated, waa due the new era which thenoe- Rome as the centre of spiritual culture. The
forth commences in his development. He re- first saloon, called the eajoera delta legnatura,
turned in the same year to Feru^ and for he dedicated to representations of theology,
several months was employed in pamting altar- poetry, philosophy, and jurispmdenca, each of
£leoes for churobes in that city ; after which which is parsonified by an allegorical figure
e revisited Florence, where le remained until on the ceiling, while beneath, on the 4 sidea
the middle of 1608, During this period he of the apartment, are punted the principal
punted abont 30 piotnres, the latest of which subjects. "Theology," sometimee colled the
were essentially uter the general style of the " Dispute of the Saorament," consists of aa
florenttnea, and parUonlwy of Leonardo da assemblage of doctors and dignitaries of tho
Vinci. Among hia intimate aeqniuiitances were church seated in council, above whom iarepre-
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio, the aos of HiohelAngelo's sented, in the symmetrical and conventional
master, and Fra Barttdomeo, with the latter of manner of the early painters, a heavenly glory,
whom he m^ntained a IHendship which ended with Christ throned on clouds and presiding
(mly with death, and to which we partly owe the over a host of patriarchs, aainta, and angela.
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
Thli, Ois flnt wmk exMOted bj- Bq>hMl in
Borne, 1b dao the last of hie large oompo^tiona frMOO for Agoetjno Ohigi, r banker of Kmiul
vhkb ooDt^ns tracM of hia earlr religioiu, the 4 grand fignrea of the Sibyls in the Chid
Pem^esqne mviaer. The Infloence of the chapel of Sto. Varia della Pace, and the veil
antique, vhiob he here first felt In its Mness, known *' Triumph of Galatea," beade many
the proximity of Michel Angeki, who was then Kadonnaa and other easel pictsres. His fbr>
painting his anblime fteacsoes in tli« Siatine tone k^ pace with his cdebrity, and lie lired
ohapel, and the importanoe and grandeur of In princely magnificence, honor^ by the chief
tbe nilijeola upon wnioh he waa engaged, gave etatemen and anthora of the day, and admired
a new impnlse to his genhis, and h« reawied and beloved by all contemporary ardsts, ex-
dmoet at a rin^e step the limit of his etyle. oepting Ifiehel Angelo, whoee hangh^ ^^^
£Qa next wto'k in pomt at date, " Poetry" or ill endured the fame of hi« young rival. Dnt-
"Famasaos," representing an asaembly of ingtheprogreasof thelaterworksinthoataaM
Greek, Roman, and Italian poets on IConnt I.eo X. employed Baphadl on two other im-
Pamaaana, with Av<iQo and ue Uoaea in the nortaut ondertakingfl, the deooratioa of tbe
centre, marka perhaps Hie b-an^on period : toffgU, or open galleries mnning ronnd S nde*
bnt in "Flinosoph7''ortlie "School of Athens," of the conrt of 6t Damasns (the older portkn
whioh followeo, the Roman style la matored. of the Vatican), and Uie desi^ for the tape*-
The eomporition repreaenta a grand hall or triea of the Biatine chapel. For tho logffit ha
portico, in which aro oharaoteriaticslly gronp- flimlslied a celebrated emiei of designs frcm
•d the great philosophers and sages of anti- the Old Testament, known as " Raphael's Bi-
qnity. The remdning ft^aoo in this lUaua, ble," and which were executed in 13 small
** JnrispradeDoe," owiiw to tiie pecnliar con- onpolaa on the gallery on the 3d elory by Gln-
straotion of the wall, Is divided into 8 com- lio Rtunano, Francesco Fenni, Fellegrino da
posiUons, Qrflgory delivering the eealesiastic&l ICodena, Ferino del Yaga, ana others of his
law and Jnstinian promolgating his code of papila, A variety of becmtjful arabeaqne oma-
fliril law, above which are female personiflca' menta and stuccoes in. the same gaUetj 'were
tima of pmdenoe, fbrtltade, and temperance, exeonted from his designs by Giovanni da
Tfaeee ftMCoes were finished in 1511, and tp- TJdine. The cartoons for tapestries, prepared
pear to have been immedialely snoceeded by probably between 1618 ana 1616, represent
those in the itatua of Heliodorus, so called the highest efforts of Raphael's genins in his-
from the Btery of die expnlaion of Heliodoms torical composition. They sie from 14 to IB
from the temple, as related in the 3d book of feet in len^li by 13 In height, and are eolcr-
Uaccabeea, whioh ispaintedononeof its walla, ed in diatemper. The subjects iUnEtrated are
In this composition the gronp of Heliodoms and the "Death of Ananiaa," "Elymas the Bor-
the pnrsuing angels is especially noticeable for oerer atrack with Blindness," " The Healing
Its snpematoral power. The " Uess at Bol- of the Lame Uan at the Beaatifiil Gate of tbe
sens," " Attila t«rrlfied by a Oelestial Viaion," Temple," "TheHiraoaloosDrangbt of Fishes,^
and "SL Peter delivered from Prison" occupy "Paul and Barnabas at Lystra," "Paolpreach-
the remunbg walls of this ttanaa ; and on the ing at Athens," and "Tie Charge to PtAer;"
ceiling are repreeentations of the promlees of these cartoons, at the sn^estion of Rnbcns,
God to the loar patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, were parchased by Charles I. of England, and
Jacob, and Moeea. Jalins died daring the prog- are now deposited in Hampton Oonrt pal>
resa of the work, bnt his snoceMor, Leo X., ace. The remaining cartoons of the senea,
directed its completion, as also that of the other representing the "Stoning fk Stephen," the
works In tbe Vatican on which Raphael was " Oonveraion of St. Paul," and "Paol Id the
engaged, beside intrusting him iritii new ones. Prison of Philippl," are losL Tho origmal tap-
Before this time, however, commissions mnlti- estries, for whi^ the pope psid the mannfao-
EUed so greatly upon the painter's hands, that tarers in Arras 60,000 gold ducats, after varioos
e waa obliged to commit to the best of the mntationa of fortune, are now in-the Vaticwi,
nmnerous scholars who now resorted to him but are so injured and fkded that the general
from all parts of Italy the execution of portioos efii^ot of the coloring is destroyed. Raphael
of the frescoes in the remuning itanu from his also furnished the dengns, bat not the cutoona,
cartoons and desizns. In this manner was for a second series of 10 tapestries, which are
painted the ttanta ieW ineeudio, which takes Its also in the Vatican. Amid these great under-
name from the prinoipal subject illustrated, the takings he did not neglect the sn^ecta whidi
" Fire in tbe Borgo," and in which are repra- had first inspired his pencil, and the nnmerona
aented the prominent events in the lives of Kadonnaa and holy families produced during
Popes Leo IlL and rV. The frescoes in the Mia his residence in Rome include some of the most
M Ceitantino, the last of the series, were exe- cliaracteristio and admirable of his works. Dia-
outed after his death under the direction of tioguished among them is the w<«iderftil Jf<i-
Gitilio Romano, his most eminent pupil. They donna di San Siito (painted between 1B17 and
alt snfTered from neglect after the removal of 1630} in the Dresden gaSery, representing the
the popes to the Qnirlnal palace, and were Virgin standing in a majestic attitude with the
cleaned and in some instances restored by ohiid in her arms. It is sud to have betai
Carlo llarattt In the isth century. While en- punted at once on the canvaa, without any
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BAPHAEL KAPHA y.T, 735
preUmtiuTj stndr, md baa been engrarod In h kdmlnble qnalitiea of Raphael ; thatno eartblf
S^le not unirorUiT ai tli« oridnal bj Friedrich reaown was ever bo uoBsllied b^ roproaoh, m
. MaUer. Ulber otiebrated Uadotmos of this Justified by merit, so coaflnned by oononrreot
period are the Aldtdmndini Uadonna, in the opinioii, eo established by time." His lifb boa
poasessioa of Lord Gamgh, tiiat known as been nrittea by Qaatremdre de Qniney md
the BridoevBter, the VUrft (m diadima in the PaseaTatit, the work of the latter bring tbe
Lionvra, &e loT«7 Jfbdowta dtSii *«JMi or «e(r- latest and fullest; and more briefl;' hj Un.
fficla In tbe Pit& pake*, tbe Sfadonna di Fbli- Jameson in her "Memoirs of the early Italian
ffna in the Vatican, ^at ealled tlie "Pearl" Painters." See also Kogler's "Huidbook of
at Madrid, and tbe Madmma del *<k« In the Italian Bohoola."
Eeonrial, the two last mentitoMd being sHaiv SAPHALL, Uokkh Jaoob, Fb.D., a Jewish
^ocea with saints assembled aronnd thoVimn. rabbi and antbor, bom in Stockbdm, Sweden,
Of several of these doplioatea exist, and all of in Sept. 1798. Being deajgned by bis parenta
them hare been repeatedly engraTtd. Among for the ministry, he was sent at an early aga
his remaining easel pietores are the Bt. Oecilia. to the Jewish coUeg* at Oopenhagen, where,
now ia BoFogna; the " Archangel Uichau when bnt 18 years old, be recdvea tbe degree
ovenwmtingthe Devil," in the Lonvre; "Ohrist ot ehaiir orsoeitu, wbiob entitled him totlte
bearing the Oroea," known as Lo mtimo di dedgnotion' of rabbL In 1S19 be went fa>
SieUia, in Madrid; and his last, and by many England, and Uiere acquired so complete «
considered his grsndeat worli, the " TranaQgn- mastery of English as to speak it with the fln-
ralion," in the Vatican, painted in competition ency of n native. In 181B-'S0 he made a tonr
-with Sebastian del FiomWs "Baishig of Lai- of tbe cmtinent, and in 1891 entered the ^aA^
anu," of which Wohel Angelo Issidd to have Tersi^ of Giessen, where he remained nearly 4
fbmishedthedeugn. Ofhisportraits,ofwbiah Tears. Li 1895 be retamed to Enriand, where
he executed npwu^ of 8Q, this most bmotis are bo matiied and took np his residence, diatin-
thoae of Julius IL and Leo X, the originkb of gnishing himself as a leetorer on Hebrew bibl^
Imth of wbiob are in riorenoe, Oardinala fiibbie- eal poetry. In 1884 he oommenoed a weekl7
no, Bembo, do' MecUoi, and de' Bosd, Joanna of periodical, " The Hebrew Renew, <k Uagadnt
Aragon, and the " Fornarina," whicJi was long of IM>binicsl literature," dte fint Jewish pe-
suppoised to represent one of his mistresses, but riodical ever pnblisbed in Great Britain ; but
vhich PassaTont conxiden to be the portrait in 1986 impaired health compelled him to
of a celebrated ImproTisatrice named Beatrice relinqnish it. Between 1884 and 1887 he
3^0. The last named picture is in the Barbe- translated into English some writings of Uai-
rini palace In Rome. Tothlalistof works must monides, tbe S^Ur ikkarim or "Book of
be added the fresco of " Onpid and Psyche" in Principles" of the rabbi Joseph Albo, and the
the Tilla Fameuna, and numerous drawings in Fain Zsian<>n, a work on ethics, of Rabbi
obalk, fh>m which More' Antonio Raimondl, Naphtali Hirtz Wessely. In 18S9 he published
who eagraTod many of Raphael's liest works, " Foslivals of the I»rd," a series of essays on
oxecnted several of his finest plates. If In ad- Jewish festivals. The perseontion of tito Jewa
diljon we mentdon that he directed the con- at Damasciis in 1840 brought hbn into intimate
atrootion of St. Peter's fix>m lus own plana relations with the chief rahbi of England, Df.
subsequent to the death of Bramante in 1614, B. Eirsohel, for whom he noted sa eecvetarr,
beside exeoating aereral other architaotnral and at whose instance be drew np an Mpnrga-
works ; that In the latter part of his life he had totr decloratian, in Hebrew, Engli^ frenob,
commenced impratant reaeardhes into the ar- and Qermon. I>nring that year he again visit-
ohitectaral rwnains of Soman antiquity ; and ed Qermany, and eooa after bis return pablish-
that he execntedatleast onestatueinmarblsL ed, jointly with the Bev.D. A. De Sola of Lon-
beside designing others, we have the record don,a translation of 18 treatisesof the JfuAna.
of a life which, considering its brevity, is with- Boon afterward he oommenoed, in connection
ont a parallel in the history of art. He died with Messrs. Be 6(da and Undentbal, a trana-
of a fever caught in superintending some latlon of the Hebrew Scriptures, with copious
subterranean oicavodons, and was buried is notes, of which only Genesis has yet been pub-
the Pantheon, near the remains of Maria di lished. In 1841 be was appointed rabU
Blbbleno, niece of the oar^nal of that name, preacher to the synagogue at Birmingham,
to whom he bad been betrothed. Through where he devoted his energies to the fonnding
eome donbt as to the place of his sepulohre, of a Hebrew national school, the drat ereeteo
bis remains were exhumed in SepL 1688, and by the provindal Jews of Xkigland. He waa
on Oct. 18 rdnterred with great ceremony, also engaged in several conkoversies U regard
Of his private charaoter Mrs. Jameson aayi : to Judaion, and published 8 or 4 polemical
" There was a vulgar idea at one time preva- works on the subject He was a ft«qtieDt con-
lent that B«>had was a man of vicious and trihutw to periodloala, and lectured with sne*
depraved hatuts, and even died a victim to oess on bibHcal poMry, the po«t-biblie«l history
bis excesses; this slander has been silenced of the Jews, and on geography and etadstioi.
for ever by indisputable evidence to the con- He also advocated pobIi<^ ue removal of the
trary, and WO may now reflect with pleasure civil disabilities of the Jews. In IS4S he de-
that nothing rests on sorer evidence umn the termindd to remove to tha United State*, and
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
7«6 RAPIDBS BIPP
on hii depATtare the toKror »bA principal hf orltloolitom^iloal and otlxr ecntdbottaBS
biliabitwitg of the dt^ of Bimiingham, of all to the {wriodicus Sitttnv iaittim (Vieima,
denominations, nnitod in an addrCM thank- 18S0-'Sl)aiid£«r«niA«ined(ViamaaDdPr^ae,
Ing him for his eflbrta in the ooose of pnhlio IS8S-'4S), and nomoronB minor liJmnrfationn In
education, and in behalf of the pnblio institn- Hebrew and Oennan inserted in vaiiona other
tlona ot the titj. Th« address was aceom- Tmbllcations. He toanilated into EiArew vMse
panied bj a parM of 100 sorereigna. On Raoine'a " Esther/' entitled Sheerith Jthndak
Lis arriTal in Ifew York, he accepted a call (Vienna, 1687). Ht> principal work ii BrAk
from the first An^o-Oennas Hebrew oongre- tniUm (lat toI., Fragne, 186S), which is to
gation of the dt;, known as the " Great Syna^ fbnn part of a compr^raaiTe luatorico-aitica]
gogue," to serre them as rabbi rn^acber. In diotionuTof rabbinical knowledge in two diri-
18S3 he pnbllihed " DoTotional Ezercdaas for sioni. Having officiated for some time as rab-
the Dangntera of Israel ;" in 18C6 his lectures bi at TamopoC he was elected in 1S40 to fill a
on the "Fost-Biblloal Historj of the Jews," rimilar office at Pragne, a poriticm vhich he
oareftillr rerlsed, in 8 vols. ; in I86» a sm^ atiU holds. His roth btrthdar, in 1860, wu
pamphlet entilled "The Path to Immortalltj;" the occasion of salntatory addrcmoi from mi-
and in 1861 a disoonrse under the title, *' The merona Jewidi oongregatdona of the Enropean
Bible View of Slarerr." continent, Ei^land, and America.
RAPIDES, a W. parish of La., aeparatedflmn RAPP, Giosa, fbonder of the sect of the
Texas on the W. bj the Babine ^rer, bonnded Harmonista, bom in WOrtemberg in 1770, died
K. E. b7 Little river, and intersected br the at Eoonomr, Penn., Aur. 1, 1847. In his
Red and Oalcaden rivers ; area, abont 3,000 sq. ronnger da^s he bellered that he had ezpe-
m. ; pop. In 1860, 26,860, of whom 16,SG8 were rienced a divine call, and that be waa chained
alaves. The sarfaoe is nearly level and the soil with the restoration of the Qiristian leliguxi
generallT' fertile. The prodnctlonB in 18C0 to its original pnrit;. He did not long confine
were 610,646 bnshels of Indian com, 16,084 himself to spiritual matters, hot formed tbe
hhds. of sngar, 49,649 bbls. of molaBwa, and plan of a commnnitj organized on the modd
2S,S86 balei of cotton. Oapltal, Alexandria. of the prinutive church with goods in comnuML
KAPIN-TH0YBA8, Paiti. db, a French his- As in the promotion of this object he waa hin-
torian, bom in Oastrea in 1661, died in Weeel, dered hj the state, he removed in 1808 with
Mar 19, 17S6. He was of a Protestant bmily his followers to America Oee HARnonsra.)
which came originally ftvm Bavo;, and became BAPP, Jbi.h, a French general, iiom in Ool<
an advocate, but subaequentiy turned hie acten- mar, April 26, 1772, died in the grand dnchf of
tion to the profession of arms and to literary Baden, Nov. 18, 1821. He entered a cavalry
itndiea. Obliged to leave France hj the revo- regiment in the French armj as a private in
cation of the edict of Nantes, he first went to 1788, distlngaiehed himself daring tJie ware of
England, where be arrived in 1686, and from therevolotiiHi, became an aide-de-camp of De-
Qiat oonntrj passed over to Holland, and there saix during the campaigns in Italy, and went
Joined a company of French cadets, and follow- with that general to Egypt. After the battle
ed the prince of Orange (William III.) to Eng- of Harengo he waa promoted by Napoleon,
land. He was present at the battle of the and attached to his staff. When N^toleoa
Boyne, and was severely wonnded in the n^ became emperor Bi^p was raised to the rank
of Limerick, and In consequence forced to qait of brigadier-general. At the battle of Anatnr-
the army. He afterward became totor of the lits he decided the victory by preeiidtatiag hia
young earl of Portland, and in 1707 settled in fbroe ttpon the Rusdan impwial gnard, driving
Wesel, on the iChine, where he composed his all before him, and taking Prince Bepniu pris-
worka. Of these the most important is his oner; for this he was made general of diviairai.
Eutoira d'Angletave (9 vols. 4to., the Hagne, Hedistinguishedhimself highly in the anoceed-
1724), in which the narration of events is car> ing campaigna, eapedally at the battle of Goly-
ried down to the death of Charles I. It was min, where he waa voiuded for the 9tb timet
translated by N. Tindal, with a contlnnation to To enable him to reoroit his health he waa in-
the death of George I., and often printed (3 tmsted with the government of Thoni, and
vols, fol., 1723 ; 6 vols, fbl., 1748 ; 21 vols. 8vo., snhseqnentiy with that of Dsntzio. He was in
1767). The work is generally marked by ac- the campaign against Russia, receiving at the
curacy of statement and clearness of expresuon, Moskva his 22d wound; and after the disas-
and forms a complete body of English histoiy trans result of that invasion he threw himaelf
wbichbadnooompetitortilltheworkofHnrae; into Dantdc, where he was Mockaded by the
aa a careful end trustworthy compilation ttis I^ngrians and Russians. Heheldoutl2inoiitha,
scarcely yet superseded. but was flnslly compelled to surroider, and was
RAPOPORT, SoLouoH JemmAH, a Jewish carried to Rnssia aa prisoner of war. Betnrn-
antiquary and rabbi, bom in Lemberg, Austrian ing to France npon the first restoration, he wn
Galioio, in June, 1790. He flrst attracted at- intrasted by Lonis XVIII. with the command
tention among his coreligionists by notes to a of the first army corps, charged with the dnn
Talmndical work of his father-in-law, Rabbi of reatstin^ the inarch of Napcdeon. But, fol-
Ldw Neller, and mbseouently rose to the high- lowing the example of others, ha soon went
cat rank among the Hebrew vriten of tite age over to his old leadv, and waa ^pointsd by
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
KAFFAHAKNOOE RAHEOUnES 7«7
UiD oommandor of the 8th dirifdon, member BASE, Rasuttb Ohbistiah', k Danish phllol-
of the ohatnbor of peers, and oommaoder- ogist, born in Brendekilde, near Odense, on
in-diief of the tnoj of the Rhine. There, the island of Fflnen, Hot. 83, 1787, died in
Ereaaed bfan Ansbriansmif fhr enperior tohia Oopenbagen, Not. 14, 1B82. He waa grad-
1 niunbera, he radrod to StraabonrK, and after nated at the tmiTersit^r of Oopenbagen, waa
theaeoond reatorotion betook hinuelf to Swite- appointed an assistant in tiie nniTerait; librarj-
eriand. In 181B he retnmed to France, and in 1808, deToted himself to the stndr of north-
Tsa receiTed with faTor and reinstated in thd era hiBtory and literatare, and in 1811 pnb-
armj. When the news at Napoleon's death liahed in Danish bia first work, an " Introdac-
reaehed France, Rapp hnrst into tears in the tion to the Stndj of the loelandto or OH
presenoe of the whole oonrt. He wrote a de- Horse Langaage." "With Nyemp in IBia he
■cription of the siege of Dantzia.andalsoleft a made a Jonmey to Sweden, and in 1813 went
Tolnme of " Uemoirs," published in 1828. to Iceland, where he remained S years atndy-
RAPPAHANNOOK, a riTer in the E. part ing its history and literature. In 1816 be do-
Of Virginia, formed by the oonflaenoe of the terniined to undertake a Joomey to the Eaat,
North fork and other small streams, which rise and alter remaining some time in Stockholm,
in the Bine ridge and unite on the H.E. border and during the years 181B and 1819 in Fin-
of Oulpepper co. At the 8. E. eztremi^ of land and St. Petersburg, oocnpicd with the
that county it reoeiTes the waters of the Rap- study of Finnish, Russlau, Armenian, FerdiUii
idan,itslatvest tributary; thence flowing about and Arabic, went to Persia and passed some
40 m. in a deviona oourse, it reaches tide water time iu Envan, Teheran, Ispahan, Bhiraz, and
at Erederioaburg, where by a fall it soppUes among the ruins of Persepolis. Thence he
Taluable power; thence it becomes naTigable, went to India and Ceylon, returned to Copen-
and entera Oheaapeake bay by an estnarj about hogen in 1828, was soon after appointed pro-
TO m. long. The whole length in a straight feasor of literary history in the uniTer^ty, and
line from its Bonroes to Chesapeake bay is about in 1829 was made professor of oriental lan-
ItO m., but with its numerous and intricate guages and first librarian. According to Bun-
vindings its real length must be nearly twloe sen, Rask anticipated to a certun degree sonw
M much. Its general course is 9. E. of the greateat disooTcries of Grimm, Bopp,
RAPPABANNOOK, a N. K co. of Va., bor- and Bumouf. In his Icehmdio, Anglo-Saxon,
dered H. £. by the Horth fork of the Bappo* and Frisian grammars, ha expounded the InWB
haonock, and drained by others of its head wa- of those languages with the greatest possible
ters; area, about 2G0 sq. m. ; pop. in 18G0, completeness, first promulgated the law of the
8,860, of whom 8 530 were slaves. Il is border- transposition of sounds, made the first compar-
ed on the H. W. by the Blue ridge, and has a atire exhibition of German, Greek, Latin, and
generally fertile soiL The productions in 1860 Lithuanian grammars, and originated the real
were 167,699 buahela of wheat, 216,216 of In- knowledge of the Zend language,
dian oom, 8,273 tons of hay, 2,785 lbs. of tobao- BA8K0LHIKS (Buss., schismatics, heretics),
00, and 34,618 of wool. There were 16 grist the coIlectiTe name given to the religious sects
nulls, 11 churches, and 487 pupils attending of Russia which have origiusted by seceasion
publie schools. Value of real estate in 1858, from the state church. They call themselves
12,688,423, showing an increase of 86 percent, itarmertii, that is, adherents of the ancient
tince 1860. Capital, Washington. faith. The origin of the various branches of
BARATONGA, or R&botomoa, an island of Raskolniks is assigned tothe middle of the 17th
the 3. Pacific ocean. Cook's group ; laL (of cen- century, thongh some of them were strength*
tre) 81° 18' 8., long. 160° 7' W.; pop. estimat- ened by the scattered remains of former secta.
edat4,000. It is about 80 m. in circumference, The oeoasion for the formation of the Raskol-
ia snrronnded by a ree^ and has no anchorage niks was the corrected and altered edition of
for ships. It wsa first seen tram the ship 6e- the Slavic translation of the Bible and the Bl»-
ringapataminl814; bat Ur. Williams, tiie mis- vie liturgical books, commenced in 1662 by
[jouary, also claims the diacovery of it in 1828. order of the patriarch Hioon of Moscow, and
The inhabitants have been converted to Ohris- ratified in 16E4bya synod at Moscow. Against
^anity, and have made considerable progress this change of the official church rituals there
in dvilliation. arose a violent opposition, the leaders of which
RAREY, JomrS. SeeHoRSB, vol.iz. p. 286. charged the state church with apostasy from
RARITAH, a river of Now Jersey, formed the trne fdth, and proclaimed the necessity of
hj the eonfiaence in Somerset co. of two leaving its commumon. As they did not agree
branehea, both having their sonrces in the among themselves, a nnmbcr of secta wen
mountains of Uorris co.; the North branch founded at the same time. The Russian gor-
flovs nearly due S., and the South branch emmenthaagenereUypersccnted them all with
iiiakes a ourve B. W. through Hanterdon co., the utmost rigor and cruelty, and their htstorj-
■nd then fbrms a oironit to the N. From the therefore is involved in great obscurity. Ab
Junction the course of the Raritan is nearly E. they have had to keep themselves concealed,
t paaaes by New Brunswick, whenoe it is navi- even their principles are very imperfectly
cable to Baritan bay, wliioh it ent^at Perth known. In general they may bedividedinto two
Amboy. The m^ stream is ^>ont 99 m, long, large claisca, the "popiih'' teota, whioh hava
UigiiiZOQjjyGOO^Ie
7« BABKaLSIES KASPAIL
wMnaatUaCca rfpriatti (B««.yfft Frie*X tiairn !■ miw gwriillj liinniii In 1 aiw
aad, JB general, tha ecclMiMrinl or^lMtioii the trnth, and the beat awnnlrqiTMMtftbw
of Um ilato cliHrdi; and tlw "uiti-popUi,'' m ra^l; inaveBD^. A oomprebenara woik
«ikie]ilutTenopriw(BBtaiII,biitimdersUndlM on tbeir Itutocy.wilh ptrtiiMar refioeooe t»
gMtenl |Hie*tbood <tf Ibe UthM {& the widcit tha i»>jiTn«l MnAitinii nf ttu. B.^^^ fhwrh
and DMMt literal aenae of tbe wwd. The moat and dnlizatkia dniing tlw ITtfa aJod the Gnt
beat known anioag the namer- half <d the 18th eentiUT, vu pabliahed at &
oua aaeta are the foUowing: 1. Tbe Daho- FetendtarRin ISSQ by Shtch^toC
' ' ' ' ' ' • '■ ■ - BA5PAIL, Fkuicob Vncm:; a French
chemiat and politieiaii, bom at Gaipentraa, de-
partmant cf Vanclnae, Jan. 29, 17M. fie vai
pieata, reject oeth% coademn war, and re- cdnoaled at tbe aamnair of AvigiwB wUi the
avuUe in manf oth« pdato tbe eoeic^ ot dengn of eoteriag the eborcb, and in 1811.
JHeoda and Ibe Menaonilfw, Tber vera em- tboo^ but 17 yeata eld, deUvcnd tboe ■
eOr penecnted nnder Catharine IL and Paid, coarae of ketnree on i^ukec^hj, and a 1812
but obtained toleration noder Alesander I. mm tn tbeolagr. BefiMing to take ordcn, he
The OoMacke on tbe Don bekow moetlj- to went to Paris after the eeetotd reatoration, and
tbia aect, and » rimfraaton of Jaith, preaenled ea[fN>rtedbiiiiae]fb;priTate teaching. InlSM
bj them to Ibe Biurian gOTeramait, baa ap- be preaeided to tbe ■iititntfr bia finfc mi iiaiii.
peered in print. 2. Tbe Fomotana bare be- »tTeet>«eiq»ontheda«ifie«tion<rfgraaw,aBd
eome eapeculljt celebrated for permitting aoi- in ISflG became attached to the &ilUti» dm
dda, for which thej cite Uark riii. 85 e( mg^ teientm at Ftoiaiac. In IT29 be fonnded with
and whieh the; gMieralljr aeeomididt by aeif- U. Sugej the ^aaaZw dtt mumh d'obt^watio*.
' ' a to have abated Beoomiiig inTolred in a conlroTa^ with Cn-
oommonlj large nnmber of caaea attracted the thnn in ISSOa woik entitled C^vp* dt/ov^
attenlten of the civilized woiU. They poaaeaa KteiU^fijittt ("A Scientific Hotaevtu[^nng").
n oonfMMon of fiith in M articiea, drawn np Bering frtan the firat peiticipeted in the secret
at a Bynod in Foland in 1761, S. The Phil^ political morementaca Farts, he took
pona, called after that fboader, n |dain emu- share in the reroli^on <tf Joljr, !("■'■
Iijnua named Philippoe PnstoarieL Apart waswonnded; bntbe
of Ihia sect, owing to tka ineeaaaot poaecntion ration «f Loai* Fhili[q . .
to whUi tber were expoaed, bsve emkrated from him the cross of tbe le^nt^ honor. He
from Biusia. AccMdiDgtothecenaneof ISfiB, aided in the organijjfiontrf the aatwdwyteyh
about 1,800 of them were Uving in East Pma- and other secret societiea aiming at hie orer-
aia, where the free ezenaae at Ibur reli^tm, throw, was Ibe duef editor of the .fiCfbnnafMu-,
eodenesticsl self-KOTtfiunent, and ezempdfm wes many timea proaecnted, and ^eut alto-
ef tbe preeeot generation from milUarj serrice getber Sot? jrears in prison, where he wrote
hare been granted to than. 4k A epecial in- several of his sdentifio work^ and his ezperi-
tereet has been of late awakened in the Kolo- ence in which fnmisbed the materia]* for bit
kans, part of whom emigrated to Tnrker, and .fit/bnw pinitauiairt <3 vola. 870^ 1839). In
there becme acgnaintea with Ibe FnHeatant 1840, on tbe celebrated trial of lime. Laiai^
».UA.«.A»ftwii AiimFtM,wtn»TqiwiTiit|fr»^ forpoisraiinK her bosband, be o&et the tcsQ-
aa agreeing in all eaeottlalMintB with the piin- monftrf Ortla to thedetectioa oS araenic in
didee trf Proteetent CSuistunitj. Their nan- the inlestinee of tbe Tictim, bf aaeerting that
bar is ealimaled at aevcral miUiaiia^-Abont that |»oTed notluBg, nnee sramie was djfTBsed
10 jtan ago tbe chief aeet ttf the " pc^di'' tbroogb all bodice, and could be found even in
Raakolntfca prenukd on a Greek Wbc^ <tf thewoodof Ihejndge'acbaii. This statement
Anebria to mdain (»e of their priests se a he derelwed at length in the Mimoirc* d eon-
ln8hop,andthnsobriatedtbamHnobjecti(Mkof nUUr pnbliahed br the defence, whidi gave
the writers of the Bnaun cbnroh to Uieir sepa- riee to eonsiderable oontrorersf. Haring
rate organiiatica, that thur connection with adopted th» theorj that diseaae la most fro-
ths ^ostolical dinrdi waa interrnpted. In qnenttroocadoned by internal or external per-
order to rdiere them ttwa tbe neoessitr of aaite^ be fixed npon camphor as tbe beet gen-
liring nnder the jnrisdictiMi of Uaho^ who, eral agent for dertiojing them, which he pre-
to avoid impiisonment, bad to lire inforNa pered and scdd at first in the fom of cigarettes,
eonntriee OB tlteBosaanfrmtier, Alexander D. ofierward using it slso in other modes and com-
in 1869 iaanedan edict which makea it tbe dntj Uning with it other runedies, accoidiug to
of the bishops of tite stale chnroh to ecaisecrate drenmetanoea. He pnblisbed seTeral wo As in
the Uahope and priests of the Baskolnika. As ezpodti<n of his s;etem, <4>ened an office for
to the aggregate number of the BaakdnikB, it gratdtona ooBSnltation, and met with great
l> nttarl; unpoadble to obtdn any tnutworth; peconiair Bueoess, though be wss seTcral times
infoimaljon, as erei? Boanan eensns indndw proseented and even imprisooed for illegal
them In tbe membcnbip of tbe state chnrdi. praotioe of medicine. In 1848 he heeded the
The statements of the Rossisn writers vtrj crowd whieb gathered at the Edtel de Yille on
frinu 6,000,000 to 16,000,000, but tbe latter ca- tbe eremng of Feb. 21, and proclaimed the re-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
RAT 76»
paUic befim the urlral of the pravMoiuI gOT- able for its blue or glanoona trixra and Ibltage,
emnwnt Refluing an^ publio offloe, be estsb- ftnd Ita pnrplish black and firm, plaaaaut-
lished the Anti dti peupU dailr newspaper, tasted berriea, bearing abundnntlj, abd repa;-
He was one of the Iradera of the insarreotioii ing xaj cera bestowed upon it. The olovd-
oC Mb; is, and was arreated and oonflned at berrj (£. ehamamortu, Udd.) is fbnnd in north-
Vineennes till April, 1849, when he was tried em Kew England, on the White moantaina
and condemned to C years' impriaonmant at and stmilsr elevations, and is the same nieoios
I>c>nl!eiia. Notwithstanding his inoaroeratioD, which in I^pland is esteemed as a TalDeblo
he was, in Sept. 1849, el«<£ed b^ the depart- food. The ptuple^oweriiig raspbeny {S.
ment of the Seme a member of the national as- odaratut, Linn.) is a common plant in the
aemblr, and in December received 86,000 Totw northern aUt«B, and is con^cuous for Ita
for the preddenaj. On his release in April, large showy blossoms, which moke it a fine
1854, he retired to Belgium, and haa since pub- omaiaetital shrub for the garden. Ithaslarge,
lished a periodical entitled £Mnu eomf^imtt^ simple, lobed leaves; its fruit is large, &it,
taire det teitTuM appliqvia. He has written diy, and agreeably acid, bnt rare,
man J valnabla works on chemistry and Undred BASSE. See Cvm.
Boientiflo sn^eota. BASTADT, & fbrtifled town of Baden, on
RASPBERBY (ruAua, Dnn.), a small edible tiie river Unrg, about 9 ra. a B. W. from Ottrla-
fmit of the natiuvl order of roiaeetr. The mhe ; pop. 0,000. In 1714 a treaty of peace
flovrera consist of a fi-parted calyr irithont was signed here by Princo Eugene and Har-
braotlets, 6 deoidnoas petals, and pnmerons sh^ ViUars, which pat an end to the war ot
stamens and styles. The ftm is a collection the Spanish Bnccossion. The second congresa
of carpels forming a hemispherical berry, hoi- of Rastadt met Deo. 9, I7S7, to negotiate a
low beneath and faUing off whole from the treaty of peaoe between France and the Ger-
drj* receptacle when ripe ; the stylos rem^- man empire, It was not dissolved ontil April,
mg in a withered state give it a bristly appear- 17S6 ; and when the two French ambassadora,
acce, ftom which the tenn raro is applied to Bobe^eot and Bouder, Mt oat on their return,
it. The raroberry grows readuy trota aeeds, diey were assassinated by Anstrian horsemen
and is widuy dbtribated by the birds which a abort distance trom the city. Baatadt is one
- feed npon it. It is liable to variation, especially of the strong plaoea of the Qennan confMero-
under cattivation. The species most generally tion ; ita defsoaive works are of great strength
aiiltivatedi3the£./(!<Bu*,anBtiveofEaropeand and extent In Hay, I84S, the garrison bavuig
of Ut. Ida in Crete, whence its epeoiflo name, mntinied, the place became the principal and
From this have originated a great many dis- last stronghold of the German repablicans; bnt
tinct and permanent varieties of mnch value, after a short reetataooe nnder Uieroelaw^ it
ancb SB the red and white Antwerp, the twioe- surrendered to the bw>pe of tiie prince of
bearing, Bamet saperb, red globe, Franconin, Pmssia in July.
Fasto)^ hornet, white transparent, prince of RAT, a well known rodent, the type-of tie
"Walea, Knevett'a giant, Bonohettii, imperial, sab-family murina. In the marine tribe of
&C. Of the American seedling varieties may this sab-family, confined originally to the old
be mentioned the Allen, Oatawissa, Otuhtng, world, belong the common honte rata. The
^nvnoii, and Brinkle's orange. All the sorts brown or Norway rat (mut dteumamvs, Ft-IL)
'witeely in any good garden soil, especially has a body 8 to 10 inches Itmg, and the tail 6'
-eely in
moist;
if it be moist; If dry, the berries are email and to 8 Inches, soBntlly covered with hair and with
half-grown. The gronnd ahoald be kept light about SOO rings ; the color above is grayiah
and rich to promote the seodhig out of Uie brown mixed with maty, grayer on the rides,
roots, and aopemnmerary snokers and aahy wUte bdow ; the npper enr&ce of
Aonld be rranoved. Pmning is performed in the fbet dir^ white. This apeclea, oiwnally
aatmnn or early spring, cntting ont all the from Ih^ and Peroa, entered Enrope tuttng^
dead stems. The plants do best when seonred Rnasia, appearing Is the central conntrias about
to firm stakes; they may be trained advan- themiddleof the 18th eentniy; itwaabronght
tageoasly to fences or warn, a rnmnj or shaded to America about 1770, and has since greatly
ezpoanre aSbcting the tune of ripening the increased in nomben-dririiw out here as in
frnit The raspberrr is well adapted to small Europethe blaokratwhichhadbeenprevioaidy
gardens, as it will grow reodilronder the shade Introdaoed ; it is now generally distributed over
of trees ; and when raised for the market in the world, hsivin^ been transported in riilpa,
open spaces the yield Is abundant and profit- and moat abnodaatly near the sea ooasts. Its
able.— The wild red raspberry (A stngomti hannta ore well known to bo cellors, sewers,
Ht.) closely resembles the Enropeon species, oanala, docks, and siniilai dirty places, wherever
It produces a fine-flavored hat tender watery it con make a barrow or find abundant food ;
fniit^ and grows in the greatest profusion upon it b a great honsehold pest, and so proMc that
the hillsides of New England, ripening in its devastations are sometimes very great ; it
Joly and August It even grows well in the breeds from 8 to S times a year, having IS to
garden, and some varieties of mnch repute Ifi at a blrth^the males always being the most
have been observed. The hlaok raspberry or mniMrons. Kot only the black rot, bnt other
thimbleberry (£. omdrntalit, Linn.) is remark- epeclea indlgenoos to the old world, are driven
VOL. xm. — 49
jy Google
770 EAT
off aTdMtrq7«db7it; th« d«ad andevcaliT- iBOTil>leboiiutiidiuinieraiisiiivol«a,is«OTfl^
lug parsDUB areattkoked bj it vhen hard press- ed with mioat* soiles mud short stiff bi '
ed; it ia aot onlf pnrBned by man, dogs, wd dering it prebu^le, sad e^abl* <d bong cm-
cats, but the Btrong«r will Ull and devoar the 1^3^ ** ' band, bslaooer, or projecting spring
weaker of its own species. The black rat (Jf. The teeth are long and ahiapi but there isnotb-
rattut, Linn.) is 7 or 8 inches long, with a tail Ing Bpeciall; dangerons in wonitds nude bjr
of 81; the color is very diirk, often nearly them; their strength enables them to gnaw
black, with nomerons long h^ra projeoting horj, as deslers in this article well know; in
ttOJD the short and soft far, plombeoiu benes^ fiact, even in Africa, elephants' tusks are f<Mind
and the feet brown ; it has a slighter form than gnawed by rats, sqnirrels, poronpines, and per-
the brown rat, with the npper isw more pro- naps other rodents, ss long as any gelatine is
Jecting, the ears larger, and the tail much contained in tliem. They are Tery snigect to
longer in proporUon. It is not very strong, tnmora of the skin, whiiJi often eod fatally ;
bnt exceeoiDgly active; being rather timid, it they also perish soon without water, Pem-
is exterminated by the larger and fiercer brown cnted as these animals are, they have tbtir
rat; thehaUtsiMthe twospeoieaaremnoh the nses, especially as scaTengero for devonring ref-
some, bnt the iAaok rat is less a bnrrowlng ani- use matters which would otherwise engender
mal, and prefers the upper parts of houses to disess^ as in tropical climates or in latga
cellars and low dirty placea. It used to be the cities, in the sewers of which they live in le-
comuon home rat in Zurope and wann conn- gions ; their skins are employed for variona
tries, until driven off by its congener ; it ap- purposes, as in the mannfjusture of the thnmba
pears to have been brongfat to the new world of gloves, bat ore too delicate for any artiele
about the middle of the 16th oenturv; it came requiring much strength. The Chinese and
originally from central Asia ; hke tne preced- other Auatio nations, and many African tribe^
Ing species it ia omnivorona. The roof or white- consider the flesh of rats « great delicacy ; and
bellied rat (M. tectorum, Bavi) is about Gi inches arctic travellers have often found them a wel-
loug, and the tail abont 8, with 240 rings ; it ia come addition to their bill of fare. — ^In the sig-
colored above like the brown rat, the lower modont tribe of the TnurtTus, belonging encir^
parts and upper surface of feet yellowish white ; to the Bew world, bedde the genera noticed
the head is rather Uunt, the eyes large, whisk- under Mocsa, may be mentioned neotoma (Say
ers long and black, ears very large, and the and Ord) ; in this the for is soft and fnl^
thumb rudimentary. It came ori^ally from the form rat-like, the faul long and more or
Egypt and Nnbio, thence passed to It^y and less hairy ; ears very lar^ and nearly naked ;
Bpain, and from the last to America in thelSth molars rooted ; heels hairy. It is pecnliar to
oentnry ; it Is common in Uezieo and BraiiL North America, and fonnd in the United EtstM
and in the southern states, bat ia rai^ fonnd except New England ; some of tlie species an
above North OaroLina ; it is fond of inhsbiting much laiger than hoose rats, and are rather
the thatched loofs of bonws, whenoe iU name j handsome animals. The Florida or wood rat
it is the same as the M. Alexandrintu (Qeo&.) (y. FUtridana, Bay and Ord) is abont 8 inches
and 31. Asuricanvt (Seba). Borne of the East and the tail 6, the thort stiff hairs of the li^tec
Indian raU are fsr larmr than ai^ of these; not concealing the scaly riiwa; the color above
the giant rat of Bengd and the Coromandel ii plnmbeooi miied with dark and yeUowish
ooost ( Jf. gigauttvt^ BafQes) has a body 18 inchr brown, lighter on the udea, beneath and the feet
■ ea long and a tail as much more ; this is very white ; tad dusky above, below white ; the head
destructive in gardens and grsnarieB, devour- is sharp. It is abundant in the southern Atlantio
ing chickens and ducks, undermining houses, and golf statce, and is fonnd occacdonally in the
ai^ piercing the mud walls ; this is the largest west; the habits vary much in different locali-
of the snb-iamily, a male weighing as much as ties, living in some places in the woods, in
8 lbs. ; It is often eaten by the lower caste Hin- others under stones or in the ruins of build-
doog. — All these rata are very fond of fighting, ings ; in swampy districts it heqie up mounds,
and with theiromnivoroos habits are decided^ S or 8 feet high, of grasses, leaves, and sticks
murine oanaibala. eating not only their con- cemented by mud ; sometimes the neat is made
qoered brethren bnt their young. Though liv- in the fork or the hollow of a tree. It b cre-
uig in the filthiest placaa and in the foulest air, pnscolar, very active and an excellent olimber ;
they always have a sleek coat, and take the the food consists of corn, nuts, cacti, crusta-
greatest puns to clean themsblres, licking the oeans, mollusks, and varioos roota end fruits;
paws in the manner of a cat; daring mastica- the ^spoHtion ta mild and docile; from 8 tofi
tion the jaws move very rqiidly; they drink by young are prodnoed twice a year. The bush
lapping; when asleep the body is coiled in a rat (Jv.if«ZM(ina,Baird) is rather smaller, light
b^ with the nose between the bind legs, and brown above, Advons on the sides, noder parts
the tul curled aronnd the ontnde, leaving only and feet white; ttul hairy. larger species are
the ears out ready to catch the least aoond of found weat of the Rocky moontains, very, de-
danger ; as food fails they migrate in compa- strnctive lo the fors, blankets, and stores dT the
nies from one place to another. There are more trappers ; for an account of these see vol. viii
mnscles in a rat's tail than in the hnmanband;- of the "iteporte of theFadfio Railroad Expo-
this most useful appendage, with its chain of dition." In the bone oavea of Peunaylvania
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
RATAS RAHSBOIT 771
bavebeenfbnnd thflremainflof a species vboM becaine vicd-preddent snd InlSBS prerident of
body moat hare been st least 13 inches long. — the chamber ; &nd in 1804 he reentered thft
In the genns liffmedtm (Bay and Ord) the gen- niiniBtry 'with the portfolio of Jnstice, under
en! appearance is that of a lai^e field mouse ; the preeldencT' of his former opponent, Ooant
the body ia stont, the hwr long, the mnzila Oavonr. On OsTonr's retirement after tiie
btnnt and helrj except on && eeptnm; the peace of Villafraiica Ratazzl became minister
npper lip alightlj' notched; thnmb rndiment- of the interior, but resigned in JnlylBfiOwhen
ary; iolea naked, wid» 6 grannlar tubercles; Oavonr returned to office.
incisora stont, the npper mncb ronnded ; ears BATEL, a plantigrade mammal of tbe badger
and tail moderate; molars rooted, with a plane family, and genua meUworxi ^torr), named
snr&ce, the last a lower with the enamel in honey badger from its fondnese for honey. The
the fbrm of an 8, whence the name. The size ia about that of the badger, but rather
K«nns is confined to the aonthem parts of the heavier, and with leaa projecting i
Cnhed States. The best known apeciea ia the cheek teeth, according to Owen, are premolan
cotton rat (S. hupidvtf Say and Chrd), about 0 l:J and molars (z|, with no tnbercnlate tooUi
inches long with a tail of 4; the color above is In the lower Jaw; the feet are short and planti'
reddish brown, brightest on the sides, lined grade, the anterior with large claws; the hair
with dark brown, end under porta grayish is long and rigid, and the skin tongh. Th»
white; the h«r is long and coarse, and the African ratel (A CajMnms, Storr) is gray above
claws very strong. It is more abundant in the and black below, the two colors separated by
southern states than the meadow mice in the a wliite line. It inhabits the Gape of Good
north, living in hedges, ditches, and deserted Hope, the Uozambique coast, and other parts
fields, and cooaeqnently doing but little dam- of aonthem Afkiea, ourrowing in the ground
age to the planter. It is gregarious, feeding on for ita dwelling and also in search of the neata
seNsda of grasses and leguminous plants, and of wild bees, against whose atinga its loose
dso on flesh; it picks up wounded birds and and leathei? hide is om^le protection ; accord-
smalt mammais, crawfish, and crabs ; it is very iog to the Hottentots it ia guided to these nests
fierce and pngnaclons, the stronger killing and by the hqney guide, a bird of the cnckoo fomi-
deronring the weaker, and the males often eat- ly and genus indicator (Tieill.) ; it also eats
ing tlie young ; it is also very fond of sucking birds, rats, snakes, and flrah of almost any ant-
egga. Nocturnal in habit, it is seen by day in mal, living or dead. The Asiatio ratel (Jtf. In-
retired places; it digs very extensive galleries, diea, Btorr) mnch resembles the African, bnt
not &r from the surfaoe, a family in each hole ; has a shorter tail and no white lateral stripe ;
very prolific, it breeds several times a year, it is found in India, in &o high banks of the
having 4 to 6 in a litter; it swims and dives Ganges and Jumna; it is nocturnal in habit,
well. Itreceivedttsnamenotfromanyinjnry prowling around in search of fbod, and often
it does to the cotton plant, but from its lining preying upon imperfectly buried human bodies,
tbe nest with this substance, which it is said It Is a strong and bold animal, and a good but
to collect in large quantities. It is preyed upon slow climber on walls or trees; it bnrrowa
by foxcB, wild cata, hawka, and owls; it is not with great facility, tjirowing the earth back-
found north of Vlrifinia. ward with the fore paws like a dog.
RATAN. See Raitas. RATIO. See Pboportios.
RATAZZI, Ubbaito, an Italian statesman, RATIOITAIISM. Bee QKtau.T3 Tszdloot.
bom in Alessandria, Piedmont, Jnne 39, 1808. RATISBON (Ger. lUgentbwg; ano. Satia-
He settled as an advocate in Turin, and after- lend), a town of Bavsri^ eapit^ of the Upper
ward dlitinguiahed himself by his learning and Palatinate, situated on the right bank of the
his eloquence at the court of appeal in Casaie. Danube, opposite ita Junction witfi the Regen,
After the revolution of 1848 he was elected 6H ni. 11. H. E. from Munich ; pop. in 185ft
from the college of Alessandria to the chamber 35, SCO. The Danube ia here croNea by an old
of deputies at Turin, in which body he took his stone bridge about 1,100 feet long. RatSsbon
place among the liberals. After the defeat of is a very ancient town, anrronnded by dilapi-
Custosza fJnly 25) Charles Albert called him dated ramparts and entered by 6 ^tea. Th«
into the mmistry, which was obliged to resign cathedral la one of the finest Gothic churches
Sdaya afterward. Ratozzi then joined the oppo- in Germany ; it was founded in 18TS, but tho
aition under Gioberti, on whose triumph, Deo. greater part of ft appears to hare been con-
10, ho received thepostofministeroftheinte- structed in'thelSth century, A^oining tho
rior and subsequently of jnstice. He however cathedral there are two older cbnrches ; one,
separated from Gioberti on the proposition to now used as a baptistery, is supposed to date
send a Piedmontese army to Rome for the pur- troia the 10th or lltb century, and the other
pose of restoring the pope; and this project, to be still more ancient. A maadve square
sharplyr^ectedbythe parliament, hastened the tower stands near the cathedral, supposed to
fiill of Gioberti. Ratazzi however retained his be a remnant of an ancient Roman fortress.
position in the ministry until the abdication of The mannfactnres are of considerable impor-
Charles Albert, when he fonnd himself again tance, and include cotton, paper, earthenware,
in the ranks of the opposition. He afterward steel, iron, &c. Ship bnilduig la extensively
joined the party of moderate reformers, and carried on. RaUsbon formerly- enjoyed tli«
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
772 EATTAN BATTIXSNAZE
«xolwdTCri^toft)iBUTi8atkinofa«DaiLiibe RATTI£SKAS1E, a well faiowti Aii»riean
between C&n &nd Vienna, bat thisprivilwe veiUKnoiUBerpeDt, the typeof thefamUy cralo-
has been aboliabed. At Donaaatan^ on tna litttt, which includes several specdea, all charao-
Danabe, about 6 m. from RatiaboD, ia tiie Wal- terieed by a deep pit lined with amall plates on
halla, a Dorio marble temple bout after the each nde, beneatb and nstally & Uttle behiml
model of the Parthenon at Athena, for iha re- the noatrila. In tiie genoa ctoUUk* (linn.) the
caption of atatnea and busts of dlstingnished head ia very large, flattened above and trian-
men of Germany. Eiug Lonia of BaTaria gnlar, acalj on the crown, witb small shields oa
fonnded It in 1880, and it was completed in its sides and the nose; eyeslarge and brilliant;
1642. — BatUbon waa a town of importance in teeth \&tj small, bat the true maJillarieE,
the Sd centorj, and at a later period became which are small and attached to the craniom
the capital of the dokes of Bavaria. In the by a amall pe^oel and by ligamentary nnioa,
12th century it became a free imperial city, have a single pair of long curved fangs, Iwd
and from 1668 to 1606 it was the seat of the flat during inaction, but erected when the
Qerman diet. In 1608 it was given to the month is opened; these fangs are channelled
archbishop of Uentz, and in 1610 it became ft fbr the conveyanoa of the poison secreted by a
posseaaian of Bavaria. gland on ea<^ side of the head, beneath and
BATTAN, or Ba.tak (Javanese, rcttang ; behind the eyes ; behind the &ngs are the
Ualay, rolan), the long slender leaf atalk of rudiments of othera, which are developed aa
various tpecies of the eaiamuM, of the natural occasion requires; there are also S rows of
order palma, a product of the forests of the amall fixed teeth on the palate; the belly is
eastern arohipel^o, especially of the islands of covered with broad shields ; tbe trunk and tail
Sumatra and Borneo, and the Malayan penio- are scaly above, and nearly all the Bubcaudsl
aula. The palm which i^rniahea most of the scutes mmple. The last S t« 8 candal vertebrs
rattans of commerce b the calamua rotaiif, a coalesce to fbrm a single tenninal conical and
bush, the slender whip-like shoots of which campressedboDe,coTeredb;maBcloajidathick
find a support among tbe foUage of other ad- spongy skin which secretes the pieces of tbe
jacent planta by means of the priokles with rattle, an appendage of loosely articulated
which uieir extremities are armed. The canee homy seements, whose rattling noise baa giiea
are largely collected for numerous useful pur- the popular name to this genus ; the rottle may
poees, and are eiported in great quantities to oonust of 20 or 30 piecea, llie smallest at the
almost oil parts oi tlie world, and particularly end; they are securely strung together, each
to China. Tbeir peculiarity consists in great consisting of 8 annnlar portions, the haaal ring
fleiibinty and atrengtb, uniform size in lengtlis of one grasping the 2d of the precedinjg, and
of 16 feet or more, and the evenness with this agam enclosing the 3d of the joint neit but
which they may be split up into small strips, one preceding, all that is viable of the rattle
quaUtiea which ad^tt them for a einguiar va- externally being the aurface of tbe baasl pro-
nety of usee, Tbe eastern nations m&e them Jecting ring of each joint ; the first only has
into cbaira and other articlea of furnitnre, a vital connection with tbe skin ; thia ^)pa-
beskets, aievea, &c., and also into hata and ratua is made to vibrate by tbe mnscles of
shoes. They onawer as a sabslitute for ropee, the tail, with a quivering motion and a aonnd
andtbeObineee thus uaa them with much neat* resonbling tliat of peas shaken in a dry pod.
neas for aeonring tea chests, Ac They also plait It is popularly but erroneously believed that the
tiiem tt^tiier to form mats of many varieties age of the snake can be estimated by the num-
and serving many purposes. In t£e United ber of tbe rattles; tbongh these may increase
States and Europerattsnsaro largely employed witli age, their fragility is snch that many may
for the bottomaof duura, being split into uar- be lost &am accident ; and moreovormore than
row stripe and woven together in open work, one may be added annually, according to the
Hiey are also a che^ sobetitnte for whalebone, vigor, food, state of captivity, &a,, of the ani-
Aa imparted they come in bundles of 50 canee, mal; SO are not un&equenUy seen in large
each one about 16 feet long and bent double in specimens, but it would be incorrect to con-
the middle. The leaves and the natural epi- elude from these that tbe snake was neither
dermisorbark are stripped from them when more nor leesthanSOyearsoId. Astbebiteof
they are oolleoted in the forests, the method be- these reptiles ia speedily fatal to small animals,
log after cutting them to draw each one quick* it has been generally believed that the nse of
ly through a notch made for the pnrpose in a the rattles is to warn animals and man of its
tree. The stems are thus left dean and naked, vicinity ; but, as other eqnally and even more
and proteoted by tbe hard ulicious glazing with dangerons species have no such apparatus, it is
which they are coated. Tbe beet have a bright more likely that its use is to startle the squir-
Eale yellow color, of size less than a man's rels, birds, and other creatures upon whidi it
ttle fi^er. and cannot be broken without preys from their retreats, and bring them with-
great dimoolty. They are obtained so cheaply m the reach of its firing, or for some other
In Borneo, that they ate sold to the Chinese pnrpose for its own wel&re rather than the
Junks for aboat C cents per hundred. In Ben- safety of man. Dangerous as they are, they
gal and in China they are disposed of by the rarely attack man oulesa proroked, and are
picul or by weight at a large advance. fortunately atuggiab ia tbeir movements, un-
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
RATTLESNAKE 77S
abia to iprins except from ft eoU, and areais- tailed wtth daikM>,onttelowwpirtsIf^tcr;
abled bjrBKgbt blows. They ftre viriparona, tberaarowide toiei«»4lufi«d ■pots al<Hqr *!>»
the eggs being reUuned natal hatched, and tho back «dged wlUi whita, with Itght iMpee aad
Tomig expelled alive ; in winter they retire to oUier sm&Iler and lew dbdnot ipota on the
holes in the ground, and there remain torpid, sides ; brownish bUok bands between dw eye^
Kreral interlaced witia «a«h other ; thej ere and from the top of the head along the neok.
nnable to olimb trees in pnrsait of prer, and do It ia fbnnd oul; in drr, iwky, elerated ragiooi^
not follow a rGtreatJng animal whidt hu ee- oov«ed with thorns and bnshes ; the n^roes
caped their spring, jliej are said to be fimd "" — i— -.__i _ j.., ...»__...
esteem its fledi a delicacy ; It often bitca and
of mnuc, like manr other serpents. Borne In- destroys etttie otodns near ite retnat, the
dian tr^tes hold them in great reverenoe, and ptriaonbeingmoreTinilentlntropiaaldiniatea.
are afraid to kDl them, fearing tiut Um spirit —The g^ns er«taleph«ru» (Qraj*) eeeme to
of the danghtered animal will exdte its liviim conneet crotaba with IritOMieepkmUu (oopper-
relatiDns to avenge its death. They are capa- head), hwing die ratdea of the fbrmer and tbe
ble of attaining to a conriderable age, and are plates on the head of tiie latter. The naell or
tenadons of li^ under ciroumstnnoee speedily ground rattletoake (C.iMlMrJw,OraT)bdsi^
fptal to most other animals. — The most oom^ gray above, with a brownish red Tert«bral Ifate
moD is the banded rattlesnake <0. duritiv*, uterrapted by & row of anhquadrate black
Unn.), 4 toS f^ long, ash-oolored above with spots margined with TeQow; a dottUe aeriea
irregaiar ttansverse dusky bare, conflnent near ot blaek spots on eadi side, tbe apper larger
the t(ul ; vertebral line yellowish, the odes bat lees distinct, and a white streak oackwaid
tinged with the same; the body is thick and fh>m tbe eyes. It is generally from IBto 1ft
robost and the tail short and thick ; In a epecl- inches long, and is common in the United States
men about 4 feet Ions the bead waa 3 inches, as tor N. aslaL SS", in dry jdaoeaamong leaves,
the body 40, the tail 8^, and 9 rattles 2 tocbee, preying on field mice and small birds; its bite
the greatest circumferenee bung 9 inches ; is fatal to small animals, bnt not to mui. The
therewere 177 broad abdominal plates, and SB prairie rattlesnake ((7. teryeminvt. Say) is a
tinder Ute tail ; in tbe yonng the tail is black, little over S feet long ; it is dnereons above,
It is generally diatribntedthronghontthe Unit- with a triple series of dark brown spots, and a
ed States, fivm lat 40* to the golf of Hexloo, double seriee of dusky spots below; it is fond
and from the Atlantic to the Mismeaippi and of hiding in the holes of the prairie dDg(eyfi«-
Red rivers ; it preys principally on rabbits, tttyt), on the yoong of which it chiefly feeds ;
sqnirrels, rata, and small biroa, qnietly waiting itoocnrs in the conntry near the Bocky monn-
for them to oome within its readi, Its bite prov- taina and the sources of the Hisaonri. Other
Eng &tal to anhnalfl of this size in less than a Qieoles are described by Dr. Holbrook, and by
minnte, whan the enake is in tbll vigor. It ia Baird and Girard. — The pcbon gland is eom^
now rarely met with in tlie northern states, ez- pressed by the temporal mnsde dnring tlie act
eept in nncnltivated and rocky places, remote of striking ; there ia a very extensive oommtmi-
ttom dwellings; it is more common In the cation of the glandnl^tissne with the vasonlar
vestem states, where its fat is highly prized as iq'stem, the blood vessels snrroandiBg tbe »e-
tn antidote to its bite, and also for rhenmado crating tnbes in a ctfMnlar manner. JQcroeoop'
and nenralgla pains ; catde are often bitten by ioally the p<^son appears as a Umpid hyaline
it, and it is the cnstom there to oast ^lem and seram, with crystals of annnonltvmagnesian
bary tbe wonnded part in tbe mud, recovery phosphate, acoOTdinc to Dr. W. I. Bnmett
ropblly taking pLwe ; this diows the compar*- Aooording to Dr. Ifltchell it is yellow, add,
tively litde dLiger fbr a latve animal, as there gintinons, at a speelflo gravity of l.U ; dev<nd
can be nothing cnrative in the ^tplioation of taate, smell, and acridity; beginning to eo>
made. The diamond or water ratdemake (0. agolate at 140° F., and aoloble in water. It
adanvaUetu, Beanv.) Is dark brown or dnsky consists; 1, of an albnmlnoid substance, coagv-
above, with a series of large riiomboidal spots lablebyporealooholbntnotbyaheat of SIS*
^ontinnoas from head to t^; abdomen dirty yel- V., called by him orotaline, the poiaonoos ele-
loiriali white ; the month la large, the neck small ment ; S, of a non-poiaonons albnmiuoid cor^
■nd contracted, and tbe body long and thick ; ponnd, coagolafale both by heat and alcohol ;
it ia tbe largest of tbe genos, and may att^n a 8, of a yellow odm^ng matter and an tmdeter^
hagOi of 8 feet ; in one abont H f^t long tbe mined snbatance, both aolnble in alcohol, trscM
head was S} inches, the body 00, the t^ 8}, of futy matter and free add-saline bodle^
>nd tbe ratUes 8 inches; abdominal plates ITS, dUorine, and pbo^Aates; Kotempemtnrefhim
and IS sDbcaudaL It frecpienta damp and dark aero to SIS', nor adds and alkallet at moderate
t«^ always near water, thon^ not living In temperatnres, iMt MkobtA, ohlorlne, nor iodine^
, it is one of tbe most bldeoas and sullenly AmCkj tbe polaonoua propert? of tbe venom,
ferocionaofthefiunfly; its range Ia very limit- Thia fluid Is fbtel even to the bitten make; It
ed, from Vortb GaroBnatoEa8tnorida,ontke deMroys the Titali^ trf the blood and its pow*
we ooast. Tbe C. horridiu (Unn.) is a natlva «r of coagulation, aa by a UgtitniiMi stroke; it
efthewsrmpartsofSontb America I it attains probably acts as a poweiflil sedative tbrongh
a length of 6 or 4 ftet and tbe tbiokneea of a the bkmd on the nervous centres; hence tbe
"un's wrist; tbe edor is yellowisb brown beat anddotea are active ■4t""i)i«t», eq)«d<Ulf
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
TT4 RATTTJWirAine BAXIOH
■tedhol ia tome fimn ; and, vIm MTM, faitox- RAITOH,OaBmuiDAmBi,«G«rmHiMab-
ioationiMjlMi>*otnJiMdb7t«klDgthispoiB(aL tor, bornin^tdBOLiiktheniiidpaUtrof Td-
into the lUHiMob in tli« fonn of pUb. Tiie d«dc, Jul 2, 1777, ai«di&B«riln,I>«o.8,186T.
poiwnTariw In intenaitj aooarding to Bewon, HevHof InimbloorigiB.atmlwduidwValaB-
aliiiiatc, tad vigor of tha animal, being most tin, from whom he leaned tlie art of earnnr
active in trofdoalr^tma and in wanaveatlter, ttte <«din8rT lMa»-Tdia& on gravcBtaMa, and
wliMt it has been lone r^ained or th* aninial nndor Sohl of OaaaeL At BmUb, wbidMr be
ia ir«atl7 Irritated ; ixdd-blooded animab gen- nest repaired, be was indnoed bj pomtr to
erallr aoffer little from ito t»te,and piga Ull a«»ptapoaitionaaaroraldom«atiQ,wbidiIiad
and devour it iritb inponitr and aviditr, titdr been ooonpied hj a deceased brotliar, and for
oovering of iU iH«venting the introdnwon ni a time hia art itDdiea irere laid ande. Bvt
the poiaon into Ukeolroalation; ita vinlenoe ia aqnringtoa hi^ervralk in life tlum tliia,]M
aoon ezhanated by r^idlj aooceeding bitea, a* eeereUf nndertook to model from reoollectiaB
baa been proved b^ ezperimuito on ebiokeDa a boat of Qoeen Looiaa. His sncoeea gvoed
andntsjuitaaeci^iongoeaonfbraoniattme the queen's attendtm, and nnder her patzonage
after death, azperimanters shonld be oarefUl be waa aant to Dreadea, and in leOi vros Mt-
in their mani^ilatitMiB about the fiuun and abledto^toltometoeomidetohiaednaBliaB,
poiaon q^Miatai. For details on the haoita of where, aided bj the advioe <rf Oaaova and
tbeaa aeipent^ on the anatomy of the parts ThMiraldaen, he made r^tid progrcM ia his
ooneemedintlieaeoretionandexpnlRanarthe art His first workvas a portrait atatne in
poison, and in the infliction of the Tonad, and marble of the dan^ter of Wilhehn von Hmn-
ibr a fhll ennmeration of genera and apetdes, Ixddt, who was one of hia eariiast fi^eodaaad
with UlnsHations and oopions bibtiograpby, see patrons ; and under the inflne&ee <tf the antiqna
a memoir in voL lii. of the " ^ithscmian aonlpture which sorroimded him he executed
OontribnticHiB to Enowledge" G^M). 1>7 S- two admirable bass-rdie&, "ffippolTtaa and
Weir ICitohell, HJ>., and an abstract of the Fhndra" and " Mars and Venus wonnded bj
aame in the BeiH«tar7's report for ISflO (8vo^ Diomedes," beside bosla of the king aad qneca
considered cdSoa^oiis, in vaiioas paita of the he viated Berlin with other artiats to compels
countiT, andnst the bUe of the rattlesnake, for tb» moanment of Queen Louiaa, who nad
indtcates that ^ danger is not ao great from died the year previona; and bis dctogn having
it as is gcauraUy soNJosed. HVhen uie p<»son been aooepted, he retained to Italy, aad fiur
is inbodnoed duectly into a large vwn, «q»e- two years wsa siolneiveir employed in the ez-
wonid probably be fatal, but many oaaea re- tbeqneennowinthemansoleBmatCbariottai-
cover under every variety of treatment; the bnrg, Itniadehimatonoe&nKNutiironi^wiit
favorable result in each cose, as a matter of Germany, and oonuniimMia for portrait busts
coarse, is attribated to ttie remedy employed, and ststnes poured !n nptm him. In 181S the
whether that be whiskey, sweet oil, rattle- kii^ of Pnuaia oommiaaioned him to execute
snake's grease, anunooio, caustic, suskeroot, or sUtaesirfQeneralsScharahorstand Blklow,and
other domestio ^tpUoation ; the fact probably within the next 10 years he wrou^t with his
is that, though BinaU anmials, children, and own handa upward of 70 bnats in motiile, of
pers«Mu of feetJe constitation will die from the which BO were of edossal dxe, many of them
efitets of the Ute, large animals and vigorous portraita of eminent Germanik His fcrto how-
men will ceneroUy recover, unless the vims be ever lay in historieal monumental worita, aad
introdoced direcAly into some large veaael near hia greatest ochievemeBtaweora the pablie atat-
tbe heart. The indication is to prevent the nes in marble and bronxa, of which almost
jwison from entering the droolatiMi, by sue- evwy oonsiderable city in Geimany oontaina
tiou with the month or by cnppinK glsssw, the one or more. AnuHig these were the statues
former being perfectly sub and always ^aed- at King Wa-rimiiifi. ^^ Uunieh, of Ffanoke at
cable immediately, as the system ia not ufected Halle, of BlOcher at Bredau, of Albert Dftrerat
through the mnoona memlHaneB, Ugatnrea Nuremberg, of Luther at Wittenberg, of the eld
around the limb, and exeUion and canteHsation Polish monaroha Utedalas L and Bcleelas L st
of the wound by fire, osnstic, or ammonia, Foaen,of Goethe, Schiller, and Kant, ttie cok»
should be employed also ;th«aeahould be prao- sal VictoryfortheWalhallanear Ratjsbon, Ac
tised as aoon as poaaible, aitd latge doses of al- The crowning work ot his liUs, however, was
oohoUc aUmolants administered. Tlte antidote his oolossol monument in Berlin to Fredene
of Bibron, a preparation of bromine, has been the Qnat, eonunutoed in 18SD and inaugurated
highly extolled. The American Indiana i^ly with great pomp in May, 1861. The statue of
ostiaplBMnB of chewed tobacoo, anakeroot (yaiy- the kmg is an equestrian one, and the 4 aides
fo&t s«n«ira), button aiakeroot(I*atHiq>{(a(a), of thelofl7 graiuto pedestal on which it is
pleurisy root (oKiqnai tubtrMa), rattieanake placed are covered witii historical tad alle-
rootO>f«mmU«iaaa),weri«rn black ash C/Voo!- gorioal repreawtatioBS in high reH^— a ^edei
iiw jittlamd^otia), water plantun {alUma d so&lptnre in which Smoh exoolled— and
ptanlofo), tall q>eedwe11 (Itptandra Vtrgitiiea,), aurrouoded by detadted atatoee of the diafia-
and rotigh liawk weed (AssniatiMn Oronenii. gushed man of hia nign. fiauoh'a 1*** wd
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
one of Ui most ImproMiTO works vm a model uadenij of Himioee nstil 1847, when, In oonse-
of "UosMPnjing between Aatod and Hnr," qnence of the tinfsvorable reoeption of t, enlo-
oa wbioh he labored until witbin a few weeki ginm delivered bj him upon Frederic n., he
of his death. As a portrait and biatorioalBonlp- was forced to withdraw from both potdtions.
'Cor he stood at the Dead of hi* profecrion. The city of Berlin, however, elected him to the
BAUOH, fioKDERiOH AuaueT, D.D., a 0«r< mnnloipal ooanoil, and in 1848 sent falm to the
man pbiloeopber and divine, bom at Eirdi- parliament at Frankfbrt, after which he was
bracht, Hesse-Darmstadt, 3vlj 27, 180S, died for a short time ambassador to Paris. In 18(18
Uaroh 2, 1S41. He was gradnated at the uni- he retired fhim active life, and received the titia
veraity of Uarborg in 1837, then stndied one of professor emeritus in the nniversity of Ber-
Toar at QieesBo, i^r which be was assiataiit lia. Among bis historical and political works
teacher in a litcrarr institution In Frankfort, are "Lectures on Ancient History" {3 vols,,
and itill later spent a year in the nniversity LeipBicl821);the"Hi8WryoftheHonBeofHo.
of Heidelberg. In his Mth year he became benstanfenanditsTunes"(Svols.,1828-''S); and
«xtr«ordinai7 profbseor In the nniversity of "History of Earope from the End of the 16th
OiesMO, and soon afterward ordinary profes- CentiU7''(vo1s.i.-viii., Letpdo, 1883-'60). ^s
•or in the nniveraity of Heidelberg. Befbre, "£n^andinl8S6" wafltranslatedbyl[re.Ans-
liowever, he assmnea the dnties of his new ap- tin (6 vols. London, 1886). A collection of his
pointment, he Inonrred the displeasnre of the minor works appeared nnder the title of Far-
government by too fi«e ta expression of his m£*cA(4%Arr^ten(8 vols., Leipsic, 18fiS-'4). He
political sentiments, and was obliged to seek travelledinAmericainie48, and wrote"Amer-
mafetj in flight He arrived in America in lea and the American People," translated by
tSl, spent
«8t(idyol
yoftheEngliah language, and in Jona, RAYAIT.LAO, 'FB±v<;riis, the assassin of
1833, was orduned to the ministry, and called to Henry IV. of France, bom in Angonl&me abont
York, Penn., to take charge of a claaaicelachool 1678, executed May 37, 1610. Be was first
In coiUMctdan with the theological seminary of employed as a lawyer's clerk, and then as a
theOerman Befbrmedohnrch. In 18&Chewas schoolmaster; but having been cast into prison
called to the presidency of the newly founded on acoonnt of some offences, he fell Into a
Marshall college, Mercersbui^, Penn., acting at gloomy fauatidsm. He went to Paris, and Uiere
the same time aa professor of biblical literatore became a member of the order of the Fenil-
in the theological seminary which had been re- lanta, bat was eipelted from it as a fanatie and
uoved to that place. He oontinned in this fool, and afterward retnmed to Angonl^me,
donble office np to the time of his death. In where his nnhappy state of mind manifested
1840 he pnblished his " Psychology," which Itself in the most intense hatred of Protestant-
haa pesaed Uiroagb several emtions, and la used tsm. With this feeling he determined to un-
•a a text book in mental phUosOT>hy in oollegea. dertake tiie mnrder of Henry IV., whom ha
He bad in coarse of preparation a work on was tangfat to consider the great enemy of the
"Christian Ethics," wnkii he iid not lire to Catholic faith. He went to Paris, bnt for some
finish. A volnme of hia sermons, editeid by the time had no opportunity of meeting with the
Rev. Dr. Oerhart was pnblished In 1806 nndw kh^. On May 14, 1610, however, abont 4 P.
the tiUe of " The Inner Lifb of the Chriatian." U., the king drove to 4he arsenal in order to
KAUHER, FaiiDmoH Lm>wia Gzobo voit, a viut Solly, who was sick, and to inspect the
G«mianhiBtorian,bominWfirlita,neorDeasan, preparations for the crowning of the queen.
Uay 14, 1T6I. He was educated at the nniver- When in the narrow street La Ferronnerie the
rities of Halle and O^ttingen, began to practise carriage was obliged to stop, aa the way was
law in 1801, and after having filled several blocked up by market wagons. The king was
offices obtained in 1810 the place of conns^or sitiing on the left side next to the deke of
in the cabinet of the ohancellor Hardenberg. Epemon, when Ravaillac, throwing himself
He had begnn his literary labors in ISOfl by the upon the right hind wheel, struck twice at
pablicatioQ of a work entitled " Six Dialognes him with a damer. The first time he fidled,
on War and Ocnairaeroe," and this was fbllowed but the second he plunged the knife into the
by " The British Syatem of Taxation" (1810), heart of the king. The asaassin fled, but waa
" The Speeches of ^sohines and Demosthenes immediately oaught with tiie knUb In hia band,
upon the Crown" (1811), and GOI. Em«nd»- acknowledged his deed, and after a trial before
tioaa ad TabvlM Oentalogieas Arabum tt Tar- the parliament of Paris was torn to jdecea by
eorum (1811), which procured for him a pro- horses with unexampled tortures,
fbssonhip in the university of Breelan. He RAVEN, the largest of the eorvida or crow
next publisheda " Manual of remarkable Pas- flunily, andthetypeof tbegeaUBn>rw*(Linn.).
aagee from the Latin Historians of the Middle In this genus the bill is long and very atnHig.
Ages" (Bredau, 1818), and "Autumn Journey and arched ; the naaal feathers are l«igthend
to Venice" (9 vols., Berlin, 1810); and in 1819 and resch abont to the middle of the wH, and
be was made profbasor of politick economy and the noetrile are large, dreular, and overhung
history in the nniversity of Berlin. He waa behind by membrane; the gape withont bris-
for a long time a member of the board of oen- ties ; wings long and pointed, when elosed
aora and a member and secretary of tiie Berlin reaching nearly to the % of the ti^l sad &r
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
778 EATEN
bejond Che Qiid«r ooTertii; the Sd quill longer Oonok), from Uezteo and Tezai, b itboat 31
tlian the Ist, sod the Sd and 4th tha loB^estj inohw long, with the ta^Sttm of tb« naok alt
piimariM 10, the ooter 4 aiauBted on the umer round, beok, and bnaat, siiov-wIidt« at tha
edge ; tail ^ort and nearly even ; taru longer base. — The Enropeai men {0. coraa, Linn.)
thtm middle toe, soaled in front. Tbs Ameri* verj maob reaemblea the AmuioaB in ns« ana
nan raven (&. eantitorut, Bartram) is about mupoitiona, and the two hare been regarded
S5 inches long with an alar ext«nt of 50, and hj Anduboii and others as the aame ; Koat
the bill G inches ; the female is a little smaller, modem natnrslieta, however, eonrider thorn dis-
bot in other ra^>Msta like the male. The pin- tinct; it is abont 26 inohaa kmg and fiS in alar
mage is ooomsot, glossT black with violet and eztest. It is a vcrr interesting bird on accotnd
greenish reflectioDs; the feathers of the chin of itohaUU^ anditahistoflcftlieoMmEioftl, and
and throat, as in all ravens, are elongated, onperstiaoiu reltfona; it is very grave ^A
atiffiened, nanow, lanceolate, and with rerj digtufled, Bagackms,eofltageoita, and powoM;
distinct outlines. It is funnd over the entire its beak is ae well sdwted tar tearing fi««h as
continent of North Amerioa from I^brador te is that of npadons birds; though warj and
the golf of Maxioo, in some plaoea mi^ratorT', distrustful, it is docile and aSbcttonate whan
hut in othwi (aa at Lake Superior and m Oan- domesticated; it poenespeo an exoeUeBt in«B-
Ada) braving the cold of the severest winters; w^, and a deddedl/ dilevish disposition. The
it is most abondant in rookj districts, near the color is bls«k, with steel-bine ud pntplisb as
banks itf lakes and rivers, and in thinl; peopled violet rededious ; ite form is sTmrnetnoal «nd
.regimu. U is generallj seen alone or in pairs, he proportions fine. It Is proverbialir loag'
bat sometimes in small flocks after the breed- lived, and has been known to atbun itie age M
fng eeasoa; the flight is rapid, elevated, and about 100 years; it is spread eztenmTeJy ovei
protracted, often sslling for hoars at a time at £i]nn>e, and allied spedea are fonnd in Africa
a great height ; on the gromid tho gait is grave and Ana. It is voradona and omniroroas, bot
and i^gnified, with frequent opening of the partioalarlj fond of carrion, whether of fleak,
wings. It is truly omnivorono, bat by prefei^ fish, or fowl, dead from dieeisae or acoident ; it
enoe oamivorons, eating small animals of all wUlattaokananimaloftheKEeof aabe^when
kbds, eggs and young birds, oarrion, dead fish, in a iielplese or dying Moditionj it ia said to
Dxdlnsks, cmstaceana, insects, nuts, and ber- deetroy joaag lamlM, and certainly makes
lies. It is very wary and ouming, and is rarely great haivDo among huf-p«wn hares and r^
osoght in traps or shot by the hnnter, but it bits, young and ftiU-fledged birds, and eggs; ca
often falls a victim to tha poisoned baite set finding A earessa the first attack is opon the
by the b^appere for the far-bearing animals, eyes and t<»igue, and then npon the abdomen
It breeds, according to latitnde, between Jano- to dn^ ont the intestines ; in anbmn it some-
■ly and June, making a mde nest on inacces^ times commits serioQs depredationa cpm bar-
Ue cliffs, repuriug &e same for years in sno> ley fields. The fiifi^t is at times very higli,
cession ; the wgs are 1 to 6, 3 inches long, onnMing them to see to a great diatenee, and
light greenieh bine with nomeroiiB light pnrpto to wati^ for sod follow any compaiuiHia whidi
and yeilowisb brown bIot«hea, especially at the have disnoed to spy then &vorite food, ex-
larger end ; inonbatiMi lasta abont S weeks, filaining the r^tid oolleoting of a laise nnmbo
and the young remain in the nest seToral mashorttime; they have noepeoUaoateness
weeks before Uiey are able to fly, fed at first of nnejl, but are guided to their fi>od by the
oa the half digMted food disgorged by the sense of ught; the voiceis a harah nnd die-
parents; only one brood ia raised in a year, and agreeaUe croak. They at« nanally seen alone
this is bravely and sucoessflillf defended a^dnst or in purs, except when drawn togrther by a
the lai^est birds of prey. It is easily domestt- large carcass in thefieldoron-theahon; the
oated by kindneaa, ud becmnee nmeh attached neat is made in h^ trees or tn htdes of mta-
to its master, fUlowing him like a dog; it can eemble difis,- and Uie same one is used year
be taught to imitate uie hnmsn roiee and to after year; a fetid odor iasnea frtm the tmdy,
prononnee a few words with great distinetneas; pmhdblj on «oeonnt of their earriom food,
when irritated or wounded, Uatrikes sav^ely Farmers and shef4ierds like to have th^iveed
with biU and claws. Ita fieah is tongh and on their pretmses, as they keep off ea^es, eala,
nnfit foir food; it disgorges indlgeetible sab- dogs, and similu' nnwelcome viritora. This
Btsnoes, M bones, hair, and feathers, like birds was eonsidered a bird of ill omen by the an-
'■" e others o'-'
mdividoalsof tiie same speoice; this fact has moumfol arotk, fatid odor, and diagnsting
led some to think that the Odorado raven {O. habits. It by preference inhattta the most
eacalatl, Wa^) ia only a soatheni variety at desolate {daces. In America, at least, there
the 0. eomwortw, the chief differences being seems to be a natord antipathy between the
a ali^tly larger sise, h»ger wii^ and tail, raven andtheorow; vhereuiefOTinw abounds,
and a western and southern habitat exclosive- as abont Xake Superior, the latt« ia VC17
I7. The whbe-neoked raves (C. orHrto2nuiH% rarely seen, end vsM-ssrasi
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
RAVENNA RAVIGNAN T77
BAvjtHNA, a legation of the PbhI Stoteaj leogne of Oambnf placed It amuii under papal
fbrndng part of Hm Bomagoa, whioh wu an* pow«r. It is celebrated for Uie great vietor^
nexed to the kingdom of Sardinia in Uareb, nioed under its -wtHe hj the French under
1840. It la bonndedN. by the legation of Far- Oaatoa de Foix OTer the SpaOisrds and the
rara, E. bjr the Adriatio,- B. £. by the Iwation troops of Pope Jnliaa II., April 11, 1619.
of Forli, S. and a W. bf ToeCaiij, and K. W. BAVENBOBOFT, Johh Btask, an Ameri-
by Bologna; area, 67i sq. m.; pop. 37S,eM. oan dergynun, and bidiop of the Protestant
It has a ibrtile bc^ abonnds In pastnrage^ E;[nmopal ^uroh, bom near Blandford, Prinee
wobA prodnoes gndn, wine, oil, and silL-^Bj^- George co., Vs., in 1773, died Haroh 6, 1880.
-VMHiTA, the capital, ii dtaated in a marahf Shortly after hie birth bia father removed to
plain on the river Uontone, a few milea fi'om Sootland, where and in the north of England
the Adriatic; pop. 24,000. The pTin<dpal tike son was ednoited. When 17 years old
bnil^Bge are the cathedra], the ehnroh of San- ha returned to Yirginia, and with the dengn
ta Ibma della Botonda, fontterly the nunsO' of studying law entered William uid Mary
leiimo(Theodorte,k&igof the Ostrogoths; the eollwe. In 1792 he roTisited Bootlond, md
iMttHcaof SanVitale; tiw ohnrohes of St. John afterhi« rettim lived for 18 years in Lanen-
the Baptist and St. John the ErangeUst, bnilt bnrg co., Ya., and while there he never erea
in the 4th oentary by the efopreas Oalla Pla- f^enedaKble. InlSlO, howerer, hejdned a
tidia; and therunalnaof thepalaoeof Thoodo- eooiety called "BepabHean Uetfaodista;" and
noa, oooopiad after him by Iha exarchs. Bar in 1816 he was licensed as a lay reader In the
Tenna isuieaeat of an archbishop. Tbeefaief Protestant Episcopal church. In 181T he waa
pHTBuits ara tiie coltnre of the Tine and the ordained as prieat, and became ministu of St.
Tearing of silkwomn, with tiie spinning and James parish in Uecklenbing' co. In 1898 he
■weaivlng of silk. Rarennawaa oooe aitoated vaseleotedbistu^ofthedloomeofNorthOaro-
ou the Adriatic in the midst of marshes, bnt It lina, and with it .took the pastoral diarga ol
ia now some dlstaooe from the sea, the allnrial tiie oongrmtioa at Ralel^, which ha gave m
depoaits and ti>e sand thrown up by the sea in 1898 and took charge of the ehnreh at Wu-
having filled Om lagoima and oanala which Uamsboroagfa. In 1899 he waa relieved from
anrroonded and intersected tii« dty. Between all parochial care, bnt died soon aft«r. Be
" ,.,.., ^. . . ibluhod
xten^cfc
along tb« coaM. Thia ezlitea aaearlyasthe with 61 others selected by him' for pnblicatitHi^
Bavanna and the aea la the Piaeba, a remark- published during hla lifetime several sermons,
able ibreet of pines extends for many milee whi^ after his death van republished, along
Stb eentnry, and has been apt^n of by Danta, in 9 vols, Svo., with a memoir of hla life.
Booeaooio, Dryden, and Bttou.— The city q»- BAVIONAN, Oubtavz Xavtks db, a French
pean to have been fotmded by tba Umbrlane. ^x^aeher and author, bom in Bayonne, Deo. 1,
It ia not mentkmed in history nndl a lata pe- 1766, died in Paris, Feb. 26, 185S. He apang
Hod of the repablic, but daring the civil wars from an iUnstrions family, end after completing
between Jolina OAsar and Pompey and be- hie Htodies at the igeS* Kepolion at Paris, was
tween Antcmy and Ootsvioe it held a promi- ofBered a place at the emperor's ooart, which
nent position. Aognatos raised it to still he refused. He studied law nntil the sohoola
greater importanoe by bnildfaig a new pwt were closed in consequence of politioal eveota,
called Portu Olaans, or simply Olaasis, oap»- after which he went to Bordeanc (1814), e^
ble of containing 360 shipi of war, and "a^ing ponsed tha canse of the Boarl>onB, and on tit»
it the Btotionof the fleet gnardingtheAdriatte. re^tpcaranoe ti SmAeoa imatii the armr-
The aatitral strength of its position ooBtribated Having distingdahea hfanaw at the battle of
to render it an important military poai, and in Helethe by hi* efforts to save the life of his
A. D. 404 Honortaa made it the aboie of tit» commanding lAoer at the risk of his own, ha
western emperors. It remained tba imperU reoeived the rank of Hentenant of cavalry. At
reeidenoe nntil the fiJl of the western Nnpire^ t^ close of ttie war he retnmed to Puis, ra-
Oien became the c^ittal of thv Oothie kuigs, algned his commiSBion, and rescmed hia legal
and was anbseqnently the rerfdenoe of the eB- stadies. His admiirfan to the bar was soon
archs of the Byaantme empwors, from whose followed by his appointment as aanataot ao>
tjtie the whole provinoe mtitr- their Jnriadlo- dltor of the snpreme oonrt of Paris, and a bril*
tion was colled the exarchat« of Bavenno. liant oareer was Inst opening before him whaa
The city itself reniained In the pcaswiion of In 1639 ha resoived to devote himself to tba
the Greek eraperora nntil takes by Laitprand, ehnroh, entering for thia pnrpoee the seminary
king of the Lombards, in 7S8, and again after of St. Solpica at Isay. In the same year he
areeaptoreby AstotphBs,oae of his Micoessori^ beoameamember of tiie society of Jems. Af*
in 769. Lnitprand destroyed the anciait port ter having tanght dogmatio theology fbr sev-
of Olaeris, tiie site of whidi (^present ia aboot oral years to the yomiger JesnitB, at first in
9 m. distant from the sea. when Pepin bad France and afterward in Bwitcerland, be soo>
oongnered tba Lombards he made a prssent oeedad tiie Dominican praaehar Father La«)i>
of Ravenna to the pope, and wHb ooearional dtire in tba pnlpit of the cathedral et Nob«
intermptiouslteontlnDedtobelongtothestBtaa Dame at l^ria In ISitf. The eeTmonBD^"eoIk■
of thechnrch nnlal 1860. From 1440 to 1608 ferencee" wbicii he delivered there daring
it was in the hands ot the VanetiaBS, bnt tlw L«nt fttan 1887 to IMS gave him a great
UigmzoQbyGOO^I.
7T8 EAWDOH BAT
name as s preacher, md msDj of thoa have dad In 1880 lio vrate for Qm «i— ^.
been pobltHoed. In 1887 be alio opened a paper on Ecbdana, aad at the mxt a
honae of hia order at Bordeam, and vaa its aar^ meeting obtained for it the cold meoai
BoperioT for B ^ean, after whidi be resided of tlie aod et?-. In the Bam» year be abo Cor-
loentlf in Paris. He took an aetive part varded a bsnalation of moat ot tbe Behiatm
In the struggle between the Jeralti and the InscriptionB, a part of which vtra pnblbiied
muTersit7, chiefly on the snVject of edocataon, in 8^t. 1846, and the remaiBder iM Dwi- ISSL
and to defend the society from die attacks of The breokiDg out of the *<i^fin war t
Ifichelet, Qainet, and others, wrote his little ritmed bis recall, and after baraUtaig tfaroogli
work De Vexittenee tt dt VmttilMt dtt Jituitet Sinde to Oandahar and tbenoe to Gabool, when
(Sto., 1844; 7th ed. enlarged, 166S), which he wsa aModated with Gapt. Arthmr Caudij
led to an animated oontrovenr. Daring the in themission toEbiva,Bokhara,and Eoku^.
latter 10 fears of his life be was engaged In a he was transferred to Candahar, in vbidi plaea
very extensive correspondence with many of he mnained as political agent nntil the caid tt
the leading meii of Earope. He preached on 1843. In 184S he went to Sudad aa ptditiMi
Sundays in the obapel of the Tnileries, and In resident, and in 1844 waa made Brftisb eenanl
16S1 visited London and preaobed in French and in Isfil consol-goieral, and was aW pro-
dnring the great eihibitiOD. After that he motedto the ranktHlientenanl-^dtHML nidi
lived chiefly in retirement, bis health forbid- the exoeption of aTislt to En^and in IGM-'U,
dins a continuance of the active labors in which he resided oonitaDtly at Bagdad until I8H,
he nad been engaged. Beside a series of ar- proseenting diligently his study c^ the cnnei-
tiolea in a reli^ons journal in defence of the formcharaotetaandoftheorientaltoDgnea. Be
immaculate conception, be published Genfi- poblished the piooeases of hja intettigatkiiis m
ren«s prScMt d Tottloittt (Sto., 184S) and CU- nnmerona pqMra in the "Journal of the Bt^-
m«nt illl. et GlimmU XIV. Tho last named al Asiatie oo^ety," and manj'Of tfieir renlta
work is a history of the snppresnon of the are embodied in notea and eaaaya to the toansta-
Jeenits, written to comiteraot the book of the tion of Herodotns made by hia brother, tlw Ber,
Theatine Father Thelner on the same snbjeet George Rawlinaon, of Oifoid. Betarmng to
RAWDON, Lord. See HAamaa, Fkuicib. En^and, he waa appointed a crown direetor of
RAWLG, WiLUAX, an American lawyer, the Fast India company in 1866, and oeatad
bom in Philadelphia in 1759, died April 12, knight commander of the bath. In Jan. 18^
18S6. He was educated at the academy of the he was elected to paiiiament from Reigate, W
society of Friends in his native city, studied on the extinction of the Fast India c<Hnpaiiy
law in New York, London, and Pans, and com- was appointed a memt>er of the eoDncil ii Iii-
menced practice in Philadelphia in t78S. In dia, and in coneeijneiice was obBged to pre vf
178S he was elected to the Pennsylvania legta- hia seat. In Apnl, 1809, he waa made envoy
latnre, and was subseqnently app<^ted D. fl. eztraOTdinary and minister ploiipotcntiwy ta
district attorney for that state by President the court of Fenda, and is now residing at Te-
'Vsshington. He was the first prendent of the heran. ffia present rank in the army k that
FennsylvaDia historical society, to whose ^nb- of major-general. Bewde hia muneroua cmi-
lished collections he made frequent contnbn- tribntions to edenUflo periodieala, he has pnb-
tions. In 1823 he waa chosen chancellor of the Ushed " Oatline of the History (tf Aaayriai, as
associate members of the bar of Philadelphia, collected from the InscriptionB disoovered by
which body poblished several disoourses oeliv- A. H. I^yard in the Enins of Ninevdi ; print-
ered by him. He wrote " A View of the Con- ed from the Jonmal of the Asistio Sooie^
atitntionof the United States'* (1929). n<ondon, 18fiS), and "Memwandimi on the
BAWLINSON, Sib EsitBT Obbswtoxx, an Fnblioation of the Cuneiform InsGriptJona"
English srcbEeolopst, bom in Cbaddington, (1850), and edited a collection of cnseifann in-
Oifordshire, in 1610. He was edncated at aoripdons (fidio) from the originala in the Brit-
Ealing in Middlesex, and at the age of 16 en- ish mnseum. — Gx<mon, an Eji^sh clergyman,
tared the military service of the East India brotherof the preceding, waa gradnated at Ox-
ec«npany, and served with the troops of the ford, and became a fellow and tntor of ^xetw
Bombay president nntil 1888, when in com- oolite. He was Bsmptcot lecturer in 18GS;
mem with several English officers he Joined the his lectures were pnbliahed, entitled " Hiatorle
army of the shah of Perda, holding in it the Evidence for the Tmth of Chriatian Bactnda"
rank of mi^'or. In 1885, while stationed at (London, 1860). He haa also pnblisbed " Chria-
Eermanahoh, he began his stndy of the cunei- ttauity and Heatheninn" (18S1), and, In em-
form Insoriptions, visited Bagdad in 1886, trav- nection with Sir H. 0. Bawlinaon and Sir J. 0.
elled in Luristan and Snsiana, went with the Wilkinson, has prenared an annotated edition
Persian army to the frontier and enbsequendy of Herodotus (4 Tola., London, 1S68~'60). He
returned to Eermanshah. In 188?-'8, while is now (1861) engaged m a historioal woil
etatioDed at Teheran, he communicated to the called " The Five Great Uonanjiica of tM
royal Asiatic society of London annonnccmentB Ancient World, Ohaldca, Aasyria, Babylcmia,
«f his cuneiform discoveries, and published an Uedia, uid Ferna," to fonn 8 voK 8vo.
noooont of his travels !n Bustana in the " Geo- BAT, the name of the plaj^oatome, ohoo-
gr^doal Society's Journal." While at Bag- droptery^an, or cartjlaginona fiiltea of the sob-
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
order rattm, vt^niaAj esUed ikatoi. Tha mi- kmgslioiia, and ilia joaitg Bab Me^>ea tbnnigli
meroDB &>iiuies are oharaoterized b j great a tmuTerae fluure at one end. The hornr egg
£Btiie» and width of tha body, the latter on*- oa«e may be formed in each oviduct, and U ear-
ing priiieipall7 from the extreme ezpannon of ronaded bj a glandular enlargement which se-
ttle pectwal flna; the ikoll is flat, the upper otetethamatenala; it is formed before the egg
wall generallr membranous, and morablr ar- descends into it, in the shape of a pocket open
tionlatad, as in sharks b7 S oondjles and an above for the reception of the ^g, wbic^ must
ioterraning nwoa with Uia ^iua; anteriorW^ be imprepiated in the ovarj, oontrarr to tha
the head ends in a totaling cartilage whiw tunal order of thing^ in whidi the 701k is en-
■npportstbesnoat: spcAtholaBandaTeaontha okMed before tha shell is formed ; as the egga
doml aqMot, the l«Uer withont lids or with are found to be of different uzes and \
an in>per adh^ant one ; on the Taotral enrfaoe degrees of devdopment lu the ovary, it U j)ro:>-
are 6 alit-like gUl t^enlnga, btibre tiia ventrals id>Ietliat several yaars are reqaired for their
aodondar thepaotorals; ma soapnlar arch is natnritv ; theee pecoliaritiea show the proprl-
emnj^te shore sad balow, sapporting the long, etj of piaoiDs the skates (with the sharks form-
jointed, oartUaginona raja of the pectorals; ing the diriMon of selaohisns of Aristotle and
between this and the puvic aroh, snpporting Agasaiz) in a elsas bj themselves. The teeth
the veidrals, lie the abdominat viscera, and be- of the rays aie generally tubercular, in olose
twaraitandthenarrowakDUarethebranobial ([ninennz order like amosaio pavement Dis-
apparatos and tha vasonlar centres. In the gosting as is the form of the rajs, their flesh is
torpedo* the oellnlar galvanio batteries occupy esteemed a delicacy in England and France,
the spaoas between tuaknll and the pectoral; thongh it Is rarely eaten in America except by
«nd a hnnologoDa rudimentarj ^iparatos has those of European ori^ : it is tongb when first
ba«i founding tail of oommon skates, show- caught, but becomes tender by bdng kept sev-
ingtheadfaerenoatoagttieralplaaofBtniotare end days; with ns it is most oommonlj nsed
Irreqiective of fimation. The tail in some is as bait for lobster pots, or for manure. Of tha
£ashy and tiering, in others slender and ear- &miliee of rays, tha priitida and tarvtdinida
"-"- ^ Ijj others elongated like a whip will be deaoribed nnder Bi.wnsH and tobpbdo
1 others armed with lancet-shaped reapeottvdy ; the e^hatepUrida have bean no-
■pines on the npper sorfkoa, forming a y&rj tioed under Dkvil Fish. — The &mlly rhmoba-
formidable weapon. The gillsconsist of mem- tidm are intermediate between sharks and r^ra,
lM«nona folds on jjane snrfsoes, and the arte- having the form of body, position of fins, thick
rial bulb has fhna S to 6 transversa rows of fleshy tail, and smallness of pectorals of the
sonulnnar valvea. The reproductive secreting former; the anterior part of the body forms
OKsns are of a ocnnpaat and oblong fi»m, tha a disk by the union of the pectoral fina with
eSerent tubes oommoiuoating with the ureters the snout, the latter divided from the former
and ending In a mdimentarf organ in the by a farrow, whence these have been called
oloaea; the olaipera are present in tlia males, beaked rays; the lat dorsal is over the ventrals;
£n, flasnred toward the end, leading to a Uind larger, and tho keel of the sides contianed
anbcntaneons sao well Inbiloated with mnona along it ; margins of month generally nndn-
and die secretion td! a glandnlar body ; the lated^ 8 protoberanoes of tha nnder jaw fitting
ovaria are oomparativdy small, and the ova arc into correspoading indentations in the upper ;
la^er and fewer than in eomzaoa. fishes, and nostrils longitudinal near the mouth, with Amb.
mora as in birds; most of the genera are vivipa- —In the fsmily mittte or the typical rays, toe
rous, but soma <» tha genos raia are oviparous, anout is more or less pointed, the disk 01 tha
The olsqtwa are probably sconathing mora than body and pectorals usually of a rhombic figure;
organa of prehcoaon; tb^ ms^ be so rotated tail slender, with 3 small dorsals near the end
as to bring an opening in tham oppo^te to the and sometimes a candal ; spout holes near the
■pennatie dnct, and may, according to Agasedz eyes ; mouth curved, with the convexity for-
C^ Prooeediiws<tf tha BmtonBooiety of Natural ward; teeth of males with a central cusp in
History," v<d. vi. p, 87T, Hay, 1858), be intro- qMwniog time ; skin either smooth or studded
doced into the ovldneta, and reach the glands with prioklea pointliig backward, Bometimea
there situated for the formation of the egg case, with Sfnnes on tiie dorsal ridge and sides of taiL
The egg eases of the skate are often seen on ThisfunilylnclDdesthegeuu8r((Ja(Guv.),with
our beaches after a sbwrn ; they are of a quad- about 80 spades, embracing the beet known in
rangnlar form, about two inehaa by one, <J a America Hid in Europe, and such as are com-
brown eolor and lastbery oraidstanoa, each monlyaaten in tha latter. Tha smooth ray (»:
eomer pr(4ongad intoatiuMilv prooaas; they common sksteof the northemcoastof America
look flomewhst like {dllow oases, and are often is the raia iani (Mitch.) ; it is of a nniform
called sailors' purses (bdng usually fonnd emp- light brownish color above, and ^ngy white ba-
ty) and skates' nairowa Tne young within the low ; tha female is marked above wHh blackish
egg has no investing membraaa, and the yoik qtots; it attains a length of from 8 to 6 feet,
seoBs to Iiear no relation in siae to that of the and a weight of 2O0 lbs. ; it is found fixim Kew
wobryo ; water fbr the purpose of respiration York to the British provinces ; the body is gen-
is admitted and elected through the comer pro- ersUy nnootb, but there ore small spiiMS about
UigiiiZOQbyGOO^Ie
tlieortitts, on tha anterior edge of the peetorab, ttnployed jbrTMiona (Scneitic snd meSIdiuI
asd on the tail ; the mout is blunt, and die pnnose*. The Eompean iting raj (T. ^mMm*
tseth in oompaot rows, 6-6tded and oaarlr ea, BonwO is waaaoa in the ICecUteiTaneai
smootli. Its flat Ibnn is peculiar!; adapted for andca the aonthemAilantioeoast; itvaswell
life on or near the bottom ; the asnal mode of known to the andanto, who thought it capa-
progression ia b? a gentle Dodnlatiiw move- ble of inflicting poiaoBed woonda; it twiata ita
roent of the pectoraU, intermediate between long tail aroortd its prey or its awmie«,caiimig
flTing and awhnming ; when in pnranit of pre; ver^ aevere lacerated womida ; ita Seah ia not
or eecaping fVom ita eneintea, the motions are eatAble. ^a qiines of aome of the apoeks of
rapid. The foang are prodaoed twice a ^eor, this genua are employed by aaragea aa arrow
in spring and In aatnmn, depouted in tJdn, and apear beada. — utile bmiljffqfMtf&oCHtoer
homy, nearly qnadrangalar caaes. Its fleah is eagle njt, tbt head la more elevated than in
eudby Kr. PerleytobeexteDsiTeljconsnmed, the other ftmilies, projecting aa far as the aiBs,
and tfaefleabypart of tbepeotor^ to be bean* widtoottn ri^a on its ridea, boA with a kiad
tifiilly white and delicate ; itia nmailydreeaed of eephalio fin tnthmtof Iheakoll makinatha
in long tbin slipe, rolled like ribbon. On the point of the dUak; the pectorals are ven^^
coast of New England, Nova Sootio, and New and wing-like ; the tail la long and dender,
Bmnswick, it is frequently taken, and of large withaBtnaUdonaludstrongspuie; themoiilh
rize, by the ood fishers, being generally booked is tranaTene, with the dental plaUa reaching
by its pectorals: h is pnlled op like a dead far back into the cavity of the moath ; the
weight to near the aarface, nnlees caught by teeth are like a mosaic pavement, luge and
tbemotith or head, and straggles violently on even, in sereralrowBfonttingBoonTexsnrfiice;
being drawn ont. It feeds on flsh, crDatoceans, the eyes and spent holes are on the eidea irf
and raollusks, and is Teryvoracions; itdiganp the head, anda broad ridge mna between Qio
dams with its powerful spade-like snoot, crush- two ; the interropted pectorals on the rades of
tng them easily with ita rolling flattened teeth, the head are a fa&dly character. Is the genna
The skin is covered with an abundant tenaolons myljoAotu (Gov.) Qie nasal membrane iaaqnare,
alime, so dirtying their I>oatB that fideimen and the pectorals end in an angular projection;
ordinarilybring them to thesnrface, beatthem the teeth form long hexagonal idatea in tha
over the head, and cut them loose to sink, middle, with 8 or 8 short or ei^oal rows on th«
There are 8 or S species in Enropean waters, eidea. The Jf. aeuta (Ayrea) la found on the
some Httaining a weight of 200 lbs. The Massachasetta ooaat and in long Island sonod,
ahatp-nosed ray (S, atyrhyneha, Linn.) attains and attains a length of about 4t feet; the body
a length of 0 feet; this is the favorite apecles Is smooth and reddiih brown, aboro, whllJA
In the Freooh markets. The common skate or b^ow; t^v«7sl«>derand armed with apsnta.
ray (£. batU, Linn.) ia a large ^ecies, wilh a The eagle ray of the UediterraneaD (Jf.ofw^
granulated skin above; the coW is brown Riaso) grows to alaiveaise; thavronndsmade
above, cinereona below or grayish white with by ita spines are so ^-eaded by the fishermw
black specks. Several species are common in that the tail is out off as soon as poaaible. Sav-
tbe London ma^et, where the femalea are oral spedea are found In the seas of the wann
known as maida. — In the family tfygotnda or parta of the globe. In riineptera (Enhl) the
sting rays the tail is slender, often whip-tike, nasal membrane ia notched ; the central teeth
naked or bearing one or more barbed epinee; are the largest, the 8 lateral rows growing
no caudal fin; pectorals larce, uniting in smaller and eraser eztemally. Li aiUbam
front of the head ; spent holes Targe and close (UQll.) the nasal membrane is lobed, which
behind the eyes; teeth smalt, transversely would embrace many spedea of nitrw^ffna aa
elliptical, and ridged ; skin either smooth or nansJly defined, and the pectorals are rounded:
prickly, but wtthout pricldes on the peotorala. the t«eth form a tinsle row of sLoiple ait^ea
llie genus i/rygon (Adans.) is the most no- plates, without kteralrows. In syirwatu (As.)
merons In species. The American whip sting the nasal lobes and the pectorals are aa in tha
ray (T, hoitat^it, De Kay) oocurs on the coast preceding genus; the oeotral rows of tecUi are
of the middle states, in Lone Island sound, much the longest, the. 1st lateral about half aa
and sometimes <m the coast of Haasaohasetta; large, and the 3 extunal very mndi smaller.
it ia olive brown above, and white bdow; It Inff0nto6i*fta(Ag.)thepalateis broadest behind,
attains a length of S to 8 feet, including the and the plates are obtusely angular, with their
tail. Itienotnncommonon theehoreeof New rounded edses forward.— There is hardly a
Jersey, where It is cau^t both by hook and family of flshea in tiie classification of which
seine, varying In size from a breakfast plate to more oonfUrion reigns than that of the rays;
a width of 4 feet and a toil of 5 ; the fisaennen naturalists see them only In rara Instances, and
always cut off the tail at once, to prevent almost alwi^smnglespeoimaia at a time; Uiei*
wounds from its spines, which, being serrated, can be little donbt that the two aezea of the
prodaoe eitendve lacerations accompanied by same species have in soma instanoea been made
severe infiammation. The principal use made Into distinct apeciea. Even oar moat eommoB
of this species, and indeed of all the rays in rays are verriniperfbotly known, and the gwos
thlscoantrv, is to extract the oil from the liver, raM emhraoesmuiyepeaiea which arenotccD-
which, wUh that from this organ in sharks, ia genera.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
EAT EAYMOND 781
BAY, B K V. oo, of Mo^ bordered S. hj Qm born in IJma, Lirlngston oo., N. Y^ Jan. 24,
IGMomi rirer; are^ ftbcmt STO sq. m. ; p<^.in 1830. His father was Uie proprietor of BBmall
I860, 14,091, of whom 2,047 vero elaves. It farm, in the labors of which the son was earlj
has an nndolating Borfaoe, oorerod hj {areata employed. While still joung be entered th«
and prairies, and a generally fertile soil. The aoademj of Lima, and in the wmter of 18S<i-'S
firoductions in 1 SCO were 655,020 boshels of taught a district school. He was gradnatedat
ndlan com, 48,008 of wheat, 138,641 of oats, the nniversltjofVermontin 1840, uidrepairing
B16,90S ]b* of tobaooo,2T,377 of wool, 183,187 to New York, atndied law for a year in the of-
of bntter, and 461 tons of Itemp. There were fice of Mr. Edward W. Harsh, tnaintaining him-
S saw mills, S tanneries, 6 churches, and EOO self by teoofains the classics in a yooog Tadies'
pupils in public sohoola. O^ital, Richmond. seminary, and by contribotionH to the " Now
RAY, IsiAo, M.D., an Amerioan phjaioian, Yorlter," a literary joumaL When, in April,
bom in Beverly, Uass., la Jan. 1B07. He 1B41, tjie "New York Tribune" was eetablish-
wBB graduated at the Harvard medical school, ed, Ur. Raymond became connected wiiit it as
Boston, and eommenoed the practice of medt- aasistaQt editor, and in ttiat o^iadty greatly dls-
cnne in Portland, Ue., in 1837. In 1829 he re^ tinguished himself by extraoKlinary snocess in
mov«d to Eas^rt, Me., where ha studied tha reporting, an art then oomparatirely little prw
adenoe and literature of msanity, and prepared tiMd in America. In 184S ne accepted an offer
his tre^se on the " Uedical Jorispradence of from Ur. James Watson Webb of a postion on
Insanity" (18SS). In 1841 he was appointed the staff of the "New York Courier and En-
BQperlDtendent of the state insane hospital at qnirer," which he relinqnished in 1B51, in ooo-
Angosta, where he remuned till 1646, when sequenoe of a political disagreement with iir.
be was chosen superintendent of the newly Webb, ^faadal80,some47earebefore,fonned
established BntW hospital for the insane, at a literary connection with the publishing houao
Providence, B, I. He is still the head of that of Harper and brothers, which continued 10
histitntion. Dr. Ray has been a frequent con- years. During this period he had a prolonged
tributor to mescal and literary periodicals. oontroverOT with Mr. Honoe Greeley, in the
RAT, JoHH (or Wb&t, as he at one time columns of their respective journals, upon the
spelled his name), an So^h naturalist, bora principles of sooialisni, Mpecislly as tau^ by
nearBraintree, Essez, in 1627, died ia 1704. ^ooiior, Mr. Raymond attaoking and Mr. Oree-
Ee was the son of a blacksmith, and was ^ad- ley defending them ; the raooessiTe articles on
Dated at Trinity college, Cambridge, in which each side attracted mnoh attention, and were
he obtained a ^Uowship in 1649, the profes- afterward published in a pamphlet. In 1840 *
sorship of Greek in 16fiO, and a mothematioal Mr. Raymond was elected by the whige of hie
tutorship in 1663. His health being impaired, district to the state legislature, where he soon
he traveled over the grester port of England, became prominent as a debat«r and a practical
Wales, and Scotland, stndying then- botanj and legislator. He was reelected in I860, when
Eoology. At the restoration he took order^ he was ohos^t speaker of the assembly, and
but never held anr church preferment, and dnring this session manifested special ioterest
two years later resinied his fellowship, as he in the oommoa school system and the canal
oould not ooDsdennonsIy subscribe to the not policr of the state. After its a^oomment ha
of milformity. Aiter this he resided chiefly suled for Europe for the benefit of his health,
with one of bis former pupils, Francis Willugh- returning in August, and pnblishiog a little later
by, at lUddleton hall, in Warwiok^iire, de- (Sept 18, 1861) the first number of the "New
voted to the study of natural history. From York Times" daily JonrnaL In 1862, in ibo
1668 to 1666 he travelled with Mr. willughby o^tacity of subetitate for a regnlar delegate
on the ooQtinent, and published an aooonnt of to the whig national convention at Baltimore
this tour in 1S7S. In 1607 he was elected s he addressed that body at length, in spite of
fellow of the royal sooiety. Among his most a very vhdeiit and atonny oppoeition, in e^
hnportant works are; Cattdogut flantorvM positioD ^ Dorthem sentiment. In 1864, nn-
Anglia (1670), tiie fonndation of all Ib^iah der nominations by the whig, ftnU-Nebrask^
floras; Methodm Piantarwa Nma (1682^, in and temperance conventioos, he was elected
which he proposed a new method of otassifloa* lieutenant-governor of the st^ by a large ma-
tion, which, as sobsequently altered and amend- Jority over two opponents. He took an active
ed by himself, formed the baeia of the method share in the orgKuication of the rapuKUcaik
of jDssieu; and Hittoria Plantorum (8 vols., par^, oonseqmnt onthe rweal of the Missouri
1686-1704), his largest botanical work. He oompromise, and drew np uie " Address to the
edited Willoghby's works on the animal king> People" prunnlnted by \\a first national con-
dom, and published several of his own, which ventiou,he)datiitt8bnrginFeb. 1866; anddur-
wereregaraed byOuvieras "the foundation of Ingtibesnooeediitgpreuaential canvass hemade
modern zoology." Of his other writings, his nnmerons pnbUo speeohee in support of its can-
"Oollection of English Proverbs" (1671) has didate, Mr. Fremont. Since ue close of his
passed through many editions, and was reprinted term as lientenant^overnor, Deo. 81,1867, Mr.
with additions by H. ti. Bofan (London, 1860). Raymond has held no office, having detuned in
RAYMOND, HxKST Jabvis, an American that year to be a candidate for governor of the
journalist, founder of the " New York Times," state. In the preadeutiai oanvaaa of 1860 he
jy Google
783 BATKAL BAZOB ETSH
agt^ took A prominent stand, both In his Joor- the Girondists, and on tb«lr Ml wu thnin-n
nsl and in public addreww, In (sTOr of the re- into prison, from which he irasreleBeed byibe
pnUican candidate, Ur. linooln; and bj the rerofationof Thennidor. In 1808 he obtained
same modes he has In 1861 iraniilj sapp<»ted a prize at the French aeadtniT for a poem en-
the war against the Mteeding^ states. titled La vertu nieeuaire dam t«t r^AibUmu*;
BAYNAL, OoiLLAm Thohas Fsax^ib, and in the followinif y^^ another for lAa S9-
known as the abb^ a French philosopher and orate datu le temph SAfflavre. la 180S his
author, bom at St. Geniei, Goienne, m March, 5-sct tragedy £«t tmmlitrt created on nn-
1711, died in Paris, Karch 6, 1T&6. He was paralleled sensation ; Qie piece waa reeom-
edncated at a college of the Jeanits, became a mended by the institnte for one of the deeen-
priest, and for some time tanght theologj and nial prizes, bat Napoleon, being displeased
preached in his native provinoe. Amtiition with the author's £tat» da Bloit, played at St
and reetlesaneas of temper induced him in 1747 Olond fn 1810, disregarded Qieir ad-rice. The
to repur to Paris, where he became an assist- aoademr meanwhile elected him a member ii
' lerCTman at the ohnroh of St. Solpice. 1807. In 1806 he had been elected by his db'
>romoial accent waa on insuperable oMta- tive department A-depntj to Uie legidstire
) in the metropolitan pnlpit, body, where in 1818 he waa diosen one of the
and, disappointed In his antidpaHona, he soon committee of S to whom were referred aome
gave np oie ministry, assodated with the "phi- demands made by tJie emperor. The report,
loBophers," andbecomedireotoroftheJfercuM mostlydrawn np by Baynonard, fiongh pre-
da JhuiM, then a very saccessftd periodical, sented by Lain6, seTerely condemned Tfapo-
He pnbll^ed varionB hietoricol >rorka, and, leon's warlike policy, and, instead of recom-
wltb the Bs^tance of Diderot and others, pre- mendlns snbri^ee. Insisted noon the grant of
pared anonymoudy a Butoire phih»aphigu» «t enlarged poHtical liberties. Kapoteon cansed
politique de* itoMmemmiU et da eommeree de* the report to be anppreesed, and Immediately
£uropee7it dafu le* deux Indei (4 Tola. 8vo., a^onmed the chambers. I>nringthe Hnndred
1770), which was favorably received and for Days Eaynonard was offered the title of conn-
about 10 years cironlated freely without hmag cillor of the unirereity and the post of minia-
noticed as objectionable. In a second edition, ter of jnstice, both of which he declined. He
however, he introdnced attacks npon religion now applied himself to the stndy of the Pro-
and KOvemment so openly that the work waa vengal langn^e, and published (^oix de poi-
InterdiotedonDeo. 19, 1779; and when the odi- «tM originale* de* trovtadoun (6 Tola. 8vo.,
*tlon appeared nuder his name at Qeneva (10 Paris, 181<-*S4). His Lexijus Rmum, mt Die-
vols. Sto. and 6 toIs. 4to. with an atlas, 1780), tionnairede talansrvedet troiAadovrt, aymparie
a warrant was issned for his arrest, which be aux autre* lanffuetdeP&avpe Luting waapcet-
avolded by leaving France ; and the parliament hnmotialy pabUshed (6 vols. 8vo., 1888-^44).
orderedhisliook tobebnmed^thehandof the He waa elected perpetnal secretary of the
weontioner (May M, 1781). In the same year EVench academy in 1817.
he published bis Tiibleauet rieolutionide* eolo- RAZOB. See Cutlkbt.
nie* Anglaiie* da^ PAmirigve imtentrwrml* BAZOR FISH (ryriehAut, Vsl.), an acan-
(2 vols. 12mo.), which waa immediately trans- thopterygian genus belon^ng to the fronily
lated into English. Its blnnders were at once of eyelolabrida. The body is compressed and
Kinted ont in a pamphlet by Thomas Paine, covered with large scales, the lateral line in-
r several years Baynal wandered in foreign termpted; the profile is almost vertical, the
coontries, and was finally penidtt«d to retnm forehead trenchant, and the eyes high op ; the
home in 1788. He was elected a deputy to sharpness of the head is not owing to the
the state B-general by the city of MarBeilles, bnt interparietal crest as in eoryphtma (the dol-
declined the honor on account of his a^. His phin of sailors), bnt to the ethmoid and int»-
friend Molouet, who was chosen in bis place, moiiUaries growing directly downward, the
sncceeded in 1790 in having the sentence of lower jaw being boricontal and of ordinary
the parliament against hia Bi*toire philoto- length; the cheeks are ecaleless, and &e snout
phiqiie reversed. The next year Baynol ad- smooth and blunt ; the dorsal is long and of
drewed to the president of the constjtaent as- uniform height ; the teeth are In one row,
eembly on eloqaent letter recanting his former conical, largest in the middle ; the palate and
jirinciples, and intdsting npton the necessity of tongue ore smooth, bnt the pharynx is fOr-
UTesting the king with more ample powera nished with small and pavement-like teeth ;
than were kft to him by the new constitution, the intestinal tnbe is (nmple, without stomachal
His chief work is now fallen into oblivion. The dilatation and pancreatic cteca ; the air bladder
EnglishtranslationbjJuBtamondwaspnblished is large, pointed in fkmt The type of the
in 1776 (S vols., London) and in 1783 (8 vols,), genes is the razor fish of the Mediterranean
RAYNOUARD, Faaifgora Jcsra Martb, a (X.euUratvi, Val.); it is about 8 Inches long,
French dramatic and miscellaneoos author, of a reddish color, variously striped with bin*
bom in Brignoiles, Provence, Sept. 18, 1761, fsh; its flesh is highly esteemed as a delicate
died at Passy, near Paris, Oct. S7, 1686. He food ; it lives solitary, on sandy bottoms near
■was by profession a lawyer. Elected an as- the shores, feeding on eneh fish and moling
sistant deputy to the convention, he aided with aa ita very smaD month enables it to awaHow,
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
RAZOR SHEUi It"*" 788
About ■ dozen oQim apetiM, of the suae rize, Hd., in 1TB4, died In 17B8. He was the eon
are found in the East and West ladies, amonx of a planter, etndied law at Philsdelpliia, waa
the Pnoifio ialanda, and on the oout of South ftdnittfid to the bar at the age of 19, com*
Auenoa, where their flesh is eaten ; in some menoed the praotioe of his professton at New
the S anterior rays of the dorsal are detached Oasde, Del, and in 1768 was appointed st-
and placed for forward, forming S dorsals. tomej-general for the S lower ooanties on titw
RAZOR SHELL («o2m)j Linn.), the tjpe of Delaware, the designation hj which the pres-
the lamellibranoliiate iiinulf of •altnida. The ent state of Delaware was then known. la
genua is obaraotfirized by 2 addnotor mnscleo, 1774 he waa elected to congress, of which he
the mantle open anteriorly and prodooed Into continued to be a member, with a brief inter-
3 short united siphons, tli« brancbin attached Tal, tillnearthe oloseof the revotntion. When
to the lower ; the foot is lon^ and dub-abaped ; tlie qnestion of independence was first agitated,
the shells are elongated, equivalve, and g^ing Ur. Read opposed it as prematnre, bat was af<
at both ends J tbebinge has2 or 8 compreeaed terward among its most lealons sapportera.
teeth in eaclk valva, and is nearly terminal ; In 1776 be was president of the convention
the ligsmont is long and external. The com- that formed the first constitution of DelawarcL
men razor shell of onr coast is the 3. mMit nnder which be was chosen rioe-preaident, and
(Linn.), of a scabbard shape, alMot 3 inches serred for a short time as president during tb«
long and one inch bigb, with rounded ends, oaptdvitj of the regolar inonmbenL In 1769
vbite within and covered oatside bj a gloasjr be was made jndge of the U. S. court of ap-
TeUowish or brownish green epidermis. It is peola in admir^ty cases. He represented Del*
fonnd on sand; beaches near low water mark, aware in the convention that framed the con-
where it bnrrowB beneath the surface, whence stitation of the United States, and was the flrat
it ia someldmea displaced bj stonns ; it de- senator ohosen under it for that state. He
soonds into the sand with ostoniBbing rapiditj; retained bis seat in the senate till, in 17SS, h«
the animal is cjlindrioal, longer tbon the shell, was made chief justice of Delaware,
wad ia often naed aa food under the names of READ, Nathan, an American inventor, bora
long claw, knife handle, and raoor fish. The at Warren, Worcester oo., Mass., July 2, 1769,
& aUi^ua and A evrtto of Europe have similar died near Belfast, Me., Jan. 20, 1849. He was
habits, nnking vertically in the sand, foot graduated at Harvard college in ITSl, end was
downward; their burrows are sometimes 3 tutor there for 4 yeorSi In 1798 be estab-
feet deep, and they ascend and descend in lisbed, with others, the Salem iron fonndery,
them vary quickly by widening or narrowing and invented a madiine, patented in Jan. 1796,
the foot, lliey ore nsed as food, and as bait for ontting and beading noils at one operation,
for cod and haddock ; their borrows may be In 1800 he became a member of congress. In
known by email orifices like keyholes, into 1807 he removed to Belf^t, Me., and for laiaj
wbtoh the fishermen put a little salt; this so years was chief justice in the court of Eancot^
irritates the tubes tW the animal osoenda co. In 1768 Mr. Bead's attention was directed
near the surface, and is drog^^ ont by an iron toward adapting the steam engine for propel-
hook ; when taken from tbeir holes, tney vriU, ling boats and carriages, by devising some
if possible, again r^idly bury dtemselrea. lighter and more compact machinery than
They are foond in almost all known seas. Eltcb was Uien experimenting with. Pnrsuing
RAZZI, &iovAinn Antonio, colled Ii. Sono- substantially the same course which Fulton
Uk, an Italian punter, born m. Yercelli, Pied- afterward followed, be first invented, as a anb-
mont, in 1479, died in 16JS4. He formed his stitnte for the great working beam, the cross
style on that of Leonardo do Yinci, and in the bead, running in soideB, with a connecting rod
sarly part of die 16tb oeotory was employed to communicate £e motion, which was adopt-
by Pope Jnlios U. to execute a ewiea of works ed by Pnlton in bis second boat, the Car of
in the YotioBn, whidi were afterward in port Heptune. The " new invented cylinder," as
obliterated to make room for the ftescou of be colls it, to which this " working frame" was
Raphael. > attached, was a double-acting cylinder, like
REACH, Axons BmuuHK, a firitish jonmol- Watt's last improvement, with which Read
iat and author, born in Inremess, Scotland, does not seem to hove been acquainted. To
Jan. 28, 1621, died Nov. 26, 1866. He became render the boiler more portable. Read invented
aboDt 1850 a reporter on the staff of the Lon- the mnltitabulor form, which was patented
doa "Morning Chronicle," and was afterward with the cylinder, chain wheel, &c., Aug. SB,
for several years a fertile writer for that Jour- 17S1. This boiler was either horizontal or
noL He composed much for the stage and for upright, cylindrical, and contained the fcrnacs
tlis magazineo, and published several works, within itself. A double cylinder formed a
among which are "Claret and Olives: from water Jacket, connecting with a water and
the Garonne and the Rhone," an account of a steam chamber above, and a narrow water
jonmey in tlie south of Franoe, and two ro- chamber below. A number of small straight
moDoe^ "Olement Lorimor" and "Leonard tubes parallel to the axis of the boiler, and
lindsay," a story of a buccaneer. about -} its length, also connected these cham-
BEAD, Grohos, one of the signers of the bers ; while the centrol tubes, being closed at
declaration of independence, born in Cecil co., the bottom, and not reaching quite to the bot-
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
784 BEAD BEALXY
torn oS the boiler, left • epoM tor tlve fire, whidi "LoBbPlekd " asd lb* " Water ^dta'' tfpw-
Mflsed wound inM««d of tbroogb the tobea. hiM best known.
The smoke pipe passed tluoagn a reaerroir ££AI>£, Obakub, snEngUdi norebst. fi»
above the boiler, partJj heating tlie water b«- was educated at Ua^dalen ooOegs, Oxfivd, nd
fore it eot«red the boiler. Tb« riae of the first became a p<qiiil«r &vant« bf hia nonl tS
heated water woold oreate a constant oorreot " Pea.WafflnstaHi," wUch naiMdiatolT' faroo^
throQgh the tubea. Althoogh this form of him into notioa. Following op tUisoooeaa, he
boiler is perhaps inferior to those with fire faM prodnoad a nisnber <rf worka of fictii^
tobea, in cases whore, as in looomotiTes, a verj MKagwhishara"Ohn*tieJohiuhMM;"'''WUta
■trong draught is «aainable, it is vet ooming IJeB"(186S); "NbtotToo JM» to Uegad''(S
into eitensiTe nse in nuiine euginei^ baing rola., 1806); "AOoodnghtandotfaarTaka;"
reo<mimended bjr ita anall oonsmn^on of ftuil and "LoTenwLittle,l.oveiB«Loqg." Hialaal
and greater freedom bom inorastratioD. fiead work is antitled " The SSghth Commai^bun^
also invented another ibnu of bdler, in wMoh (18M), tad is an attack on the V"^*'^ aratcnt
the fire passed throogh amall spiral tabes on of drainatio oopjri^t. Ur. Beadahaadram»
the prinoiple of the nreseat locomotive boil- tixed eevaral of hii norcls, and '
er, an arrangement wnioh, he remarks, would writer tat the stag* and for nuigi
have the advantage of oonnmiing (he smoke. ItEASING, the oaiHtal of Berks eo~ Fmul,
Beude t^ese, he had several other forms, with on tha left banlE of the Sdmylkill, and oa tlM
numerous apartments, to which the watv waa Philadelphia, Beading, and PottaviU* nilioad,
to b« gradually admitted, aa fast as evaporated. 66 m. K W. from Philadelphia, and fiS m. £.
As a means of oommnnioating motion to his from Earrisbnrg ; pop. In 1640, 2Mtt<>- It ia
■teamboat, hia first plsn waa to nsa paddle ver7 plessantlr eitnated on am elev^ed and
wheels ; but finding Uut these bad beaa oaed aaoending tdain, tiftcked on Hie £. br Penn^
before, he subsdtnted a chain wheel of his own Mount, uid on the S. hj the Namdnk mmn-
bivenlioa. He regarded the former however tain, from botJi of wUch flow sbvams of-pvo
ss the best, and to txj their power he caused wat^, with whieh the oify ia abandwitlj' asp-
a email boat to be fitted with paddle wheels plied. It is legolarlr laid ont, veil btdlt, and
and cranks, with whieh he made experiments kept neat and oleantj. The streets otmb en^
on Porter's river at Danvere, Uass., in 1789. other at right angles, and in the oentre ia s
Bead also planned a ateam carriage, which, sauare. The court honae is a very lunibiww
with his tubular boiler, he siaerted ooold be edifioe, with a fine p<Hlieo, and tlia« aiB aer-
made to move at the rate of 5 miles an hoar eral other public ofBoesi Beading wmtainw
with a load of 50 tons. He also inYented & also a gaol, S hanks, 8 pnblio libranea, jt nmn-
method of equalizing the action of wind mills, ber of newqMfiers, 2 <«»>*•*■«. honaea, and afaoat
bj accnmulatiDglheforoeof thewindby wind- SO churches, of which the Gemmn Lntlivan
ing np a weight ; apUnof using the force of and the Oertnan Beformed are the nuiat coo-
the tide bj means of reservoirs sltematelj' spicuous. There are variona "(wrfhTtTHiiwi,
filled and emptied In tnoh a way as to prodnoe inolnding 9 anthracite blast fimiaoea, tme irf
constant stream ; difibrent forms of pumping whieh ia firat olaas in a^le and oaatadt?, S
~ ~iQes and thrwhing Hiaohinfia ; sod a plui large rolling wiiiw 4 fouHLeiiaB, a i**h frctorr,
nsing the eip«nai(Mt and o<mtraotian of cotton Utttarj^ wooQea mill, steam aav ndu,
metals, multiplied by lererB, for winding np and 9 flour nulls. It haa an aetive txaA» by
docks and other polioses. means both at the railroad and of the Scdmyf-
READ, Tnoius Bcohasu), an Amerioan kill and the union canals, the 6tA of which
Planter and poet, bom in Oheater 00., Penn., gives it commnmcati<m with the ooal ngiona
Uarch 12, 1822. At the age of 17 he went to to the N., the other with the rich agrioolt&ra]
CSnciDoati, and entered a sculptor's studio, but di8bri<dB io the W,
soon after devoted himself to painting. Inl641 ESADINQ, tJie count? town of Bericdiire,
he removed to New York, snd a liUle later to England, aitnated on the river Kennet,
Boston, whereheooutinued thestady and prao- junction with the Thames, 89 m. by railroad
tioe of his art, mostly in portrait painting. He W. by B. from London ; p<^ in 1861, 21,450.
took up his residence in PhiUdelidkia in 184S, Bilk, velvets, iron, tt^ are jnann&ctnned.
visited Europe in 18S0, returned to Oincinnati, Beading retoms two mMnbert to parliam^L
and smce 18SS has resided in Morence. fiia IOIAIGAB. See Annrao, toL iL p. 168.
first volume of poems was published at Boston KEALISH. See KouxAuaM.
in 1847, and was followed by a eolleotiixi of BEALTT (Lat. raa, a Uiing), in lav, ridits
"Lays and Ballads" (Philadelphia, 1848). In or [Hvpca^ in lands, teaementi, and beredita-
the same year he edited a collection of " Speei- stents. The common law of real prapetty ia
mens of the Female Poets of America," and in distinctively and almoat entirely P^gluA^ being
1863 published an illaatrsted collection of his fbnndad on the nilee and ooatoma which in the
poems. His first long poem, " The New Pss- feudal period governed the touffe of lands. It
torsi," was published in 18C5, and "TheEoase is the tJieory of the Englidk law, that no ooon*
bj^theSea"in 165S. A new edition of his po- pant of lands, not even a freeholdu', has abao-
eticol works in a collected form was publiBhed lute owuerriiip of them. He has only aa estate.
In 1860 (a vols., Boston). Of hia pictures, the The king is Iwd paramotud, and all the land
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
lr«f him. The oUrf ntatoi m Unda of a* rtuttitkUrflzedtotfcesoilimtcrbeptrMiudpr^
present time originated uodonbt in thaTBriou efl;.— ^taiga which hare been inoorporated
finina of feadal tenaMk life fenda wom prob- wiik <w flrmir fixed to thtt rtti^, and cannot
Ablr -earUav Ibw ftilds of iidieritanoa ; for aa be removed without iqJUT to it, or eren tbose
ttmnt wa» granted in oomUeiMlm of a ntom thing* which, thoo^^ not m firmly fixed, have
^ ndfitaiT ae'rioes, and as thii «oiuldeTatliHi 7«tb«eoittaehedandu>adqtadtothebiiUdiing
was to be f&rniafaad by a ostain tndiTidqal MlandaatobeeeBentialtoitsTBlaeandn*e,rft-
whoae ah ailji known valor or fideli^ indooed garding the pnrpoeee for wliiidi it is emploTod,
fb« gift, lands ware without donbt pnmarilj alK>be<eomaapuiof th«r«altr. (SeeFiximti.)
Ib^tod te Un flnt doiwa ; that is to nj, thej —Beside the incidents and elements of iand
aooU n^thar ba leaned hj him to a strsngep which we have already mentitmed, and wUdi
nor tnnamilted to' iris helra. As tha tcwdt ar« examples of o«i>ifreal faare^tament, then
lunnrrar beoama atnng In thrir^osMSsiraB, or mw be also inoorporeal haraditament& that is,
wliKt &» liuw' wen more semve. fl baeama ti^iti annexed to and isaoing out of Unda, H
Mlis ami powibla to grant astatsi of mh«itanea rights of oonunon and of waj, aasaments, and
in fends ) nn»tr, to tita first taker and eeitain rants. Theaa rank next in di^ty and extent to
of Ua IwiTacrtohiB heirs in geneiaL IVom landa. Bi^hta of oommon are not mnoh known
this a modes ot tanora eama tba modem aatates is tha Umted States. They aia rights which
raspeativaly, for Itf^ in tall, and in fea. Each one has in the lands of another to pastnre hia
«t theae is a ft«aludd and a real Interest, bnt cattle, to take feel £» the use of his ftunilr, or
Boaatate less tliaa one for life (and a leaaa to timbarforT^>alringhlsin>pl«nentsofhnabimd-
A fbr 1,000 yean ia, in dta oontemfdaliDn of tj. Ari^tofw^ is the right of passage over
the iaw, a smaller tntereat than a gfant for tba another man's gnmnd. It may be founded in
t«Brmi^ his Ufo) ia a firadidd <t an estate in snaotnalmntbf thaownarof thescrfl, ormay
natty. Bnt beode lands, things real, aa tha ba olaimM by presoription, which snppoaea n
tantologiaal pbraaa of tlie law is^ oompriaa also ^ant, or it may arise immediately fh>m neoea-
tanaments and hendltaments; and these ara nty; as where one sells a lot rorroimdad b^
ambcaaed'in this term, beocosa they poaaesa other land of hia, hare, as a right of psssage la
soma of Uiaahantotarisiia'qnaliliea of bmda, as necessary to the eqjoyment of the lot granted,
they m^ be holdan oa tenure' or an ioherita^ the grantor is conoliwrely presumed to hsTo
Ue. These, torms may Inolnde things inoor- granted it to the pnrahseer. If the way thni
poratoi . Lud iwdndea only tangible or eorpo- granted and ordinarily oaed become impaaaable,
Malpnpsty. Itapi^eanotonlytotharavund ft saenia Jost that the pnrcbaser shall have tha
or a^ but to every tUng which is attadied to ri^t, fbnndad on the same preamnptlon, <tf
tt natnrally, as rtreeSt stones, or herbage, or by paaaing over the a^Jaoent lands of the grant^w,
art, aa booses or ouer atmotnras. Growing Sot so, however, If tba way be a private one^
tfanbar, tkarafora, and standing grass or gndn, lying in actnal grant, fbr hen the grantor jm-
so long as they an rooted hi and eui^rarted by somptively bound binuelf to r^iair. Tbanght
the enl, ate parts of the realty, though they <tf the pntdie is Aa h^way is, ordinarily, only
baecHBa peraoaalty immediately on aeveranca- an easemenL The fee In the eoil beltaga to
Yet contrasts for tha sale of tlttnga annexed the abvtton, and titeeompleto use of the ground
like timber to tba land, inproqieetof tJi^lm- retoinatotikemwbMieveritbecomesdiBonarged
mediate sepantion, or for the sale of fruits of of tiie eaaement. The rood bed of railways is
the earth alraady ripe, bnt not yet ntharedj generally anttJect to tJw eama ndee. The right
an^Bot oonta-aetfl for any intersst in land, and of eoil in land bounded by navigable rireia
so ara not within that tdanse of the statoto of when tha tide ebbs and flows, belongs to the
tnmia which reqnireB that a contmot for Hm owner of the luid aa for as low water mark,
sale of an internet In lands sbosld be In wrfb- The righttonarigata snoh waters belongs, in aQ
tog. (Bee FxuLCMi ftuniTi or.) The oriterfaa states of liie tide, to the pnbUo. Grants upon
of realtor panonaKy in these eases is, wheliuar streams at>ove the flow of the tide conveynot
the things sold an dependent tor any part of only tba banks but the beds of the atreama and
tfaab vahte on the land, or wbeliier, in other the island in them to the middle line <rf the
words, the gnwi^ somoe is to contribnto water, or od^um msdjwn OTteis. Bnt the right
any thing to their valoe befbn tlte things are of tha grantee is qnalified by the right of the
severed) And it )s waU estriiUrited that oom public to use the atieam m a highway if it be
or any other annnal prodnot of the Soil, if ripe navigable. — An easement is w^ de&>ed to be
and fit to be gotliered, la pencmal property, a liberty, privilege, or advantage in land, wlth>
and m^ be attached, aa sneh, while ^— iHt^g out i»o&t, extsting distinct from an ownership
to t^ field, and Bold on azaontloB. Aperm»- ofthaeoil. It is a real interest, b within the
nant bnUdnig asealad on ooa's land beeones statute offrands, and so con be oreated only by
Us property, evsa thonrii the iiislia jgla for It deed; it differe materially in theae and tbe like
wen wriMigfa% taken from anothor. Bnt ■ reapacts ftom ficense. (See Ltoasat.) Among
braiding areeted on another's land, by hia per* flie mon common fbrms of easement may be
ndMcai, m^y remain tike parsmal property of' mentioned that of suj^wrt, when the owner
the. bnildee. Bo temporary stroctnrea like rf a house allows hia nughbw to rest timbers
VOL. xin. — 50
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
T66 BEAPnro UAOmNES RtCAlOEE
on the vatla of bis honM ; the eaaement of fvZIa(lM{MwtM(6Toli. 4to.,m4-'42), bends a
drip, bj which one is bound to allow vater to rarietf of papers in the tranwotiou of die
fUl ft«in bis neighbor's boose opon his land ; aoademj of soienoes.
righta of war f>' <■' drains^ which ^e to KEBEOK, sn Arabic wwd BKniiyinf an in-
tfaeir owners, respeoti'velj, tihe pririlege of pas- stniment of the violin kind, wnicb ori^nallT
sage or of eondaoting water over the esUte of had bat two strings and was played wiUi a bow.
another. Important righta are those whiobveflt, It was Intiodnoed hf the Arabs into Spain,
in respect to ronning streams, in the proprie- where a third string was added, and was a Ik-
tors of lands abntting thereon. Every owner Yorit« at mral festinls. MiUnn ^eaka irf ibt
of saoh lands is entitled to the use of die water "Jocnnd rebet^"
as It nsDBllr flows. His noghbor higher np the SEBOLLEDO, BKBnABonro, cointt <ft, a
■tream cannot nndnlj obstract the water, not Spanish soldier and author, bom in Leon in
dtreot it altogether from Its nioal channel. H* 15*7, died in 1076. Re was of noUe ftniilr,
is honnd,fi>r the benefit <tf all proprietorabeloir and at tiwageof 14 embraced the profeadon^
htm, so to Qse the stream that its natnral flow arms, serriog in Italr and a«ainBt the Td^
shall be nnobetnioted, and the enjoTinent of it and 0» powers of Barbarj. Be afl«rward took
be undiminished. — An ezdnriTe and nnintw part in tbe 80 jean' war, was created b; Fer-
rapted eqjoTment of any easement, In any par> dinand II. a oonnt of the Germanio enofdre^
tlcnlar way, for SO years, or for any less period and reeeired tbe goremment of tbe Lowo'
which by positlTe Btatnte makes the period of Palatinate. In IMT be was made by Flrilip
ftnitation, founds an advene interest sufficient IV. amhamador to the comt of Dennuu-k, and
toraise apreainnptloa of title. Rentls ayearly from 16Q3 till his death was ndnister of state
retnni out of the profits orvaloe of land in at Uwirid. UaymAaStlvatmimaretypoliti-
eonslderelJon of its nse. - (Bee Lkuk.) eat, poems' on the arts of war and civil gor-
REAPINO ItAOEJSEB, Bee Howdts axd emment (Copenhagen, 16G9) ; Oeioi (" L«isnra
BUHNO ICACHnna. Honra." ISmo., Antwerp, 16tHI) ; La eojutmteia
KfiAUMVK, Rxvi Ainoim FasoBtiaT ni, viatvriota y Trinm i» Jeremiat (4to., Ocncnha>
« Prvnclt natnral philosopher, born in Rochelle gen, IflOD), a paraiAraae of die book of Job and
In 1688, died Oct 18, 1767. He was edn- tbe LameataHona of Jeremiah; aniSihatBa-
oated at the Jeemt college in his native town, nicaa (4to., 1065), a conpendhun of the Uitory
and atodied law at Bonrges; bnt repairing to and geography of Denmark. Tbe best edititni
Partsinl70>,heg^eddiatinctlonbyliiaphito- ofhisworkaiathatofHadrid<8Tols.BTo., 177S^
■opUoal reawrdhea, and in 1708 was admitted - KEBODL, Jkait, a French poet, bom in
to the academy of atdencee. He eontribnted in HImea, Jan. Sa, ItM. He was the aon of a
•stdilishing in France or improving Tarions lockimith, and to snp^rt his mother, who had
nanoflwtnrea, and in hia treatiae, L'art da eon' been left a widow with 4 yonngchildrcn, es-
wrMf U fir forgi en aei&r, tt Part ^adavetr la tabtished himself as a baker. Be compOBed
fir/«mlu{l'lti), first made known the proceaa aonga drenlated among his Aiend^ bnt wasto-
of mannbotnring steel. He reoeived for his die- t^ly nnknown to the poblio nntil 1828, wixa
tonrj a pension of 12,000 Uvrea, wUdi he ^ a ttnr lines of his, entitled Damiga *t tt^fiaJL,
plied to the enconragement of that branch <rfin> addressed to a mothernpon tbe death of hs
dngtry. He invented Bprooessfbrtiun&igtrom, child, appeared tn the ^udfiiiwtHw nowipaper.
and made experiments with leas snocess in the In 1886, nnderthe title of AMs^ heprint*
manafkatareofporoelain; an oMqne white glass BmaOvoIomeof poonsirtikhwasreoelvedwiA
which he made laknown as "Bianmnr'sporoft- mat flivor, and in 1840 a biblical pofn, Ia
Un." He also dbeoTsred tbe means of preserv- iemier jaw. He has written a few tragediee,
Ing ^igs, and was the flrat in I^anee to make tme of whkh, Lt wutrtfrt dt Ftria, waa per-
aooowwDl experiments in aitlfieial inenbation. formed tnlBBO without partienlarsnoeeM. In
blTSl he invented the thermometer which ii 1867 he pnbUdied anew TolDmeofpo«na,Z«
eaHed after hhn, and ts stUl need bi France; tradttimuMaa. In 184S he waa dected to tbe
taking a« the extteraes tbe fleering and hdl- eonatitnent asasmbly by the department at
Ing polnta of water, and the former being sero, Osrd, bnt gained no poliaeal diatinctioa.
he divided the interval into 80 eqoal parts or - RfiOAiUER, Jxunn Fbaitcobk Jcun Ans-
degreea. He investigated man; cnriou tofnci Uins, a celebrated French woman, bom in
ta .natural history, wpecially the mode of for- LTons,I>eo.8,1777,diedinParis,HaT 11,1SU.
natkm and growUk of the eealee of fisbea, the 8he waa the dan^ter of a post office ctmtrao
development ofthe shells of testaceonaaniinalB, tor named Bernard, and in April, 1798, nm^
and tbe reprodaotion ot the claws of lobsters ried a rich bank<r of Paris many yeara olds
And crabs. He asoertwned the nature of the than hersel£ and by the brilliancy of her oon-
ringnlar sabstance that gives brilliancy to the veraationaudtheenarmof herpenon and her
Mafesof flihe«,Bnddiaecrreredaflpeeies<rfm<^ manners made lua resideDce a great place of
losk that fkimidieB a pnrple dye neariy eqnal reacMtfiirmcBof ednaationaBd||eoins. Und«
to that used by the ancients. His most tlior- tttemle of the^reebvyanddnnng Uieemsnl-
4Qgh tavestigations were fn the deparbncnt of ■!« and empire her honae was cMtstantly fr^
Mtomology, to whieb he devoted several yean, qnaited by dlstingniahed personagea, amoag
BeleftjAaiMrss^mravmriirJUsMrs note- whran were IndMi Bon^aite^ Kenan, Beng»
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
BECHFB BEOOaNIZAHTOE 787
dotts, La Hni^Bi Beqjamhi Oonatont, and Da- with tbeta wu freed from some of her myBtioal
▼id; bat as the so<de^ there took on a form of ideas. Upon this she wrote "The Unmailied
oppoaition to the goremmeBt, die was obliged Oagiiostro" (Berlin, 1787), vhich was trans-
bf Napcdeon to leave Paris. Bhe rerided for lated into BoBsiao by order of the empreu
■ome time In Ljoin, thea went to lUij, and did Oatbarioe, on whose invitation she visited Bt.
aot reenter France nntil after the fkll of Na- Petersburg in 1795. She left varions works,
poleon, wben ahe retnmed to Paris and re- principally religious. Her £eiae naeh lialien (4
opened her saloons, la oonaeqneDce of a re- vols., Berlin, 181S et *tg.) is the description of
verse of fortune, ehe retired in 1819 to the ajonmey to that conotry madein ISOJincom-
AbbBTe-aox-BoisnearPariSibntherhotise nev- panywith her friend l^edge, who afterward
er tbslesB oootinned to be the resort of eminent wrote her life.
men, among whom was Oh&teanbriand, who BEOOGNIZAKOS (law Fr. feemitamieg;
was her devoted admirer. Throagb her con- law Lat rtoognitio), on obligotioQ of reoord
neotiOB will) that literary circle which regard- antered into before a oomt of record or magis-
«d Mme. de Stati as iM chief^ she exercised, trate duly authorized to take it, with oondition
altbon^ herself prodaoing nothing, a conud- to perform some specified act; s« to appear at
arable iitflnettoe apon Frandi literatnre. Mme. the asaizes or orimmal coart, to keep the peaoe^
BteanuerwaaconaideTed one of the most bean- to pay a debt, or some other thing of a like
tifvl women of her day. Soaetairteteorrewnr desoriptioii, npon the performance of which
ianev tirit det papitn da Jfnw. ffJeomwr have condition the obligation ia to become null and
been poblished (2 vols. 6vo., Paris, 1B60), Toid. The state or person in whose favor or to
BEOIFK. Bee Pkbhaubooo. whom the reoogoizanoe is made is called the
BEOITATIVE (IaL ttnto, to roolte), called oognizae, and the person who enters into it the
b7 the Italians fln(MeajH»-Iani0,speakii^maBia, oo^izor. The word recognizance is given to
B species of ortifloial detdomation aAxg^tA. to thu kind of obligation, because, generally, the
mnsioal notes, and forming « medium betwecm form of it is this : the clerk or other proper
ordinaryremtationorspeoking, which it nearly officer says to the oognizoi: "Tou ocknowl-
reeembles, and measured air or song. It was edge yourself bound to," &o. ; to which the
first introdnoed at Borne by.Emilio del Oava- oognizor assents ; and it Is then made matter of
Kere in 1600, and is now a recognized and in- record. — Becognizanoea are of several kinds
deed an essential form <rf Tocal composition in and deaoripdons, uid ore used for varions pur-
the grand Italian opera, oratorios, and oanta- poses both civil and criminoL Of the former
tas, serving to express some action or pa»- kind was a reoognizanoe of debt at common
sion, to relate a story, or to connect soenes and law, in the natnre of a deed to charge or in-
■itnatiotts, without injuring the effect of the onmber lands. This was very similar in form
performance fay resorting to spoken words, and effect to an ordinary bond, the main dis-
Althongh written In common time, the reoita- tinction being that wUle a bond is the orealion
tive toa.j be delivered by the ringer according of a fi-eah debt or obligation, a recognizance
to hia ftney, snt^eot of course to the laws of was the acknowledgment of a debt already ex-
prosody, the kogths of the notes as given by Isting upon reoord. It was certified to or taken
the oomposer being mere apim>ximationa. The by the officer of some court, and witnessed only
OMomiianiment generally connsta of a few oo- by the reoord of such court, instead of having
easional chorda atmcdc by the pianoforte to in- the oognizor^s seal affixed to it. It was not
dicate the harmony, allhoi^ aometlmea tbo strictly a deed, though in eSect it was of great-
violonoellos take the ohords in afpeggie. er force and obligation, and was allowed a
When the recitative is interrupted by inter- priority of payment, and bound the lands of
^ected passages nerfonned by the orchestra, the oognizor troia the time of its enrolment on
it iswd to be obhligata. reoord. It operated as a lien upon all the lands
REOKE, EusABiTB Oaaaxom OcirsTAinu. which the cognizor posaeased at the time he
TON DCS, a German authoress, bom in Oonrland, ooksowl edged it, and akonpon all those which
May SO, 1?K^ died in Dresdea, April la, 1888. He afterward acquired, so that no alienation
Bhe waa the danghter of the oonnt of Hedem, of them mode by him while his reooKntzanoe
and in 1771 ooutroeted a marriage with Ton remained in force would defeat the claim of
der Seoke, which tomed ont nnh^pily, and 7 the oognizee or prevent his extending >nch
years afterword separated from him. This cir- lands. Beco^zanoea for debt may otill be
cnmstonce, along with the death of her dongh- taken in this country under statntory provi-
tarinl777, and of her brother in 1778, gave to rions, bat tbey operate merely as evideocee of
her religions feelings, natnroUj abmig, a mya- debt in the natnre of a Judgment, npm which
tlcal direction. When Oa^ioetro came to Mitan execution may istne, and do not generally
in Gonrland, where she was then residing, she create a lien upon the coffnizor's land or other
gave implicit belief to his olalm of the pes* property. — Th«« were afso, at oommon law,
aibUity of holding oommonion with the spirits two other recognizances of a private aort, aaid
of the dead. In 1784, on a Journey to OsaW t« be in the nature of a statute staple and a
bod, she became acquainted with Bpalding, statute merchant. The undertaking of special
Teller, Zollner, Nicolw, BOrger, the brothen bail in a civil action, of which the boil pieoe («
Stolberg, and oUitts, and throng aasooiation slip of parchment so oalled, on which it woa
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
78$ VWOOGmZKStX saooKD
inaMOdttod to eonrf) VM a loMnoMiidam, wu nuo. WtrMmardMiiMidnagArtfbdrliiis-
« noofniamoe entered into bj the oogiucon bandsjaodliniMMi, ifneceMuy, agiJnsttltelr
before the eonit or Judge for a anm eqnel (of wirea ; but niairied wonuot ftud infitnte aboaU
In BMne cases double) to that whtoh fbe p)u»- find Beenf^ b^ UuJr friends and not be bonnd
tiff had sworn to, bjrwhiohtfaer undertook Uiat tbenucdves, beeaoee ther an incapable of «i<
if the defendaBt was otndemned In the aetioB gating themadTea to aniwer an^ debt The
he sbodld pa^ the ooeta and oondemnation, or atatatea of IfaaMcbnaetts make a reet^nizanoe
render blnuelf a prisoner, or that tbe^ would to appear a> a witoesa, to the amonnt ot fSO,
paj it for him. — la oriminal praetioe recogni> binding npon married wanen and inftots not-
■Bzioes are osed both as a means of seciirinff Ute irtthstanding the diaabfUty <^ eorertnre or m!-
proper administration <tf Joitice bj oompdllng noritj.— In eld practice this Terdiat of an urize,
the ^>pearance of a ptuV aoonsed b<rfbre a or ttiiotif the act of tiie jarj in hearing and
magistrate for fUtiier examination, or for trial faiqidTing Into the oaae in order to tiie mahiiv
at some superior conrt, and of leooring the at- up of their vwdlet^ was called a reeognixance.
tendance of witneaMS bj binding them, with REOOLLfCTTB. See FKutonoAn.
snfflcient mretfe^ to ifipear and testtfr. niey HEOOBD (Lat. rtoordari, W. rtcorihr, to re-
are t»ed also as a means of in^venting the member), an oSdal eontamporsneene ntono-
eommisslcm of Crimea, hj obligmg the persons randnm tn writing, drawn op bj- tire -proper
suspected of an Intent to oomnuttihem to reoog' officer of s conrt of Jostioe, and ccmtmiiDg a
bIm in some penal smn, with ^edges or Bore- snmmarr statement of the prooeedings in an
ties, to keeoue peace and bo of good behavior action at law broni^t before that eoort. TUs
forAOOTt^tame. Areeognizsnoetokeq) the statementoomprisesaahorthiatoryof the case
peace maybe taken bran^joBtioeofthepeaeef andthaproceedlncsoonBeqiwDttherwni; i
from an7 one who creates an attnj or distnrb- natvre of the action, the name* of the paztiee
anoe in his preeenoe, or goee ^wnt with nn- and the time of their appearanoe in eoart, u>d
nsnal attendance or weapons to Ae terror of the acts of the eoort ttaelf daring the progreas
the people, or la brought before hbn b^aooo- of the pleMlings, arranged in the order of flkrir
stable for a brMoh o! the peace; and he is OcoorreDCe, and sometimea connected togetb«r
bound to grant it in fhvor of an; person who I7 entries ot a pecnHar nature called conttm-
ean show lost oaase to belleTe that he is in anoee, the whtde eanelndlng with lie judgment
dang^ofbodit7harm at the handsof another, of tiie conrt with respect to the qoeotkm at
A reoognizanee for this purpose is an obliga- issae. These eontinnanoee were a^jonmnMnta
tiou in the nature of a bond with one or more of the case from one daj or term to another,
snreties, entered of record, with condition that which the law allowed for certain porpoees,
tf Its reqnlrunenta are falflUed, and the cogni- and which were entered with Hie pleadten and
zor ko^ the peace for the time therein speci- otiierprooeedingaontherollorrectnd,sa^gaTe
fied, it shall m void and of no effect, it on the whole a complete and oonneeted fom.
the contrary it la broken l^ anj breach of the Theee records were alwajs written npon rolh
peace, it becomes forfeited or an abeolnte debt, of parchment, "whldi indeed was an easmtial
and the oognizor and his sareties mar be saed «haraeteristio of a record. In the United
for the anms in which th«j are re^»eotiTelf States paper is imtrartallf need as a snbstitnto
bound. If it b a special recognizance, aa to for ponjunent, and tire n^ form has cw»e-
keep the peace toward any partioalar person, qnentiy been abtdidied, but otherwise the forme
h may be forfeited by any aotnal violence, w of the English reomds harv* hew generally
even an assault or menace, te snob person adopted. Records In this technical aenae are
and to such person only. If it is a general peculiar to the common law; and as they form
recognizance, It ia forfeited by any act whioh theonlyatrletaDdproper proof of the proaaed-
tenda to break the peaoe, done to any person ings of the courts u which they are preeel'red,
Or thing in genenl. — A recognizance may be they are rt^arded with parttealar eonaiidem-
disoharged by the death of the prindpd party tion, and are gMieraUy a proof of aoeh a U^
hound thereby (If not before forfeited), or by and abeolatenatare asto admitof nooontradw-
the order of til* eoort to whicb it ia Mrtifled tion. In Sir £dwn<dO<^'s words, thc^.^'ici-
by the Jnatice, if they see soffloient cause, and port in themselres each nncontrallable credit
in England by the death of the king to whom and verUy, as they admit of no averment, plea,
It is made. If granted upon private scoonnt, or proof to the contrary." The exiatenoe of
it may be discharged if uie person at whose a reeord can wily be tried by itaelf; that is,
request it was granted will consent to release if in any action the existence of any matter
it, or does not make his Kipearanee to pray on record is all^^ and the adverse party
that it may be continned.— At the oommon law pleads ntil tiel nevrd, nt tliat there is no soeh
a peer or peOTses could not be bound to recog' reowd, the issue arising thereon is determined
^ze in any other place than the conrts of merely by the Inneotion of the record itsdf
king's bewdi or chancery; bnt ajnstice of the by the conrt, wimont witnesses or jury, bo-
peace had power to require snreties from any canae no issue can be Joined iq»on it to be tried
person, not a lunatic and imder the degree of by a jury as npon matters of fact ; end the ree-
nobllity, whMher such person were a fellow ord is conclusive proof without ftu-ther evi-
Justice or other magis&ate or merely a private denoe. The peeoliar privllega *^ scnne courts
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
to htn tlMM memorials bu of Itsdf orMted ing IL Ita htogaagt gnduUj rmehed ths
lAognage g
« of prwu^
eoorta of r«oord uid eonrts not of reoord. form of axpraBdoik, which neitibw Bdmittod of
ThaaghcKHirtaiiotofrMordtnftrkec^minatM nor reqnind anr Tamtiou. When written
or mamoriah of their proaeedings, snch mill-- plesdio^ took the plu» of oral, thej were
otM an not properlj records. Legally, the framed in the samo manner as thej had previ-
tenn reoorda applws to tbs rolla of BUofa onlf ooalf appeared on the record, and were in loct
•a are oourti of record, and not to the ralk of ^mpl^ extraeta from it, the ume oonciie and
iuEuior or taj other oonrta whioh proceed not techmoal forms of expreaaion being ft] vaje used.
■WMwrfw Itffim »t cMututvdinem A^lia, or From thia arose a leading principle of practice,
aooording to th« laws and customs of Eitgland. viz^ that erery proceeding in an acti<»i intencb-
Daring mat term of the oonrt in whii^ anj ed or required to appear on the record, tnaat
jn^idal aot la to be dona, or before the case be framed in the language of the record, and
pending is oonoloded, the. record is ssid to re~ with the ssme exactness as the reoord itselt
nudn in ttia breast of the jadgea of the coart, .Two other circoinstanoeB united to ^re the
andlii.tharrMnembranoe,andthereforeit maj reoord the nnchaogeable character which haa
b« altered daring that term, ia snoh manner oa aoeompanied it down to modern times, and at
the Jndgea shall direct. Bnt as soon as that most to the present daj. One was, that it wai
term is Kided, the reoord is closed, and admits kept in Latin, a language which admitted of
of no ehange, alteration, or proot to the con- Jto variation ; and the other was its inviolable
b'arj.— The practioe of recording is said to lie charBCt«r, which preserved it from the slii^t-
of Norman origin. It existed in the Frendi law, est alteration after being once made np. Tba
gsoMallj, as early aa the time of the conquest, SBbstitalion of the EngWi for the L^in laa-
if not earlier, and in the same form as that guage, and of or^narj writing for the " ancient
which it bore in Normandy. In the Amiie* d« and immutable court hand," took plaoe in the
Jinualmt, which was a code of feudal jnris- reign of George II., and was conudered by
pradenoe oompiled as early as 1090, and in- oompetent judges of that time aa a dangerous
teoded lor the kingdom of Jerusalem then innovation. It has been oertaioly followed b^
■Mwly established, Utiganta were direoted to other important alterations and modifications,
ooUect aa many of thur own friends aa posuble whioh have greatly impaired its original char-
in oonrt, and request them to attend to what acter as a complete and immutsble memorial
was said, >o that titey might ratwn and record of all the proceedings in an action. The old
it properly at the tame ot judgment or trial, continuances and the formal commencementa
They were farther direoted, if Uiere should be and conolnaions ot the pleadings are now
an a^joamment or farther i»j wMinted for omitted, the language of the piesdings them-
the hearing, that both ^Untiff and defendant selves is greatly modified, and the prsaeot
should pat down in writing the nature of the tendency undoubtedly is to deprive the record
claim and other particulars, in order that they in a great measure of the high dignity and Im-
might testis to them at the adjourned meeting portance which it oncientiy possessed.— Keo-
if neoassary, and thereby assist or confirm the obd, as the title, or rather evidence of title to
recolleotionof the judges. This practioe finally real estate, by the reoord or registerof title
became developed, from the mere private mem- deeds, is of American origin. The usage has
oranda of tiie pleaders, into an omoial oontem- prevailed from the early settlement of New
poraneous minute of the proooedinge. "Wheth- England, and ia now universal throughout the
«r this change," says Mr. Btephena, "hod folly United States. By the laws of Masaachusetta
token plaoe at the date of Glanvil's treatise in 1641 all deeds of conveyance, whether abso-
On the reign of Henry IL), that work does not lute or conditional, were required to be record-
enable us aeoorately to decide. However, wa ed, that " neither creditors might be defrauded
find, at least very ahoKly after that period, the nor courts troubled with vexations suits and
praotico of recording, in the present sense of endless contentions." The statutes of the va-
the term, was in ftill operation." Next to rious states differ in some immaterial respects
Domesday Book, which, though not a k^la- as to the time and manner of registry, and aa
tive record, has all the validity of one, is the to what deeds or inBtrumeuta must be recorded;
" Exchequer Begister" (Pipe Boll) of 81 Henry bnt the principle in all is the same, and all
I. The series ih legal records in the court <i make such reoord absolutely necessary in or-
Ung's bench, now eitsnt, reach from the reign der to complet« the purchaser's title, and rcn-
of Richard I. to the present day, and were edit- der it valid against creditors and subeequent
ed by Sir Harris Nicolas (SetaU Cvria BegU, hona Me purchasers. If the deed la not re-
2 vols. 6vo.) for the record oommiasion. The corded, the sale is nevertheless good and the
peculiar coostruction of the record, showing as title paases as between the immediate parties
It did every proceeding in the action precisely and their heirs and devisees, but it is void aa
as it f'ok place, gave It at a very early period against subsequent icna fiie purchasers and
tliQ highest authority as B judicial memorial; mortgagees whose deeds ore firatreoorded. In
WjA. its importance in this partionlar led to a some of the states a specified time is allowed
suitable degree of care in franung and preserv* io which the deed may be recorded, as one
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
790 BEOOBDE SED
year in Delaware, OeorgU, Indiana, and T«a- times hwa ctmfisnndea, bnt Biora akin to tiM
neasM, and ehorter periods in other statei ; and flageolet. Ita tone waa atdt and pieaAtg,
In yet others where no time ia fixed bratatnto 4 whence Hilton epeaka of " flntea vid soft re-
reaeonable dme la allowed, and the deed when eorden."
recorded within noh reasonable time baa relor HECTOR (Lat. teffo, to mle), literallj, a ralff
tion baok to the time of its eiecation, and takes or goremor. The term is need: 1, in tJM
effect according to priorit7 of execution and not oliTirBh of England, to dengoate the cle^jTBaB
according to prioritj' of registrr. In 1630 tha who poaaesBea the tithes of a parish, and who b
real propcily commissioners in England recom* properlj a parson ; 2, as the title of tbe chitf
mended the eBtabliehment in that cormtry of eleotlre aC&oei in a college, or of the heai of a
a general registry of deeda and inBtromeDts re- high school ; 6, by the Jeanita for the ac^erins
latins to land, as contributing to the secnrity of their seminaries or colleges.
(^ tiue and the cheapness and fatality of trans- EECTORY, the office of rector ; and, oom-
fers of land, and supported their recommenda- prehended as a whole, a psrish cfanrcb with all
ticQ by referring to the succeesfol operation of its rights, tithes, &d. The name is also gmo
the system in the ITnited States and elsewhere, to the residence of a rector.
But It has aa yet been adopted to a limited KE0U8ANT (Lat. nciuo, to refoae), a term
extent in England, and its application is re- of frequent oconrrence in English ecdeaiaBtical
strained to speciid localities. Freehold but not history, and used to designate thoae persona, in
leasehold property is recorded in Scotland in a general, who revised or neglected to attend
public register, and the deed must be recorded divine aerrice on Sundays or hoUdaya in the
within 00 days to render it valid agtdnst cred- establuhed church, or to worship God. aecord-
itors and parchaaers. — It has sometimes tieen ing to its forms. The use of the word in texa-
a qnestion whether notice of the trsnafer of poral eonrts is traced to the first year of Qneen
property to a subsequent purcliaser was equir- Klizabetb, when it was enacted that all perBona
alent to a record of thepnordeed,and whether who, vithout reasonable excuse, fuled to at-
the deed of a subsequent purchaser with soch tend some osnal place of prayer, ahoold be een-
notice, duly recorded, would be valid ag^nst sored and fined for every ominion 12 penccL
the prior onreoorded conveyance. The record In 38 Elizabeth the fine or forfeiture was marde
of a title deed is not oonsidered sa oonferring for every mouth 20 pomids ; and in 8fi Eliea-
title in itself, bat merely as evidence of notice beth it was enacted that if recnaanta fidled to
or as conatmctive notice to the public of the submit within 8 months after convicticai, they
title passed by tha deed of conveyance of might, upon the requisitiim of ^Insticcsof thA
which it is an official and certified copy; and peace, be compelled to abjure and renennoe the
it is therefore a general rule that notice, actual realm; and if they did not depart, or if tbey
or implied, to a snliaequent purchaser of a prior retnmed without license of the crown, they
oonveysnoe, is as effbotnal to defeat hia claim were guilty of felony and shonld aufier death
as a lonajidt purchaser as a due record of without benefit of clergy. In the case of recn-
Boch oonveyanoe wonld be ; for so long as he santa who profeaaed the Roman Catholic reli-
receives notice of the prior incumbrance, it gion, and who were designated popish recu-
makes no difference whether such notice is do- eantg, the laws were more severe; in addition
rived from a record, or from any other an- to the above general penalties, they were di»-
thentic sonrce, and he purchases thereafter at abled from taking lands, either by desoent or
his peril. Inotherworda, if he knows that the purchase, after the age of 18, until they re-
lanii he buys has already been conveyed to an- nouuMd their errors, and were incapaoitsted in
other person who has neglected to record the several minor rights of the subject " Fopiah
deed, he cannot claim the rights of a hoiutjidt recusants convict," as they were celled, after
purchaser. having been once convi^ed, were virtoally
BECOHDE, BoBBBT, an English phydcian outlaws. Protestant dissenters were relieved
and mathematician, bom in Tenby, Pembroke- from the penalties of recusancy at the revoln-
shire, about 1000, died in 1608. He entered tion by the toleration act ; and in ISSQ, by th«
Oxford unlverrity in 1526, was elected a fellow Catholic relief act, Popiah recusants were ex-
of All Bonis' college in 1681, snd taught rheto- empt«d from proseontion; but the atatotas
ric, mathematics, music, and anatomy. In the agunst recusancy still exist, though they ere
latter part of his life he readed In Loudon, and but seldom enforced, against persons who ab-
was physician to Edward VI. and to Queen sent themselves troia chmrh, being neither
Mary. He wrote the " Qate of Knowledge," Boman Catholics nor Protestant dissenters.
and the "Treasury of Enowledge," both of RED, the most brilliant of the colora of the
which are lost. His extant works are: "The aolar spectrum, seen in nature in the arteria]
tJrinalof Physic ;""TheOastle of Knowledge;" blood, which is of a medium hue between crim-
"TheWhetstoneofWit,"amathematioalwork; sona that partake of blue, and oiasge— the
"The Ground of Arts, teaching the Work and color of fisme, that borders on yellow.- Be-
Fractice of Arithmetic;" and "The Pathway ride these shades of red a number of others are
to Knowledffe," a compendium of geometry. recognized, as scarlet, vennilion, and Indian
EEOORDER, an old-faahioned instrument red ; the first of a brilliant hue lighter than
rea«abttng the Ante, with which it has some- crimson, the second a very bri^t red, and the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
EKD BIHD BED EITEE 791
loBt of a dark shade. The color often rMolta oonipionoiui in ts Mtion n«ftr I<ake 0«org« on
firom flliglit modifioationa of the manner in Ang. 18, 1819. He aiwftfs atreDuoasly resUted
irluoli the light is reflected from the sor&oe cd ttie advanoea of dvilization, bat gradnaltj be-
bodios, as in the colon of frnita, flowere, in- came in liis later jears a conflrmod drankard.
sects, &o., the hoe changing with the move- RED LEAD. See Lead, vol. x. p. 889.
ment of theae bodies. So, too, apparentl; in- RED BIVEB, a tribatarr of the Mtauaaippi,
significant modifioalions In the obemioal ctan- and the last of conaiderable ^e which it re-
poMtion of bodies, as a slight aooeemon or oedves. It ia formed by the confluence of two
diminution of oiygen, determines a red, blue, principal branches, of whioh the aonthem and
"brown, yellow, or blac^ color. In nature bril- larger risea in New Mexico, a little beyond the
liant reds are seen in the plumage of birds of W. boundary of Texas, laL 84° 43' N., lon^
tropical olimM, and in inBe<^ and Ssfaee. In< 108" 7' 10" V. ; tlie northern in Texas, lot. 8S°
fodons of the coohineal laaeot f^raiah the rich 8C' 8" N., long. 101° 66' W. After the juno-
carmine ; and from those of the safflower are tiou, near lat. 84° 80' K., long. 100° W., it
Srepared ttte beoutifol vegetable rouge. (See flows nearly G., separating the Indion territory
ABTsaicn^ and Bonax.) Uany ripe fraita and from Texas ; a little beyond the extremity of
twrries displaf rich red colors ; and in the min- the latter, at Fulton, Ark., it benda to the S.
eral kingdom tbey are seen in the bigheet per- and entera Loniaiaoa; tbenoe flowing S. E^
faction in the rnbj and in the peroxidea of iron it enters the Miasiasippi 841 m. from its month.
or oohrea, which with red lead or mininni (sea Oapt. Uarcy, by whom the river was explored,
Lkad, Tol. X. p. 889) ftimish the motarials for estmiatea its entire length, including the south
the common red paints. The red oxides of fork, at fi,100 m., of which the main stream is
copper and of ailver, cinnabar (sniphnret of 1,200 m. He atatea that the maiu or aouthem
mercury), the chromate of lead, and a varied branch has its eoarcee in the fisenres of an ele-
of o^er metallia orea and minerals, display vated and barren plain, the Llano Estacado, at
beautifnl red colors. In the depths oif the sea an altitude of 3,460 feet above the sea. For
the corals and shells of the moUnaoa assume about 60 m. the books rise perpendicularly from
brilliant ahades of red ; and some of the oma- 600 to 800 feet. After leaving the Llano Esta-
taoeans, as the lobster, become red on being oado it flows for 600 m. over a broad bed of
boiled in water. The peonliar qualities of the light ahifting sanda through an arid prairie
color are referred to in the article Oolob ; and country. It then entera a moat fertile couo-
eome special preparations of it in the arUolea try, covered bj ^autio trees. " Here tbe
OABifim, OooHuraAL, Rocob, &c. borders contract, and the water for a great
RED BIRD. See Gkosbrak. portion of the year w&abea both banks, carry-
BED JAOEET, a North Amerioan Indian, ing the loose dluvium from one aide and die-
chief of the Senecaa, an Iroquois tribe, bora poutios it on the other, in such a manner as
about 1T59, died near Bnfialo, N. T., Jan. 20, to produoe constant changes in the channel,
1830. His Indian name was Sogoyewatha ix and to render navigation diffiault. Tb>s ehar-
Baguwatha (the keeper awake). His English acter contjuuefl throughout the reminder of its
name was due to a richly embroidered scarlet courae to the delta of the Missiasippi ; and in
Jacket, given him by the British during the Uiis section it ia snltject' to heavy mntidattoni,
revolntion, which he oonstantjy wore. He which often flood the bottoms to snob a degree
won distinction in his tribe as an orator, and as to destroy the crops, and occasionally, on
bcast«d that he " was bom an orator." There subsiding, leaving a deposit of while sand, ren-
ts reason to believe that he was among those dering Uie soil barren and worthleaa." The
Senecaa who during the revolution distmguish- prindpal tributaries are the Big and Little
ed themselves by their ravages on the frontiers Waahita, from the N. It ia navigable for 8
of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jeraey. months of the year to Bhreveport in the N. W.
At a council held at Fort Stanwix, in 1T84, to of Louisiana, and oonliunally to Alexandria,
negotiate a treaty between tha United Btataa about half the distanoe. The Great Raft, a
and some of the Six NationB, for the cession of very aerlous obstruction to the navigation of
lands, he spoke very eloquently against the the river, consists of an immense ooliection of
treaty. ICwasnevertheless ratified; butOorn- trees and drift wood, which commences about
planter, who was then chief of the Seneoas, 80 m. above Bhrev^>ort and extends 60 or TO
and advocated it, lost his popularity in ooose- m. np the river, spreading out to a width of
quence, and was nltimately supplanted by Red from 20 to SO m., and dividiog the main body
Jacket. A few years later, Red Jacket had of the river into a great many obannela, which
an interview with Oen. Washington, who gave are not all united until near Natchitoohes, a
bim a silver medal which he wore ever after- distance of nearly 100 m. After a short dis-
ward. In 1810 he gave information to the In- tonoe a large portion of the waters is again
dian agent of the attempt made by Teoumseh diverted, supplying a K^ot nnmber of lakes,
to draw the Seneoas into the western oombina- channels, and bayoos along its bonks. The
tiou; and in the war with England of ISlShe raft was partially removed by the TJ, S. govern-
offered the service of bia tribe to the United ment in 1884-'S, at an expense of |300,000, but
States. Tbey took port in several skirmishes, another has since been formed, interrupting
and the courage of Red Jacket was partloularly navigation about as much as i%a predecessor.
>y Google
BED SITBR, kK. £. oo. of TesM, aepanb- nototfy tabs intwwriMt of V tl« ^1^^U^
sd fl-mu tli« Indian t«rritorj b^ It«d river, lie* in the ihoou of the Bed kk, dividinc tlu
uid booaded S. by Bn^biir rivBr, ona of ilj ptwMo nto tbe fnet atrtits on the V. aid*
branobM; ww, about 1,900 w^. m.; pop. in nod belittle rtniu«nlb«£^tbeformerabo(t
1800, BfiU, of Thtna S,OiO wen aUTea. It 18 u. wide, and the lattci 1^ m.; resaela twi-
has on nadnlatjiig BDrbee and fartile ooiL The aUj paw hj tho nanower chaniteL Tbe total
C',aettoDa in IWO were 96,610 bnahela of In- «rM of Um Bed aea ia aatimated at 108,154 aq.
com, 16,000 of osta, ?,8SB of sweet pot»' in., of which the gait of Soes incbidea 31,000
toea, aod S79 baka ttf ootton. There were S eq. n., and the golf of Akabab 800. No laiga
ehnrohea, and 857 pnpila ■♦♦■■"'^■"c poblia iaanda are met with, bnt many grooMi^iBidl
aiAoob. 0«^Ul, Olarbrille. ialinda and of coral reie& and iolands lie near
BED RIVER OF ins Noktk, a river whioh the diorea, aqteeiaUr in tiM S. portion of the
baa ita eonroe in a oidleotion <a aoudl lakaa Bad aaa. To the S. of Ut. 16° the ialaads are
hing in oentral Hinneaota, tbe largeat btiog Toloanio, and on Gibel-Teer in UL 16° 30' ia an
Otter Tail lake. The mahi atreou flowa for aotive Tolcano rising 000 feet above the am.
shoot 60 m. B. W., then aakae a turn to the On both ooaata of Hie S. portion rangea of vol-
N. W., reodvea tte Boia daa Bionx, and Inctin- «anio biUa axtoid paiallel wiUi the shore
, tj-iPaaaaa tl „ . . .._ .. __ .
Into the Hndaon'B Bej territoir, blling into 16° on the African side isolated hills torm a
Jt. w., reonvea tbe Boia das Bionx, and inchn- eanio hilla extend paiallel wiUi tbe sborcL u
ing mne nearlr N., paaaaa throngh HQnneaota Airioa about 14 m. distant from it. N. of laL
■■■"■■* ■ toi7,f "
nipM after a oonrae otiit
A great munber of atreama from the lake* tun r
^wimding near ita eonroe oenttilnite to ita wa- aronu
tera, and thron^ont ita wktde length ita tribo- in dgbt, and the region Ijing between the two
tariee attoeeed eash other at abort intervals, golfs at the K., known as the peninsula ot UL
Tbe largeat of these are the lUiaTaeiL Bnfialoi Sinai, is a district of nu>iintains and deserts.
lEanomin <w Wild Bice, Red I^ie nver, and lit. fiinai ilaelf is midwaj between the ciil&,
Pembioa. ahont 60 m. N. of the extremitj of tlie Deun-
RED SEA, andentlj known as the Arabian snla. As no riven ran into tbe Bed sei and
gnlf, a laige sea lying between Africa and Acia, the r^on has tiat little rain, while tbeevapo-
seporating E^Tpt, Nabia, and Abyssinia la the ration frwn tbe snrfaoa of the aea is estimated
fbrmer tntia Arabia In the Utter. It eztatds to amonnt to a depth of 8 foet annvuill^r, it has
in a strdgbt oonrse nearly N. N. V. and B. &. been aappeeed that tbe water must be exceed-
£. fKim lat 12' 80' to ftO° j)' N., having a total in«Iy salt. It is found, however, to contain
loigthaoowduLgtoDr.Bidstof 1,280 m.,mea>- oiily89.S to 41 oiains of saline matter in 1,000,
nred from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb at the wMcb is even Use than that of sea water in
8. to Snei at ita N, termination. Its greatest sonM plaoea ; and it is therefore probable that
breadth of 193 m. la in lat. 17°, and toward the waters most charged with selt form an
eachestremitythe seanarrows;atIaL14°itis uider onrrenl which dowa out throoe^ the
78 m. wide, and abont tbe same In lat. S?" SO' straits as the lighter and kes Balinc niq>er cm-
From this p<rint N. the aaa is divided into two rent flows in. The waters of tbe sea are re-
narrow brandMa. Tbeprisdpalonelsthewest- markablefiM- their high temperature, particn-
eni, called tbe gnlf of Snec, and ia the propw larly in the volcanio region between laL 14°
eontlnnalirai of the Bed sea ; it is 167 m. long, andSl°. Even in the winter months they sel-
aodiM width is DBoally about 80 m. Theother, dom fall below 80°. In llarch and April thelr
called tbe golf of Akabah, extends abont 100 temperatnre is sometimes 84°, and in May 90°.
m. N. by E. with a mfTimnm width of 16 m. ; In Nov. 1666, at a time when tbe air was at
at the month the width is T m. This branoh 88°, the water was observed to be at 106°.
oconpiea a deep depression between moontain- This enlains the oocorrence of coral nets io
ens regions on each ride, and beyond its K. ox- tbe Bed sea in more northern latitudes than
tremity this is continneid in the long narrow they are elsewhere foond. They are very no-
valley, Wady-el-Arabah, which mns toward merons abont a qnarter of a mile off the shore,
the Dead sea. The depth of water in tbe gulf and seiionalr obstruct the navisation. A chan-
of Akabah for ) of its length is about 700 nel for small vessels is commonly found within
feet, and at one apot no bottom was fbnnd tbe reeb, bat the shores are in great part in-
at 1,200 feet. The gulf of Buas ia abont 126 acoeasible to large vessels. Some of tbe huge
feet deep, and the greatest depth foond is 800 niecimensof nuanilrinaand^aetaobeerved by
feet. In the Red sea a depression of 6 to 10 Ehrenberg, of 6 to 8 feet diameter, from the
m. in width ia reported to oconr down the rate of growth of these species are regarded as
central portion of from 1,000 to 1,600 feet in aevend thousand years old, and most nave been
depth ; in lat 36° 80* no bottom waa fonnd growing in the time of the Pharaoba. The
at 8,400 tott, and also at another spot at winds are either np or down the sea. From
0,000 feet. Near the outlet a shoal extends October to May or Jnne they blow from tbe
across the sea from Uooha, the ma"'"'"'?! B. &. K, being strongest in Febraary ■ the rest
>__.,. .1 ... _ ,.-«.„-. ^ . ., ^^ j^^y ^^ Q^^ (jj^ jj- jj w. and
depth near mid diannel bung 840 feeL Be- of the year
tween this and the straits the water deepens to strongest in June ana Juiy. ugnt snowers
over 700 feet A small island, called Peiim, occasionally fall from November to March.
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
The tides at tbe luad of the sea ifae totht VMsele or sUpi of WKT, bjliMaiwof irUohlM
height of S foet, and tee spring tides to 7 feet, efficiently protected It and nl^iimted the mo-
The «rindsi, hovoTer, grea^j; aAet tbe beiefat pie on &» bordera of the sea ^at ioteriired
of the wster, as is felt e^>«eiall7 tn the eboalep irlth it Tvo importaDt ports, Berenioa and
parts near Saex, irhere the gulf is sometimes HTos^ormoe, were estaUuhed on the AtHcia
forded hj the Arabs at low tide, and after the ride, from which oonummtcation was opaned
preTtdenoe of Dortherly winds. It was for* with the Kile; from the fbrmer by an admira-
tneriy sam>oeed from the measurements of if . hlf oonstnioted road of S68 miles. Over this
LepAre that tite tnrfece of the Bed sea at liigh the transportstioa xraa by oamels, and fhna
tide was abont BO feet IiigheF than that of the Ooptos by hosts to Alexandria on the Hediter>
VedHerraaeannearAleiandrla; batthesDrrej ranean. The Phcenliuane ^so seized from the
of Hr. Robert StejAenson, a report of which Idnmnans sixne Impwtant plaoes near the H. K.
was made to parliament in 1861, shows no dif- eztremitr of the Aralrias gnl£ and from these
f^Koiee in Che elevation of the two seaa The sent their sUps in tiie one direction to India
district b«tw«en the head of the gait ot Snei and the B. ooast of Africa, and in the othw to
and die gulf of Pelnsinm, the nearest p<^t thoN. ir.headofthagalf,wheneeth^eargoea
of the Mflditerranera, is low, mnoh of it not were tiWHported over umd to Ae harbor <^
more than 6 fbet above the level of the seas, Bfainooolura on the Mediterranean, of whidl
and a portion of thin tract is composed of they had also obt^ed possession, and thence b7
lakes ranging along from one sea toward the sea to Idielr own ports. Di the middle agee the
other, all together indicating that a commani- Genoese and Venetians were largelj engaged
cation fonueriy existed between the two seas, in this trade, nntil the PcH^gneee destroyed tt
To open this commnnioation by a ship canal has by thrfr adoption of the more eoonomical route
long t>e0n regarded as most desirable, and was a to hidia roimd the cs{>e of Good Hope. The
bvorite project of Napoleon I. In 1869 the en- Bed sea thos lost entirely its oommercial itn-
terpriee was nndertaken by a French engineer, portanoe ; bnt thia has been in part revived by
U. F. de Leaseps, who bad acqnired in IBM the establishment by the English of what la
from the viceroy of Egypt the exohirive right, known as the overland roote to India, which is
and np to Nov. 1868 had obtained snbscripuottB the old route by the Mediterranean and the
for carrying ont the enterprise amonntmg to Bed sea, the only land passed over being fr«tn
£8,000,000. The canal is to be 90 miles long, Cairo to Baez, a distance of 84 m., traversed bj
BSO feet wide at the water line, and its bottom a railroad recenUy completed. Ihe prindpu
SO feet below low water level in the Mediter- ports on ttie Arabian side are Jiddah, Hodeidai
ranean. The diffionidea to he enooontered in and Mooha. The export trade in coffee has
this work, and in constmcting the harbors at now almost forsaken Mocha for the neighbor-
each end, are so great that the Bacceseflil isane ing port of Hodeida. Massowah is the princi-
of the nndertaking is still considered donbt- pal town on the African side, and its exports of
fnl. The importance of snch a connection coffee, myrrh, incense, hides, gum, ivory, senna,
either with tne Mediterranean or the Nile slaves, and gold dust are estimated to amount
was appreciated even in the time of the an- to the valae of abont (8,000,000 annually. —
dent Egyptian kings ; and, as stated by Hnm- The Bed sea is often referred to in the Old
boldt: "The execntion of a canal was begun, Testament, nnder its Hebrew name of Yan
if not by Sesostris, to whom Aristotle and iSm/, the sea of weeds. It wasthns cslled, itls
Strabo ascribe the nndertaking, at any rate supposed, from the abundant plant-like growth
by Nekti, althongh the work was relinquished of corals seen npon the bottom. The name Bed
in consequence of the threatening oraciuar de- ap^ied to it Is variously explained. It isatrsns-
nnnciationB directed agunst it by the priests, latlon of the Latin Rubrvm and Gr. EpvSpa,
Herodotns saw and described a canal completed whieh were applied to this eea in common with
by Darias Hystospifl, one of the Acheemenldce, the Feraian gnlf and Indian ocean by Herodotus
which entered the Nile somewhat above Bn- and other ancient writers. Tlie original name,
bastna." Thia canal was kept in operation at some suppose, was derived from that of an an-
the time ofthe Roman domiidon under Marcus dent monarch of Arabia, Erythrns, sod was not
Anrellna, or even as late as Septimins Severus. intended to refer to the color, which this name
It was by the Bed sea in ancient times, before means ; tiiis is the explanation of Ptiny, Btrabo,
the discovery of the passage aronnd the cane OorUos, &o. Othera suppoae it ia from Edom,
of Good Hope, that the trade between tne the ancient name of the neighboring country,
countries on the Mediterranean and &idia was which in Hebrew and Phcenioian njeana red.
carried on ; and upon thia sea and the other in- It is also believed that the abundance of red
land gulfb and aeoflof this partoftheold world coral feund in the sea su^csted the name;
the earliest commerdal operations were con- and Dr. Bnist and others anaert that it cornea
ducted, and the first experience in navigation from the mnltitudes of animalouios that in the
was gdned. The Egyptians and Phmnidans spring cover the surface of large portions of
sstabliahed this trade with India, and so impor- the aea in patches sometimes several miles
tant was it to the former people, that, as re- sqnare, and give to the water an intenselr
corded by Herodotus and Diodoras, Besoetria blood-red color. The moat interesting histon-
had upon the Arabian gulf a fleet of 400 long cal inddent connected with the Bed sea Is the
U,9,-„zOQbyGOO^Ie
791 REDSBEAST BEDXlfFTOBIBTS
puaage of the Imteltte* mtou ita bed In Qudr ^MlegM, and indneed tiMm, for ftdler ^Miao-
«aoape &om Egypt, aa recorded in the Old Teo' tiou tiom the canons of the Most Btrir B^
bunent ; and much txintiovers; hu grown ont deemer, to adopt the name £edempt(Kiat&
cf the qnestion u to the point where this pu- After their fonndei thejr freqaeatlj were and
eage wae made, lome contending that it wot etill are called Lignoriana. The role of iha
IS m. S. of Suex, where the sea is 12 m. wide, Bedemptorista preecribee, beside tbe thie*
andothere that it was in the immediate vioinitj luoal monastio towb, a fourth, which oWgaa
of this towD, where the eea ia now fordable M the inembws to aooqit ontads of the ocdv do
low tide, and ite breadth is onl; abont 8,500 dignitj', office, or benefice, except npon an ex-
feet. Here, the waters being kept down bj preaa <wder of the p4^ or the soperior general,
the strong E. or S. £. wind, as described bj and not to leave the order nnlem Ytj qiecial
Uoses, the pasaBse of the immenee hoats maj permiemon of the pope. The j^incipal s^im
have been completed on the ebb tide, and the of action of this oraer hiia l>e^ the condoctiiig
retaroing flood, which etill comes in with con- of what is called a " miision," lasting one, two^
Biderable rapiditj-, most have overwhelmed tlia or aomelimes eran more weeks, dnring whidk
armiea that pursued them. This appears to be time the miKdtMutriea endeavor to prevail npca
the ouljT place where the strong east winds, all the members of a char^ to devote their
which from the scriptural acoonnt the Lord Uma principallj to religions exercises and a
made the acdve cause of the miraculoiis re- thorough reformation of their lives. Thdr
moval of the waters, could have produced this mieaons frequently attract inuneuae crowds
effect^ and where the passage of a great muld- from the neighboring coDgregatiooa. On ao-
tnde could have been made in a single night. oonut of their great similarity of oIy«ct and
KEDBREAST. Bee Robot. action with the Jesnita, they have been wMBe-
BEDDING, Gtrus V., an English ionmalist t^es confounded with the latter ; the fatea
and author, born in Peniyo, Comwail, in 1786. of both orders have been often linked to-
In 180S he went to London, was engwed "poa getber, and in more than one European conn-
the staff of an evening newspaper railed " The try the names of both stand side by side ia
Pilot," and subsequently estabjiahed and ooa- tbe same decree of proacription. The wda
ducted for several yean the "Plymouth OhroD- qiread early from Naples into Sicily and the
ids." From 181S toieiShereaidedinFraooa, Pf^States; bat even before the death tf the
where heedited "Galignaci's Uesaenger." Li fonnderall the booses in tlie kingdom of Kaples
1820 he became editor, in coi^JDnclion with the were ezclsded fnm the order, becaose uey
poet Campbell, of the " New Monthly Hag*- had iffooured the ratifioatiim by tlia govcm-
Eine," and during 10 yearsremained in that poai- ment at tiie expense of important and nnan-
tion, having in bis hands almost the entire ex- thoriied alterations of their mle. The diviwoa
eontire control of the magazine. In 1880, in lasted until 17S0, when a rennkm was effected,
consequence of a quarrel between Campbell The firat German members eetoblisbed miv
and the publisher Colborn, the former left the sions in Oourland and at Warsaw, bnt both
" New Uonthly," taking with him Redding, and succumbed to the wars arising ont of the
began the publication of the "Metropolitan," french revolution. In Aoatria they have had
which proved onsQcceasfal. Subsequently lie uuce 1808 many inSnential patrona, and k has
e^ted for two years a liberal polittcal news- ever ainoe remained one of tlie moat impOTtaot
paper, called the "■ Bath Guardian," and in 18S6 provinces of the order. In ErancA they snf-
eetablished the "Staffordshire Examiner," a fared some loaaes from t^e inteifereiiee of the
Journal advocating similar political views, government in 1880, and again in 1861. They
After editJDg this ^eet for 6 yeArs he retnmed nave found an important q>here of action in
to LoodoD ia 1840, and is now connecUd with the United States of America, where the}>f»m-
tha "Examiner." He has written mnch, but dpally labor among tbe Geriaan popidation,
is most widely known by his "Histoi7 of Annmberof Ajnericon membera,amoMgThom
Wines" (1638). Fathers Eecker and Hewitt are bertkuawn, left
„ „ ., , ',y special pennisfflou of the fopt, in
and an independent oivauiataon tta
BEDEMFTORISTS, or Oonsbboatio:) ov mleeioaatT pnrpoeea, better suited to this conn^
TBI Most Holt Bbdekmkb, the name of the try, called the Paolista, who established their
youngest among the great monastic orders of flntbousein tbeuty of New Yorkin 1858. In
the Roman Catholic chnrch. It was founded I860 the Redemptoriste had 80 houses in Italy,
in the year 1T33 by Alfonso de Lignori at 31 in Germany, 9 in France, 9 in Belgiom and
Scalo, in tbe province of Benevento, on nearly Holland, 4 in the British islanda, and 10 in the
the same basis on which, about a century be- United States (at AnnapoliSi Baltamore, Buffa-
fore, St. Vincent de Paol had established tbe lo, Comberland, Detroit, New Orleans, Kev
congregation of tbe priests of the mission. At York, Philadelphia, Pittsborg, and Rochester).
first the new congregation bad to ovwcmoe Altogether they bad in these establishments
tbe opposition of several priests of high poai- about 1,800 members. — A congregation of Re-
tion, as the archbishop of Naples; but in 1749 demptorist nana, which was likewise fonnded
it was confirmed by Pope Benedict XIV., who by Liguori in 1733, has never ectended itself
bestowed upon ita members many iavors and widely; it counted in 1660 only 1 house in
REDEMPTION, Equm ov. Bee Equity ov the order by ^tecial pennisaon of the fopt, in
Bedkmftiox. order to foond
UigmzoQbyGOO^Ie
Italj, 4 In Gtmaaj, S In B«khim snd HoQi&d, plodon. Wlien tliis terror had di«d avk^, ha
Utd 1 ID Third alroet, New York. applied the Mme principle to freight boats, ftnd
BEDEIN, f^mmos WiLHZUf Om> Ltti>- orifioated % trui^rtation Hoe of tow boftta
vie, baron, aO«rauui Btatiatiiuan, bom in the and barges on the Hudson, to which he gare th*
prinoipalitT' of IJpp*-I>etm<dd, Feb. II, 1804, appropriate name of the Sviftnire line, and for
died in Fr«nkfbrt-<Hi-tbe-UaiD in Nor. 18ST. the remainder of hii life wu aotLrel; engaged
He wu gradoated as doctor in law at the nnl- in its management, making New Tork his reA-
veraitf of Gottingen in 1814, sod entered the dence. He investigated ^orooghlf the whola
pablio serrioe In Hanorw. In 18Sa he waa anhjeotof the oonneotion of steam with naviga-
eleoted a depntf in the first ohamber, asnated tion, and in pamphlets, earaya, and pnbUshed
in framing the oonstitiition of 1888, and in lettera, some of them called out by eoreroinent
1834 beoame Beoretorj-general of the mintater fatquiries, he dlsonseed the causes of steamboat
of doanoes. Upon the acoesmonof SingBmest ezplodons, the means of safety, the neoessitf
Aoffoataa in 1SS7, and his srbltrar7 restoration of oareftil and fteqnent insiwction, the im-
of the oonatitudoD of 1819, Bedea ratired from ^rovement of the law relative to steam navi-
offioe, travelled in rarions parts of Europe, gation, its ad^tation to the pnrposes of no-
and Eoade n large collection of etatistloal docnr tional defence, and the simplifloatioa and inf
menta. In 1341 he was made apecdal director provemeut of marine engines. In 1828 he
of the milroad from Berlin to Btettin, eetab> pabhshed a pamphlet oiling the impoTtance
lished himself at Berlin, and shortly uter re- of a system of railways to connect the watera
oeived the ohur of eoonomioal and admioistra- of the Hudson with those of the Uissiauppl.
tive Bcienoea in the nnlversity of that dty. He At the time this pamphlet was published, the
represented a Hanoverian district in Uie nv Erie canal was but tnst completed, only a few
tional aaaembly at Frankfort, and eat in the miles of railway had been constraoted in the
assembly of the states of Hanovor in 1849. United States, and locomotives were hot yet in-
By hb oonrse in the latter body ho incurred trodnced. The same year he oonoeived the idea
the diapleasnre of the Pmssian government, of street railroads in cities, and petitioned the
and was deprived of his aeveral positions nnder common ooancil tor permisnon to lay the track
It. He left many works on statistioai snbjeota. for one in Canal street. New York. He subse-
RBDFIELD Wtt,LU.M 0., an Amerioan me- qnently explored the route and aided in obtain-
teorologist and geologist, bom in Middletowa, ing the onarter of the Harlem r^lroad, and
Oonn., Hanh 36, 1T89, died in New York^ stfll later promoted the bnildingof the Har^
Feb. 12, lSfi7. At the age of 14 he waa i^ ford and New Haven and the Hndson river
prenticed to a saddler at Upper lOddletown, railroads. In 1881 he first gave to the pnblio.
now Cromwell, but studied diligently by the through the "American Journal of Science,"
firelight in the winter evenings. At the close of his " Theory of Storms," and 8 years later his
hb apprenticeship, Ur. Redfield set oat on foot elalKirate article on the horrioanee of the West
to visit his mother in Oliio, following nearly Indies appeared in the same jourasL Theat
the present oonrse of the New York oentral were followed by many other essays, narra-
railroad, and keeping a daily jonmal of his ob- tivee, and tables of particolar hurricanes; and
servations. Spending the winter in Ohio, ha the corps of observers who had become inter-
retnrned in the spring by a more aouthem ested in the snbjeot throngh his earlier essaya
route, nearly that of the Baltimore and Ohio comprised many eminent scientiSo men, with
railroiad, and labored at his trade in Upper several of whom he maintained a oorre^rand-
]OddletowQ for nearly 14 years, keeping also a euce for years. (See HiFsBiOANe, UsnoaoLOOT,
small oonntry store. In Sept. 1831, a violent and Rbid, Sm Wiluau.) Subsequently to the
hurricane, long known as the " great Septem- year 1836 he devoted much time to the InvesU-
ber gale," passed overthe Atlantic states. It gationof tbefoMll fishoftheOonnecticntvalley
was then universally believed that in hnrri- and the aandstonea of the Atlantic coast in New
canes or wind storms the wind blew in right Jersey, Virginia, and North Carolina, and haA
or straight lines, Inajoumer which Mr, Bed- made a very large colleotion of them, Hepre-
field made soon after the «ue into Hassachn- pared several papers on these fossils, which
setts, he fonnd that the-wind, which at Middla- were read before the American association for
town had blown from the B. E., had, at a point the advancement of wienoe ; and In the last of
less than 70 m. distant, blown from ^e N. V. these, read in 1866, and subsequently published
at the same moment ; and further observation in the " American Journal of Science," he de-
coRTinced him that the storm, instead of taking monstrated that the fossils of the Oonnecticnt
a straight Ime, had rotated around a oentr^ river njley and New Jersey sandstones, to
point, and that ite movement had beenin curved which he gave the name of the Newark gronp,
lines. In 1831 or 1833 he had become inter- belonged to the Juras^o period. He published
ested in steamboat navigation, and when the daring his life G3 distinct easays, of which 40
public had been terrified by repeated explo- pertain to meteorology.
^ons of steamboat boilers, he devised and es- REDHEAD. See Dfok, vol. vi. p. 946.
tabliahed a line of safety barges for passengers REDINO, Alots vok, a Swiss patriot, bom
to be towed by ateflmers, at such a distance as In the canton of Schwjti in 1TQ5, died in Feb.
not to endanger the passengers tu case of ex- 1818. He first entered the Spanish aervice,
UigmzoQUyGOOglC
706 BZDOUTX USDWITZ
bat In 1788 ntnnwd to Biritnrland. On Um beat known qwde* fn Korth Ameaitm h tfat
f>«nch ioTttdoD (tf 17&6, ti« >iimnu»«d the fm^ oommon redstart (& rutiMUti, Swidaa.); it ta
eat and monntiinoantonitothsHieowof Bern, abont H inobes long with an alar extent of 8;
•nd at tbs h«ad of the atmy (£ tita oanton ot in tba lude the pnTulii^ oiAor k bla^ with
SdLWTts, 8,000 atroog, held the X^ientii annr the bate of the winga a»d tail and adea at
in obeck for 8 days at }larg»itea. Orweome breast leddiah wance ; abdranen, uider tsl
at laat hj BDpMlw.niimben, the7 aooepted the oorerta, and oestral une on braart wtdta; hi
convomion; and after the foimation of the Bel- the female the blade is repbeed by olira gtetn
Tsdan r^mblio Beding was one of those who above and brownish white below, the head is
aeaionalf advooatad t£e restoratioii of the old aahy, and the »d is changed to jellow. It is
federal oonstitntion. After the di^artnre of fbund thronghont Oie eastern United States to
the French ahnost all tha cantons declared the pb^ of the IGasoDii, and sometimes wan-
themselres against the goTcnnnot, and Reding den to the West Indies in winlfir; it isaTtrr
called at Schwjti a general meeting, which fauidsome turd, always in motion <ai the tnmki
asaembled &^t. S7, 1808, and devoted itaelf to and branches of treee in aeiovh of ii
the formation of an ind^>endent piditical gj»- larra, jumping quickly from ride to ode, dis-
tem. Aa head of the provldoaal government playing the brilUant tail at every movamu^
be had in 1601 gone to Paris to inqwesa upon and now and then dvttng off after an insect on
Bonaparte Ua pW ot adminiitratbin, bnt bad the wing, w descending to the ground in a ffsr
been ansnocoerfnl in his mission, was made rai or rigeag manner; it also pnrsnea other
prisoner by Uar^ial Nay, when by Bonaparte's birds as if in sport, anwping the lull violently,
orders that officer intttcared in Swiss a&ira, The nest is )4accd in a lowbnsh, rospended te
and imprisoned at Arbonrg. In 1808 he was the twigs, and is of delicate Btmctnre; the eraa
made londoewMn of Bchwyts, then retired to are 4 to 6, white, with ash-gray and UadSa
private life, and in 1609 was agsin oslled to i9>oU ; a sii^ brood is raised in a Beastm. —
occupy bis old porition. In 1818 he condiMted The European redstart belongs to a different
the nsgotiaticna with the Bbeni^ ooDfeder*- aab-family of the warblers, and to the genns
tiMt,tai regard te the nentnlity of Switsetland. rueioiUa (Brehm), peculiar te the old world.
BEDO0T£, Fnan Joskpb, a French paint- The E. fimiicura (Brehm) is a little more than
er of flowers, hara at St. Bnbett, near lii^ C inches king; in the male tba bill, legs, fe«t,
Belgiam. Jnly 10, 17S9, died in Paris, Jnne 19, ohaeks, snd throat are black ; the breast, rump,
1810. He belonged to a bmily of psinter^ and sides red; forehead white; crown, hind
and, liaving settled in Para, painted some of the nodi, and back deep bloe-gray. It oocara all
moat el^oot flowers in tiie series known as the over Eorope, and is a viritor to Great Britain
CoiUetion da mUm, oommraoed nnder Lonis from April to September; imlike its American
XIV. and stiU oontinned nnder the sapwirion ally, it is a vet? fine songster, heard tJie Bton-
of the academy of flnearts; and in 18^ besn^ mer long in oroiiards, hedge rows, gardens, and
oeeded Van SpaendoiMik as fNrofessor of vegeta> ivy-covered walls ; the inale is very affectiaa-
ble iconograpny at the jonftn dt$plafUM. Els ate, and sometimea mngg to his mate as late ss
magnificent works, Xc* Uliaeia (8 vols, fol., 10 at night and as early as 8 in the morning;
Paris, 1803^'ia), and Ltt fmh (8 vols. foL, it feeds on insects, worms, and berries; the
1S17), are the finest known spedmena ot bo- eggs, 4 to 6, are greenish bloe, sod laid in holes
tanical illoetraticHi. A copy of the former on of trees or in a nest on the graond. It is mock
vellnm, with the original drawings, was pur- prised as a cage bird for its beauty and its
chased by the empress Joeepblne for 84,006 atwg ; if token yonog, it may be taught to inu-
flranca. tate the notes ot most other birds, and even to
BEOPOLL SeeljinraT. whistle a tnne. The nsme in both hemispherea
BEDSITID PASH^ See Bebhtd Pasha. is derived from the constant jerliing motions
REDSTABT, the common name of the w«r- of the bird, dUplaying the red of the t^
blere of the AmerioangenaawtopAapa (Swains.). REDWING. See Bli,cxbibd.
The bill la as in other flyoatidiers, and abroptly BEDWITZ, Oboas, bsron, a German poet,
onrved and notched st the tip; the wings iMwninliobteaan, nearAnspacb,Jnne28,183S.
rounded, with the ad to 4th qailta longest ; tail He spent nearly 6 yesrs in the nniversity of
long, gra^nated, and broad ;tm and toes abort. Unnieh in the study of philosophy and law.
There are many specieB, mostly in Booth and Intheaatumnof 18GI he was called to Yieuna
Oentral America, brilliantiy miu^ked with red, as professor of genersl literary history, bat re-
yellow, and black; the Sooth Ameriean species signed his position in 1SS8 in order to devote
have more or tees yellow in th^ pltunage, and himself to literary parsnits. His works have
the Mezioan are nsoally bisok and red. The pawed through aomeroos editkma.
>y Google
APPENDIX.
QTTABIERS* The Bodelr «f Frfwada, oom-^ had fctm who g«T» tb«ni forth. I »ir fliat
moilr caned Qaakert, i3 » body «f CaitiWUn Ohitot d»d te «fl nan, w« » prw^iOT for
profMBore which arow In Bii«l«id »boMth« ilL «nd wd^taiwd ^maii with bii dirma
Ldaia of the mh oentoTT. Mmy of those ttia •affagUght, and tint none oonld be tow
who Joined it belonged to fwriliw of fa^ beliwrew but thoee that bdioTOd therein." U
Kipe^tabiUtT, and h^ been difltingrfdjed *» a few jwa meebn^i w«i» ae^h. nurlr aQ
th^plotj. Tho mtiMrriaAhiMn of Qvsm part»rftl»Uiig^BDdnotwWirt«ningthe
Fox wore oWeflT Instnanental nnder the fi- pwawntton to ^^ the Bodety waa m^wjlad
Tine blearing in oonradng them of fteOhito- beeawrf Ita taitiii^agauirt o^ a paid
tian prtnoiplee held hjEnonit, and his Ubort and naa-made miniatrj, war, wing &be and
oontnboteJ largely to their ertabUrtuneot M flatterhw«»q*maBt^andth«riaraIprciiionM
a remdariT organiied body. He was born at to a an^e pawon, *0n »t» manheri ineraaaed,
Drarton, LfflcMterahite, in 1«M, and odncated mid maniteted a wal, daTot«^Mi, and low
fa 4e Episcopal worehlp. F^m chfldhood of each ether, whiA eMted adndratum eren
he led a religfooB lift, and being apprenticed in thidr cnponn. Hnmeroi» ndidMen, «-
to a Bhoemaker who also itept aheep, his ocou- rtwlr onlfed to and anotatod for the work,
pation was ohiefly that of a ahepherd. Paaa- trwriled ttwrn^ Great Britain, and on tha
hg rauch of bm «mo hi retirement and be- oonttoent ^ Barope, whew niMiy meeawM
fa| eamastly engaged for the salration of hta were aeUled, and ainM want to Ad». '^ ^T
^, he diligentl? «ad the Holy ScriptarM, rto^ ^M^ ««• ^ Ame^ '^l?'™* K***
waiting on tSe Lord to bo taught V ^ta Bpirfl hmdahipa inUieh- tonroeyaftmw^ the wild».
their trae meaning. In thia state of hnmbla ne« ; and a Imto body of ftienda, onder the
dapandence, he was enlightened to aee the pateonaga of iraUam P^ f^^^ fr™
splritoal nature of the goapel diapenaaaon, and the m^er Mimtry wid arttled in pOTniylva-
was faTored to experienee the work of re- ma.— When it la oonsldwed thrtaU who regn-
demption Reoeiring a divine eall to the min- Jarly attended the meetinga of Frienda, m wdl
istry he commenced his labora in tfie year aa their ohUdrtn, were Tiowed aa monben, It
lB*rand from a cooTicUon that it waa con* toxArioMthataona W*8m of ohurchgorem-
trar^ to Ohrist's connnand, refta»ed to teoeiTe mont was neoeMBtr by whkh their oondnot
compensation for preaching. The ptiritf of might be regulated and pwilrdled. George
his lUe and the heavenly nnctlwi attwnding hie Vox wriy began the cstabLahnunt of meetinga
nitoiBtrr carried convicdon to th« hearu Of for diaoapHne, and in a «bw y«Mfl had the satia-
the poOT.16, and mnltitodoa embraced the prln- footh» erf leeniff ita aMondji^Bwnt both in
oiplM ho proranlgated. BpeaHng of hia mif Emope and America. The first oloocta of at-
sickhesaTB: " f was aent to torn pec^ from tantion in these meeliaga were the oare of the
dartneas to light, that they might recelfe poor, themaintfmmne and edaeatiCTiof oroham
Christ Jeans : for to as many as Aonid neOm and T»oor ohiUren, the ordwly aeoom|dishmant
him in his light. I saw that he woflld pre ofmarriagea, tha lari^ryofMrtha and deaths,
powarto become tha sons of God, which llad the granting of eertifioatea of ^proral to mtaia-
obtwnad by reoalvfag Ohriat. I Was to «»eot tore trsvelliiig abroad, and {veserring an ao-
people to ttie apirit Uiat gave fbrft the Scrip- count of the aniforlnga of Friends In support of
tarM, by which they might bo led into all their religion. While ttwaa to bo eipeoMd that
trnth, and BO up to Christ and God, as thoao oflbnoea would ariae, it did not nooeesarily fol-
— -^ — I ill - loir that the erring one moat t>o cut off: and
■ UsdCT th* tiii* rnDM, a honJ ttm of tlw UMotr meaeore* were adopted for extending brotherly
s4f.a's?AissS;raK;r« i.b»,intb.^oti<».«dm«ta»Hfc,
niii^iphiBTMrhr^H»afrpfM*Di>>inor*ipHUbiMv the roatoratian of snofa. when brought sin-
n«n tfOMi rrtigi™ *«w™. " k^ >T »« JI^S)" oeroly to condemn his error and amend his
^tb.b^,whi.b>^tob.th.»rU»d«»P«««t^.. „y/|^ brother is gained; and if this derirable
798 AFEBNDIX (QUAXEBS)
twdU la not stUined, the chorah teetifiea ag^nit mainteiunce of satsb tneinben u an tuiibk to
his mbcoodnot and deolans that he is no longer support themwlvee. — Wh«i a member beliertt
a member of it. TU« is the extent of the aea- himself or herself diTinoly called to speak Id
Bare pronouDced h^ tlie aodetj, and its pro- the religions meetdngs of Frienda as ■ minuter,
ceedings are fonnded on the direotions given after a suffident time has been allowed to mik«
hj OUT Lord in Matt, rriii. 15-30. Tho die- proof of the oall, if the preparatiTe loeetiBf
ciplinary care of the Bociet;r ^u also ezeroised of ministers and elders nnite in the judpml
to preserve its members &om den'ring or im- that a pA of go^l ministrj has been ent-
pagning its Ohristian principles. The record* mittcd to the individual, it so reports totbt
of tho monthlj meeting held at Haverhill, Eng- monthly meeting ; and if this c<Hiiesto ilib
land, the 6th of first month, 16T6, oontained a decision, it forwards the case to the qnsHcit}
tninnte disowning Jefier? Bnlloak for contra- meeting of ministen and elders; andnliMlt
veiling the dootrmes of Friends b; " affirming also nnites in the eonelnsion of the othen, 0»
that he expects neither jnedScadon nor oon- person is recorded as an approved ministei.—
demnation V that Christ that died at Jemsa- The doctrines of the sooietf m^r be Inidj
lem." At London 7ear]7 meeting held 1694, atatedssfollowSiTiE.: Thej believe in one God,
a mle was adopted fbr dealing with porsons, the creator and npholder of all things; indii
ff taj saeh there were, profaanng with Frienda, his Bon, the Lord Jesns Christ, bj iriKcn m
who " held an; nioh grass errors or false doo- all things ; and in the HoIt Siurit whid) pro-
trine* aa are sgaisat the vaUdity of Ohnst's eeedeth from the Father and the Sea: uwGol,
floflbrlngs, blood, remureotion, aaoennim, op blessed for ever. In treatingof theTbreetiiit
idorr in the heavena, or ai^ way tending to bear record in heaven, the; prefer keeiHog to
ue denial of the heavenly Han, Christ.'* The the langnage of Holf Scripture, which kidi»-
discipline adopted at an earlj period bj the timea indiM^ thrir c^ponente to aocRse tbcm
Amerioan vearlj meetings contains anile for of nnsoondness. This was the case in (he coit-
dealing wiui and disowning members who per- trovers; whit^ led to the wridDg of Tilliam
aist in "denjing the divinit; of our Lord and Penn'e "Sand; Foundation Shaken." fisHjs
Bavioor Jenu Christ, the immediate revelation the qneetion between him and his opposs' ws^
of the Hoi; Spirit, or the anthwatidt; of the " whether ws owned one Godheaa eobeiiliiif
Hoi; Scriptnres;" and at different periods per- in three distinct and Boparate pcrsoiiB." Hx
lonshaveDeendisownedforsooherrorg. Thera latter wwds Fenn argned against ts miKrif-
are fimr gradesof meetings fiir diaoipline : first, tural, bat, to prevent « nuBconstraction of Ma
preparatire, which prepare bnsineas {<x the views, says: " Mistake me not, we neTcr lur*
•eoond or mouUil; meebngs, in which the ez- denied » Father, Word^ and Spirit, wluch tra
eontive power ia ohiefi/lo^cd; thai the qnar- one; hot man's iuventions ;" and atdifereot
terl; meetings, consisting of several monthl; periods of his life ha strennousl; repelled (lis
meetings, and exerdsing a supervisor; care charge of Socinionism as regarded himtelf mi
over them; and lasll; the ;ear1; meetings, the societ;. The eame applies to his i^nment
which inclnde the whole sodet; within a pre* respecting the doctrine of Christ's satjs&ction;
scribed district, poseeae exdnsivel; the legia- for wiiile he r^eots tho school teniu Id vbich
lative power, and annnall; inveatii^ the con- his antagonist dressed it, he qnotes Duucrau
dition of their subordiuste meetings. In each passagea of Scriptnre proving that our Ixird
preparative meeting there are nsu^; two of Jcons Christ, in his sanering and destb, vu *
more Friends of eaoh sex c^oeen aa overseen most acceptable sacriflce and propitistion fur
to take cognixanee of an; improper condnot ot the sina of mankind. The; own and betiera a
Oia memtien, to admomsh uem in love, and Jesns Christ, who was conceived of the Hoi;
if neoeesaiT report the ease to the preparative GhoBtandbomoftheYirgmUarj.iiiwliomTe
meeting. From thia it general!; goes to the have redemption and pardon through hit bloo^
monthl; meeting, where a o(»nnuttee is ^>- even the remission of oar sina j that he wu a
pointed to endeavor to oonvinoe and leolaim most eatisfactor; sacrifice for the ons o' u«
the ofl^nder. The women have similar meet- world, being omoified withont the Ef^ "
ings and the like order and care fbr the he^ jerasalem, rose from the dead the third dij,
snd preeerrotion of their manhers, bot ta^ no ascended into heaven, and now eitteth at tM
part m the legialatiTe prooeadings of the soci- right hand of God, onr hoi; mediator, mUir-
ptj. There are also disdnot meelinga for the ceeeor, and advocate with the Father. Ibq
oversi^t and help of the n^nistr;, composed have nnfforml; believed list ^^ "* """J }; j
of ministers and dders, the latter being pmdent and perfect man in wonderful union, and Uii
religioua Friends chosen espeoiaU; to have the forpvenese of sins which anjpart*tswu
the care of the ministr;. To monthl; meet- onl; b; virtue of his sacrifice. That "'^"'y
ings belong the requisite care for the reoeption Spirit whom Christ sud he wonld s*""^' '**-*
of persons into tne societ;, the applice^oB and gnides his followers into all tmth; tpu>
for that purpose being first made to the over- manifestation of this Spirit is given t^J*?^
seers ; also the granting of ccrtdficatee of mem- man to profit withal, which convicts <nMt
betfihip to Friends moving from their Ihnits, and, as it is obeyed, gives power to overMm
the sllowanee and overaighl of marriages, the end forsake it; that it enatJes ttyin^tow-
freeedacationofthechildreuoftbepoor,andthe derstand theHol;Scriptare■iandg!r«9Ulel»•
u,9,I,zoQ byGoOglc
AFFENDIiX (QUAEESS) 799
tug experiMioe of those things which belong soul and ita Hsker. No mBn can do It for aa<
to the Bonl's salv&tioD. Mas tos created in other. It ie therefore the prsctioe of Frienoa
the image of Ood, capable of nDderetanding to sit down in solemn nlence to worship God,
And obeying the diTioa law, and of holding that each one may strive to gather inward to
commnnion with hia Maker, Through trans, the gift of diyinegrace in cprder to receive ability
Kr«Euon he f^ll and lost this heare^y state, to worship the Father of spirits in spirit and
His posterity come into the world in the image in truth, and offer to him, tbrongb Ohrlst Jesos
of the fidlen eartUy man, and ontil renewed our holy Uediator, on acceptable sacrifice,
by the regenerating power of Ohrlst Jesna, they whether in silent mental sdoration, the publio
are dead to the spiritnal life in wliioh Adam ministry of the gospel, or vocal prayer and
originally stood, and snl^eot to the power of thanksgiving. The cell, anthoritj, and qnalifl*
Satan; uid thejr imaginations, words, and deeds cation for gospel miDisti7 are from Ohrist Jeans
■re evil, Han therefore In this state can know alone, who mspenses them to both men and
nothing ari^t re^>octing God ; hia thoughts women, as he sees fit, withont regard to rank,
and ooBceptiona of apiritual things being nn- learning, or human selection and appointment ;
Erofltable, nntil he la renewed and qniokened andtheymoatbereoeiTedimmediately fromhim
T tiie Holy Spirit. What was lost in Adam Is through the revelation of hia Spirit in thebeart.
niade npin Ohrist; and the ^ilt of Adam's The command, "Freely ye have received,
rin Is not imputed to any onul they make It freely give," is of lasting obligation, and th«
their own by transgression. There will be a gospel Is to be preached withont price ; henoe
resnrrectioD of the rigbtoons and the wicked, the sodety has borne a constant testimony
the onetoeternalUfeand blessedness, theother against a paid ministry, which derives itsan-
to everlaating misery ; and God will jodge the thoritj from human learning and ordination,
world by Ohrist Jemia, That the Holy Scrip- which does not acknowledge a dependence for
tnres were written by divine inspiration, and the perfbrmanoe of it npon the renewed motion.
contain a deolaration of all the fimdamental and sid of the Holy B}>irit. War b wholly at
doctrinee and prindplea relating to eternal life varianoe with the spirit of the gospel, which
and salvation ; and that whatsoever doctrine or oontinnally breathes peace on earth and good
practice is contrary to them, is to l>e r^eoted will to all men. When the reign of the Prince
as false. The society does not call them the of Peaoe is setnpin theheartsof men, "nation
Word of God, this term being peooliarly ap- will not lift np sword against nation, nor will
plied, in them, to the Lord Jeans: yet it be- men learn war any more." The words of
lieves them to be the words of God, written Ohrist, " Swear not at all," and of the apostle
by holy men as they were moved by the Holy James, " Swear not, neiUier by heaven, nor
Ohost, and that they are able to make vrise esrth,norbyanjother oath," forbid all swear-
nnto ralvation through faith which ia in Ohrist ing of every kind. The fast to which Chrio-
Jesus. It looks npon them as the only fit ont- tiana sre called Is not the observance of any
ward j|ndge and test In controversies among porticnlar day set apart by man, but a oontinud
Christians, and is very willing that all its doe- fasting from sin ; and therefore Friends cannot
trines and practices shonld be tried by them, conscientiously join in public fasts or holy day^
freely admitting that whatever any profess or so called. They hold that under the gospel
do, pretending to be guided by the Spirit, which there ia no inherent holineas in one day more
Is contrary to the Scriptures, be condemned as a than another, but that all are to be kept holy ;
delusion. As there is one Lord and one faith, and thej do not pay a superstitious reverence to
to there is one baptism, of which the water the first day of the week, bnt as it is necessary
baptism of John was a figure. The baptism some time sboold be flied to meet to worship
which saves the soni is not dipping in or sprink' God, and that men shonld be free from ont-
ling with water, but the answer of a good oou' ward afiUrs, and tiiat laborers and beaeta
science toward God, by the resurrection of shonld have time for rest, and as the primitive
Jesus Ohrist. This answer of a good consdenoe Ohrlstious used the first day for these purpose^
oan only be produced by the washing of re- therefore Friends observe that day as a time of
generation and the renewing of the Holy Spirit, rest, and for religions retirement and waiting on
transforming the heart and brinnng the will God. The enslaving of the human species la
into conformity with the will of God. The entirelyopposedto thecommandsof Ohrist and
eommuulon of the body and blood of the Lord the spirit of his reli^on, and the society bears
Jesns Ohrist is Inward and spiritnal, a real par- a testimony against the system ; also against
tioipatitxi of bis divine nature, thronrii living the noneoeesary nse of intoxicating drinks,
faitn in him and the power of the Holy Spirit It eqjoins npcm its members pldnness and aim-
by which the sonl is enabled daily to feed upon pllci^ tn dress, langu^e, and behavior ; mod&>
him and experience spiritnal nourishment ; the ration in the pursuit of business ; and that they
tme Ohristiim supper being that set forth in the discountenance lotteries and gomes of chance^
book of Revelation: "Behold I stand at the door music, dancing, stage plays, horse races, and all
and Imook; if any man hear my voice and open other vain and pernieious amusements and
the door, I will come in to bim, and will sup practices. — In the year 1827 a seporstion took
with him, and he with me."— Divine worship place in the society, in consequence of which
must be performed immediately between the some yearly meetings were organized aa new
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
800 APEXSDJX. CQHUXEBQ
and dMbut uaoditkno. la » piiat«d dooo' Lotd Jems, md aln Ika ilthit aiAorilr if
meat liwied it PhiladdpWfc dated *th nwnth, tbeH(dr6«^*onfc TboM iriw affmel tf
SM, IfiSr, giviiig nuoos te Kuh MpantiMk, S. Hi^> n>d hk MottaMDls wem iiwiHiilliiil
ft fa Mid: *'DoaliinMbeldl>7 0iiepMtaf Hm vitb mparilim mde to fiieB' prai^ptiin;
■octet?, end wfafeh w« beliera to be eoviid end sOAr UtA MpntHaa bodi paitiM a^
and ediQ'tag, era pimuraiued bf tlu other Uliml jcilj ininiliDii iif llii<i iieii, iwii aill
Mri to be mMnnd and qraiiona." llMae doc* eiefmfiiK the iudm of IMcodi;— 8m Qcd^
vfitee wre o^Bkam {WMobed b? EUu Sdn^ Fox** " Jotmel,'' Sawdl's '^HialWT," Bn-
end regarded es furaUdatiiig the ufrHnloai Ttlij'n" Ajrt'iXT." m^ Pnin1e'*TH«BMril?rf|
eoaaeptiaa, divinitj, ataoMiienti, Ao^ of tha ieH"ud''Ee7.''
END or TOLnU lUIBIESI^n.
>y Google
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIH.
Pan,Snaa»\,lX.I>.......
Parr, Thomas
Punt.' ' johuui' Jakob' 'Friedilch
Wiaelm
Parrot Flab
Pany, Sir Wmiain Edward
Firry Soanises MdTllla Smmd.
PiiHts, see Qaebraa.
P.Bl.r
P™fp
Panona, Theophllna, Jndas
PiiMiu, TbHnhllDS. LlI>.
Pmona. Thonua Winiam
ParthsnotgneBla
Puthenon, wa Atluu.
Parthla
ParUelple 1
PirUttoB ]
Firtiurahip 1
Fartoentilp, Limited 1
P«rton, Jamas 1
tartoiL Sara PaTKin vmii 1
Pirtridga ]
Pirirldge, AWell ]
PirWilge Barrr ]
Pmrtridgo Wood 1
Pituta, Paolo 1
Pima.Calaia 1
Pnargida ]
Pu^BiaiJHi"!!!!!!!^!!!!!!"!!!; i
PaschallL !
Paihi i
Pulphati IH Mlsoi.
PulHTlieb, KanFedonrltcli.... '.
Paaqiikr.ieuenin i
Piiqnlw, Stlenne JJanii 1
E«l>>tn i
Pwaotank eo. i
Pinaiaco. i
Pimalo, a rlTCT i
Pauamaqaodd]' Bay i
PMMn^'piiiin":;::::::::::;: i
Pasjton FlowBT 5
PmsIoii W«eli 1
Passover S
Pisso*, Frani Lndirtg Karl Fried-
'1=11 1
P««>[»rt S
Pnaia. OladllU 5
P«Uln;,"^"p4rtliii
Pitngonla S
Piliiiaco ]
P»Wiilta. Law of 1
Patercnliu, Caloa TelMu t
PMeieon.'wiifiim!!"!:!!!!!!;;!! E
Piikul, Johann Relnhold 8
PKrnora^ CoTentiy 8
paiooi'.'";;;!";.'.'.'.'.'.'.'".'.','.!!!!
PalrtelajM.'.l ".'.!! v.! '".!'. *'.!!'.'." !
Patrlckeo.
PaMck, Saint
Patrick, Simon
PatrHnony of SL Peter i
Patlerw'n/itaolel'T' !."!!!"!!!."!
PattUoo. Robert ETcrett, D.D..,.
S^isrl'E;;:;;;::;::::::;
PaulIV.
PanlT. .
PauL Father, ue SarpL Pletro.
Faol L, PatroTltoh
Paul. KeanlRT Clerti of Bt, aee
PaDl,a»lnt •
Panl. Vlnoent de ■
Paul (Fnedrloh'Paiil'Wliheimh
Dote of Wflrtemters;
Paal TeronsH, see Cagllail
PadK St. Fianelt oi; <ee Fnods of
Paola.
PaqlcoD, Bee Cmutantln FaolcotL
PauldlDg CO., Oa. '
Psnldlnl, Hiram.!!".'!";.'.'!"!; i
PuDldiDg. JamcB KIrke :
Panlfdaiu! .
Paoloa, HelDiicli Eberhard Oott-
lob .
PaQBinlaa,a'^neni!!!!!!!!!!!,"!! 1
Pansanlaa^a topographer ....,,^., J
p«ii>f,coriie'iiii'do!!!!!!,"!!!!!!! i
PaTenianf, I
Part. I
Pawn I
pawtnckM!!!!!!'.!!!'.!!'.!'.!!!!!!! i
Pax I
PaitoB, Sir Joseph <
Payment I
Pa; ne, John Howard •
Parson, Edward I
Pcabody,'Andnw PrMtanj'D.'i)!!! I
Peabody, Oenrra. (
Peahody, WIllLam Bonni Oliver . . I
Peabodr.OllTer William Boom.. (
Peace river, lee Hudson's Bay Tei-
P™iT. (
Psals, Charles Wlboti I
Paale, Bembrandt I
Peannt I
Fear I
Poarc&Zachary.,. 'i
Pearl i
Pearlaidi, •« Polaah.
Peasant^ War 1
Peal ;
ptS^,!!!!!! !!!!!!;!!!!!!!!!!!.' i
Peck, GootvB. D.R 1
Peck.John^aHn.DiI>. ':
Pootlo Add, see Jelly.
Peddler 1
Pedee,«reat 1
Pedometor. i« Odometer.
Pedro L, BraHI 1
Pedro IL, BniU 1
Pedro v., Portugal i
Pedro tho Cmel \
Pedro. Dam 1
Peeblemhire 1
Peel, 81r Eobert (three) (
Peole-Oeorga i
Peer t
Peet, Harvey PrlBdle, LL.D. !
PeelWeet t
POTr*!!!!!!::!:!!!!!!;!:;::!!!; <
Pel-Ho f
Pelpna,Lake !!!!!!!!!!!!! I
Pelroe, Bentomln, LLJ>. I
Felrce, BraSford k i
Pelcce,Crnn I
Pelnac, Nicolas ClaDdeFabrl I
Pekln? I
Paliglni t
Pelsipialam, see Qerantum.
Pelasglina I
Pelefflelands (
Pelican I
Pelldei, see AohUlea.
PsllgDl I
Pellon (
PUlstlsr, Amabts Jess Jaeqoes. . . I
Pellertn,JoKph 1
Pollew, Edward, see Kimoolh,
Pelllco,Sllrio..... (
PeloplSaa I
Peleponoenlui War, see Qreecs,
Paloponceaua (
Pelop. 1
PemVroke 1
Pembroke. Earl oC see Herbert,
Penuee . .
Dioi.zooBjGOOgIc
Ptadtoton, Henrj
PuhIdJ nm, Me Clwki ukd Wudm,
udUMOUdo.
PendDlDiB, BaUlitli, ■» Smuutj.
PeiMlo|i«, ■ bltd, ••« Own.
Ptngou
FtDD, SruTllla
fi HBTteo, *H f kbar.
lESfe:
PcnauoliBar..
PflJislODU7, QrtB
PepJa I^ A^iilUiita 1!1
p«pp«r m
FappmlLBtrWUllim Ill
PapptrmlDt wa Hlot.
Peiiili, i« Ch JIII&
PapoHli. Johun Cbrlttoph Ul
PepTL ChuleB ChTUtaDfair, wa
CoOvDhun.
FepTa,aimDBl IIS
Pepyi, W<ll1*m HwUlne 1!3
Pin, tet CoEutintlnopLd.
PooTil, Bp«na
Psrcb,ftll>h ....!.!!!!
F«d»t, Jum SitM.
Perdnd, ■"
PntnMJo Phlldwtphy,
PMlGneom..
Ferttonl'lt
PaiiwlDkla. In molaxt.
ParlwInUt, In botuj .
p^dBi,'^^'.;il^".;
FerfelB^ Ocon* BclMrtt, LLA...
Pnklu, JuoE
p«klii«,Tf - " -• -*
Fenii
PennnUtb
PeniMnbui. ..
Finn, Fnocoli U
PtrosH, Id, Ha L> PirooH.
PaipetaulUoUon U
FsrplgtuB 19
Pcrqglnuiiito. U
Famnol, AitolBa, ih QruTeUe.
PaiTDn, AnqnttU OB, ••• Anqottll-
DaptiMB.
PeR7co^P«m. U!
Pwrroou Alt. 19
F<rr7 CO, lliti. IJ
Pbitj eo, Ark. 11
Ferrr CO., TroD. II
Fenjeo^Kr. U
PBnT0ii,Oblo U
pBTtrnh, Isd. U
Fmjm^ia. 11
panjim. Ho IJ
Fcnr, HiHhew Calbnllfa i:
PaiTj, OUni HuHd 1!
Pcneubona, le* ProMrplM.
PeTMpollB M
Fanaiu, m Onclu twn U
PeiHiih king of HHedon U
Fanii..?:::. U
Persia, Langiufa uul Utentura
P'>aua'aaitV//^\V^V^V.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. n
Fgnl^r<'**n8l1t>utTl«liu- 1]
FanlBunaD, bm Date Plnm.
PenluEWsB^AilU 11
Panonal SqBUlim 11
FarqwoUrs 11
PanpinUoa 11
Farthoo. 11
pBttMdtr 11
Farlliea, CbrlitophFiiadrieh 11
Pattluhfre 11
Peru, Qtors Helnrtcb I'
P6ru.lnd. 11
Peru, 111. 11
Fara 11
Pem^ 1)
Pamgtiio, Plain) U
FaruTlui Bark, ua ClDchaiu,
Famol, BiMwraJtBlBttt 1)
Fe^t*,Sicaii'.'.'.V^\'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. J(
Fathiwa-
Pertdloc
PaMh __
Paul IS
Fatud 18
Patobon IE
PaUn, I^a vt SM Gmlamala.
Pilar, Baliit IS
Polar I., Ranis 11
P«tMr irf Blolt M
Fetar Iba Bamlt U
F*t«rboraagh Kh II
FaUiboraDgb 11
Pttarboroiub, Cbarlea Morduuil,
Earl of. ID
. alsnuma, Angnal Helnrleb IG
Peters, Bonsrentnis II
Paten, Hngb ^ IS
Patera, Jobn Cbarlea, U.1>. IE
Patan, Kicbard II
Fetera, Bamnel It
Petara, SaiDnelJaiTli U
Patera Panoe IS
Petanban. IS
Faterien, Fndaitk Cbrtatlan 11
Petanrardein II
FetherI<fc,JDbn II
PUIgtv, Fnncola .Iiiln FIUsol da II
FeI]i[ni,JaneiI.(mta II
PitlDaTlaTlllBneDTa, Jli^Dia.... II
FMIon(Anna AleTandreaabte)... 11
Pftls do la CtdIi, FrancDli IS
Pellc-Thouaia, lea Du Petlt-Tluni-
Patlta^ Claadi Barnard II
FelltotJean IS
PaieO,Biiidar U
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
Pbllast* m
Fhlogtoton, M« Chamlitrr.
PhoeToQ UTS
Phocis SIB
Phfebiu, Ma ApoUo.
FbiBQlcU 3H
Phisnlx *ra
PhonlxTillB SIS
Phmwunpli* ITS
Phosphonu tSS
Fbotliu S86
PbetoKnpbr £81
FbotamaEu, aat Ll^ mi Pliolfig-
Ph^n^igT m
PlirrsU SM
PkrTiis aw
PhtUltl, •« Cansunptlaa,
PbthiluU, H* EpUoK
FhaxiuD, •« Hni.
PbTlacticT SW
YbytiflQeornphj MS
Pbrilolaa andSainan tM
Fhyalok, FUUp Srng^ WT
Phyilia, Hs iMiinlTUloBQpb/.
PhytlMMMDr S*T
TbyitahgT... MS
PUmdi* 800
PUeenu, Dot* oI| M«L*bnii>,
Ctuuiu Tcuiccdi,
PiBDobrts sol
PUrfsU SOU
PUst 80T
Flutar SOT
PUabI SOT
Pluii. Slmepna SOT
PIouiLJmii SOT
PItardT SOT
P1«IiiCNI«I« «W
PIOGDloiDlni.FunllTof. SOS
Pic«>lDiiilnL,Sa«aSrlFl(u SOS
PlBcolomlol, AleauDdro SOS
PIcoolDmlnL OtUilo ..!!".','."'.!! SOB
Plsbegm, Cborlu SOD
PlchlDehi SW
Piibs'nyoo. S0»
PIckeiu dliL, e. a SW
Plckau CO, All, St»
FlckeDB,Aiidnw.... M»
PIckeni,Fnad>W. 810
Plekent ■« Pike.
Plckartng, 110101117 ttO
PtetSrlSI Chuloi^ M.ii'.'.V,V.;!:i 81i
Plflkangfll.HaDrrWilltiUD. ...... 8»
Plcfe«n(lll, Fndaria Blohird St3
nckt(t,Alb«rtJuii«* 811
PlcklH 811
Pico dclln ]£l(Vld»U, tt HIiu-
doU.
Plorio Add, M* Ou-buoUo Add.
PlcMuoo. 818
Plots 818
PIfM' Woik Ditch, He CatnlL
Piedmont SIS
Plereeoo.Wl*. 818
PlerMca, MlDB, 818
Pierce CO., Wuh. Tei. 818
Plernti. Fninklln 81*
Pierce, Qeone Fuater, D.D. 818
Pipw, Holnrioli Aogut ei«
Plentont, Jobn 818
PlaUMD, we Q«rDMB Theolefr.
Pteeon SIT
PlEMoBnk sn
fipaf sai
PlfiieRil,H« Pliwtalix
Plb sn
Pike sn
Pike CO, Peiu. US
Pike OS.. Ol.... SV
Pike t«- AM. ns
Pike CO., UIu. ns
Pike CO, Ark. S£8
Pike CO, Kt Stt
Plk«ea,Oblo 8M
FlkecD^Ind. SH
Pike CO.. Ill 8t4
Plke«L,Uo. K*
Fiko, Albert 8M
nk&KabDia
PIkeVPetk
PiUte, Pontloi
PUchtid
Pile
Pllu,aM HemmTfaoldt.
PllgiliniBe
Fill.
Plllir, He ColnmiL
Plllm of Heraolei, u* Qlbnltu.
Pillory. '."!;;;!!"!!;"";!;i;!;;
FUlow, QldHUi JabMCiD
Pllon, Oenuila
Pllnt
PllolFUli
Pilot Knob, M« Iron UoDnUlD.
Pilot UonnCilii, w* Anat.
Fllpn, tea BldM*.
Plliei5,New ..!T;.
PliseDto, Ma Albplca.
Piiuo*
Pin
Pin Wonn, *•« Entoio^
PbUDICiaa PeuDft
FInebEMk
PlDOknsr, Futdly at.
Plnekaer, Ctivles Cotuworch
PlDCkuay, Thomu
Plnokney, Chwlw
Plncktiej, ncaiT lAOrons
Pindar.;. ,
FlndemoDte, Ippollto
PlDdemont*, OfaTuinl
PlBdlU
Pine
Pine Uirten, lee m»i<ji*
FlBeipple
Pinol, PUllppa
piBe«,i>iJi'rf"!.'*;""i!;";;.'!i;
Plngtl^ AloiMidto Oul
PlDk /.
PI oknei^VlltUm .'.'.' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
Fin kner, Ed nurd Coat*
Phl^HeOalloD.
FlDlado, ««< OitliiM FovL
PIntallJ, Buxia
PlBlo, Uondoi, ne Mendei-Pinto.
Pluto de FoDisoa, Ha Chavee, Jiu-
Ptnlarfcchlo, Banurdlsa
Piny Wood?
FlDion, Ftmllr or.
PlHao, UUtia AloDM
PlDioa, Vicente TiDai
Ptnioik, Franobeo Martin..
Plombo, Frs Bebutluto del
FlouL n««r Lvnn).
Plp^am
^^-.
Pipe, Tobacco
PlpoCllT
PlpaFtat
Flppl, aoa Qlollo BomaBo,
Pi!"
PlquBl ...
PlrPaolal
Finer
PitBiii
Pinned, eioTunl Battlsta
H« Finer.
Bllerij,...
roeoe
Flea, Italy
PUano
Plaano, GlonU
PlBOBo, Niooia
Pliano, eiovanol
Pluno, Andrea
Plecataqna
PlBcataqola to.
PtodciirtDre, »e Flthes.
Pile, CbarlM Ooutaotlne, D.D. . . .
PWdIa
PleUtrai™ „
PIhoIou, Anns do, H* Elampta,
■hiobeaff
Pletacbio
PlalU....
Pbtdta...
Pltcalmlilaiid....
Plllclli^''hmotb7.'.'
Pitt, Obrlitopbor ,
mc, WUIIuu, Eulot Gbatham..
Fltt.WUU»m
Flttidal
Plttacm..
PIttebarc
Ittebarg...
.Itlafldd...
P tliylTBi '
830 Plulpopaa).,
Flu IL, Ha .Muai Bylrlae.
PloaVI 8M
aSl PloalX
Placer 00.
Flaoold*
PlagtoatonH* ..
Figiw
F ■Io8,aMFlon
PiaDeb&, JamM Boblmoii B71
PLancbe, Jeia Bapttita Guitara.. 8T1
Flanck, Gottlieb Jakob SH
Plant Cutter SI
PlauticeUBt 8i
Plao^ 81
FlaoMlaEfttar SI
Plaotlgradaa 81
Planting, Bee ArboHcnKuM.
™ lino pailab 81
^, BatO* oC M« CUf*.
Piaat« of Farll, aae OTpoam.
PUMeilng 81
Plata, La, n« Aigentiue Conbd-
Plata,£lodala 81
PWo ft3
Flatol^UatTellTaQOTllcli. ....... 88
Platte 01 Nebnika rlT*r, aee No-
braika.
Pliltaoo, SS
Plattihiin 88
Flintoa, Tltni Uacclnl 88
PiarMr, John 88
Flarlklr, Ljon 88
Pleading 88
818 PleodoDt, He UianL
Pleiila-Maitr, Belgnant i
Plelbo,aea Oemlatiu.
Pleoro-Pnanmonia
Plejd, JMephiumue Cai
Files Poloiilet
PUnrtba Elder
Pliny the Toungw.
8H Plainer, William..,
UigmzoQbyGOO^le
Flimbt, TnUim CmtraAta.... MT PalnnfM... MS PaitiMCItT..,
Pliuta 4m t><>lrdoTaTatU>*MT«TgU. Par«3U, J«ui Btbnuw Hnl* .. .
PlDtanb 401 Folrganir MS FotttUa, Jowph Uul*
Plato «» Polnlot 4H Portn, •» Bnwbu.
PludB 4M PDlniutn* "• !•«.«.« i~i ^'
Plrmonth «L,llui. 409 PolJBTtnal*
PIthkhiUi eo^ Jowi 409 PoItii«1>
nyinovth, Haa. 403 PolroleM^ h« ElaodM.
PlTiiioiitlt, Sua. 4W Voljp w i-orm, i.Deiieier.,
Pljmontlt BrHtaren 4W Polj^liimDi 4n Portn, Jino
PlTmoBth Bonnd 410 Poljpiu 4Sa Portw, Anu Hufi
n — _ ,_ ^0 pol7»n» 46S Portw, Petop Bntl
iw n — ».■ n — o.i — M— ..J J. Portm, Bir Bobr-"
Portoo*, Boilby
414 Pomt*!. Dom B^tmOtt Joti de Po^. BU Bpbirt Ker ...
Fa«il»iitu 410 Pomfrot, John 410 Porto BoUo, M* Piw
Pocock, Edmrd, Ber. 41S PomDHT, •*« BngBBbigen. PoHoFamjo
Pa«wk,Ednrd 41T Pomiwloiu', Jeums Autolnetla PortoBlcn
Focoek, Tbomu 41T Fofaaon 479 Portimonth, N. H...
Pooo^B, Blohud 4IT Pompeii 471 PortonoDth, T>.
FodlebrM, Otofg* 411 Famp«T, On«tu Fonptltu Uigntu 4TB Fartanoatb, OUo...
Podolli 41T Pamper, Cneliu ''* Porluunith, Eng....
- *,iaat iHa................ 419 Fosip«r, 9«itm 476 -Portont.,,
PotBlrdT: 410 Pampaoiai UeU, lee Hell. Fortagd, Luunin ud Uloitv*
FottLiBiMU 419 Ponc^Ptdto 4J( of M
P<Mti7 fiO Poseede Leon, Jnu 4IS Fartagnew Mu-aMTu.Ha Jcl/
Panradart Johun ChrlMJui .... 410 Podm d* LeoB. LnU 477 TiA.
~ ■ ~ - Pond. EBoeh, D.D 47T Partolua, aee Pnnlua.
Pond, labik . .
PondloherTT ...............
PongD, aM Qnas-OotUE.
Poobtovski, FimllT el.....
» Septan*.
Point Camfart, Ma Old Point Coin- PonlUomkE, fitultk
fiirt. PontUovBkl, Btuilaliw Angmt. . .
Poslitowdi, Joief Antonl . . ,
«, Dillon iDi
.. 411 Foru, Loali.
'.'. 42» Foctibutmto.'Silie!!!;!!!!!;!!" 47» PotMiimi'.V.*.*.t"!l"i!^!^l!!i.'."'Mi
,. 418 Pante, Di, lee BuHno. PotUo ^
.. 439 Font* Dalgido 4TO Potato, Bweet «
,. 41S Fontlu 4TI PotiW Flf, Ke CmthiTlda
PontUe, n lodlra cU«f *n Potato Tonn, ue Hiiirk llMh.
., at Pootlfti tn PoMmUunlaoo. Kl
.. 4M PontUI<«18tat«s,*MP4piIBtUei. Potemkin, Orlgoil AleundioTlld,
Folwtd 4ts PoDtoppldu. Erik
FoUiid, lAOinure and Lltermtnro of 4AS Foatormo, JacopoOarraccl..
F^ ExpMlilJooa. Me Antwtle Be- Poatotooco. — ,
MBdHB, Antla IHecorerT, aod Foataa 481 PotooU, IfDM? -
VaeCUntoek, Bit Fraodia Leo- Foataa £axlnnt, mo Black Bea. Patoekl, Blul^w KMtki w
pold. Foodlo 491 Potockl, Jan ..,„ W
pSuliatlaii ^ Light 4ST Paola, Katther 481 Potockt, ElmodTsa ^
Fol*, Begliuld 440 Pooaah 4SI PoloBiac »
Polecat 411 Poor, Dmlfl 481 Potoel, WIfc ^
Polenw,apblI<»pher 441 Foot Lan lee Fauperlim. PototI, BollTia :- ™
PaleinD,KrngorPoiitni 441 Poparu 489 Potod. Mexico, Me Bu Lull de
PoloToj, Nlwdal Al«Ml*Tllch .... 441 Fgp* co., Ill 4BS Potod. „
PeleTOT.ZenophonAleielsvlbih.. 441 Fopeeo.,Ark. 489 Potadam ^
PoB, ffloMppa XaTerlo 449 Popo 48i Potter co. g
Police 443 Pope, AlDunder 489 Pottar, Alooxo, D.CLU). fg
Follpiae, Jnlee Angoite Aimaid Poplah Plot, aea Oam lltne. Polter, HoraUo, D.D, LLD- W
Marie 44lt Poplar 4ST Poller, Hatard Aroidd, HD. ^
FoHmae, Melchlor da 44K Pupocatepctl , . . '" "-—.-«.-"■» - .1H
PoHflanoe,.'--'-- ---"-•'-'--- "■- ■ ■*■ '
anoa Angolni, aae Pollilana, PSpplg, Edoud 4^ Potte
.vLucalEcoaomT 449 PoiipT 489 Potte
Pollilano, Angela 4S9 Por^^n, bm PotMir Mil Force- FoCU
Fi>lkca.,aB. 496 lain. Potte
Polkco,Tei. 4SS Faraalaln Clay, ee* OUy. Potto
Polk ea, Tenn. 498 Poninplne Anl-Kater 4W FQUched Bat Me Goplwf. __
Folk CO., Mo 429 PoriT, M« Scoppaig. Ponchet, FiUiArcUmoda.. ....-- ^
Folk cft, Iowa 4&9 ForKa 4B Ponriikeepele vvV.:;" «
Polkeo.,Wli. 4S8 ForosItT 498 FoiJDet, Claude BerrrfelWMf- »
Folk CO, Oranm 4H PorpUm, a roek 498 FooJonW. Jean Joifph rnofota. ■ ^
Polk, Jamea Kiwi 4M Poiphirj,* phlloaopher,.,.. 499 Pound, a weigh! g
PoiplijrT,«phllo«oph»r..... 499 Found,awelgl
„ Po™fae....rr!V.. 494 Pound, IB law,.
PoDi^n ao Pacpon, NIooId 4M Pound Sterilog.
Polllo, CilDi Aalnlni 490 Por)ena.LBn 4W Ponnda, John..
FolHo, TrebelHoi 4S1 ParuDrBlohard 4MI Fonaaln. Nicolu
PGItnlti, Karl Lndwig 4«1 PortaaPriiica 4«< FamHii, OMpar
Pollnck 481 Port Carbon 498 Powell, Baden.
PoUok, Robert 409 Fort EHmbeth 4»8 Pow«
Foltai, aeo Ciitar and FoUdi. Port LodIi 4M Power. '^nme.
Polloi, Julloa (two) 401 PortMahan 498 Powora, HiT«oj v."i.-.,i_
PolcMano 40 PortBoral 499 Fowera, MeehaiikatMaMeciuM
.™. .....= 497 Poweahlokoo...
Porta, Oiambattlite 49T Powhatan co....
FolTblna 4«9 Porta, Bacdo della,
PolTcarp 4U Portago cc Ohio 499 PownalL TlHWiaa -
Polydefaii 4SS Portage oo., Tb 499 Fouo dl Borgo, ailo Ai
UigmzoQbyGOOgle
_ PrlnolpatoCIM BBS Ptolamj, CiMiaiii
PniUcr, Jem Juqau H8 Frlndpcto TTIM ISeC FubertT
Pradoo, Jolt NlDOlu M Prli^la, Ttiomu SSS FabllooU, Fnbliiu Viltrliu.
Fmlt,I>omtQUinsDiifl)DTiI« H8 Phattng ESS Publlui Srnis
«-IfiuEa.
irlgHBlntlch
5U FilDtliig,CiUi»,SHCall(». PucbU, Wolfeug Halnrioh MB
Hi Prior OW PnchUi, a«« FflidriEJi MS
M Frt«,UitUHir DBS POcUei-IfiuEui, Ham — '"■
Pratorlui Oiurdi, sh Uiufdi. Plisduiiu N9 irlicHBUinch
Pnci HE PrlRD BBS FoddUnK k6 Iioa Uuilkotim.
Fngnutle BuusUon MS Pilnn BW Paebli,Xt
Pnns Hi PrlTttHT 801 FneblDladlui
Pr^rta, Ma PUInn Priret tOR PouM BaDo
Pnlrian 60 PriTTGonnoil, aea CouiuiU. PDertoCaballn
PnlrtaDos SU Pilia CU Paerto da U Hv, aea Cob)]L
Pnlrle Dn Clil«D W! Priis Uonejr am Fiurto Frindpe, But* UuU da . .
le lies, aea Qnofe. FrobaU WS pDhodoiCSa
leBjulml EtT Probiu, UnRiui AnraUiu dig PnlT BM....
. . EtT Probus, Uuflui Ann
.. Bll Paget, Plan* ..
Pnelln, C4tiJ Qmhrtel fia ChoIjeBl E*8 Pioonpini »11 PogotBenna... _
Prulln, Antoloe Gteu PiUi W Proenutei Oil Fngha, WinUm Owan 01
PntMn, Clurlu Laura Hugnas Prooter, Bryna Waller Bll Puilii, ADgtutu tl
Thiobold ua Prootar, AdiJilde Anne Sll Pn^ Anfutln Welbr Mortk-
PnU.OI>TUDl 6M Prootor «» nwre «t
Fntmnla 5« Prodloa B18 PDluUeo^Ta. 11
Pntt, Chiriea, >M CuDdeii, BuL ProgiHlTe Pilsndi US Pnlaaki«,,OL «
Prawn MS Pr^sMllM,^-" ._i..u. „ .j. u
PnlaaUeo^Uo....
PnDQiUL Bee Langluffa.
FroBT, Oupcrd CUiIre _ ...
PreoeariDD (^ tha Gqolngtaa CBl Uirfa Slebe da tU PsUaU, <M
PreemptloD, aea Occnpanaj-. Fropimuda (14 Pnlid, lalgl.
Pregnaner, a*« Usdlad Jiulapni- Pn^iagatlan of ths FalUi BU PDlk(nn,aei
■a Gqalngtaa.
,.— . —. ,.- r-= , je (MiarraMtj.
daiiee, and Obatetrica. Fn^wttlus, Bsxtu Annlliu tit Piill«]', i«e Uaohulo.
pTtmoutntansbuia SSI Piaphaoy 611 Falque
Piaatloa, OacKBa DanlaoQ SSI Pn>pbali,Bi>iAi<>ftha BIS Pnlaa
FrMltEM,SevEaDt Smith OBI Propoatla, aea Uaimina, Sa> oC Pulnkr, Feiencl Anna . .
FiapaalCIaB SBl ProporUon BIB Pnlukj, Tbneaa 'Walthei
Pnabnrg BBS Pneaipliie Bid Pultane;, Wllltam
Preabrlartuilam DBS PKHodjt BIB FnltoeL Bobert
" ' .. BBa PioUgor- *■• "-'•
, ... MS FrolMM.,
FroeoU, WllUain H8 PnMilluu BIT FuDM, tM Congu.
FrswMK, Oliier Ml Ftoteeur, Lord
••-—"" TTlUlain BBS ProteallMis
nillaid, LL.D. BB8 Pn>le»l
ruilam HicUlog, IJ.D. BBS ProteaUot
n Btt PTOteaa, ■ TepUL.
ni of Food BBS Protciu.tQ m;tbolo^.
PrMcott, millam, LL.D. MB Prctett..
" ■- ™""— HioUlilg,IJ.D. 689 ProUiBUnt mo rump
BBS PTOtoaa, ■ TepUls BIS pDinDUn,Bai
BBS PrQl«tts,lnnijtholoCT BIB Pumill
Preserratlon o( Wood 68B Protojana — " '
PmldaiiC HI Protowa
enat, PrlnClng, mo Pttntlog. FroDdhon, Jean Bapttsta Tlctor...
PieaterJobn 6T1 ProBdhon, Plam Jowi* 61» Fonlaab ON
PraatoDoo. BTS Preut, Eimuel ISO FoDla Anoai M
Fnabm,Eng. GTl Praat, WlllUa SW Papa, aaa BnUarflf, and ChijiallB.
Piaaton, Wmiun Cunpball GTl ProTcntal Poetir tSl FnrbMfc, OcoiB SB
Pieaton, Jalm B. BIS Prareoea BBS Punell, Hanij BBS
PreatonPana SIS ProTeib. GBI Pnnbai, Sarnnsl MS
PreaBmpUon SH ProTtrbe BU Fnrgatinr (M
Pretandai ST4 ProiMmice co. BtG FnrgsUIl, BuaDHjr, tot IIaiiiDio>
Prtrtlle Sit ProTldenea, a L BBB PurmlalL
Privoat d-BiUai, AntoliM Tan- Prorlnoo 8ST Pariliui «•«
piia STl PnTlDCdtoTn BIS Futkliija, Jobmna EraQgellita.., Btl
Priam B7B ProTooll, Bamuel, D.D BBS Pniplc *"
Priipua BIB Prorost 018 Porolaof C«««liu,»oeC»ialLa,PBr.
Frtoa, Klehud BIB Frndcotlila, ADrellua aemana BBS pla of
Price, Sir CTadala BTS Pnid'hon, Florre PmiI OSI Pnnli. Fredeija Bd
Priohaid,,' " — .-"T^ .«, .. ...„,__ ^__..._. .»
PrioUjrPt
Prlohud, jMmi OowIm, ILS. . .
PrioUjrPear ■-
Prideo(IndI«..._...j SIB Pil»jr»
» Potiatiuni. ' Fntnam DO., Ttk.
PiidaMi, HnmpbraT Gtfl PruaiLa tW Poitule, Mallgiuiit ...
init^VlDoani Bit PnuibProMt S» Patoun co
. — J. 511 Fniaibm Blue, aea Potutiuin. i>....~. _
Friaatlar.Joaeph BIT PrmaloAeM.aMHi'diiiCEaiilaAcdd.
PrleiUoftliB iJbalon BIB Pnitli 681 ,._
Pileata of tba Ontorr BBO Pnit^ Bobert Erut CBB Putnam oo^ Tenn. m
Primata B90 Prrnne, WtUlam UO PiiUmq oo., Oblo S»
FrinutlHlo, Fnnceioo B30 Paalmanaiar, tlaan« OW Putnam co., Ind. BII
Prime, SamnBl Iranan* BSI PialmodT S» Pulna™ co,. 111. BIS
Prima, William Coirpar BSl PiaImN Book oT. B41 Fntnunoo., Uo, SIS
Frimogenini™ Kl Psaltary 04B Pulnam, Isnwl BIS
Pllmnaa B31 Paendomorpb B41 Pntnam. Butua SH
.. B8B PUnnlsau (U Taj.Le
,. Bas Ptaricbthn, MB Oanolda. PuT-do-IWme
.. B.'S Pterodactyl tU F^at. Fiilli . .
PtmunrllL Ml Prmkw.
Dioi.zooBjGoOgle
Pytiaiia'.
Pyriain,
FTruUgiwouAdd
^toliulte,*— "—
Pyivpbanu.
PyiniseluV'
PjrioirUo
D,oi.zoob,GOOglC
•b, Ad^iu Bcthnna TBS BHtUtirs ISl IMenpthia, Xqnt^ot w* Eful^
L, Qeor^ga IBS B«eki, Xllubeth Clurlotla Cod- ot BddampUoii.
1, Natbui T98 iliolU ion dar iSI Bedsmptoriiw «
1, Tbooua Boebuun TS4 BeoanHiuee "^ "-"-- t^-^-<'<
le, Chorloa TM BesaDccta, bm Fnii<d*euu.
llDg, Psnn. TS4 Beeotd
., — ^ — _ jg^ B»iiKle,Bobert.,.
\ai, lee Aiaenla Beaordi
iTsm, He MomlDiUim. Baelor. .
1^ TM Btctorr
plD^UK^DnHtUovlDgsnd ~ '
Btctorr TM Bedihld Puhi, s« BHhld Puhi.
SUEclilDe»H«Uovlusiiil B«nunt 710 BcdaUrt ;
IB MaehlDM. B*d Bird. B«e OnabMk. Bodwlng, tea Blukblrd.
I TBO B(h1 Lead, Kg Lead.
wck TM BedKlvBt Wl
•ollado, Beriikrdkno....,--p--.- T9'
dfe, BOe F«iDAinbiuo>
.. T8« Ked Blrer of the Horlh TM imrcrmTV
1< BedSn TM APPENDIX.
.. T3t Bedbnut, Hs Bobln.
B»iaiae,OjraaW. TU Qntkan
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